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DHE
Jewish Encyclopedia
A DESCRIPTIVE RECORD OF
THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND CUS-
TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE
EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY
Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists
UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE FOLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD
Cyrus ADLER, PH.D. (Departments of Post! KAUFMANN KOHLER, PH.D. (Departments of
Biblical Antiquities ; the Jews of America). Theology and Philosophy).
GOTTHARD DeEvutTscH, PH.D. (Department of HERMAN ROSENTHAL (Department of the Jews of
History from 1492 to 1904). Russia and Poland).
RICHARD GOTTHEIL, PH.D. (Departments of
History from Ezra to 1492; History of Post- ewe Pegg ak id) M.A., Litt.D. (Depart.
Talmudic Literature). ment of the Talmud).
Emit G. Hirscu, Pu.D., LL.D. (Department of ISIDORE SINGER, PH.D, (Department of Modern
the Bible). Biography from 1750 to 1904).
JOSEPH JaAcoBs, B.A. (Departments of the Jews CRAWFORD H. Toy, D.D., LL.D. (Departments
of England and Anthropology; Revising Editor), of Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature).
ISAAC K. FUNK, D.D., LL.D. FRANK H. VIZETELLY, F.S.A.
Chairman of the Board Secretary of the Board
WILLIAM Popper, M.A., PH.D.
Associate Revising Editor ; Chief of the Bureau of Translation
ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D.
Projector and Managing Editor
ASSISTED BY AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITORS
VOLUME VI
GOD—ISTRIA
FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY
NEW YORK AND LONDON
COPYRIGHT, 1904, IQIO, 1912, BY
FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY
AU rights of translation reserved
Registered at Stationers’ Hall, London, Engiand
Lerinted in the United States of A merica }
LITERARY DIRECTORATE
EDITORIAL BOARD
CYRUS ADLER, Ph.D. HERMAN ROSENTHAL.
(Departments of sicickerfun ri an aaa the Jews of (Department of the Jews of Russia and Poland.)
; Chief of the Slavonic Depart t, , k Li ‘
president of the American Jewish Historical Society ; Libra- i ae a a a
jan, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. ‘
z SOLOMON SCHECHTER, M.A., Litt.D.
GOTTHARD DEUTSCH, Ph.D. (Department of the Talmud.)
acs , ¢ President of the Faculty of the Jewish Theological Seminary of
(Department of History from 1492 to 1908.) America, New York ; Author of ** Studies in Judaism.”’
professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati,
Ohio; Editor of ‘* Deborah.”’
ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D.
MANAGING EDITOR.
RICHARD G0 toatl, Ph.D. (Department of Modern Biography from 1750 to 1903.)
(Departments of History from Ezra to 1492; History of
Post-Talmudic Literature.)
Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New York;
Chief of the Oriental Department, New York Public Library ;
President of the Federation of American Zionists.
CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, D.D., LL.D.
(Departments of Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic
Literature.)
Professor of Hebrew in Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.:
EMIL G. HIRSCH, Ph.D., LL.D Author of ‘* The Religion of Israel,” ete.
- 9 ° *9 e Ps
(Department of the Bible.) I. K. FUNK, D.D.. LL.D
Rabbi of Chicago Sinai Congregation, Chicago, Il1.; Professor of ° (Ch airman of ny Faea ) =
Rabbinical Literature and Philosophy, University of Se enue ;
Chicago; Editor of bb The Reform Advocate.” Editor-in-Chief of the STANDARD DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH
LANGUAGE, ete.
JOSEPH JACOBS, B.A.
(Departments of the Jews of England and Anthropology: FRANK H. VIZETELLY, F.S.A.
Revising Editor.) (Secretary of the Board.)
Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of Engiand ; Associate Editor of the STANDARD DICTIONARY, * The Colum-
Author of * Jews of Angevin England,” ete. bian Cyclopedia,” ete.
KAUFMANN KOHLER, Ph.D. WILLIAM POPPER, M.A., Ph.D.
(Departments of Theology; Philosophy.) (Associate Revising Editor; Chief of the Bureau of
President of Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio; Rabbi Translation.)
Emeritus of Temple Beth-El, New York. Author of ** Censorship of Hebrew Books.”
AMERICAN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS
BERNARD DRACHMAN, Ph.D., MARCUS JASTROW, Ph.D.,
Rabbi of the Congregation Zichron Ephraim; Instructor in the | Rabbi Emeritus of the Congregation Rodef Shalom, Philadel-
Bible and in Hebrew Grammar, Jewish Theological Semi- phia, Pa.; Author of ** Dictionary of the Talmud.”
nary of America, New York. MORRIS JASTROW, Jr., Ph.D.,
B. FELSENTH AL, Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages and Librarian in the University
, } of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Author of * Re-
Rabb : : : an ;
P emeritus of Zion Congregation, Chicago, 1J.; Author of ligion of the Babylonians and Assyrians,” ete.
A Practical Grammar of the Hebrew Language.”
J. FREDERIC McCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D.,
GUSTAV GOTTHEIL : Ph.D. Professor of Oriental] Languages, University College, Toronto,
Canada; Author of ** History, Prophecy, and
the Monnuments.”’
H. PEREIRA MENDES, M.D.,
HENRY HYVERNAT, D.D., Rabbi of the Shearith Israel Congregation (Spanish and Portu-
Head of the Department of Semitic and Egyptian Literatures, guese), New York: President of the Board of Jewish
Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C. | Ministers, New York.
(DECEASED),
Late Rabbi Emeritus of Temple Emanu-El, New York.
MOSES MIELZINER, Ph.D., D.D.
(DECEASED),
Late President of the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio;
Author of ** Introduction to the Talmud.”
GEORGE F. MOORE, M.A., D.D.,
Professor of Biblical Literature and the History of Religions
in Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; Author of
‘“*A Commentary op the Book of Judges,” ete.
DAVID PHILIPSON, D.D.,
Rabbi of the Congregation Bene Israel; Professor of Homiletics,
Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio; President of
Hebrew Sabbath Schoo! Union of America.
LITERARY DIRECTORATE
|
—
IRA MAURICE PRICE, B.D., Ph.D.,
Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures, University of
Chicago, Ill.; Author of * The Monuments and
the Old Testament,” ete.
JOSEPH SILVERMAN, D.D.,
President of Central Conference of American Rabbis; Rabbi of
Temple Emanu-El, New York.
JACOB VOORSANGER, D.D.,
Rabbi of the Congregation Emanu-E]l, San Francisco, Cal.; Pro-
fessor of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Uni-
versity of California, Berkeley, Cal.
EDWARD J. WHEELER, M.A.,
Editor of ‘“* The Literary Digest,’? New York; Author of ** Stories
in Rhyme,” etc.
FOREIGN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS
ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.,
Coeditor of ‘‘ The Jewish Quarterly Review ”; Author of ** Jew-
ish Life in the Middle Ages,” etc.; Reader in Talmudic,
Cambridge University, England.
W. BACHER, Ph.D.,
Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, Budapest,
Hungary.
M. BRANN, Ph.D.,
Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, Breslau, Ger-
many ; Editor of ** Monatsschrift fir Geschichte und
Wissenschaft des Judenthums.”’
H. BRODY, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Nachod, Bohemia, Austria; Coeditor of ** Zeitschrift fiir
Hebriische Bibliographie.”
ABRAHAM DANON,
Principal of the Jewish Theological Seminary, Constantinople,
Turkey.
HARTWIG DERENBOURG, PhL.D.,
Professor of Literal Arabic at the Special School of Oriental
Languages, Paris ; Member of the Institut de France.
S. M. DUBNOW,
Author of ‘‘ Istoriya Yevreyev,”’ Odessa, Russia.
MICHAEL FRIEDLANDER, Ph.D.,
Principal of Jews’ College, London, England; Author of “The
Jewish Religion,”’ ete.
IGNAZ GOLDZIHER, Ph.D.,
Professor of Semitic Philology, University of Budapest,
Hungary.
M. GUDEMANN, Ph.D.,
Chief Rabbi of Vienna, Austria.
BARON DAVID GUNZBURG,
St. Petersburg, Russia. .
A. DE HARKAVY, Ph.D.,
Chief of the Hebrew Department of the Imperial Public Library,
St. Petersburg, Russia.
ZADOC KAHN,
Chief Rabbi of France; Honorary President of the Alliance
Israélite Universelle; Officer of the Legion
of Honor, Paris, France.
M. KAYSERLING, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Budapest, Hungary; Corresponding Member of the
Royal Academy of History, Madrid, Spain.
MORITZ LAZARUS, Ph.D.
(DECEASED),
Late Professor Emeritus of Psychology, University of Berlin;
Meran, Austria.
ANATOLE LEROY-BEAULIEDU,
Member of the French Institute; Professor atthe Free School .
of Political Science, Paris, France; Author of
*“ Israé]l chez les Nations.”’
ISRAEL LEVI,
Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary ; Editor of
** Revue des Etudes Juives,”’ Paris, France.
EUDE LOLII, D.D.,
Chief Rabbi of Padua; Professor of Hebrew at the University,
Padua, Italy.
IMMANUEL LOW, Pb.D.,
Chief Rabbi of Szegedin, Hungary ; Author of ** Die Aramiischen
Pflanzennamen.”’
S. H. MARGULIES, Ph.D.,
Principal of the Jewish Theological Seminary; Chief Rabbi of
Florence, Italy.
H. OORT, D.D.,
Professor of Hebrew Language and Archeology at the State
University, Leyden, Holland.
ABBE PIETRO PERREAU,
Formerly Librarian of the Reale Biblioteca Palatina, Parma,
Italy.
MARTIN PHILIPPSON, Ph.D.,
Formerly Professor of History at the Universities of Bonn anc
Brussels ; President of the Deutsch-J tidische
Gemeindebund, Berlin, Germany.
SAMUEL POZNANSKI, Ph.D.,
Rabbi in Warsaw, Russia.
E. SCHWARZFELD, LL.D.,
Secretary-General of the Jewish Colonization Association, Paris,
France.
LUDWIG STEIN, Ph.D.,
Professor of Philosophy, University of Bern, Switzerland ; Editor
of ‘* Archiv fiir Geschichte der Philosophie,”’ etc
HERMANN IL. STRACK, Ph.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and Semitic Languages,
University of Berlin, Germany.
CHARLES TAYLOR, D.D., LL.D.,
Master of St. John’s College, Cambridge, England; Editor of
““Sayings of the Jewish Fathers,”’ ete.
SYSTEMS OF TRANSLITERATION AND OF CITATION
OF PROPER NAMES *
A.—Rules for the Transliteration of Hebrew and Aramaic.
1, All important names which occur in the Bible are cited as found in the authorized King James
version ; ¢.g., Moses, not Mosheh; Jsaac, not Yizhak; Saul, not Sha’ul or Shatil; Solomon, not
Shelomoh, etc.
2, The spellings of names that have gained currency in English books on Jewish subjects, or that
have become familiar to English readers, are generally retained ; cross-references are given when
topics are treated under forms transliterated according to the system tabulated below.
3. Hebrew subject-headings are transcribed according to the scheme of transliteration ; cross-refer-
ences are mude as in the case of personal names.
4, The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew and Aramaic:
x Not noted at the beginning or the end of a word ; otherwise’ or by dieresis; e.g., peer or Meir.
3 6 tT 2 G1 B (with dagesh), p w sh
1 9g mk mn m B (without dagesh), f » 8
+ d olan 4 in ¥ 2 nt
nih , y Ds Dk
, w 3k ys ss
Note: The presence of dagesh lene is not noted except in the case of p. Dagesh forte is indi-
cated by doubling the letter.
5, The vowels have been transcribed as follows:
= (kamez) a TU =a = e jo
—- (kamez hatuf) o
=~ @ ae = (O ra
— i =e — a 3 U
The so-called ‘‘ Continental” pronunciation of the English vowels is implied.
6. The Hebrew article is transcribed as ha, followed by a hyphen, without doubling the following
letter. [Not hak-Kohen or hak-Cohen, nor Rosh ha-shshanah. ]
B.—Rules for the Transliteration of Arabic.
I, All Arabic names and words, except such as have become familiar to English readers in other
forms, as Mohammed, Koran, mosque, are transliterated according to the following system :
* Se: x above re kh ee, sh rd gh Ww 2
a dd ues eas oh
i) t gy th vei! 5 4 37
Wy th J? Lt we) k es ¥
Ei je be Ji
ct" sia ae en
#2. Only the three vowels—a, i. u—are represented :
Laie re) ts
No account has been taken of the imalah; i has not been written e, nor u written o.
™ In all other matters of orthography the spelling preferred by the StanpaRD Dictionary has usually been followed. Typo-
craphica) exigencies have rendered occasional deviations from these systems necessary.
viii SYSTEMS OF TRANSLITERATION AND OF CITATION OF PROPER NAMES
%- The Arabic article is invariably written al, no account being taken of the assimilation of the / to
A,
D.
the following letter; ¢.g., Abu al-Salt, not Abu-l-Salt; Nafis al-Daulah, not Nafis ad-Daulah.
The article is joined by a hyphen to the following word.
At the end of words the feminine termination is written ah; but when followed by a genitive,
at; eg., Risalah dhat al-Kursiyy, but H?at al-Aflak.
No account is taken of the overhanging vowels which distinguish the cases; e.g., ‘Amr, not ‘Amru
or ‘Amrun; Yatkub, not Ya‘kubun; or ina title, Kitab al-Amanat wal-I‘tikadat.
C.—Rules for the Transliteration of Russian.
All Russian names and words, except such as have become familiar to English readers in other
forms, as Czar, Alexander, deciatine, Moscow, are transliterated according to the following system :
1.
Aa a Hu n Lu sheh
Boé 6) Oo 0 bb mute
Bs Vv Il a p bi w Yy
[tr h, v, or g Pp r bs half mute
Ix d Ce $ BS ye
Ke eand ye TT t a9 e
ennsine:
JH at zh Vy U 1O yu
3 3 % ® f fla ya
Untii a XX kh 0 6 F
Kk k Ii w tz Vy @
a d Uy ch Ui i
M mu m Il m sh
Rules for the Citation of Proper Names, Personal and Otherwise.
Whenever possible, an author is cited under his most specific name; e.g., Moses Nigrin under
Nigrin; Moses Zacuto under Zacuto; Moses Rieti under Rieti; all the Kimhis (or Kambhis)
under Kimhi; Israel ben Joseph Drohobiczer under Drohobiezer, Cross-references are freely
made from any other form to the most specific one; e.g., to Moses Vidal from Moses Narboni ; to
Solomon Nathan Vidal from Menahem Meirz; to Samuel Kansi from Samuel Astruc Dascola ;
to Jedaiah Penini from both Bedersi and En Bonet; to John of Avignon from Moses de
Roquemaure,
When a person is not referred to as above, he is cited under his own personal name followed
by his official or other title ; or, where he has borne no such title, by ‘‘of” followed by the place
of his birth or residence; e.g., Johanan ha-Sandlar ; Samuel ha-Nagid ; Judah he-Hasid; Gershom
of Metz; Isaac of Corbeil.
Names containing the words a’, de, da, di, van, von, y, of, ben, ha-, ibn* are arranged under the
letter of the name following this word; e.g., de Pomis under Pomis, de Barrios under Barrios.
Jacob d’Ilescas under Illescas. The order of topics is Ulustrated by the following examples :
Abraham of Augsburg Abraham de Balmes Abraham ben Benjamin Aaron
Abraham of Avila Abraham ben Baruch Abraham ben Benjamin Zeeb
Abraham ben Azriel Abraham of Beja Abraham Benveniste
* When Ipn has come to be a specific part of a name, as Inn Ezra, such name is treated in its alphabetical place under ‘* I.”
Nore to tHe READER.
Subjects on which further information is afforded elsewhere in this work are indicated by the
use of capitals and small capitals in the text; as. ABBA ARIKA; PUMBEDITA; VOCALIZATION.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
[Self-evident abbreviations. particularly those used in the bibliographies, are not included here. |
AD wesc cceeete ..... Abot, Pirke
AbD. Ro Neceeecerees Abot de-Rabbi Natan
“AD, ZAPab..sceeeeee *Abodah Zarah
ad or at the place; to the passage cited
ae watdaktee ateeets in the year of the Hegira
ale. “Zeit. des Jud.. Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums
Am. Jew. Hist. Soe .American Jewish Historical Society
Am. Jour. Semit. - Ainerican Journal of Semitic Languages
Perea J ew. oo Anglo-Jewish Association
is di ISG as Bop adele HE . pocalypse
i acer Fels ckamtnatecordatsees ee rypha
apaet Const.. . Apostolical Constitutions
br or abridge nannies “Arakin (Talmud)
Are. IS... ee eee ed Archives Israélites
1 Aronius, Regesten zur Geschichte der Juden
Aronius, Regest€n | “in pentsehland
eoreoseonerre
Bacher, Ag. sie
AMOP. cece eee eee
Bacher, Ag. Pal. ! Bacher, Agada der Palastinensischen Amo-
eed seg Nbhsaisteretn ete rier
...Bacher, Agada der Tannaiten
Baba Batra (Talmud)
Pe ee ee ee
B.C fg ichirar sts, aaerarecn ea before the Christian era
Bek osc iaisetao tee es Bekorot (Talmud)
Benzinger, Arch... Benzinger, Hebraische Archaologie
Be? oon buideentwe ses Berakot (Talmud)
pele z reek Fest- " Festschrift zum 70ten Geburtstag Berliners
Berliner’s 7 ; Berliner’s Magazin fiir die Wissenschaft des
Magazin ....... ‘ Judenthums
Bibl. “Rab Vinee eae Bibliotheca Rabbinica
Bikov.cs cceiweee estes Bikkurim (Valmud)
Be teins are Baba Kamma (Talmua@)
Bo Micitenien deo cas Sane Mezt‘ z (Talmud) P alaceeit
4 Boletin de la Real Academia de la Historia
BoletinAcad. Hist. + (Madrid) eet east
sack § Brull’s Jahrbicher fir Jtidische Geschichte
Briill’s Jabrb..... ¢ und Litteratur
Bulletin All. Isr.... Bulletin of the Alliance Israéiite Universelle
Cua ain whee aoe te ae about
Calbia ssdnvtee tutes Canticles (Song of Solomon)
Cat. Anglo-Jew. /! Catalogue of Anglo-Jewish Historical Ex-
Hist. Exh...... \ hibition
Cazés. Notes Bi- | Cazés, Notes Bibliographiques sur la Littéra-
bliographiques.j) ture Juive-'Cunisienne
CO iin lel aie cel ug Sha commen era
Clits Gisaiteaeisd oes chapter or chapters
Cee Bib t Cheyne and Black, Encyclopedia Bibtica
, \ Recueil des Travaux Rédigés en Mémoire
Ch olson Jubilee . du Jubilé saeoutaue de M, Danie) Chwol-
Yolume........ { son, 1846-18
Co Le Aes ce eaedeae Corpus Shen Atticarum
COG at habe kge sea Corpus Inscriptionum Greecarum
Co Tea eens Corpus Inscriptionum Hebraicarum
eel Ga Oana seenareerar rer eren Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum
Cot S se areovae hens Corpus Insecriptionum Semiticarum
COMM sess Garawsey bias compare
Curinier, Dict. LK, E. Curinier, Dictionnaire National des
Nal coca ects .. § Contemporains
isk cies Steud avhgaeted died
Det arta ad ewes’ Deuteronomist
De Gubernatis, pre Gubernatis, Dizionario Bivgrafico degli
Diz. Biog....... Scrittori Contemporanei
De Gubernatis, ‘De Gubernatis, Dictionnaire International
Ecrivains duJour f des Ecrivains du Jour
De te Roi, Juden-! De‘le Roi, Geschichte der Evangelischen
Mission ........ , Juden-Mission
With 3504 Vee eats . Demai (Talmud) ; ee 1 é
Derenbourg, Essai sur |’Histoire et la Géo-
Derenbourg, Hist. ; graphie de la Palestine, ete.
De Rossi, Dizio-! De Rossi, Dizionario Storico degli Autori
NATO} sc teacg oot \ Ebrei e delle Loro Opere
De Rossi - Ham - } De Rossi-Hamberger, Historisches Worter-
berger, Hist.» buch der Jidischen Sebriftsteller und
Worterh. ...... Ihrer Werke
| AR air rn Elohist
CCl sscewes fe-cu .. Ecclesiastes
Keclus. (Sirach) .. .. Ecclesiasticus
OO iscceaitte vistas austen, edition
"EQUY eos aces cerca *Eduyot (Talmud)
Fisenbe Ludwig Eisenberg’s Grosses Biographisches
ie JiNexikon der: Deutschen Babne fan XIX
E Jabrhundert
MNCOVC. Briticss aa cee Encyclopedia Britannica
a a a Y
MDG sts os packaaeecos English
Epiphanius Heeres. Epiphanius, Adversus Heereses
SA Ped ees deuroe gc acatacg eek te *Erubin (Talmud)
Erseh and ( Ersch and Gruber, Allgemeine Encyklopadie
Gruber, Encyc.. ; der Wissenschaften und kiinste
ESCs) teas awasaaeanes Esdras
Cb SOG Ase Sew taheee and following
Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. Eusebius, Historia Eeclesiastica
Ewald, Gesch..... Ewald, Geschichte des Volkes Israel
..Frankel, Mebo Yerushalmi
. Fiirst, Bibliotheca Judaica
Furst, Geschichte des Karierthums
Frankel, Mebo..
First, Bibl. Jud.
First, Gesch. des |
Kardert.... .... }
Gaster, Hist. of __ ¢ Gaster, Bevis Marks Memorial Volume
Bevis Marks. .
Geiger, Urschrift und Uebersetzungen der
Geiger, Urschrift. Bibel in Ihrer Abhangigkeit von der In-
mG neren pcre des : Dea
eiger’s Judische Zeitschri iir ssen-
Geiger’s Jud. Zeit.) schatt und Leben
Geiger’s Wiss. t Geiger’s Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fiir
Zeit. Jiid. Theol. Jidische Thevlogie
Gesch. er rere re Geschichte
Gesenius, Gr.......Gesenius, Grammar
Gesenius, Th....... Gresenius, Thesaurus
Gibbon, Decline ese History of the Decline and Fall of
and Fall........ a A Roman Empire
: 10 TH insburg’s New Massoretico-Critical Text
Ginsburg’s Bible.. ; of the Hebrew Bible
Gites cate cated Saks Gittin (Talmud)
Graetz, Hishvcscoees Graetz. History of the Jews
Gritz, Gesech....... Gritz, Geschichte der Juden
Giidemann, Geschichte des Erziehungs-
Gece. wesens und der Cultur der Abendlindi-
ae Juden
AG io A ietesGiereenien Hagga
aR cts Aeeseeenstes Hagigah (Talmud)
HG) oiccccse us Settee Hallah (Talmud)
Hamburger, | Hamburger, Realencyclopadie fiir Bibe]
Re Bab evccxads und Talmud
ae ae ___¢ Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible
i (2) ne ene eae Epistle to the Hebrews
POD i aie site shekraee whence Masoretic Text
Herzog - Plitt
Herzog - Hauck,
Real-Encye....
ologie und Kirche (2d and 3d editions re-
spectively)
§ Hirsch, Biographisches Lexikon der Hervor-
or + ologie und kireh fiir Protestantische The-
Hirsch, Biog. Lex.) “ ragender Aerzte Aller Zeiten und Vélker
HOY iano tea vetatorn Horayot (Talmud)
PLU 5 herds acerca emards Hullin (Talmud)
BY sb oad Me wuinea een same place
ROU igs) atic ahixeves same author
Isr. Letterbode.. See Letterbode
sabe ad tc asttave te Soscacals Jahvist
Jaarboeken voor de Israeliten in Neder-
iand
Jacobs, Inquiry into the Sources of Spanish-
Jewish History
Janrbooxea ets a
Jacobs and Wolf, hy acobs and Wolf, Bibliotheca Anglo-Judaica
Jacobs, Sources...
Bibl. Anglo-Jud.
Jahrb. Gesch. der ( Jahrbuch fiir die Geschichte der Juden ung
JUNO dct etacausceraes des Judenthums
§ Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumim, Tal-
mudim, and Midrashim
Jellinek, B. H...... Jelinek, Bet ha-Midrash
Jew. Chron......... Jewish Chronicle, London
Jew. Encyc........ The Jewish Encyclopedia
Jew. Hist. Soc. Eng.Jewish Historical Society of England
Ui Ae eevee. wea end Jewish Quarterly Review
Jew. World........ Jewish World, London
Josephus, Ant...... Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews
Josephus, B. J......Josephus, De Bello Judaico
Josephus,Contra Ap.Josephus, Contra Apionem
NOSie ose Sete. Joshua
Jost’s Annalen...... Jost’s Israelitische Annalen
Jour. Bib. Lit...... Journal of Biblical Literature
viryph =. enn ; Justin, Dialogus cum Tryphone Judzeo
Kaufmann Ge- Gedenkbuch zur Erinnerung an David Kauf-
denkbuech...... mann
Kautzsch, Apo- t Die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des
kryphen. pete ke Alten Testaments
Kayserling, Bibl, t Kayserling, Biblioteca Espafiola-Portugueza-
lead ud.. Judaica
Kayserling, Die} nie Jiidischen Frauen in der Geschichte
ee Frau- >" Titeratur und Kunst
KOE ocd Hetero keritot (Talmud)
x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Ket..... Stewie ... Ketubot (Talmud)
K.H.C i Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testa-
CAE eee ee Oe ? ment, ed. Marti
Kid......+ (Mekeet Kiddushin (Talmue)
Ril gecss sce eeu eau<e Kilayim (Talmud)
Kin. ......e0e. ahve Kkinnim (Talmud)
menor Memon) Semitic Studies in Memory of A. Kohut
Krauss, Lehn- eager Griechische und Lateinische Lehn-
worter .......6+ : worter im ae Midrasch, und Targum
: arousse, Grand Dictionnaire Universel du
Larousse, Dict.... ; X1Xe Siacle
LCieetee tient dceuae in the place cited
Levy, Chal. ee Chaldaisches W6orterbuch tiber die
Worterb..... ies i: ee . —_ @ ein ‘
evy, euhebraisch un haldiisches
Levy, ee Worterbuch aber die Talmudim und Mid-
Worterb.. raschim
eon Z. T.. ries des Talmuds
Lib cease dees oiaress oe literal
Léw, Lebensalter ; ee Die Lebensalter in der Jiidischen Li-
| OP, @, Giger cnn een Sentuaeint
VAD ictees Geen casera setae married
Ma‘as...............Ma‘aserot (Talmud)
Ma‘as. Sh.......... Ma‘aser Sheni (‘l'almud)
Mace... cc ec ere teens Maccabees
Maimonides, ; :
Moreh.......... | Maimonides, Moreh Nebukim
Maimonides, Yad ..Maimonides, Yad ha-Hazakah
Mak......... seoeee Makkot (Talmud)
Maksh..... e.aeees. Makshirin (Talmud)
Mas .......00- See Sere Masorah
MAaSSE€K occ e res eeee Masseket ais ao F pap
‘ MeClintoek and Strong, Cyclopzedia of Bib-
McClintock and lical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Liter-
Strong, Cyc.... ature
Meg $348 Ea EES Ria Megillah (Talmud)
MeL eiianeckciesa ees Me‘ilah (Talmud)
MEK ov cawcw wees es Mekilta
MGM ops cuiarwes Cases Menahot (Talmud)
Mid........ eile aecd cars Middot (Talmud)
MUO? uc ccecsees sce .... Midrash
Midr. Teh.... ..... Midrash Tehillim (Psalms)
MIR 225 dvs sows Mikwaot (Talmud)
Mi Kin teasers ees Mo‘ed Katan (Talmud)
Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte und Wissen-
Monatsschrift..... 4 schaft des Judenthums
Mortara, Indice....Mortara, Indice Alfabetico
Miiller, Frag.Hist.{ Miller, Fragmenta Historicorum Grzeco-
rum
7 Munk, Mélanges de Philosophie Juive
Munk, Melanges . et Arabe
Murray’s Eng. Dict.A. H. Murray, A New English Dictionary
Naz
Beaouale'e awuace anne Nazir (Talmud)
ae eae . no date
Ned.........e008 ...Nedarim (Talmud)
INC ov ecavacnes tae Nega‘im
Neubauer, Cat. ( Neubauer, Catalogue of the Hebrew MSS.
Bodl.Hebr.MSS. § in the Bodleian Library
Neubauer, G. T....Neubauer, Géographie du Talmud
Neubauer, M. J. C..Neubauer, Medieval Jewish Chronicles
TD ih so site es Seeds no place of publication stated
Ni Paced oe aucnaease New Testament
Oest. Wochenschrift. Oesterreichische Wochenschrift
OD iat Sou aoks aces Ohalot (Talmud)
OU ie aretctnsacts »-.-Onkelos
Orient, Lit..........Literaturblatt des Orients
Ole Dak deme tel aneee Old Testament
Poe saa ated Sas Gane ears Priestly Code
: Pagel, Biographisches Lexikon Hervorragen-
Pagel, Biog. Lex. : der Aerzte des Neunzehnten Jahrhunderts
Pal. Exptor. sau -Palestine Exploration Fund
Pallas Lex.. .. Pallas Nagy Lexicon
Pauly-Wissowa, — . Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopidie der Clas-
Real-Encyc.. sischen Altertumswissenschaft
POS fesGscceesaces SPesauin (Talmud)
Pesh......+45. .. Peshito, Peshitta
POSIK 3 2se6 cae ets Pesikta de-Rab Kahana
Pesik. R..... <seekas Pesikta Rabbati
Pirke R. El......... Pirke Rabbi Eliezer
PLO ..ccccececeeess Proceedings
Publ...... Ap eeteses Publications
Tevet eect wins ..e-- Rab or Rabbi or Rabbah
ee t Rahmer’s Jiidisches Litteratur-Blatt
Regesty.... ... Regesty i Nadpisi
Rev. Bib.......+00. Revue Biblique
Rs Biss clvg xp ctew ew sur Revue des Etudes Juives
Rev. S6mM.......00e Revue Sémitique
Re Hence owaneueaas: Rosh ha-Shanah (Talmud)
Amador de los Rios. Estudios Histéricos,
rhea y Lorene etc.
j : Amador de los Rios, Historia...
Rios, Hist. .... ee ; Judios de Espafia y Portugal
; Ritter, Die Erdkunde im Verhiltnis zur
Ritter, Erdkunde. Natur und zur Geschichte des Menschen
Robinson, Re-( Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palestine,
searches......-- { Mt. Sinai. and Arabia Petresa .. . 1888
de los
Robinson, Later { Robinson, Later Biblical Researches in Pal-
ResearchesS.essaei estineand the Adjacent Regions ... 1852
Roest, Cat. { Roest, Catalog der Hebraica und Judaica
Rosenthal. Bibi.§ aus der L. Rosenthal’schen Bibliothek
a sara sp avesa Setaternstnices Revised Version
Salteid, Martyro- ( Salfeld, Das Martyrologium des Nirnberger
logium.......-. Memorbuches
Sanh ..ceeeeeee ..... Sanhedrin (Talmud)
De De Dvsccaecew cue Sacred Books of the East
S.B.0. T ; (Sacred Books of the Old Testament) Poly-
eet Pipeeehaligg cae , chrome Bible, ed. Paul Haupt
eee 7 t Schaff-Herzog, A Religious Encyclopedia
Schrader, pene Cuneiform Inscriptions and the
C.I. 0s. Task Old Testament, Eng. transl.
Schrader, K. A. T. § ae te Keilinschriften und das Alte Tes-
Schrader, K. B.....Schrader, Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek
Schrader, K. G. F 4 Schrader Keilinschriften und Geschichts-
forschung
Sehurer, Gesch..... Schiirer, Geschichte des Jidischen Volkes
SEllle aes eeruieews Semahot (Talmud)
SHAD Ss ouccenneeeen Shabbat (Talmud)
SHED ssesraeanes es sun Shebi‘it (Talmud)
SHED ciciitiw geste Se Shebu‘ot (Talmud)
SDE sciveear ee es Shekalim (Talmud)
Sibyllines Sa iiatedas Sibylline Books
Smith, Re]. of Sem..Smith, Lectures on Religion of the Semites
Soc. Bibl. | Transactions of the Society of Biblical Ar-
{ cheeology
; . . Stade’s Zeitschrift fiir die Alttestament-
Stade’s Zeitschrift 4 “liche Wissenschaft
een ess ee Catalogue of the Hebrew
Cat. Bodl....... ae in the Bodleian ae, ata
inschneider, Die Hebraischen and-
ead pe scbriften der K. Hof- und Staats-Biblio-
i as thek in Miinchen
Steiuschneider,
Hobr. Bibl”... ¢ Steinschneider, Hebrilische Bibliographie
Steinschneider,
Hebr. UVebers...
Strack, Das Blut.. , St
{ Steinschneider, Hebraische Uebersetzungen
rack, Das Blut im Glauben und <Aber-
glauben der Mensechheit
BU ai ecncencecseees Sukkah (‘lalmud)
BD cis coda ent eet oon lnder the word
PHAN scosaceaweosde Ta‘anit (Talmud)
TOD eri sianntetens Tanhuma
VANS on ceerece ant a8 Targumim
Targ. OnK.......... Targum Onkelos
Targ. Yer..... .... Targum Yerushalmi or Targum Jonathan
POWs esse aan eueetie Temurah (Talmud)
TPOMGs kaa aientaeeta Terumot (Talmud)
Test. Patr.......... Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs
POW yacaecena:s eesuas Tohorot
ROS Gnd tenes sae mens Tosafot
POSE sania seb cceee Tosefta
PET fei ssleeesa-ealedes Transactions
tYANS) 65 ice ck ears’ translation
pee Nat. Hist.Natural History of the Bible
Pe Missense ».»-.lebul Yom (Talmud)
‘Uk Lahetinasetusioae “‘Ukzin (Talmud)
Univ. Isr........ ... Univers Israélite
Virchow’s Archiv fir Pathologische Anato-
mie und Physiologie, und fiir Klinische
Medizin
Vile eco icewseaw ... Vulgate
Weiss, Dor.. .. Weiss, Dor Dor we-Dorshaw
Wellhausen, Habs reer eset Israelitische und Jiidische
iWelnesaeasiwie Geschichte
Winer, B. R.. Sieh irene Winer, Biblisches RealwGrterbuch
Wisdom eater aig Meets Wisdom of Solomon
.Woif, Bibliotheca Hebraeea
Wolf, Bibl. Hebr..
\ Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des
W. Z. K. M...... . ; Morgenlandes
VAG a wi5. sf ease R waies Yadayim (Talmud)
“Yad"’......-..... ad ha-Hazakah
Walk sec asioeeiesten Yalkut
VC0se eceueeu tach ac Yebamot (Talmud)
hg) eee eae .. Yerushalmi (Jerusalem Talmud)
YHWH......-...+-- Yahweh, Jehovah
DAD ise ha valoaeew cars 2 Zabim (Talmud)
Z.D.M.G } Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlindi-
Py eee ee eg ey schen Gesellschaft
2s DPV iaseies ... Aeitschrift des Deutschen Palastina-Vereins
VAC) | ee ae .....4ebahim (Talmud)
Zedner, Cat. Hebr. | Zedner, Catalogue of the Hebrew Books in
Books Brit.Mus.j the British Museum
Zeit. fiir Assyr..... Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie
Zeit. fir Hebr. Bibl.Zeitschrift fiir Hebriiische Bibliographie
Zeitlin, Bibl. aie, Zeitlin, Bibliotheca Hebraica Post-Mendels-
Mendels . .¢ sohniana
ZUNZ, GS... eee eee Zunz, Gesammelte Schriften
ZUNZ,.. Gs V avaes vcs Zunz, Gottesdienstliche Vortrage
Zunz, Literatur- penny Literaturgeschichte der Synagogalen
ROSEN ssi bares Poesie .
Zunz, Ritus...... , es Ritus des Synagogalen ( 9ttes-
Zunz, S. P..... ,...2unz, Synagogale Poesie des Mittelalters
ZUNZ, Ze Grssssecees Zunz, Zur Geschichte und Literatur
CONTRIBUTORS
A...secceeeee Cyrus Adler, Ph.D.,
President of the American Jewish Historical
Society : President of the Board of Directors of
the Jewish Theological Seminary of America:
Librarian of the Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D. C.
A. A. G..... Amélie André Gedalge,
Paris, France.
A. Blum....A. Blumgrund, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Carlsruhe, Baden, Germany.
A. Bu....... Alexander Biichler, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Keszthely, Hungary.
A. Buch..... Adolf Biichler, Ph.D.,
Professor, Jewish Theological Seminary,
Vienna, Austria.
Bee SDiivivseec Abraham Danon,
Principal, Jewish Theological Seminary, Con-
stantinople, Turkey.
Bi, Fes ccsciese A. Eckstein, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany.
A. F.........4. Freimann, Ph.D.,
Editor of the “ Zeitschrift fiir Hebraische
Bibliographie”’; Librarian of the Hebrew
Department, Stadtbibliothek, Frankfort-on-
the-Main, Germany.
A BO isisc0s Alfred Feilchenfeld, Ph.D.,
Principal of the Realschule, Firth, Bavaria,
Germany.
A. G..... ... Adolf Guttmacher, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Baltimore, Md.
A. Ha....... Alexander Harkavy,
New York City.
A. H.S..... A. H. Sayce, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Assyriology, Oxford University,
Oxford, England.
Bis oecsy ees A. Kaminka, Ph.D.,
Rabbi; Secretary of the Israelitische Alliance
zu Wien, Vienna, Austria.
A. Kai...... Alois Kaiser,
Cantor, Temple Oheb Shalom, Baltimore, Md.
A Bio cact. Alexander Kisch, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Prague, Bohemia, Austria.
A. Ku.,.....A. Kurrein, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Teplitz, Bohemia, Austria.
A. Lew..... Abraham Lewinsky, Ph.D.,
Chief Rabbi, Hildesheim, Hanover, Germany.
A. M.F..... Albert M. Friedenberg, B.S., LL.B.,
Counselor at Law; Correspondent of ** The
Jewish Comment,” Baltimore, Md.; New
York City.
Be Pipcisics ..A. Porter,
Formerly Associate Editor of “* The Forum,”
New York ; Revising Editor ‘* Standard Cyclo-
pedia,’’ New York City.
A. Pe........A, Peiginsky, Ph.D.,
New York City.
A. Ph........ Adolf Philipp,
Hamburg, Germany.
A. R.... ....A. Rhine,
Rabbi, Hot Springs, Ark.
TO VOLUME VI
| A.S.1I.......Abram S. Isaacs, Ph.D.,
Professor of German Literature, University of
the City of New York, New York City.
A. 5S. W. R..A. 8S. W. Rosenbach,
Attorney at Law, Philadelphia, Pa.
Ai DA ver cccus Aaron Tanzer, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Hohenems, Tyrol, Austria.
Ba OW ocaiegcas Albert Wolf,
Dresden, Saxony, Germany.
B.A.......... B. Auerbach, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Rogasen, Posen, Germany.
B.B...... .... penuel H. Brumberg,
Contributor to ** National Cyclopedia of Amer-
ican Biography,’’ New York City.
Bu Diiacices: Bernard Drachman, Ph.D.,
Rabbi of the Congregation Zichron Ephraim ;
Instruetor in the Bible and in Hebrew Gram-
mar at the Jewish Theological Seminary of
America, New York City.
By PP ceecis B. Friedberg,
Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany.
Bs Gaasis cutee Bernard Gorin,
New York City.
DS ae ee ee Benno Jacob, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Géttingen, Hanover, Germany.
A ee Bernhard Pick, Ph.D., D.D.,
Formerly Pastor of St. John’s Lutheran
Church, Albany, N. Y.; New York City.
Be DOs sevice Bernhard Templer, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Vienna, Austria.
C.H. B......C. H. Bjerregaard,
Formerly Professor, Fredericia College, Fred-
ericia, Denmark; Librarian of the New York
Public Library, New York City.
Ci Be feces Charles H. Israels,
Architect, New York City.
C.I. de S....Clarence I. de Sola,
Montreal, Canada.
C. Divcccics ...Caspar Levias, M.A.,
Instructor in Exegesis and Talmudic Aramaic,
Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio.
., Carl Siegfried, Ph.D., LL.D. (deceased),
Late Professor of Theology, University of
Jena, Germany.
o 8 aren 1... Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D.,
Professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union
College, Cincinnati, Ohio.
C. Bisisees:s
Di Gace ....paron David von Ginzburg,
St. Petersburg, Russia.
D. J.......... David Joseph, Ph.D.,
Berlin, Germany.
Di, ccs; .....D. Katzenstein,
Gotha, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Germany.
.seesee- David Philipson, D.D.,
Rabbi, B’ne Israel Congregation ; Professor of
Homiletics, Hebrew Union College, Cincin-
nati, Ohio.
Di BU isicoss David Sulzberger,
Philadelphia, Pa.
....Bduard André,
Paris, France.
D.P..
CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME VI
Sl teeta Executive Committee of the Editorial
Board.
..... Ezekiel Caro, Ph.D.,
Chief Rabbi, Lemberg, Galicia, Austria.
oxiees Emil G. Hirsch, Ph.D., LL.D.,
Rabbi, Sinai Congregation ; Professor of Rab-
binical Literature and Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Chicago; Chicago, lll.
Sinica Emil Jellinek,
Vienna, Austria.
beanetaatiars Enno Littmann, Ph.D.,
Librarian of the Oriental Department and
Lecturer in Semitic Philology, Princeton Uni-
versity, Princeton, N, J.
pita sion Elias L. Solomon,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
.Edgar Mels,
New York City.
Satelavien Elvira N. Solis,
New York City.
ere E. Schreiber, Ph.D.,
Rabbi Emanu-El Congregation, Chicago, I.
‘he Mawes E. Schwarzfeld, LL.D.,
Secretary of the Jewish Colonization Associa-
tion, Paris, France.
... Slijper,
Amsterdam, Holland.
Frank Cramer,
New York City.
.. Frank H. Vizetelly, F.S.A.,
Associate Editor of the ‘Columbian Cyclo-
pedia’’ and of the STANDARD DICTIONARY:
New York City.
Francis L. Cohen,
Rabbi, Borongh New Synagogue, London,
Engiand.
, Felix Perles, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, K6nigsberg, East Prussia, Germany.
Francis S. Wilson,
New York City.
Frederick T. Haneman, M.D.,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
F. Westberg, PhD,
Riga, Courland, Russia.
er Richard Gottheil, Ph.D.,
Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia
University, New York; Chief of the Orienta)
Department, New York Public Library: Presi-
dent of the Federation of American Zionists,
New York City.
..George Alexander Kohut,
Formerly Rabbi in Dallas, Texas; Assistant
Librarian of the Jewish Theologica) Seminary
of America, New York City.
eestenes Gerson B. Levi,
New York City.
sade tiae George D. Rosenthal,
Electrical Engineer, St. Louis, Mo.
ee eaas G. Herbert Cone,
Attorney at Law, Albany, N. Y.
ee G. Kecskeméti, Ph.D.,
Rabbi in Grosswardein, Hungary.
Goodman Lipkind, B.A.,
Rabbi, New York City.
eacee ied Godfrey Morse,
Lawyer, Boston, Mass.
nian aeey eats Gustav Oppert, Ph.D.,
Privat-Docent, University of Berlin, Germany.
nes: G. Rulf, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Brunswick, Germany.
H. Brody, Ph.D.,
Rabbi; Coeditor of the ‘Zeitschrift fiir He-
braische Bibliographie*’; Nachod, Bohemia,
Austria.
Presta Henry Barnstein,
Rabbi, Houston, Texas.
BY ds Heinrich Bloch, Ph.D.,
Professor of History, Jewish Theological Sem-
inary, Budapest, Hungary.
H. E.........H. Eliassof,
Chicago, Ill.
H. E.K...... H. E. Kaufmann,
Rabbi, Krovitza, Austria,
H. Gut....... H. Guttenstein,
New York City.
pS Sea! > nee re Henry Hyvernat, D.D.,
Professor of Oriental Languages and Arche-
ology, Catholic University of America, Wash-
ington, D.C.
1c Cae = 6G snes Hartwig Hirschfeld, Ph.D.,
Professor, Jews’ College, London, England.
H. H. M..... Harry H. Mayer,
Rabbi, Kansas City, Mo.
bo Cy . eee H. Kottek, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Homburg-vor-der-Héhe, Hesse, Ger-
many.
bs AON ¢ eee eee Herman Rosenthal,
Chief of the Slavonic Department of the New
York Public Library, New York City.
pc Ot ~ eer See eee Henrietta Szold,
Secretary of the Publication Committee of the
Jewish Publication Society of America ; New
York City.
dw Da | Sere ee Hermann Vogelstein, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, KGnigsberg, East Prussia, Germany.
I. Be.......... Immanuel Benzinger, Ph.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Uni-
versity of Berlin, Germany.
7, BE ens Isaac Broydé (Office Editor),
Diplomé de Ecole des Hautes Etudes; for-
merly Librarian of the ANiance Israélite Uni-
verselle, Paris, France; New York City.
0S eee Ismar Elbogen, Ph.D.,
Instructor at the Lehranstalt fir die Wissen-
schaft des Judenthums, Berlin, Germany.
5 i © ene Ignatz Goldziher, Ph.D.,
Professor of Semitic Philology, University of
Budapest; Member of the Hungarian Acad-
emy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary.
TGs Ds isaee I. George Dobsevage,
New York City.
De adic Isidore Harris, A.M.,
Rabbi of West London Synagogue, London,
England.
AG pene ee Israel Lévi,
Rabbi; Professor in the Paris Jewish Theo-
logical Seminary; Editor of ‘‘Revue des
Etudes Juives,’’ Paris, France.
T. LO.cedeiss: Immanuel Léw, Ph.D.,
Chief Rabbi of Szegedin, Hungary.
I. M. C...... I. M. Casanowicz, Ph.D.,
United States National Museum, Washington,
D.C
Te Me. Piven Ira Maurice Price, B.D., Ph.D.,
Professor of Semitic Languages and Litera-
ture, University of Chicago, Chicago, Tl.
De Sitadesinvss I. Schwartz,
Paris, France.
De Binsedes Isidor S. Beaumache,
New York City.
veoeseeess Lonaz Ziegler, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Carlsbad, Bohemia, Austria.
A Sener .-e.., 008eph Jacobs, B.A.,
Formerly President of the Jewish Historical
Society of England; Corresponding Member
of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid ;
New York City.
A ee © Serre eeenree See E. Ca.
J. D. B...... J. D. Bravermann, Ph.D.,
New York City.
J.D. E......3. D. Eisenstein,
New York City.
CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME VI
Joseph Ezekiel, J.P.,
Bombay, India.
J. F. McC...d- Frederic McCurdy, Ph.D., LL.D.,
ee professor of Oriental Languages, University
College, Toronto, Canada.
Jacob Freimann, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Holleschau, Moravia, Austria.
J. Friedmann, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Gratz, Posen, Germany.
J.G.L....- J. G. Lipman, Ph.D.,
; Assistant Agriculturist, New Jersey State Ex-
periment Station, New Brunswick, N. J.
J.deH.....-. J. de Haas,
; Secretary of the Federation of American
Zionists, New York City.
J. H.G...--. Julius H. Greenstone,
Rabbi, Philadelphia, Pa.
Sib eer ee Morris Jastrow, Jr., Ph.D.,
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
J. Frei...--
J. Ka......-. Jacques Kahn,
Rabbi, Paris, France.
Bee Veneer Joseph Lehman,
Chief Rabbi: Principal Rabbinical Seminary,
Paris, France.
J. L. La..... J. L. Lait,
Journalist, Chicago, IN.
A Se or John P. Peters, Ph.D., D.D.,
Rector, St. Michael’s Church, New York City.
J. SO... cease Joseph Sohn,
Contributor to ** The New International En-
cyclopedia”; formerly with ‘‘The Forum,”
New York City.
J. Sto....... Joseph Stolz, D.D.,
Rabbi, Chicago, IL.
Je TAs ceuass Jacob Tauber, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Perau, Moravia, Austria,
BitGusincikes Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D.,
Rabbi Emeritus of Temple Beth-Ei, New
York; President of the Hebrew Union Col-
lege, Cincinnati, Ohio.
K. H. C......Karl Heinrich Cornill, Ph.D.,
Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exe-
gesis, University of Breslau, Germany.
L. B..........Ludwig Blau, Ph.D.,
Professor, Jewish Theological Seminary; Edi-
tor of ““Magyar Zsidé6-Szémle*’; Budapest,
Hungary.
....--., Louis Ginzberg, Ph.D.,
Professor of Talmud, Jewish Theological Sem-
inary of America, New York City.
L. Grii...... Lazarus Grunhut,
Director, Orphan Asylum, Jerusalem, Pales-
tine.
L.H.G. ...L. H. Gray, Ph.D.,
Assistant Editor of the ** Orientalische Bibli-
ographie ”; former]y on the editorial staff of
“The New International Encyclopzxdia”’ ;
Newark, N. J.
L. G..
L. Hii....... L. Huhner, A.M., LL.B.,
Attorney at Law, New York City.
L. Laz....... L. Lazarus, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, G6ding, Moravia, Austria.
L.N.D......Lewis N. Dembitz,
Attorney at Law, Louisville, Ky.
Oa | Sane ee Ludwig Venetianer, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Neupest, Hungary.
as MW ecser net, L. Ysaye,
Vienna, Austria.
M. Bil......., Maurice Bloch,
Principal of the Bischoffsheim School, Paris,
. France.
Dt © M. Caimi,
Corfu, Greece.
Xili
MCs bas Max Cohen,
Attorney at Law, New York City.
M. F.........Michael Friedlander, Ph.D.,
Principal Jews’ College, London, England.
MM. Biwicess: Maurice Fishberg, M.D.,
Surgeon to the Beth Israel Hospital Dispen-
sary; Medical Examiner to the United Hebrew
Charities, New York City.
M. Fr........ M. Franco,
Principal, Alliance Israélite Universelle
School, Démotica, Rumelia, Turkey.
M. Gar....... M. Garsson,
New York City.
M. Gr........M. Grunwald, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Vienna, Austria.
M.KE......... Meyer Kayserling, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Budapest, Hungary.
M. M........ Moses Mielziner, Ph.D., D.D. (deceased),
Late President of the Hebrew Union College,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
M. M. E.....M. M. Eichler,
Rabbi, Beth El Congregation, Philadelphia, Pa.
M.R...,......Max Rosenthal, M.D.,
Visiting Physician, German Dispensary, New
York City.
M. Re........ Milton Reizenstein, Ph.D.,
New York City.
M. Se........ Max Schloessinger, Ph.D. (Office Editor),
Rabbi, New York City.
M. Sel.......Max Seligsohn (Office Editor),
Diplomé de l’Ecole des Hautes Etudes, Paris,
France; New York City.
... Moritz Silberstein, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Wiesbaden, Nassau, Germany.
M. W........ Max Weisz, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Budapest, Hungary.
M.W.L..... Martha Washington Levy, B.A.,
Contributor to **The New International En.
cyclopeedia,’? New York City.
M. W. M....Mary W. Montgomery, Ph.D.,
New York City,
M. Z.........M. Zametkin,
New York City.
N.A.........N. Almquist,
StocKhvlin, Sweden.
M. Si.....
Ne. Dicsesass. Newell Dunbar,
Newark, N. J.
N.K..... ....Nehemias Kronberg, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Hermanmiestec, Bohemia, Austria.
N. St........ Nathan Stern, Ph.D.,
New York City.
N.T. L...... N. T. London,
New York City.
0.E.@A.G..Osmond Elim d@’Avigdor Goldsmid,
M.A., LL.B., J.P.,
Brighton, Engiand.
0.S.S8S....... Oscar S. Straus, LL.D.,
Former Envoy Extraordinary and Min{ster
Plenipotentiary of the United States to Tur-
key; Member of the Court of Arbitration at
The Hague; New York City.
BP Br ce2 see Philipp Bloch, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Posen, Germany.
Boo Wi ei saees Peter Wiernik,
New York City.
R.A.S...... Rachel Hays Sulzberger,
New York City.
Re lo Cxicsaxs Rudolph I. Coffee, A.B.,
Assistant Superintendent, Hebrew Orphan
Asylum, New York City.
Bs. Bass ieie: Rosalie Perles,
K6nigsberg, East Prussia, Germany.
Xiv CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME VI
Se aaiessams Isidore Singer, Ph.D.,
MANAGING EDITOR, New York City.
S. Bac. aesee SS. Bachrach,
Hameln, Hanover, Germany.
S. Fra....... Salomon Frankfurter, Ph.D.,
Scriptor, Vienna University Library, Vienna,
Austria.
S. Fu........ Samuel Fuchs, Ph.D.,
Chief Rabbi, Luxemburg, Luxemburg.
S.J..........S. Janovsky,
Attorney at Law, St. Petersburg, Russia.
i . Cee S. Kahn,
Rabbi, Nimes, France.
S. Kr........S. Krauss, Ph.D.,
Professor, Normal College, Budapest, Hungary.
S. Le........S, Levy, M.A,,
Rabbi, London, England.
S. Lev.......5. Levene,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
S. M.........S. Mendelsohn, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Wilmington, N. C.
S. Man...... S. Mannheimer, B.L.,
Instructor, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati,
Ohio.
S. M. D......S. M. Dubnow,
Odessa, Russia.
S.P..........Samuel Poznanski, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Warsaw, Poland, Russia.
..Solomon Schechter, M.A., Litt.D.,
President of the Faculty of the Jewish Theo-
logical Seminary of America, New York City.
S.Sa..... ... Sigismund Salfeld, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Mayence, Hesse, Germany.
S. Sp....... . Salomon Spielmann,
Iglau, Moravia, Austria.
S. St...... .... Sara Straus,
New York City.
8. S. W......Stephen S. Wise, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Portland, Ore.
S. S........
S. v. St......8. van Straalen (deceased),
Late Assistant Librarian, British Museum,
London, England.
10. Crawford Howell Toy, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Hebrew in Harvard University,
Cambridge, Mass.
Dy We Once Thomas Kelly Cheyne, D.D., Litt.D.,
Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Scrip-
ture, Oxford University, and Canon of Roches-
ter Cathedral, England ; Coeditor of ** Ency-
clopedia Biblica ”’ ; Oxford, England.
Di Biivicsien Tobias Schanfarber,
Rabbi, Anscbe Ma’arab Congregation, Chicago,
ill.
ones
UO, Ces Umberto Cassuto,
Florence, Italy.
a ae oP Vittore Castiglione,
Chief Rabbi, Rome, Italy.
We Bey amass Victor Rosseau Emanuel,
Laurel, Md.
V.R.«.... ..., Vasili Rosenthal,
Kremeuchug, Russia.
NW) TRY iss oi Victor Ryssel, Ph.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and
Semitic Languages, University of Zurich,
Switzerland.
W.A,.M.....William A. Miller,
New York City.
Wi Bieckisccs: W. Bacher, Ph.D.,
Professor, Jewish Theological Seminary, Buda-
pest, Hungary.
W. H. F.....William H. Fineshriber,
Rabbi, Davenport, Iowa.
W. M.M....W. Max Muller, Ph.D.,
Professor of Bible Exegesis, Reformed Epis-
copal Theological Seminary. Philadelphia, Pa.
W.N....... . William Nowack, Ph.D.,
Professor of Old ‘Testament Exegesis, Uni-
versity of Strasburg, Germany.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME VI
N. B~—In the following list subjects likely to be sought for under various headings are repeated
under each heading.
PAGE
‘“‘Ab, Ninth of, in a Polish Synagogue.” From a painting by Leopold Horowitz.................-. 468
Algiers, Tomb of Rabbi Isaac ben Sheshet at.... ..............2 06. ee re Se hie a Beale eens 632
Amsterdam, Printed Halizah Blank Used by ewe OE si as acest a alee San ata see ts Dende enema oats Sea teed 173
Archeology: see Corn; Hapap; HAMMURABI; HANUKKAH; Harp; Hyrcanus; Lyre; “Mepat; SEAL;
Tome,
Architecture; see HANOVER; HEBRON; Hovusg; Hyrcanus; Toms.
Art: see ARCHEOLOGY; ARCHITECTURE; CosTUME; HABDALAH; HaGGADAH:; HANUKKAH; HEINE
Memor1aL; Horowitz, LEoPpoLD; Huppau; ISRAELS, JOSEPH; MANUSCRIPTS, TYPOGRAPHY,
Autograph Letter of Hushiel ben Elhanan, From the Cairo Genizah.............0.... 2c cece cena o10
Baldachin: see HUPPAH.
Banner of the Inquisition at Goa, India. After Picart... 0.0.0... cee ce teens pe anuaes 601
Bar Kokba, Coin of, Bearing Lyre with Three Strings. ...... 0.0... ccc ccc ce cece cece cee ee eee eens 237
Benedict, Marcus, Diploma Conferring the Haber Degree, Issued by, 1828............. ee eee 122
Bible: see ISAIAH ; PENTATEUCH.
Border to the First Illustrated Printed Haggadah, Prague, 526........ 0.26. 0c. ceeeeee cee cee eens 147
Box MOG eri Car Locus die trenty ewe awe ate e ee seel BS etieliraa whe neta, Sawa dada wad Oy ies aca Seon 184
Boxes, Spice, Used in Habdalah Ceremony................. Sustetstared 2 119, 120, and plate between 118-119
Brescia, Page from the First Edition of Immanuel ben Solomon’s “ Mehabberot,” Printed in 1491 at. . 565
Cairo: see GENIZAH.
Candle Used in the Habdalah Ceremony... ........ 0.0... cece ee cee cet ee bee ne cece eee eeee 118
Caricature of Isaac of Norwich, After a contemporary manuscript. ee ee ere ee ee ree 628
Caucasus, Head-Dress of Jew of (Pig. 84) 00.0.0 0 cc ce cette eee eeetnttetereees 293
Cave of Machpelah, Entrance to the Mosque at Hebron, Containing the Traditional ............. tees O18
Ceremonial: see HaBDALAH ; HALIzAn; HanuKKAH; HuPPAH.
Charity-Box, Modern .......... 0 ..........000. Pe et ee Te ee eT eee ne en ree 184
Clepsydra. as Deseribed: inthe Zohar yo. d60eeed bade dae eel aves eed ieee be eaeee ieee ees eee Lads 464
Coin of Bar Kokba Bearing Lyre with Three Strings. ............ ce cece cence eee eee e rece eee eee 207
—of Herod the Great Showing Helmet with Cheek-Pieces .......0.c ec. c cece et cece eee e eee eeeees 343
=O JONTNLH VU CANUS 8.4 wee a cdiua Gh ahead 2 cers DANA GK Beyer aode Rees ema iee senna Sb eee ee Re ead 515
——of Simon Nasi Bearing Lyre with Six Strings............ 0. ee eee eee eee eee sea Saeed ahead 237
Columbia University Library: see Isn Ezra, ABRAHAM; IBN TrIBBON, Moses; IMMANUEL BEN
SOLOMON,
Constance, Head-Dress of Jew of (Fig. 10)... .. 0... cece cece cee reece nce eee n eet heen acne eeene 293
Constantinople, Page from the First Edition of Moses ibn Tibbon’s Translation of Maimonides’ “Sefer
hasMigwots Printed 10 ate 2c sated aed Gawhecuse eee mentees Seen s boos waa we aaa d47
Contract Between a Sheliah and the Sephardic Congregation at Jerusalem ............. 0: eee ee eeee 183
Costume, Germany, Highteenth Century ....... ccc cee cece cece eee eee e ete ennees 172, 268, 505
—— Holland (1657).... ... aki leks “ih: aie trie alas Noarals eri Riddaeaie Sarat aed edin arene Se nace ries a auamrn aah ae mare a atete 504
—— ——FEarly Eighteenth Century .......... Oe ee ee Eee ere ee re ere eee 171, 477
as Passat. (1477 )ainsoussnta cca derwanteeacceasetum as hate dtm pacpntiee Me mnes plate between 482-483
—— Poland, Seventeenth Century.......... 0... cece cee ee cence enn e neces pia te Seale wane are ara 268
468
a VE OO TIN cil ctrace oe hb ere ee ARR SRE COREA EARS iad eis CEVEE RP CEIE ARSE CERES RS
Xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME VI
PAGE
Costume, Sarajevo, Early Fourteenth Century. ........ 2. cece ete eee er ee Frontispiece
—— Sternberg (1492)........... ERR er ee ee ee SAGs hap ewice GAG aay hae Oh a eee ene aed 482
—— see also HEAD-DREss,
Deed: see CONTRACT.
Diploma Conferring the Haber Degree, Issued by Marcus Benedict, 1828................ aS e ues erie 122
—— Rabbinical, of the Seventeenth Century................ (eweoenink seotsaca ease ee euratoute .... 268
Divinity, Representation: Of a, Aitutes, 6224 eusiwer ew (ees ites eee aed ead oes bees twed Grea Paeeee 428
-—— see also HADAD.
Documents: see DIPLOMA; HaLizaAH; HALUKKAH; INQUISITION.
Dress: see COSTUME.
Egypt: see Cairo; Harp; HIrrite.
England, Head-Dress of Jews of (Figs. 1 and 39)..... ee ee ee sic late ae ater ee ee ea 293
Europe: see CostuME; HANOVER; HUNGARY.
First Editions: Page from Abraham ibn Ezra’s Commentary to the Pentateuch, Naples, 1488........ 523
—— —— Page from David Kimhi’s Commentary to the Prophets, Guadalajara, 1482.............. .. 103
—— —— Page from the First Hlustrated Printed Haggadah, Prague, 1526........... 0... ccc eee eee 147
——- —— Page from Immanuel ben Solomon’s “ Mehabberot,” Brescia, 1491, .............. 0... eee 565
——— ——— Page from Moses ibn Tibbon’s Translation of Maimonides’ “Sefer ha-Mizwot,” Constanti-
NOPIOS OUT cee cates dyes ha aM ete: elem ied oes eee G ate ols AER ROE ow ORNs 547
——Page from Solomon ibn Gabirol’s “ Mibhar ha- Peninim,” Printed by Soncino, 1484.......... 531
Four Types of the Haggadah........ Cee eee ee sueteed ake he aroma aaees Beadaoeauiaee ere auras . 144
France, Head-Dress of Jews of (Figs. 6-8)...... 02... cceseeeccenes Cwhuuiie cies gia al Wave Seam eeooseneees 293
Genizah, Cairo, Portion of Autograph Letter of Hushiel ben Elhanan, from the.......... Sige a a deat 510
Germany, Halizah Scene in, Eighteenth Century ............. cee cece eee r ecw eee Ou Minced eeeeGen en 172
—— Head-Dress of Jews of (Figs. 3-5, 18, 14, 18-21, and 28),.... BasasSits atataigh alg: araites sce alee acacnne ura er oene wrasse 293
Goa, Banner of the Inquisition at........ 0... cece eee wees mate sews deSraiee Cia SAS Ere aNel esos 601
Procession of the Inquisition at ............... Setehaw emia lansG weve hers Shy towtoen aeecuna sore He rieewee OU
Goldfaden, Abraham, Yiddish Dramatist....... ee ee Masel Bieaee ha Renae ie base eee eee eas 23
Goldmark, Karl, Hungarian Musician......... eal isla ates 16 ass sw cat arian bas eater sel arate w boon ceeeiaek 24
Goldschmidt, Levin, German Jurist ....... cc cece cence ceucccccees Psd bh Peake eaciaw te wee ese 26
— Meir Aaron, Danish Political Writer............ ccc cccccccecce aca aet Seen hea eee eueedsen oot 2%
Goldsmid, Abraham, English Financier........... Se weiss ee de atea a Nae le Niwa Gaede ete. 29
Sir Julian, English Statesman ........ cc... cece eens eee Wdieateahs saveatiew So ue ae aadeae Langapnods 31
Goldziher, Ignaz, Hungarian Orientalist....... caaenenre Letcieetiee ee eee oe Sebi Rua leebaie ie gases 35
Gomipers; Samuel; American Labor Leader.icsnsc iad hostaae ses eet essceiewa ses aeae emacs vaan orees 43
Gordon, Lord George, English Agitator and Convert to Judaism.............. ee eer 47
—— Leon, Russian Hebrew Poet..... hie Con Ariel Bw eine Ocha se ea ate area Dibra are ee Wa nee tae oes 47
Gottheil, Gustav, American Rab Dinis45 20 sacced dleceee da eee ieee ed. a ee deaeaee eta was oe heniees 52
Gottlober, Abraham Baer, Russian Hebrew Poet.............cccceccscees Siig Me wae hae be ae 55
Graetz, Heinrich, Jewish Historian. ............ ccc ccc cece cern cece teen ene e cece sc sessssens aes 65
Gratz, Rebecca, American Educator and Philanthropist............ 0. ccc cece cece cect e rete cues eucces 83
Guadalajara: Page from the First Edition of David Kimhi’s Commentary to the Prophets, Printed
by Solomon ibn AlKAbIn: 1482 okt 85 oie Sad aedenG od moa ee Ma eee a bee emetk anaes eee ea 108
Guastalla, Enrico, Italian soldier. ........cccceccccecc scene Pe eee eee eT ee ee eee ee 104
Giidemann, Moritz, Austrian Rabbi... oc e ccc cc cece cect ect ac eect eeseeecace pee Geen ee Stes 105
Ginzburg, Horace, Russian Philanthropist, ...... Seiko araatis Sivan vedere Sate Dea eee a eeute cobs 111
—— Mordecai Aaron, Russian Hebrew Writer ............ Ss cia wre heels de Sirk Rete ane eae tiea 113
Habdalah Lightisccdcss terse veers aieewends bet ceGusd ae ue geek eee ee dew Lew heed ake aRaune 118
— Spice-Boxes, Various Forms of............ ccc cece ccc snc ceee sees 119, 120, and plate between 118-119
Haber, Diploma Conferring the Degree of, Issued by Marcus Benedict, 1828 ............. cee seeeuees 122
“Had Gadya,” Music of ............ bass aoe auntie aere. Gab gata enciets Serase Gun ed toate nee en ee 128, 129
Hadad, Hittite Representation of.......... Beau tay tee eee eae eee e ee eran Wndeaisose acumen Gs, rnd ote 130
Haggadah, [lluminated Page from the Sarajevo. Written probably early in the fourteenth century..
Frontispiece
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME VI XVii
PAGE
Haggadah, Page from a Fifteenth Century Illustrated Manuscript.. ee 148
__— Page from a Fifteenth Century Illustrated Manuscript, Showing Preparations for Passover...... 145
__ Page from the First Illustrated Printed, Prague, 1526.......... 0... cece weer ee eee etic trees 147
___ The Four Types Of Chee oieweids duh eoe eh ed oe eee saa ee hee ees yeas 144
“Hakkafot,” Music Ol wiaeaghe chante weal wae dese eee wee etree entrees eneeee ees -seeee 161, 162
Halberstadt, Seal of Cathedral at: Jews Represented as Stoning St. Stephen ........... 0... cece eee es 165
Halberstam, Solomon Joachim, Austrian Scholar............0-.eeeeee eee reer rere Te re ee 166
Halévy, Jacques Francois, French Composer ............ silede dpe ne Saige Pe bie i netie eit ee ee eee es 167
__— Joseph, French Orientalist.<.s e668 91455 sew een oeee eae er ae ee ree eee Sta eaheoes Reese 168
Halizah Blank Used by Amsterdam Jews. ..........eceeeees Gd bs tear, reaero aes tieseche c diauaedee ge. aleoaes 173
_ Ceremony Among German Jews, Eighteenth Century ........ cc sece scence eee ence etna eeeees » 172
_ Scene in Holland, Early Eighteenth Century. ......... cece c cece cece eee cece ete ee ee cenees 171
ee, eee ee ee Seca seu aaawaulaes yistansatdess Ree ee ee ee re eye eee eee 170
“Tallel” (“Lulab Chant Wy CM AUSIC“Ol..gcke ne So haheantecdstedatatewy.)Sbae vee od meee Swiss Rhee ewes 177, 178
Halukkah BOX 6 eS Ss 56 Reo Se EAE OSES ESREES Seta. ORG 0 Vig loalos i COLA, Wine de: ot Tasso Gs esa w lu AAO N OL 8! sels Leech one aS Be ere 8 184
_— Contract Between a Sheliah and the Sephardic Congregation at Jerusalem...............0-.0005 183
“Ha-Mabdil,” Music of... 26... e cece eee cece eee eee nae e eect eee eener ene eees ee Ty eee 187, 188
Hamburg, Jewish Hawker of, Eighteenth Century ....... ee ee oe re eee ee re re 268
Hamburger, Jacob, German Rabbi and Author ............. goesrawer Cee deGee ten teac ace me tente wes 195
“Ha-Meliz,” Title-Heading of the First Number of................6-- eaeenes sielbiern Wise ai eareve vise! “alsa 196
Hammurabi Before the Sun-God ..........ccsecc cee e erence cere en eee eee reese seen seen ns sennrenenas 199
Hanover, Synagogue at 2... eee cece eee cece ee nee eee eee e eres e ee eet nae eee teense nteeees R22
Hanukkah Lamp, Bronze, French, Attributed to the Twelfth Century.................-- plate facing 226
___. __— Bronze, Italian, Fifteenth Century ...........-.-..0.- Hiecaled Mepis taken tweed aes as 225
___. ——— Found in Excavations at Jerusalem. .......... ccc ceec secon: err re dea race tereiees Dewi 226
___- -—~ Silver, German, Seventeenth Century .. ... Raremuneas et es Shilee eigs teeta ecteeih anata ete reais 225
see G1 Ver: MECGIO VAL. o's a ncaa gan okeomare reer ee er er ere re ee ree plate facing 226
on Sil Ver... MOGeGnn..4524.068.ssenseseds tae PLE GS RERUNS see eee eeu eee eee nies 225
a SIIVEL SIX LECH IN CD LUNY 2.0151 e.g yeu gon tia Sisarhearea 6 Stewie obo wets arse ans Hass od were ean e oy 225
—— ——- Silver and Bronze, Seventeenth Century............... a udaleeheiea Wnamrawut Belton plate facing 226
= Yellow. Copper, Modern .450.sc0u.4ee cas dameswataw dawt beerns heal sed eel weales plate facing 226
Harkavy, Albert, Russian Orientalist and Historian...............cceeeeeeeees nts Kaleo ageedawe hen 235
Harp, Babylonian Representation of a. About 3000 B.C........ cc ccc cece erence eet re cence ene 237
—— Bedouin Playing a. After a painting in the tombs of the Beni Hassan. ..............-200ecueee 237
-——+ Egyptian Representations Of aici cscs he wea tee sees ge tans sada eelees oes ewins eect ee ie pane ares 238
—— see also LYRE.
Hartmann, Moritz, Austrian Poet..... Mie esa Teel aeaes ORME pase erEoae ew Caer ak Bi ee tak 244
“Hattarat Hora’ah”: Rabbinical Diploma of the Seventeenth Century. ..........ccesccas ees ecenes 263
Hawker, Jewish, of Hamburg, Highteenth Century ...... 0... cc cece cect eee eee e ee cenenes eee 268
—— Polish Jewish, Seventeenth Century...........- Spears Ce er eC re rhe eee eee 268
“Hazzanut.” MUSIC Of 232 scsesnd elaqwien eras ceene eee Shira eure oe ee es eee nee eevee 290-292
Head-Dress Worn by Jews at Various Periods....... a eda aie mina wii naa a as Suanity Wee seate alt 293
Hebron, Entrance to the Mosque at, Containing the Traditional Cave of Machpelah ................. 313
—— General View of............ 0.0000: Oe eee re eee eee een ee eee Sea Savta 312
Heidenheim, Wolf, German Exegete..........00. err re lee Eee er ee re ero ee 319
Heilprin, Michael, Polish-American Scholar... .....cccccc cece cc cccccccccecesseceeeseverceeeseseess 325
Heine, Heinrich, German Poet..........0ccceeeeseteerescenes ee ee ere eer ere ee 327
———= Memorial, .New: :YOrk, j0.0i50010dseaibaaene wes sees Sc PN Dee Rae ube weed 0e DANE a eee Nod 329
Helmet with Cheek-Pieces Depicted on Coin of Herod the Great........... Cate asalae eo aavass eiialveas 348, 356
Hermon, Mount, in Judea.............000.06 (usp pe nae sua uuieGe Bhs let ee eee Vain epee ene 359
Herod the Great, Coin of, Showing Helmet with Cheek-Pieces.............. testi eeowanes encase 343
So Se Copper CONS OF i265 ous anda ccaeaw ios tee aaite eoenineed + Mewban ae een ee ee tiene wenns 356, 357
Herschell, Solomon, Chief Rabbi of the Ashkenazim in England..............0006- ina nee ee eee 364
Herz, Henriette, German Leader of Society....... Pade estes er ee ee aw aeiarnsteeeeie 367
—— Markus, German Physician and Author...,.....cceecescecceeeesceeceeseees ee ee 368
Herzfeld, Levi, German THistorian...........--ecceseeececes (Acetic eee whee. Maid Seuneonewee uaa 370
Herzl, Theodor, Leader of Political Zionism .........eseceseeeseeeeeecrsetesseneecs jee eae ease 370
Hildesheimer, Israel, German Orthodox Rabbi...... cc ccc cece cece ce cceenccevescevevens Maeda aoe 395
x Vill LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME V1
PAGE
Hillel the Great, Entrance to the Traditional Tomb of, ............. 0c cc eee eee (eeieed eet eesesaeaes . 397
Haran; “Fraditional Tom bof iws; ace ake te ee eG ae hiowes ioe eee Oe ee eee eine junds 200
Hirsch, Clara de, German Philanthropist ............ snidleits Sse Dupe hosts alae ogteatiaes ce Peat au acide 409
—— Maurice de, German Philanthropist. ....... 0.0... ccc ee cee cn ee eee vee ‘ibaa eeaare sGguicreuste Ne mecte 414
— Samson Raphael, German Rabbi.................6. sles gba tateue eine tren ik o gues tye gta ale epanene a iareraease ¢ 417
Hittite Divinity .2cciaw eet S.0sSF Mente setaaealsee wa ea leases ‘Std Cine saliaeree hike saws eee: ets 428
Portrait of. From an inlaid tile in the tomb of Rameses TH Da sated aaa heart et aoat nd une cane Sadness 427
-—— Representation or Hadad i. <ciesit idee inne saad teed che dudeaiaiteeescsesiuns saunas eacees 130
Holland, Halizah Scene in, Early Eighteenth Century.......... 0c. cc cece ee cece cece ene beens 17
Mead-Dress Or .lews Or (Hig Ll )ie sa jag eins ia ea aie Seu sik SOO Ges G4 RAGIN Ay on ea tee a ee eh eens GH ee 293
Horology: Clepsydra as Described in the Zohar...... ee ee re ae ee ee ea 464
+ Sun-Dial as Described by Maimonides; 62 05s) conan agi bh cee Oleh a eae Se ceeen dee ewnsnas Made 464
Horowitz, Leopold, “The Ninth of Ab in a Polish Synagogue,” From a Painting by ................ 468
“Hosha‘na Rabbah,” Procession Carrying Palms on. After Picart, 1723. 02... .. ccc eee cee eee AT?
Host Desecration at Passau in 1477. After a contemporary wood-cut ............. plate between 482-483
—~ —— Jews of Sternberg Represented as Transfixing Hosts. After a wood.cut of 1492........... 482
House, Interior of a Jewish, in Holland, Early Eighteenth Century ................ Ey Ree ree 171
== in. Gerinany, Bighteenth Century <5 dh ea bene baGewneita sewer eens<n ses derdesa ent 172
Hugh of Lincoln, Tomb of, in Lincoln Cathedral... ...... 2.0.0.0... cece ee cee cee eee eens 487
Hungary, Map of, Showing Chief Centers of Jewish Population, 1901......... 0.00... cece eee eee 503
— Medal of Joseph II. Commemorating Grant of Religious Liberty to Protestants and Jews of, 1786.. 499
Huppah or Wedding Baldachin Among Dutch Jews, Seventeenth Century, After Leusden, 1657.... 504
—— —— Among German Jews, Eighteenth Century. After Bodenschatz, 1748................ 406 505
— —— Representations of. After samplers............. ccc cc ee ee tec eee nee e eee e ee eset ones 506
Hushiel ben Elhanan, Portion of Autograph Letter of. From the Cairo Genizah.................... 510
Hy rcanus: Johns Copper Comv0l rsa vacer eel eces ation arns dee) Sy bieuteate tours Orkw setae yawds 515
—- Ruins of the Palace:of 6 isc05ndtonrcagiesaes encase Caio Ba Raae EAN ENS WEEE aeeaieaseag 516
Ibn Ezra, Abraham: Page from the First Edition of his Commentary to the Pentateuch, Naples, 1488. 523
—— Gabirol, Solomon: Page from the First Edition of his “Mibhar ha-Peninim,” Printed by
Soncino, 1484......... sie ec De Ast toh Aes. a aes ear hs rg eat veces gt need acd ss sds ea ule tiga a eis Bice asad 531
—— Tibbon, Moses: Page from the First Edition of his Translation of Maimonides’ “Sefer ha-
Mizwot,” Constantinople, 151 fs 0226. 6 sacka seek sweee SOON Seed Os SORES URS OOS sees 547
Illuminated Manuscripts: see DipLoma, RABBINICAL; Hicesin: ISAIAH,
[Immanuel ben Solomon: Page from the First Edition of his “Mehabberot,” Brescia, 1491............ 565
Inkhorn and Reed Pens Used in Modern Palestine. ... 0.0... 0... cc ccc cee cw eee eb ee tenees 586
Inquisition: A Sanbenito. After Picart.............0.. 0 ee eane ere Dict tal vacli te alee ice Aegean a tlt 589
-—— Banner of theatGoa.. After Picart...3\so.c55-G2 ease esas ee Be weee Dhak aS se ee ES 601
——— Procession’ of the,at Goa: Alter Picart)ccc: cscanencei andes eteeaes eooOe Se Rte sa sae tobe sean 602
—— Title-Page of Process of, of Mexico, Against Simon Lopez, 1642,.......... ccc cee eee eee eeecs 595
— Various Manners of Torturing During the, After Picart... 0.0.0... ccc ee cece eee eee cece eens 590
Inscriptions: see Corns.
Isaac of Norwich Depicted in a Contemporary Caricature ....... 0.200 cee cece ee cere rnc e ease eeeees 628
benm:Sireshiet,. "TombO1, ab NIGIIS) osu do tik teed eeu iae peeeyins Helle mek en eEeniawseeanec es 632
Isaiah, Illuminated Page of. From a manuscript Bible, said to be of the twelfth century............. 637
Israels, Joseph, Dutch Genre Painter ......... 0.0... cece eee cece ene ee re re eT ree 674
== hie Senpe,” -Lrome Lhe Pains DY cncak ce xe aeeee eda nad neues x aera Ree bes 675
Italy, Head: Dress of Jewess Of (Wigs 12) ccsistces se aereehed saa shi. eee cha teeth we aeareresbeaeun wa 293
Jerusalem : see CoIn; HALUKKAH; HANUKKAH, |
Joseph II., Medal of, Commemorating Grant of Religious Liberty to Protestants and Jews, 1786...... 499
Kimhi, David, Page from the First Edition of the Commentary of, on the Prophets, Guadala-
VAT By LEGS a ees ve tise vongust clea eter 'o ta Ba clues Se hi a aes rite a ecptiaage ica Regus WAR ay oo ale wr aoe iaee aw rgd Se 103
Lamps, Hanukkah, Various Forms of............. ce cece cece eee e cee 225, 226, and plate facing 226
Letter, Portion of Autograph, of Hushiel ben Elhanan. From the Cairo Genizah.................... 510
Lincoln, Tomb of Hugh of Lincoln, in the Cathedral at... 0.0... 0 ccc ee ec cee cece ener een enes 487
Lyre, Coin of Bar Kokba Bearing a Three-Stringed. ......... 0... cece cece eee eee erent eee eeseee 207
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME VI xix
PAGE
Lyre, Coin of Simon Nasi Dearne 4 SIX-SUMin Sed .cexwncwes (oak coh eOee Weare eieaehdiewies sates’ 937
_— gee also Harp.
hpelah, Cave of, Entrance to the Mosque at Hebron, Containing the Traditional................ 313
ae i Page from the First Edition of Moses ibn Tibbon’s Translation of the “Sefer ha- Mizwot is
eee of Constantinople, TOL Gps cra ate ate et ba wrk te dae pote ae Gein needa Bee See a se hua tect e 547
| uscripts: see HABER; HaGGaDaH; Hartanan Hora’au; INQUISITION; ISAIAH.
aap of Hungary Showing Chief Centers of Jewish Population, DO Misia tae elena Saas ce asta ay tered chan Solty 503
a of J oseph II. Commemorating Grant of Religious Liberty to Protestants and Jews, 1786....... 499
y Mehabberot,’ > Page from the First Edition of Immanuel ben Solomon’s, Printed at Brescia, 1491.... 565
Mexico, Inquisition of, Title-Page of Process of, Against Simon Lopez, 1642............ 000. cc eeeeee 595
“Mibhar ha-Peninim, ” Page from the First Edition of Solomon ibn Gabirol’s, Printed by Son-
GINO, 1484... ce cere ee ee eee eke ee ee ee ee ee eee eee ene e ee een ene Benet ee eee ees 531
Monuments: see Hapap; HEINE MEMORIAL,
Moravia, Head-Dress Ol JEWLOL CEG. o0) cadoveriks seat aars tiene tes eae see eee seal eeede pass 298
Morocco, Head SDress OF COW Ol (EID Ol) x cintegseeuee dicen Sete eens ae ae maindaay wun oa tebe wees 293
Mount Hermon ATV) OCA s ake vatee hia actennera cea oes meatal Si Guate WO ashes Oa hd aera OSE nee wede own ae were mes 359
Music, &“ Had Gadya DF oa teeree «bn Daptiy BS! Gites ol woe ieee pr WB Saag ossiah oP canbe oie bis ial fae. ise ela cee bww tel lasel a Maen ierer-a ea eM Ores tarcwla tal fe acareey. ease 128-129
____ * Hakkafot”...-..- Pu didetlausmiar bug ah diss Binh he ee a ace ie hvhea le Aare oe OE ae AR Ses 161-162
5't SMPTE A Le) ccs Vyas aoe VUEwe eR aw ewe node gt meneeen eee se hae UCP teem een aus 177-178
Lise Tae Ma DOL caeses hovee te duneaceaaneewse ta pisom baste suitesite eater aoa ieee Bees 187-188
_ Aazzant sce cece cece cece nee eee eeeeeees ee OUR ula See keen We acne eek aoe eee 290-292
Musical Instruments: Representation of a Three- Stringed Lyre on Coin of Bar Kokba................ 237
_... —— Representation of a Six-Stringed Lyre on Coin of Simon Nasi............. cece eee eee eens 237
___. —_— Representation of Egyptian Harps. .........0 cc cccc ence eee c een ence eee eee e etna eee eenee 238
___ —— Representation of a Harp from a Babylonian Bas-Relief, About 8000 B.C........... eee eee 237
__— ——~ Representation of a Bedouin Harp. From an Egyptian painting,.............. eee eee eee 237%
Naples, Page from the First Edition of Abraham ibn Ezra’s Commentary to the Pentateuch, Printed
TAOS a rh Senate Aye ok BE ce Be UA She OR Se RE Owe OEE Rae Se Ea oeiae ses §23
“Ninth of Ab in a Polish Synagogue,” From the painting by Leopold Horowitz. ..... ccc... eeew cues A468
Palace, Ruins of the,Of Hy tans cn chose cacaGsimeses ada Mens wakes ovenesene wens w+. 516
Palestine: see HermMon, Mocunt; HriLLteL; Hiram; Hyrcanvs, RUINS OF THE PALACE OF; INKHORN;
JERUSALEM.
Palm-Branches on Coin of Herod the Great.......-. ccc ce cece te eee e ane e es tert teat nw cece n en esenees 307
Passau, Host Desecration at, 1477. After a contemporary wood-cut...........0e008. plate between 482-483
Passover, Preparations for, Depicted on an Illustrated Haggadah of the Fifteenth Century........... 185
— see also HAGGADAH.
Pedlers; see HAWKER.
Pentateuch, Page from the First Edition of Abraham ibn Ezra’s Commentary to the, Naples, 1488.... 523
Periodicals: see Ha-MEuIz. .
Polish Jewish Hawker, Seventeenth Century .............. er ee eee TOE eer ere it
Portraits: see
GOLDFADEN, ABRAHAM. GRAETZ, HEINRICH. HEILPRIN, MICHAEL,
GOLDMARK, KARL. GRATZ, REBECCA. HEINE, HEINRICH.
GOLDSCHMIDT, LEVIN. GUASTALLA, ENRICO. HERSCHELL, SOLOMON
GOLDSCHMIDT, METR AARON, GUDEMANN, MORITZ. HERZ, HENRIETTE.
GOLDSMID, ABRAHAM. GUNZBURG, HORACE, HERZ, MARKUS.
GOLDSMID, SIR JULIAN, GUNZBURG, MORDECAI AARON. HERZFELD, LEVI.
GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ. HALBERSTAM. SOLOMON. HERZL, THEODOR.
GOMPERS, SAMUEL. HALEVY, JACQUES FRANCOIS. HILDESHEIMER, ISRAEL.
GORDON, LORD GEORGE. HALEVY, JOSEPH. HIRSCH, CLARA DE.
GORDON, LEON, HAMBURGER, JACOB. HIRSCH, MAURICE DE.
GOTTHEIL, GUSTAY. HARKAVY, ALBERT. HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL,
GOTTLOBER, ABRAHAM BAER. HARTMANN, MORITZ. ISRAELS, JOSEPH.
HEIDENHEIM, WOLF.
ague, Page from the First [lustrated Printed Haggadah, Printed in 1526 at........... Wittwedecaes 147
rocession Carrying Palms on “Hosha‘na Rabbah.” After Picart..........0.00csc cs eceseeeneeneees 477
——- of the Inquisition at Goa. Atter PiCartiesc onceeieddec a eeecswe cian esse oadias ai aibihd Sewetia da <O0e
XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME VI
PAG?
Rhine Provinces, Head-Dress of Jews of (Figs. 9 and 15-17). 0.0... 0... cece ence tenner etee ewes 23
Ruins of the Palace ot Myreanus:. 222 vih2 nas bans ets esaan sees ee eww EN Ee Rae eR T Ie eee 8 51g
Russia and Poland, Head-Dress of Jews of (Figs. 24-29, 38, 35, and 88). .... 0.2.0.5 esse eee ees wean 293
Ganbenito, a... Aer Picart 25. ccciscAcpinw i Seai eee eenG ere wwawere eae ee dawn eee ore toe edees 584
Sarajevo Haggadah, Illuminated Page from the. Written probably early in the fourteenth century .
Bi ontispiey,
“Scribe, The,” from the painting by Joseph Israels .... 0... 00. ccc cee eee et et tee re eteees 6%
Seal of Halberstadt Cathedral: Jews Represented as Stoning St. Stephen seacqnig Valea se pee Dire aided Wales 16:
Seals of the Sephardic Congregation at Jerusalem... .... cece cece eee tee e terete erent teers Se Maisie 18:
“ Sefer ha-Mizwot,” Page from the First Edition of Moses ibn Tibbon’s Translation of Maimonides’,
CONS DNAO PIE, VOUT 6 .ohe5.cd oss oe eR PPS RA ee Bene at eases piste tuid eae eae ng 54:
Shoe Used.in the Halizali Ceremony 0.4 sc.dade caoe Cog hs 66s 0 680 645 ae Rae Re wb eR ee a Bee Aes a
Simon Nasi, Coin of, Bearing Lyre with Six Strings......... 0c. cece eect ee seen ete e renee tienes 23°
Soncino, Joshua ben Solomon, Page from the First Edition of Solomon ibn Gabirol’s “ Mibhar his:
Peninim,” Printed in 1484 Dy... ... 0c eee c ec eee eee cerca setter tact ereaesereeneeaes bass 53}
Spain: see INQUISITION,
Spice-Boxes, Various Forms of, Used in the Habdalah Ceremony ...... 119, 120, and plate beticeen 118-115
Standard of the Inquisition at Goa, India... . ccc cc ce ee creme tee tebe eee e ee tect eeeees 60:
Sternberg, Jews of, Represented as Transfixing Hosts. After a wood-cut of 1492................005. Ag
Sun-Dial as Described by Maimonides... . cc ccc ec cee cee ee cee eee teen eee erence ree eeneeaees Ag;
Sun-God, Hammurabi Before the. From a stele at Susa......... cece ccc eee eee e neem er eer eeeece 1%
Swabia, Head-Dress of Jew of (Fig. 22) 0.0... cece cece ce eee eee e rece renee ser ecess sisrarharannet ag
Synagogues: see HANOVER.
Title-Page of Process of Inquisition of Mexico Against Simon Lopez, 1642 .......0..cecseeeeeeerens 54
Tomb of Hugh of Lincoln in Lincoln Cathedral ...... 0... cee eee eet eee ere ete n rene teenenns 4§;
of Rabbi Isaac ben Sheshet at Algiers... ... 00... cece eee eee ee eee rece eee e tenet ee et eee ene ree 6a
——- Traditional, of Hillel the Great, Entrance to the... 0... ccc ce ee ee ere ee cee eee rec eaeeees 39,
ee OF HITaM sycicceddd Ss Gihass 242 eed nek eras GOERS sie WUE E NESS GON BEES a eyes eas Af
Tortures, Various, of the Inquisition. After Picart.......... cece cee eee eect ee tence eens Nonremae ee ON
Tunis, Head-Dress of Jews of (Figs. 30, 36, and 87)... ccc cece cee ee cee eee e teen teen ener pals
Typography: see BRESCIA; CONSTANTINOPLE; GUADALAJARA; HacGapAn; Ha-Meuiz; NApLzs:
SONCINO.
Wedding Baldachin or Huppah Among Dutch Jews, Seventeenth Century..........:00-eecoeeeeees dt:
—— —— Among German Jews, Eighteenth Century. ........ ccc cee eee cee rere ceer eens ses eeersese 5 OF
—— —— Representations of. After samplers...............+% PTT er ee ee re Meer tre .. ot
Writing, Cursive: see HABER; HALIZAH.
THE
JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
GOD: The Supreme Being, regarded as the Crea-
tor, Author, and First Cause of the universe, the
Ruler of the world and of the affairs of men, the
Supreme Judge and Father, tempering justice with
mercy, working out His purposes through chosen
agents—individuals as well as nations—and com-
municating His will through prophets and other ap-
pointed channels.
_—-Biblical Data: “God” is the rendering in the
English versions of the Hebrew “El,” “ Eloah,” and
“Elohim.” The existence of God is presupposed
throughout the Bible, no attempt being anywhere
made to demonstrate His reality. Philosophical
skepticism belongs to a period of thought generally
posterior to that covered by the Biblical books, Ec-
clesiastes and some of the Psalms (xiv., liii., xciv.)
alone indicating in any degree in Biblical Israel a
tendency toward ATHEISM. The controversies of
the Earlier Prophets never treat of the fundamental
problems of God’s existence or non-existence; but
their polemics are directed to prove that Israel,
ready at all times to accept and worship one or the
other god, is under the obligation to serve YuwH
and none other. Again, the manner of His worship
is in dispute, but not His being. The following
are the main Biblical teachings concerning God:
God and the world are distinct. The processes of
nature are caused by God. Nature declares the
glory of God: it is His handiwork
Relation (Gen. i.; Ps. viii., xix.; Isa. xl. 25 et
to seq.). God is the Creator. As such,
Nature. He is “in heaven above and upon the
earth beneath” (Deut. iv. 39). His
are the heavens, and His is the earth (Ps. lxxxix. 12
[A. V. 11]; compare Amos iv. 18). He created the
world by the word of His mouth (Ps. xxxiii. 6, 9).
Natural sequences are His work (Jer. v. 22, 24; Ps.
ixxiv. 15-17). He maintains the order of nature
(Ps. cxlvii. 8-9, 16-18; Neh. ix. 6). He does not
need the offerings of men, because “the earth is the
Lord’s and the fulness thereof ” (Ps. xxiv. 1, 4, 7-13;
compare Isa. i. 11; Jer. vii. 21-23; Micah vi. 6-8).
Nothing is affirmed of His substantial nature.
The phrase “ spirit of God ” (“ruah Elohim ”) merely
describes the divine energy, and is not to be taken
a§ equivalent to the phrase “God is a spirit,” viz.,
an assertion concerning His incorporeality (Zech. iv.
6; Num. xiv. 22; Isa. xl. 18). He can not, how-
ever, be likened to any thing (Ex. xx. 4-5; Isa. xl.
18) or to anv person (Jer. x. 6-7). No form is seen
Viel
when God speaks (Deut. iv. 15). He rules supreme
as the King of the nations (Jer, x. 6-7). His will
comes to pass (Isa. viii. 9, 10; lv. 10, 11; Ps. xxxiili.
10-12, Ixviii. 2-4). He is one, and none shares with
Him His power or rulership (Deut. vi. 4; Isa. xliv.
6, xlvi. 10 (A. V. 9]). He is unchangeable, though
he was the first and will be the last (Isa. xli. 4; Mal.
iii. 6). All that is, is perishable: God is everlasting
(Isa. xl. 7-8, 28-25; li. 12-18). Hence His help is
always triumphant (Ps. xx. 8-9, xliv. 4, xlvi. 1-8).
He is in all things, places, and times (Ps. cxxxix.
7-12). He is not, like man, subject to whim (Num.
xxiii. 19; Deut. vii. 9). He is the Judge, searching
the innermost parts of man’s being, and knowing
all his secrets (Jer. xvi. 17, xvii. 10, xxiii. 24; Ps.
exxxix. 1-4). His knowledge is too high for man
(Ps. cxxxix. 6, 15, 16). God’s wisdom, however, is
the source of human understanding (Ps. xxxvi. 10).
He is “merciful and gracious, longsuffering, and
abundant in goodness and truth” (Ex. xxxiv. 6-7).
But He can not hold the sinner guiitless (2d.). He
manifests His supreme lordship in the events of his-
tory (Deut. xxxii. 8-12; Ps. xxii. 28, 29; Ixxviii.
2~7), He is the ever-ruling King (Jer. x. 10). He
punishes the wicked (Nahum i. 2); He turns their
way upside down (Ps. 1. 6). Appearances to the
contrary are illusive (Hab. i. 18, ii. 2; Jer. xii. 1-2;
Ps. x. 138-14, xxxvii. 35-39, lii. 3-9, Ixii. 11-18, xcii.
7-8; Job xxi. 7-9, xxvii. 8-11, xxxv. 14).
The Biblical theodicy culminates in the thought
that the end will show the futility and deceptive
nature of the prosperity of the wicked
Relation (Ps. Ixxvii. 17). The mightiest na-
to tions do not prevail against God (Jer.
Man. xviii. 7-10, xxv. 80-81; Ps. vii. 8-9;
xxxili, 18, 19). He judges the world
in righteousness (Ps. ix. 9, 16; Ixxvi. 9-10; xev. 10-
13), I Chron. xxix. 11-12 may be said to be a suc-
cinct epitome of the Biblical doctrine concerning
God’s manifestations in nature and in history (com-
pare I Sam. ii.). Yet God does not delight in the
death of the sinner: He desires his return from his
evil ways (Ezek. xviii. 21-22, xxxvili. 10-11). Fast-
ing is notan adequate expression of repentance (Isa.
lviii. 83-8; compare Jonah ij. 10; Joel ii. 18; Zech.
vii. 5). God hath demanded of man “to do justly,
and to love mercy ” (Micah vi. 8); hence redress for
wrongs done is the first step toward attaining God's
forgiveness (Ezek. xxxiii. 15), the “forsaking of
one’s evil ways” (Lam. iii. 37-40).
God
It is characteristic of the Biblical conception of
God that He is with those of contrite heart (Isa. lvii.
15). He loves the weak (Deut. x. 17-18). He is the
father (Isa. Ixiii. 16, Ixiv. 7); and like a father He
taketh pity on His children (Ps. ciii. 18; see Com-
PASSION). Therefore, loveis due to Him on the part
of His children (Deut. vi. 4-5). The demand to fear
Him, in the light of the implications of the Hebrew
original, is anything but in conflict with the insist-
ence that the relations between God and man are
marked by parental and filial love. The God of the
Bible is not a despot, to be approached in fear.
For “yir’ah” connotes an attitude in which con-
fidence and love are included, while the recogni-
tion of superiority, not separation, is expressed
(Nietzsche’s “pathos of distance”). Reverence in
the modern sense, not fear, is its approximate equiv-
alent. They that confide in Him renew their
strength (Isa. x]. 80-31). God is holy (compare Isa.
vi. 8); this phrase sums up the ultimate contents of
the Bible conception of God (see FEAR or Gop).
He is Israel’s God. Not on account of any merits
of its own (Deut. vii. 7-8, ix. 4~7), but because of
God’s special designs, because the fa-
Relation thers loved Him (Deut. x. 11-16), Is-
to rael was chosen by God (Ex. xix, 4-6;
Israel. Deut. iv. 20, xxxii. 9; Isa. xli. 8-9, xliii.
21; Jer. ii. 2, and often elsewhere).
Hence, in Israel’s experience are illustrated God’s
power, love, and compassion, as, in fact, it is Israel’s
sole destiny to be the witness to God (Isa. xliv. 8).
For Israel, therefore, God is a jealous God. He can
not tolerate that Israel, appointed to be His portion
(Deut. xxxii. 9), His servant (Isa. xliv. 21), His peo-
ple joined unto Him for His name and glory and
ornament (Jer. xiii. 11, A. V., “for a name, and for
a praise, and for a glory”), should worship other
gods. Israel’s task is to be holy as He is holy (Lev.
xix. 2; Deut. xxvi. 19). Israel itself does not fully
recognize this. God sends prophets again and again
to instruct and admonish His people (Jer. vii. 25, xi.
7, xxxv. 15; Isa, xxix. 13-14).
In Israel God’s judgments are purposed to im-
press upon His people the duty placed upon it.
Greater suffering He metes out to Israel (Lev. xxvi.
40; Deut. iv. 830-81; viii. 5,19; xi. 16-17; xxxii. 15;
Isa. i. 19-20, iv. 8-4, xlii. 24—xliii. 1, xlviii. 9-11;
Jer, ii. 19, v. 18-19; Amos iii. 2), but He will not
permit Israel to perish (Isa. xli. 10-14; xlv. 17; li. 7-
8; liv. 10, 17; Jer. xxxi. 36). And Israel, brought
to faithfulness, will be instrumental in winning the
whole earth to God (Isa. ii. 2-4, xi. 9, xlv. 28, lxv.
25; Micah iv. 1-4; Jer. iti. 17; see MEssrAn).
God is Israel’s lawgiver. His law is intended to
make Israel holy. That Israel serve God, so as to
win all people to the truth, is God’s demand (Lev.
xx. 26; Deut.iv.6). God’s unity is indicated inthe
one sanctuary. But legalism and sacerdotalism are
withal not the ultimate (Ps. 1. 7-18; I Sam. xv. 22:
“to obey is better than sacrifice”; Isa. i. 11; Jer. vii.
21-23; Hosea vi. 6: “I desired love [A. V. “mercy ”]
and not sacrifice ”).
Nor is the law a scheme of salvation. Nowhere
in the Old Testament is the doctrine taught that God
must be satisfied (see FALL oF MAN; SIN). Sin is
impotent against God, and righteousness does not
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 2
benefit Him (Job xxxv, 6-8). God is omnipotent
(Ps. x. 8-4). At one with Him, man is filled with
joy and with a sense of serene security (Ps. xvi. 5-6,
8-9; xxvii. 1-4). Without this all else is sham (Ps,
xlix. 7-13). Happy, therefore, the man who heeds
God’s instruction (Ps. xciv. 12; Prov. iii. 11-12),
Sin never attains its aims (Ps. xxxiv. 22; Prov,
xi. 19; I Sam. xxiv. 14; Job viii. 138-14, xv. 20-31),
It is thus that God documents His supremacy; but
unto man (and Israel) He gives freedom to choose be-
tween life and death (Deut. xxx. 15-20). He is near
to them that revere Him (Ps. Ixxxv. 9-14). Though
His ways are not man's ways, and His thoughts not
man’s thoughts (Isa. lv. 8), yet to this one certainty
man may cleave; namely, that God’s word will
come to pass and His purposes will be carried out
(2b. verses 9, 10, 11).
The God of the Bible is nota national God, though
in the fate of one people are mirrored the universal
facts of His kingship and fatherhood, and the truth
is emphasized that not by might, nor by power, but
by God’s spirit are the destinies of the world and
of man ordered (Zech. iv. 6; Mal. i. 11; Ps. exiii.,
exv.). The God of the Bible is a person; 7.¢., a
being self-conscious, with will and purpose, even
though by searching man can not find Him out (Job
xi. 7; Ps. xciv. 7, 8,9, 10, 11; Isa. xl. 28; Ps. cxlv. 3),
E. G. H.
—In Post-Biblical Literature: In the Apocry-
pha of Palestinian origin the Biblical teachings con-
cerning God are virtually reaffirmed without mate-
rial modifications. In some books anthropomorphic
expressions are avoided altogether; in the others
they are toned down. The “hand of God,” for in-
stance (Ecclus. [Sirach] xxxiii. 3), is in the parallel
distich explained as “His might.” The “eyes of
God” symbolize His knowledge and providence
(Baruch ii, 17); the “ voice of God” is synonymous
with His will (2d. ii. 22, iii. 4).
His unity, postulating Him as the absolute, omni-
present, and thereforeas the omniscient, eternal, and
living God, is accentuated; while in His relations to
the world and its inhabitants He is manifest as the
Creator, Ruler, the perfectly righteous Judge, re-
quiting evil and rewarding good, yet, in His mercy,
forgiving sin. To Him all nature is subject, while
He executes His designs according to
In the His inscrutable wisdom. The _ his-
Palestinian tory of former generations is cited in
Apocry- proof of the contention that they who
pha. confide in Him have never been dis-
appointed (Ecclus, [Sirach] ii. 10);
for God is full of mercy, pardoning sins, and is the
great Helper (¢b. verse 11).
Good and evil proceed from God, as do life and
death (2d. xi. 14), Yetsin is not caused by God, but
by man’s own choice (7), xv. 11 e¢ seg.). God is
omnipresent. Though Heis on high, He takes heed
of men’s ways (70, xvi. 17, xvii. 15-16). Mountains
and the ocean are in His power (7. verses 18
et seq.).
Being the Creator, He planned the eternal order of
nature (7b. verses 26 e¢ seg.). He also fashioned man
(26. xvii. 1 et seg.). Whatever strength man has is
from Him (¢d. verse 3). The eyes of men are en-
abled by Him to see “the majesty of His glory,” and
THE JEWISH ENGYCLOPEDIA God
3
to hear “His glorious voice ” (th, verse 18).
- oth in all eternity and judgeth all things.
He live -search out His wondrous might (¢). xviii.
ae 2 aceenle His grace (¢, verse 3), To Him
1-2), a mav he added, and from Him nothing may
neues a“ away (2b, verse 6, xlii, 21), Even the
be taken a” are not competent to relate the marvels
: holy ae (‘b, xii. 17). He announces that which
of eS that which is to be and all bidden things
oe 19-20). He is one from all eternity (2d.
(0. Ye IIe is the Living God (2. verse 28).
sneer OL):
€ ae, e ° e
ee a}l the varieties of things He has created
=
nothing without purpose (MwAP, tb. verse 24),
The “wisdom of God ” is spoken of and exalted in
the same strains as in the Biblical books (Prov. vil.,
viii.). All wisdom is from God and is with Him
forever (Ecclus. [Sirach] i. 1). It came forth from
the mouth of the Most High (28, XXIV. 3)5 but it was
created before all things (th. i. 4). It is subject to
the will of Him who alone is “ wise, and greatly to
be feared,” seated on His throne (2d, 1. 8). God
“poured it out over all His works” (@, i. 7
their ears
i; comp.
xxiv. 81). However close this description of wis-
dom may come to a personification, it is plain that.
it is free from any element which might be con-
strued as involving a departure from the Biblical
position regarding God’s absolute unity.
It is in the Alexandrian Apocrypha that modifica-
tions of the Biblical doctrine appear; but even here
are to be found books whose theology is a reitera-
tion of the Biblical teachings. The so-called Third
Book of the Maccabees, in the prayer
In Alex- of the high priest Simon, invokes
andrian “God as the King of the Heavens, the
Apocry- Ruler of all creatures, the most Holy,
pha. the sole Governor, the Omnipotent,”
declaring Ilim to be “a just ruler,”
and appeals to the events of past days in support of
the faith in God’s supremacy and in Israel’s ap-
pointment to glorify Him (III Mace. ii. 1-20) who is
all-merciful and the maker of peace.
The third book of the “ Oracula Sibyllina,” also,
reiterates with great. emphasis and withvuut equivo-
cation the unity of God, who is alone in His super-
lative greatness. God is imperishable, everlasting,
self-existent, alone subsisting from eternity to eter-
nity. He alonereally is: men are nothing. He, the
omnipotent, is wholly invisible to the fleshly eye.
Yet He dwells in the firmament. (Sibyllines, i. 1, 7-
17, 20, 82; ii. 1-3, 17, 86, 46). From this heavenly
abode He exercises His creative power, and rules
over the universe. He sustains all that is. He is
“all-nourishing,” the “leader of the cosmos,” the
Constant ruler of all things. He is the “supreme
Knower ” (ib, 1. 8, 4, 5, 8, 15, 17, 85; ii. 42). He is
the One God sending out rains, winds, earth-
quakes, lightnings, famines, pestilences, dismal sor-
rows, and so forth” (i). i. 82-34). By these agencics
He expresses His indignation at the doings of the
wicked (¢b. ii. 19-20); while the good are rewarded
beyond their deserts (¢b. ii. 1-8). God’s indwellin gr
Man (rao Pporoicry évov) “as the faculty of judg-
ment” is also taught (id. i. 18). This indwelling
of God, which has been claimed as an indication of
the book’s leaning toward a modification of the
transcendentalism of the Biblical idea of God. may
perhaps rest on a faulty reading (comp. Drummond,
“Philo Judeus,” i. 178).
In the Septuagint, also, the treatment of anthro-
pomorphic statements alone exhibits a progress be-
yond the earlier Biblical conceptions. For example,
in Gen. vi. 6-7 “it repented the Lord” is softened
into “ He took it to heart”; Ex. xxiv. 9-10, “They
[Moses, Aaron, and the others mentioned] saw the
place where the God of Israel stood” is rendered
“They saw the God of Israel”; Ex. xv. 3, instead
of “The Lord isa man of war,” has “The Lord is
one who crushes wars”; Josh. iv. 24, “the power ”
for “the hand.” In Isa. vi. 1, the “train of his
[God's] robe” is changed into “ his glory ” (see Zeller,
“Die Philosophie der Griechen,” iii., part ii., 254).
As the Targumim, so the Septuagint, on account of
a more spiritualized conception of God, takes care
to modify the earher and grosser terminology; but
even the phrase 6 Oe6¢ Tov Suvdyewy (Isa. xii. 18) does
not imply the recognition of powers self-existent
though under the control of God. The doctrine of
the unity of God is put forth as the central truth also
in the Septuagint.
Nor is this theology toned down in other Hellen-
istic writings. While in style and method under
the influence of Greek thought, the fragments of
Demetrius, Pseudo-Artapanus, Pseudo-Phocy tides,
Ezekielus’ tragedy on Exodus, and the so-called
Fourth Book of Maccabees can not be said to put
forth notions concerning God at variance with the —
Palestinian theology. The Wisdom of Solomon,
the Letter of Aristeas, and the fragments of Aris-
tobulus, however, do this. Inthe first of these three,
Tsracl’s God is pronounced to be the
Hellenistic only God. He lives in solitary su-
Influences. premacy, responsible to Tlimself alone
(Wisdom xii, 12-14). Me 1s (cov érra:
a), xiii. 1). He is the “eternal light” (¢b. vii. 26).
He is the Artificer (Teyré-yc) who created or prepared
(both verbs are used) the various things in nature
(23. xviii. 1-5). This uncertainty in the verb de-
scriptive of God’s part in creation suggests that the
old Biblical conception of the Creator’s functions ts
in this book attenuated to the bringing into order of
formless primeval matter (comp. 7. xi. 17). Matter
is compared to a lump of wax which, originally de-
void of attributes, owes its qualities to divine agency
(Drummond, J.¢. p. 188).
But, while the cosmos is an expression and the
result of the greatness, power, and beauty of God,
He remains transcendent above it. Nevertheless,
He continues to administer all things (Wisdom xii.
15, 18; xv. 1). It is His providence that acts as a
pilot or rudder (2. xiv. 8). In this is manifested
His truth, justice, mercy, loving-kindness, and
long-suffering (2b. xi, 23; xii. 15,18; xv. 1). It is
among’ His holy ones that. His grace and mercy are
conspicuous; but evil-doers are punished (iii. 9, 10).
The pious are those who dwell with wisdom (vii.
28). God possesses immediate knowledge of men’s
secrets, of their speech, feelings, and thoughts (7,
i. 6). He foreknows but does not foreordain the
future. Necessity and right (avayx7 and dix7) are
both postulated. The former blinds the judgment
of the impious. If they continue in their impeni-
tence, they will be overtaken by their punishment
God
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
————SSaSe a ey a eS ee ee ges See pe ee ee ee See oe ae
(2b, 1.15; ii. 6-22; Hi. 2-17;iv. 8-14; xii. 2, 10, 20;and
more especially xix. 1-5). The avenging Right is,
however, not hypostatized or personified to any
great degree (2d. i. 8, xi. 20, xiv. 31, xviii. 11). God
is not the creator of evil (25. i. 12-14); therefore in
evil He is confronted with a tendency that He can
not tolerate. Hence He or His is the avenging
justice.
God is neither unknown nor unknowable. The
external universe reveals Him. It implies the exist-
ence of a primal source greater than it (¢d. xiii. 1-9);
and, again, through wisdom and “the spirit” sent
from on high, God is found by them who do not
disobey Him (2. i. 2-4, ix. 18-17). Yet man can
never attain unto perfect knowledge of the divine
essence (see Gfrérer, cited by Drummond, J.c. p.
198). Notwithstanding God’s transcendence, an-
thropopathic phraseology is introduced (Wisdom iv.
18, “God shall laugh”; “ His right hand ” and “arm,”
v. 16; “His hand,” vii. 16, x. 20, xi. 17, xix. 8).
This proves that the doctrine of intermediate agents
is not fully developed in the book, though in its
presentation of God’s wisdom elements appear that
root in this conception. Certainly the question had
begun to force itself upon the writer’s mind: How
is it that God enthroned on high is yet omnipresent
in the universe? Like the Stoics, the author as-
sumes an all-penetrating divine principle which
appears as the rational order of the cosmos and as the
conscious reason in man. Hence God’s spirit is all-
pervasive (20. i. 6-7). This spirit is, in a certain
sense, distinct from God, an extension of the Divine
Being, bringing God into relation with the phenom-
enal world. Still, this spirit is not a separate or
subordinate person. “ Wisdom” and this “spirit”
are used interchangeably (2d. ix. 17); “wisdom is a
spirit that is” a lover of mankind (7. i. 4-6); wis-
dom is “a vapor of the power of God,” a reflection
of eternal light (¢). vii, 25-26).
This wisdom has twenty-one attributes: it is “an
understanding spirit, holy, alone in kind, manifold,
subtile, freely moving, clear in utter-
“Wisdom” ance, unpolluted, distinct, unharmed,
of God. loving what is good, keen, unhin-
dered, beneficent, loving toward man,
steadfast, sure, free from care, all-powerful, all-sur-
veying, and penetrating through all spirits that are
quick of understanding, pure, most subtile ” (¢. vii.
22-24). Wisdomis a person, the “assessor” at God’s
throne (2b. ix. 4); the chooser of God’s works (¢d.
viii. 3-4). She was with God when He made the
cosmos (7d. ix. 9). Sheis the artificer of all things
(%. vii, 21). As all this is elsewhere predicated of
God also, it is plain that this “wisdom” is regarded
only as an instrument, not asa delegate of the Di-
vine. The Wisdom of Solomon speaks also of the
“Logos” (20. ti, 2-8, ix. 1-2, xvi. 12, xviii. 14-16);
and this, taken in connection with its peculiar con-
ception of wisdom, makes the book an important
link in the chain leading from the absolute God-con-
ception of Palestinian Judaism to the theory of the
mediating agency of the Word (Adyoc, “ Memra”)
in Philo. The Aristeas Letter does not present as
clear a modification of the God-conception (but see
Eleazar’s statement therein, “there is only one God
and ‘ His power’ is through allthings”). Aristobu-
—_—_—_—_———— rer rn cr
lus, in the Orphic verses, teaches that God is in visible
(verse 20), but that through the mind Ie may be be.
held (verses 11, 12). Maker and Ruler of the worlg
HIeis Himself the beginning, middle, and end (verses
8, 34, 39, 39). But wisdom existed before heaven
and earth; God is the “molder of the cosmos”
(verse 8)—statements which, by no means Cleary
enough to form the basis of a conclusion, yet suggest
also in Aristobulus’ theology a departure from the
doctrine of God's transcendence and His immediate
controlof all as the Creator ex nihilo.
Pui.o is the philosopher who boldly, though not
always consistently, attempts to harmonize the sv.
pramundane existence and majesty of the one Gog
with His being the Creator and Governor of all.
Reverting to the Old Testament idiom, according to
which “by the word of Yuwu were the heaveng
made” (Ps. xxxiii. [xxxii.] 6)—which passage ig
also at the root of the Targumiec use of MEMRA (see
ANTHROPOMORPIIISM)—~and on the whole but not
consistently assuming that matter was uncreated
(see CREATION), he introduces the Logos as the
mediating agent between God on high and the phe.
nomenal world.
Philo is also the first Jewish writer who under.
takes to prove the existence of God. His argu.
ments are of two kinds: those drawn from nature,
and those supplied by the intuitions of the soul,
Man’s mind, also invisible, occupies in him the same
position as does that of God in the universe (“De
Opificio Mundi,” § 23). From this one arrives at
a knowledge of God. The mind is the sovereign
of the body. The cosmos must also have a king
who holds it together and governs it justly, and
who is the Supreme (“De Abrahamo,” § 16; “De
Migratione Abrahami,” § 33). From a ship man
forms the idea of aship-builder. Similarly, from the
cosmos he must conceive the notion of the Father
and Creator, the great and excellent and all-know-
ing artist (“De Monarchia,” i. 4; “De Preemiis et
Penis,” § 7). For a first and an efficient cause
man must look outside of the material universe,
which fails in the points of eternity and effi.
ciency (“De Confusione Linguarum,” §§ 21, 25;
“De Somniis,” i, 83). This cause is
mind. But man has the gift of im-
mortal thoughts (“De Eo Quod De-
terius Potiori Insidiatur,” § 24): these
culminate in the apprehension of God; they press
beyond the limits of the entire phenomenal world
to the Unbegotten (“De Plantatione Noe,” § 5).
This intuition of God was the especial prerogative
of the Prophets, of Abraham, and of Jacob.
The essence of God is unknown to man, whose
conceptions are colored through the medium of his
own nature. Anthropopathisms and anthropomor:
phismsare wicked. Godisincorporeal. Heis with
out any irrational affections of the soul. God Isa
free, self-determining mind. His benevolence is due
not to any incapacity of His for evil, but to His free
preference for the good (dd. § 20).
Man’s personality lifts him above the rest of thé
creatures, In analogy therewith, Philo gives God
the attributes of personality, which are not restrict:
ive, but the very reverse (Drummond, “ Philo
Judeus,” ii. 15). Efficiency is the property of God:
Philo’s
Logos.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
5
that of the begotten (“De Cheru-
God, therefore, is not only the First
He is the still efficient ground of all
He never pauses in His
eusceptibility,
~T ys 29
bim,” = 74):
but
creative act
The feeble
ability of n He is in
Laren 73). God is without qualities (zd. i. 18),
ne is transcendent. He contains, but is not con-
tained (sepiexev ov TEplexOMEVOC) ; yet He is also
within the universe. He : omnipresent (comp.
“ De Confusione Linguarum,’ & 27; “De Posteritate
Cain,” § 5): still He is above the conditions of
space and time (“De Posteritate Caini, § 5; Quod
Deus Sit Immutabilis, § 6). He is complete in
Himself, and contains within Fis own being the
sum of all conceivable good (“De Mutatione Nomi-
num,” § 4). He is perfect, He is omuiscient (“ De
Eo Quod Deterius Potiori Insidiatur, Ӥ 42); He is
omnipotent ; He is free from evil and, therefore,
can not be its source (“ De Profugis,” § 15); He is
without passion as the most perfectly reasonable
being, as the efficient and not the susceptible. God
cares for the world and its parts (see PROVIDENCE)
(“De Opificio Mundi,” § 61). He is the “ Archon of
the great city,” “the pilot managing the universe
with saving care” (“De Decem Oraculis,” § 12).
It is in the development of his theory of the di-
vine powers that Philo injects into his theology ele-
ments not altogether in concordance with autecedent
Jewish thought. These intelligible and invisible
powers, though subject to God, partake of His mys-
tery and greatness. They are immaterial. They
are uncircumscribed and infinite, independent of
time, and unbegotten (“ Quod Deus Sit Immutabilis,”
$17). They are “most holy” (“ Fragmenta,” ii. 655),
incapable of error (“De Confusione Linguarum,”
§ 23). Among these powers, through which God
works His ends, is the Logos. “God is the most
generic Thing; and His Logos is second” (“De
Allegoriis Legum,” ii. 21). “This Logos is the di-
vine seal of the entire cosmos ” (“ De Somniis,” ii. 6).
ft is the archetypal idea with which all things were
stamped (“De Mutatione Nominum,” § 23). It is
the law of and in all things, which is not corrupt-
ible (“De Ebrietate,” § 35). It is the bond of the
universe, filling a function analogous to that of the
soul in man (“Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit,”
§ 48). It is God’s son (sce Locos; Pxtio).
Vacillating though it was, the theory of the di-
vine powers and the Logos, as elaborated by Philo,
certainly introduced views into the theology of
Judaism of far-reaching consequences in the devel-
opment of the God-idea if not of the Synagogue at
least of the Church. The absolute unity and tran-
scendence of God were modified materially, though
the Biblical notion of the likeness of man to God was
in the system developed in a manner adopted again
by the modern Jewish theologians (see below). Tal-
mudic and medieval Judaism were only indirectly
affected by this bold attempt to save the transmun-
dane and supramundane implications of the God-
concept and still find an explanation for the imma-
Hence of the divine in man and in the world. The
P harisaic Psalms of Solomon, for instance, echo
without the least equivocation the theological con-
God
structions of the Biblical books (see ii. 15-18, 82-37) ;
aud the other apocalyptic writings (Enoch; Book of
Jubilees; Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs) pre-
sent no essentially new points of view or even any
augmentations. BR. G. H.
In Talmudic Literature: The Hellenistic
modifications of the Biblical God-coucept were fur-
ther developed in the propositious of the heretical
sects, such as the Minim or Gnostics, and of the
Judo-Christians and Christians. To controvert
their departures from the fundamental positions of
Judaism, the Palestinian synagogue, as did all later
Judaism with the exception of the cabalists (sce
CABALA), laid all the greater stress on the unity of
God, and took all the greater precaution to purge
the concept from any and all human and terrestrial
similarities. The Shema‘ (Deut. vi. 4 ef seg.) was
invested with the importance of aconfession of faith.
Recited twice daily (Ber. i. 1), the concluding word
“ehad” was given especial prominence, emphatic
and prolonged enunciation being recommended (“ kol
ha-ma’arik be-chad”; Ber. 19a). Audible enuncia-
tion was required for the whole sentence (Sifre,
Deut. 81: “ Mi-kan amru: ha-kore et shema‘ welo-
hishmia‘ le-ozno lo yaza”). Upon Israel especially
devolved the duty of proclaiming God’s unity (“le-
yahed shemo beyoter”). The repeti-
tion of “Ynwn” in the verse is held
to indicate that God is one both in the
affairs of this world and in those of
the world to come (Yalk., Deut. 883). “The Eternal
is Israel’s portion ” (Lam. iii. 24, Hebr.) demonstrates
Israel’s duty in the Shema‘ to proclaim God’s unity
and imperishability over against the sun-, moon.,
and star-worship of the heathen (Lam. R. iii. 24;
comp. Deut. R. ii.,end). The “ehad” is also taken
in the sense of “meyuhad,” ¢.e., unique, unlike any
other being (Meg. 28). Two powers (“reshuyot”),
therefore, can not be assumed, as Deut. xxxii. 39
proves (Tan., Yitro; Jellinek, “B. H.” i. 110); and
the opening sentence of the Decalogue confirms this
(Mek., Yitro, v.; comp. Yalk., Ex. 286). In the his-
torical events, though God's manifestations are
varied and differ according to the occasion, one and
the same God appears: at the Red Sea, a warrior; at
Sinai, the author of the Decalogue; in the days of
Daniel, an old, benignant man (Yalk. /.c.). God has
neither father, nor son, nor brother (Deut. R. ii.).
Pains are taken to refute the arguments based on
the grammatical plurals employed in Biblical texts
when referring to God. “ Elohim” does not desig-
nate a plurality of deities. The very context shows
this, as the verbs in the predicate are in the singular,
The phrase “ Let us make man in our image” (Gen.
i. 26) is proved by the subsequent statement. “so
God created man in his own image” (2d. verse 27), to_
refer to one God only (Yer. Ber. ix.; Gen. R. viii.,
xix.). Nor, according to R. Gamaliel, is the use of
both “bara” and “ yazar,” to connote God’s creative
action, evidence of the existence of two distinct di-
vine powers (Gen. R.i.). The reason
One why in the beginning one man only
‘‘Reshut.” was fashioned was to disprove the
contention of those that believe in
more than one personality in God (Sanh. 38a). God
had neither associate nor helper (Sanh. 38b; Yer.
The
Shema‘.
God
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 8
a ee ee
Shab. vi. 8d; Eccl. R. iv. 8). The ever-recurrent
principle throughout haggadic theological specula-
tions is that there is only one “ Reshut” (“ Reshut
ahat hu” = “personality ”).
From this emphasis upon the unity and immuta-
bility of God, Weber, among others (see his “Ji-
dische Theologie,” p. 153, Leipsic, 1897), has drawn
the inference that the Jewish God was apprehended
as the Absolute, persisting in and for Himself alone
—supramundane and therefore extramundane also.
Between Him and the world and man there is no
affinity and no bond of union. This view, however,
neglects to take into account the thousand and one
observations and interpretations of the Rabbis in
which the very reverse doctrine is put forth. The
bond between this one God—supreme, and in no way
similar to man—and His creatures is very close
(comp. the discussion of the effect of the Shema‘
taken from Yer, Ber. in Yalk., Deut. 886). It is not
that subsisting between a despot and his abject,
helpless slaves, but that between a loving tather and
his children. The passages bearing on the point do
not support Weber’s arbitrary construction that the
implications of the names “Elohim” as “ middat ha-
. din” (justice) and “ Yawu ” as “ middat ha-rahamim”
(mercy) merely convey the notion of a supreme des-
pot who capriciously may or may not permit mercy
to temper revengeful justice (Weber, é.c.). In the
rabbinical as in the Biblical conception of God, His
paternal pity and love are never obscured (see Com-
PASSION).
Nor is it true, as Weber puts it and many after
him have repeated, that the Jewish conception of
God lacks that “self-communicating love which
. . . presupposes its own immanence in the other”
(Weber, l.c.). R.Johanan’s parable of the king and
his son certainly demonstrates the very reverse.
“ A king’sson was made to carrya beam. Theking,
upon seeing this, commanded that the beam be laid
on his own shoulders. So does God invite sinners
to lay their sins upon Him” (Midr. Teh. to Ps. xxii.
6). The anti-Pauline point of the parable is patent.
The convenient restriction of the term “abinu she-
ba-shamayim” (our father which art in heaven) to
mean, when used in a Jewish prayer, “the father of
the nation,” while when found in a supposedly non-
Jewish prayer (see Lorp’s PrayEr) it is interpreted
to express the filial relation of every human soul to
the Father, restsonno proof. The Rabbis denation-
alized and individualized their conception of God as
clearly as did the Jewish compilers of the Gospels.
“God used the phrase ‘I am Yuwu, thy God’ ad-
visedly because He was the God of every individual
man, woman, or child” (thy God, not your God)
(Yalk., Deut. 286).
In the quaint presentation of their views on God’s
providence, the haggadists strike this note as well.
“God chooses His own. Him whose deeds He is
pleased with, He brings near unto Himself” (Midr.
Shemuel, viii.; Num. R. iii.). “God is busy making
marriages ” (see DEIsM; Lev. R. viii., Ixviii.; Pesik.
11lb; Midr. Shemuel v.; Tan., Bemidbar, ed. Buber,
18). “God builds ladders for some to ascend [be-
come rich], for others to descend [become poor] ”
(Tan., Mattot and Ki Tissa, ed. Buber, and _ pas-
sages quoted in the foregoing sentence). “God does
not provide for Israel alone, but for all lands: He
does not guard Israel alone, but all men” (Sifre,
Deut. 40). “None will wound as much as a finger
here below unless this is the divine decree concern.
ing him from above” (Hul. 7b), These passages
which might easily be indefinitely multiplied, are
illustrative of the thought running through hag.
gadic theology; and they amply demonstrate the
fallacy of the view denying to the God-concept of
rabbinical Judaism individualistic and denational.
ized elements,
The care with which anthropomorphisms are
avoided in the Targumim is not due to dogmatic
zeal in emphasizing the transcendental character of
the Godhead, but to the endeavor not to use phrase.
ology which might in the least degree create the
presumption of God's corporeality,
In the Hence the introduction of the particle
Targumim. “ke-’illu” (as it were) in the para-
phrasing of passages that might sug-
gest similarity between God and man’s sensuous
nature (Yer. Targ. to Gen. xviii. 8); the suppression
altogether of verbs connoting physical action (“ God
descended,” Gen. xi. 5, becomes “ God revealed Him-
self”); the recourse to “kodam” (before), to guard
against the humanizing of the Godhead. The
Memra (“ Word”; “Logos ”) and the SHEKINAH, the
divine effulgent indwelling of God (see NAMES oF
Gop), are not expedients to bridge the chasm between
the extramundane and supramundane God and the
world of things and man, as Weberclaims; they are
not hypostases which by being introduced into the
theology of the rabbinical Synagogue do violence to
the strenuous emphasis on God’s unity by which it
is characterized; but they owe their introduction
into the phraseology of the Targumim and Mid-
rashim respectively to this anxiety to find and use
terms distinctively indicative of God’s superlative
sublimity and exaltedness, above and differentiated
from any terrestrial or human similitude. These
two terms prove, if anything, the apprehension on
the part of the haggadists of God’s relations to the
world as the one supreme, all-directing, omnipres-
ent, and all-pervading Essence, the all-abiding, ever-
active and activizing Principle, unfolding. Himself
in time and space.
Equally one-sided is the view according to which
the rabbinical conception of God is rigidly and nar-
rowly legal or nomistic. Weber (/.c.) and many
after him have in connection with this even em-
ployed the term “ Judaized conception of God.” In
proof of the contention, after Bartolocci, Eisenmen-
ger, and Bodenschatz, rabbinical passages have been
adduced in which God is represented as “studying
the Law ” (‘Ab. Zarah 3b; Yalk., Isa. 316; or, more
particularly, the section concerning the red heifer,
Num. R. xix., parashah “Parah Adummah”); as
“teaching children” (Yalk., Isa. l.c.); as “weeping
over the destruction of the Temple” (Yer. Hag. i.
5b; Yalk., Lam. 1000); as “roaring like a lion”
and “playing with the LEVIATHAN” (Yalk., Isa.
d.c.); as “no longer on His throne, but having only
‘arba‘ ammot shel halakah,’ the four ells of the hala-
kah in the world for His own ” (Ber. 11a); as “ being
under the ban, ‘herem’” (Pirke R. El. xxxviii.); as
“being Levitically unclean, owing to His having
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Moses” (Sanh. 39a); as “ praying . (Yalk.,
373: Ber. 7a); a8 “laying tefillin and wearing a
ee (Ber. 6a; R. H. 17b); as “ blowing the shofar ” ;
tallit ving a vow released according to the provi-
a8 aang Law ” (Num. xxx. 2etseg.; Ex. R. xliit.;
cane xix.); and as “rising before a hoary head ”
Lev. R gare. Upon examination, all these pas-
Lae are seen to be homiletical extravagances, aca-
ee exercises, and mere displays of skill and ver-
Ste sn the art of interpreting Biblical texts
i: nalerelahelt ") and therefore of no greater im-
{ ee as reflecting the religious consciousness of
nither their authors or the people at large than other
oxtravagances marked as such by the prefacing of
“ kibbe-yakol ” (if it is permitted to say so; “sit venia
verbo”), or “ ilmale mikra katub e efshar le-omro ”
(‘Er. 22a; Yer. Ber. 9d; Lev. R. XXxiv.),
The exaltation of the Torah is said to have been
both the purpose and the instrument of creation: it
is preexistent (Gen. R.i.), the “daughter” of YuawH
(Tan., Ki Tissa, 28: 7b. Pekude, 4), and its study even
engages God (B. M. 86a). Differentiated from the
“kabod ” of God, it was given to man
The Law on earth, while the “splendor” (725,
of God. also 73°59) has its abodein the higher
regions (Midr. Teh. to Ps. xc. 17, xci.
). It is praised aS the one panacea, healing the
whole of man (‘Er, 54a), This idea is not, as has
been claimed by Weber and after him by others,
evidence either of the nomistic character of the
“ Judaized ” conception of God or of the absolute
transcendence of God. In the first place, the term
“Torah” in most of the passages adduced in proof
does not connote the Law (Pentateuch). For it “re-
ligion” might be with greater exactness substituted
(see Bacher, “Die Aelteste Terminologie der Jii-
dischen Schriftauslegung,” s.v. 771M). In the sec-
ond, if not a restatement of the doctrine of wisdom
(“hokmah”; sce above), these ecstasies concerning
the Torah have a marked anti-Pauline character.
The Torah is the “sam hayyim” (life- [salvation-]
giving drug; Sifre, Deut. § 45; Kid. 80b; Yoma
72b; Lev. R. xvi.).
The following haggadic observations will illus-
trate the views formulated above:
God’s omnipresence (with reference to Jer. xxiii. 24) is illus-
trated by two mirrors, the one convex, the other concave, mag-
nifying and contracting respectively the image of the beholder
(Gen. R. iv.). God’s “ mercy ” will always assert itself if man
repents (Pesik. 164a). God's ‘‘ justice’ often intentionally re-
fuses to take account of man’s misdeeds (Gen. R. XXXvi.; Ley.
R. v.). God requites men according to their own measure
(** middah ke-neged middah ”; Sanh. 90a, b; Tosef., Sotah, iii. ;
Yer. Sotah 17a, b); but the measure of good always exceeds
that of evil and punishment (“‘middat tobah merubbah mi-mid-
dah pur‘aniyyot”; Mek., Beshallah, x. 49a). God forgives the
sins of a whole community on account of the true repentance of
even one man (Yoma86b). ‘* Tob” (the good) is God’s main at-
tribute (Yer. Hag. 77c; Eccl. R. vii. 8; Ruth R. iii. 16; comp.
Matt. xix. 17). The anthropomorphic representation of God as
suffering pain with men merely illustrates His goodness (Sanh.
vi. 5). God fills the world; but the world does not fill or ex-
haust Him (Gen. R. Ixviii.; Yalk., Hab. 563). God's ‘* hand”
Is extended undermeath the wings of the beings that carry the
throne, to receive and take to Himself the sinners that return,
ae Fa save them from punishment (Pes. 119a). Man is in the
ale iy of anger; but God masters wrath (Gen. R. xlix.; Midr.
to Ps. xciv. 1). God removes the “ stumbling-block ” (sin)
(Pesik. 165a; Yalk., Hosea, 532).
God knows all. He is like an architect who, hav-
God
ing built a palace, knows all the hiding->laces there-
in, and from whom, therefore, the owier can not
secrete anything (Gen. R. xxiv.). Gol is the ar-
chitect of the world (Gen R.i.); the
“Torah” is the plan. God’s signet-
ring is truth, MON (the Alpha and
Omega of the New Testament; Gen.
R. lxxxi; Shab. 55a; Yoma 69b; Sank. 64a; Yer.
Tan. 18a; Deut. R.i.). All that confess “two God-
heads” will ultimately come to grief (Deut. R. ii.).
In a vast number of haggadic disquisitins on God,
attention is called to the difference between the
action of man and that of God, generaly prefaced
by “Come and see that ‘shelo ke-middit basar we-
dam middat ha-Kodesh baruk hu’” (ot like the
motive and conduct of flesh and blood isGod’s man-
ner). For instance, man selling a precious article
will part with it in sorrow; not soGod He gave
His Torah to Israel and rejoiced thereit (Ber. 5a).
In others, again, God is likened to a king; and
from this comparison conclusions are drawn (Gen.
R. xxviii. and innumerable similar parables).
Sometimes attention is called to the d:fference be-
tween God and anearthly monarch. “ Whena king
is praised, his ministers are praised wth him, be-
cause they help him carry the burden of his govern-
ment. Not so when God is praised. He alone is
exalted, as He alone created the world ” (Yalk., Deut.
835; Midr. Teh. to Ps. Ixxxvi. 10;Gen. F.i.3). God
exalteth Himself above those that exall themselves
(“mitga’ah hu ‘al ha-mitga’im; Hag. 18b; Mek.,
Beshallah, 35b). In His hand is everything except
the fear of Him (Ber. 33b; Meg. 25a; Niidah 16b).
Among the descriptive attributes, “mighty,”
“ great,” and “fearful” arementioned. After Moses
had formulated these (Deut. x. 17), and the last had
been omitted by Jeremiah (xxxii. 18) and the first
by Daniel (ix. 4), in view of the apparert victory of
the heathen the “men of the Great Synagogue”
(Neh. ix. 32) reinstituted the mention cf all three,
knowing that God’s might consisted in showing in-
dulgent long-suffering to the evil-minded, and that
His “fearfulness” was demonstrated in Israel’s
wonderful survival. Hence their name ‘ Great Syn-
agogue” for having restored the crown of the divine
attributes (Yoma 69b; Yer. Ber. 1lc; Meg. 74c).
These attributes may not be arbitrarily augmented;
however many attributes man might use, he could
not adequately express God’s greatness (Ber. 33b;
see AGNOSTICISM); but man is bound to praise the
Creator with his every breath (Gen. R. siv.).
Stress is laid in the Talmudic theology on the res-
urrection of the dead. God is “mejayyeh ha-
metim,” the one who restores the dead t) life. The
key to the resurrection is one of the three (or four)
keys not given, save in very rare cases, to any one
else, but is in the hands of God alone (Ta‘an. 2a, b;
Gen. R. ]xxiii.; see EscHaTOLOGY).
Israel is God’s people. This relationto Him can
not be dissolved by Israel (Num. R. ii.). This is
expressed in the definitim of God’s
God and name as “ehyeh asher ekyeh.” The
Israel. individual has the liberty to profess
God or not; but the community, if re-
fractory, is coerced to acknowledge Him (Ex. R. iii.
14), Asa king might fasten the key oj his jewel-
Talmudic
Views.
God
casket by a chain lest it be lost, so God linked His
name with Israel lest the people should disappear
(Yer. Ta‘an. 65d). Israel’s love for God, evidenced
wheu in the desert, became a great treasure of di-
vine grace, stored up for the days of Israel’s troubles
(Midr. Teh. to Ps. xxxvi. 11). Upon Israel’s fidelity
to God even the earth’s fertility is dependent (Lev.
R. xlv.). God’s punishments are therefore very
severe for disloyal Israel, though in His grace He
provides the cure always before the blow (Meg. 13b).
As a father prefers himself to discipline his son
rather than to have another beat him, so God Himself
is Israel’s judge (Midr. Teh. to Ps. ]xxviii. 41). God
is toward Israel, however, like that king who, in-
censed at his son’s conduct, swore to hurl a stone at
him. In order not to break his oath, but being anx-
ious not to destroy his child, he broke the stone into
pieces, which one after another he threw at him
(tb. to Ps. vi. 4; comp. Lev. R. xxxii.). Israel’s dis-
loyalty to God involves in its consequences even
the other peoples (after Haggai i. 10; Midr. Teh. to
Ps. iv.8; comp. Matt. xv. 26; Mark vii. 27; Bacher,
“Ag, Pal. Amor.” i. 146).
The prayer-book of the Synagogue is the precipi-
tate of the teachings concerning God held by the
Rabbis. An analysis of its contents reveals that
God was adored as the Creator, the Preserver of the
world (“ Yozer Or,” the first benediction before the
Shema‘). He is the Great, the Mighty, the Fearful,
the Highest, the Loving, the All-Sustaining, Revi-
ving the Dead (in the SHEMONEH ‘ESRER), the King,
Helper, Deliverer, the Support of the Weak, the
Healer of the Sick. He sets free the captives, faith-
ful even to them that sleep in thedust. He is holy.
Knowi:edge and understanding are from Him, a mani-
festation of His grace(“ Attah Honen la-Adam” ; Meg.
17b; the “Birkat Hokmah,” Ber. 83). He forgives
sin (“ Ha-Marbeh li-Saloah ”). In Hismercy He sends
relief to those that suffer (“ Birkat ha-Holim ”; ‘Ab
Zarah, 8a; conp. Meg. 17b). To Israel He contin-
ually shows His love and abundant grace (“ Ahabah
Rabbah” and “ Ahabat ‘Olam,” the second benedic-
tion before the Shema‘; Ber. lib), Man’s physical
perfection is God’s work (“ Asher Yazar”; Ber. 60b).
In the prayer “ Modim” (the “Hoda’ah” [Meg. 18;
Ber. 29, 84; Shab. 24; Sotah 68b; Sifre, Deut. 949];
see ARTICLES OF FaiTH), God’s immutability is ac-
centuated, as well as His providential care of the
life and soul of every man. He is “ha-tob,” the
good one whose mercies are boundless; while in the
version given in the Siddur of Rab Amram and the
Mahzor of Rome the statement is added that “God
has not abandoned Israel.” God is also hailed as
the maker of peace. The thought of God’s unity,
it is needless to remark, dominates throughout.
The “‘Alenu,” with which, according to the Kol Bo
($8 11 and 77; Tur Orah Hayyim,; § 183), every
service must conclude, is a résumé of the implica-
tions of Israel’s conception of God. Tle is the Lord
of the universe; the Creator. Israel by His grace
was called to know Him as the King of Kings, the
Holy One. HealoneisGod. It concludes with the
fervent prayer for the coming of the day when
idolatry shall be no more, but God shall be acknowl-
edged as the one and only God.
E. G. H.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 8
In Philosophical Literature: The rise of
Karaism marks an epoch in Jewish philosophical
thought concerning God. The ensuing contro-
versies induced Jewish Rabbinite thinkers to turn
their attention to the speculative problems involved
in the Jewish conception of God. Mohammedan the-
ology, under the influence of Greek philosophy,
which came to it by way of Syria through the Chris.
tian Nestorians, had developed various schools,
among them the Motekallamin or schoolmen, occu.
pying a middle position between the orthodox be-
lievers in the dogmas of the Koran and the Free-
thinkers or Philosophers. According to Shahrastanj
(ed. Cureton, German transl. by Haarbriicker), they
were the defenders of the fundamental truths of the
Koran. They did not appeal solcly to
Motekalla- the wording of the book, but formu-
min and lated arationalsystem, thatof the Ka-
Motazi- lam (hence their name, = Hebrew “ Me-
lites. dabberim” = “loquentes”), in which
through speculation the positions of
the Koran were demonstrated as logically and intel-
lectually necessary.
An offshoot from the Motekallamin were the
Motazilites, who differed from the former in their
doctrines concerning the divine attributes. Desig-
nating themselves as the proclaimers of the unity
of God, they contended that the divine attributes
were in no way to be regarded as essential; they
thus emphasized God’s absolute unity, which was
regarded by them even as numerical. Over and
against them the Asm‘anrrya urged deterministic
views in opposition to the ascription of freedom to
man, and pleaded for the reality of the divine at-
tributes. These three schools were in so far ortho-
dox as they all regarded the Koran as the source of
truth and did not intend to abandon its fundamental
authority. The Philosophers alone, though in ex-
ternals observant of the religious ritual, ventured to
take their stand on points other than those fixed
by the text of the Koran; and they did not care
whether their conclusions agreed with or differed
from the positions of current theology.
Jewish philosophers in the Middle A ges (900~1800)
display, on the whole, the methods and intentions
of these orthodox Mohammedan schools. Thesame
problems engage their interest. The attributes of
God—His unity, His prescience, the freedom of
human action—are the perplexities which they at-
tempt to solve. That the teachings of the Bible
and the theology of the Synagogue are true, they
assume at the very outset. It is their ambition to
show that these fundamental truths are rational, in
conformity with the postulates of reason. Aristote-
lians for the most part, they virtually adopt the
propositions of Al-Kindi, Alfarabi, and Al-Ghazali,
as far as they are adherents of the Kalam; while
those who are not resort to the Neoplatonic elements
contained in Arabic Aristotelianism to sharpen their
weapons. Ibn Sina (AvicENNA) and Ibn Roshd
(AVERROES), also, must be remembered among the
tutors of the Jewish Aristotelians.
The first of the Jewish writers to treat of the
Jewish faith from the philosophical point of view
was Saapta, the great anti-Karaite (see his contro-
| versies with Anan, Nahawandi, Ibn Sakawai, and
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
9
Jeroham), in his famous work “Kitab al-
|-I‘tikadat” (Hebrew, “Sefer Emunot
we-De‘ot”). He shows his familiarity
with the positions of the Motazilites as
well as with Greek philosophy and
h Christian theology. His purpose in com-
- » the treatise was to sct forth the harmony be-
ies the revealed truths of Judaism and the reason
- ne “In its controversial chapters he attacks
: ealooy of Christianity with greater vehemence
the theology aah rile estes aor a
than that of Islam (see Geiger, Wiss. Zeit. J tid.
Theol.” i. 192). His philosophical point of view
has rightly been characterized as eclectic, though
strongly influenced by Aristotelianism. He prefaces
his presentation of the God-concept with a discus-
sion of the theory of human knowledge, which lat-
ter, according to him, proceeds from the perception
of the grossly sensual elements common to men and
animals. But when a man perceives an object,
merely the accidents come to his vision. By com-
parison, however, he learns to know the quantity
of bodies, thus forming the notion of space; while
through the observation of motion he arrives at the
perception of time (“Sefer Emunot we-De‘ot,” ed.
Amsterdam, ii.). In this way man, through contin-
ued reflection, attains to ever finer and higher degrees
of knowledge, discovering the relation of cause to
effect. Many men, says Saadia, reject the existence
of God on the ground that the knowl-
‘‘Sefer edge of Him is too subtle and too ab-
Emunot stract. But this is easily met by the
we-De‘ot.” assertion of the graduation of know}l-
edge, which in its ascent always
reaches finer degrees, and develops into the faculty
of apprehending the less concrete and more abstract.
The final cause some philosophers have held to be
material,an atom. But in going one degree higher,
and in assuming the existence of a creator, man must
know him as the highest; that is to say, God is the
noblest but also the most subtile goal of speculative
reflection. Many represent God as corporeal, be-
cause they do not push their ascending knowledge
far enough beyond the corporeal to the abstract and
incorporeal. The Creator being the originator of all
bodies, He of necessity must be apprehended as
Supramundane, supercorporeal. Those that ascribe
to God motion and rest, wrath and goodness, also
apperceive Him as corporeal. The correct concep-
tion culminates in the representation of God as free
from all accidents (¢.). If this conception be too
abstract, and is to be replaced by one more material
and concrete, reflection is forced to recede. The
final cause must be, by the very postulates of rea-
Son, an abstract being. God-perception is thus the
tise from the sensual to the supersensual and high-
est limits of thought.
But the Creator has revealed Himself to His
Prophets as the One, the Living, the Almighty, the
All-Wise, the Incomparable. It is the philosopher’s
part to investigate the reality of these attributes,
and to justify them before the tribunal of reason
(vd, 1. 24b, 25a). The unity of God includes His
being absolutely one, as well as His uniqueness, and
i hecessaril y postulated by the reflection that He is
ak € Creator of all. For if He were not one, He
Ould be many; and multiplicity is characteristic
Beu
even Wit
God
of corporeality. Therefore, as the highest thinking
rejects His corporeality, He must be one. Again,
human reason postulates one creator, since for crea-
tion a creator is indispensable; but, as one creator
satisfies all the implications of this concept, reason
has no call to assume two or more. If there were
more than one creator, proof would have to be ad-
duced for the existence of every one; but such
proof could not be taken from creation, to account
for which one creator suffices. That Scripture uses
two names for God is merely due to linguistic idio-
matic peculiarities, as “Jerubbaal” is also named
“ Gideon.”
God is living because He, the Creator of the
world, can not be thought of as without life (é.e.,
self-consciousness and knowledge of His deeds).
His omnipotence is self-evident, since He is the Cre-
ator of the all: since creation is perfectly adjusted
to its ends, God must be all-wise. These three
attributes human reason discovers “at one stroke ”
(“pit’om,” “beli mahshabah,” “mebi’ah abat”; 7d,
ii. 26a). Human speech, however, is so constituted
as not to be able to express the three in one word.
God’s being is simple, not complex, every single
attribute connoting Him in His entirety. Abstract
and subtle though God is, He is not inactive. The
illustration of this is the soul and its directive func-
tion over the body. Knowledge is still more sub-
tile than the soul; and the same is
The Living again exemplified in the four elements.
God. Water percolates through earth; light
dominates water; the sphere of iire
surrounds all other spheres and through its motion
regulates the position of the planets in the universe.
The motion of the spheres is caused by the com-
mand of the Creator, who, more subtile than any of
the elements, is more powerful than aught else.
Still, Saadia concedes that no attribute may in
strict construction be ascribed to God (72. ii, 28b).
God has also created the concept attribute; and cre-
ated things can not belong to the essence of the
Creator. Man may only predicate God’s existence
(“yeshut”). Biblical expressions are metaphorical.
The errors concerning God are set forth in ten cate-
gories. Some have thought God to be a substance;
some have ascribed to Him quantity; others quid-
dity (coév in Aristotle); others have assigned to
Him relations and dependency (xpé¢ 1). The Eter-
nal can not be in relation to or dependent upon any-
thing created. He was before creation was. God
is in no space (zov in Aristotle). He is timeless
(zoré). God can not be said to possess (éverv): all is
His. He lacks nothing. Possession, however, in-
cludes lack as its negative. God is incorporeal;
therefore, He can not beapprehended as conditioned
by status (ketovat), Nordoes God work (rovziv). In
the common sense of the term, work implies mo-
tion; and motion, in the subject, can not be in God.
His will suffices to achieve His purposes; and, more-
over, in work matter is an element, and place and
time are factors—all considerations inapplicable to
God. .
Nor does God suffer (raoyerv). Even God’s seeing
is not analogous to human sight, which is an effect
by some exterior object. Saadia controverts trini-
tarianism more especially, as well as DUALISM. He
God
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 10
is most emphatic in rejecting the corporeality of
God, His incarnation, involved in the Christian doc-
trine. For his views concerning creation see JEW.
Encyc, iv. 839, 8.7. CREATION.
But according to Saadia, man is the ultimate ob-
ject of creation (“ Emunot we-De'ot,” iv. 45a). How
is human freedom reconcilable with God’s omunipo-
tence and omniscience? That the will of manis free
Saadia can not doubt. It is the doctrine of Scrip-
ture and of tradition, confirmed by human experience
and postulated by reason. Without it how could
God punish evil-doers? But if God does not will
the evil, how may it exist and be found in this
world of reality? All things terrestrial are adjusted
with a view to man; they are by divine precept for
the sake of man declared to be good or evil; and it
is thus man that lends them their character. God’s
omniscience Saadia declares to be not necessarily
causal. If man sins, God may know it beforehand ;
but He is not the cause of the sinful disposition
or act.
Ibn Gabirol’s theology is more profound than that
of Saadia. In his “ Mekor Hayyim,” he shows him-
self to be a follower of Plotinus, an adherent of the
doctrine of emanation; yet, notwithstanding this
pantheistic assumption, he recognizes
Solomon the domination of a supreme omnipo-
ibn tent will, a free, personal God. He
Gabirol. views the cognition of the final cause
as the end and goal of all knowl-
edge. “Being” includes: (1) form and matter; (2)
primal substance, the cause (God); and (8) will,
the mediator between the other two. Between God
the Absolute and the world of phenomena, media-
ting agents are assumed. Like (God) can not com-
municate with unlike (the world); but mediating
beings having something of both may bring them
into relation. God is on the uppermost rung of the
ladder of being; Heis the beginning and cause of
all. But the substance of the corporeal world is the
lowest and last of all things created. The first is
essentially different from the last; otherwise, the
first might be the last, and vice versa. God is abso-
lute unity; the corporeal world, absolute multiplic-
ity and variety. Motion of the world is in time;
and time is included in and is less than eternity.
The Absolute is above eternity; it is infinitude.
Hence there must bea mediating something between
the supereternal and the subeternal. Man is the mi-
crocosm (‘“ ‘olam ha-katon ”), a reflection of the mac-
rocosm. The mind (“sekel”) does not immediately
connect itself with the body, but through the lower
energies of the soul. In like manner in the macro-
cosm the highest simple substance may only join
itself to the substance of the categories through the
mediation of spiritual substances. Like only begets
like. Hence, the first Creator could have produced
simple substances only, not the sensual visible world
which is totally unlike Him.
Between the First Cause and the world Gabirol
places five mediators (“emza‘ot”): (1) God’s will
(“ha-razon ”); (2) general matter and form; (8) the
universal mind (“sekel ha-Kelali”); (4) the three
world-souls (“nefashot”), vegetative, animal, and
thinking souls; and (5) nature (“ha-teba‘”), the
mover of the corporeal world.
The divine will has a considerable part in this
system. It is the divine power which creates form,
calls forth matter, and binds them to-
The Divine gether. It pervades all, from the
Will. highest to the lowest, just as the soul
pervades the body (“ Mekor Hayyim,”
v. 60). God may be apprehended as will and ag
knowledge; the former operating in secret, invis-
ibly; the latter realizing itself openly. From will
emanates form, but from the oversubstance matter,
Will, again, is nothing else than the totality compre-
hending all formsin indivisible unity. Matter with-
out form is void of reality; it is non-existent; form
is the element which confers existence on the non-
existent. Matter without form is never actual
(“ be-fo‘al”), but only potential (“be-koah”). Form
appears in the moment of creation, and the creative
power is will; therefore, the will is the producer of
form.
Upon this metaphysical corner-stone Ibn Gabirol
bases his theological positions, which may be
summed up as follows:
God is absolute unity. Form and matter are ideas in Him.
Attributes, in strict construction, may not be predicated of
Him; will and wisdom are identical with His being. Only
through the things which have emanated froin God may man
learn and comprehend aught of God. Between God and the
world is achasm bridged only by mediatorial beings. The first
of these is will or the creative word. It is the divine power
activated and energized at a definite pointof time. Creation is
an act of the divine will. Through processes of successive
emanations, the absolute One evolves multiplicity. Love and
yearning for the first fountain whence issued this stream of
widening emanations are in all beings the beginning of motion.
They are yearning for divine perfection and omnipotence.
Ibn Gabirol may rightly be styled the Jewish
speculative exponent of a system bordering on the-
osophy, certainly approaching obscurity and the
mystic elimination of individuality in favor of an
all-encompassing all-Divinity (pantheism). His sys-
tein is, however, only a side-track from the main line
of Jewish theological thought.
Bahya ben Joseph ibn Pakuda, in the treatise in-
troducing his ex position of the “ Duties of the Heart ”
(“ Hobot ha-Lebabot,” chapter “ Ha-Yihud ”), reverts
in the main to the method of Saadia. According to
Bahya, only the prophet and the wise
Bahya can serve God in truth. All others
ibn revere in God something utterly out
Pakuda. of consonance with the exalted, sub-
lime conception of God (22.8 2). It is
therefore every one’s duty to arrive at a proper con-
ception of God’s unity by means of speculative re-
flection, and to be thus enabled to differentiate true
unity (“chad ha-emet”) from pseudo-unity (“ehad
ha-‘ober”). In consequence Bahya develops the
following seven demonstrative arguments in sup-
port of God's unity:
(1) The universe is like a pyramid sloping up-
ward from a very broad base toward the apex; or
it resembles an infinite series of numbers, of which
the first is one, and the last comprises so many
figures as to baffle all efforts to form a conception
of it. The individual beings in the world are nu-
merically infinite; when these individuals are clas-
sified in groups according to species, etc., the num-
ber of these groups becomes smaller. Thus by
proceeding in his classifications to always more com-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
11
sive groups, man reduces the number ever
more until he arrives at the number five,
lements plus motion. These, again, are
: nly: matter and form. Their common
eal eee comprehensive than either, must
ae pe smaller than two, 7.€., ONE. Pe
(2) The harmony and concordance prevailing in
creation necessitate the apprehension of the world as
the work of one artist and creator.
, (3) Without a creator there could be no creation.
Thus reason and logic compel the assumption of a
creator; but to assume more than one creator is irra-
tonal and illogical. _
(4) If one believes in the existence of more than
one God, one of two alternatives is suggested: (a)
One God was potent enough to create the all; why,
then, other gods? They are super-
Proofs of fiuous. (4) One God alone had not the
Unity. power; then God was limited in
power, and a being so limited is not
God, but presupposes another being through which
He Himself was called into existence.
(5) The unity of God is involved in the very con-
ception of Him. If there were more gods than one,
this dilemma would be presented: (a) These many
gods are of one essence; then, according to the law
of absolute identity, they are identical and therefore
only one. Or (d) these gods are differentiated by
differences of essential qualities: then they are not
gods; for God, to be God, must be absolute and
simple (non-composite) being.
(6) God connotes being without accidence, 7.e.,
qualities not involved in being. Plurality is quan-
tity, and, therefore, accidence. Hence plurality may
not be predicated of God.
(7) Inversely, the concept unity posits the unity
of God. Unity, according to Euclid, is that through
which a thing becomes numerically one. Unity,
therefore, precedes the number one. Two gods
would thus postulate before the number one the ex-
istenceof unity. In all these demonstrations Bahya
follows the evidential argumentations of the Arabic
schoolmen, the Motekallamin. In reference to God’s
attributes, Bahya is of those who contend that at-
tributes predicated of God connote in truth only
negatives (excluding their opposites), never posi-
tives (2b. § 10).
This view is shared also by Judah ha-Levi, the
author of the “Cuzari,” probably the most popular
exposition of the contents of Israel's religion, thou gh,
as Gritz rightly remarks (“Geschichte,” vi. 157),
little calculated to influence thinkers. He regards
CREATION as an act of divine will (“Cuzari,” ii. 50).
God is eternal; but the world is not. He ranges
the divine attributes into three classes: (1) practi-
cal, (2) relative, and (3) negative. The
Judah hha- practical are those predicated of God
Levi. on the ground of deeds which, though
; not immediately, yet perhaps through
the intervention of natural secondary causes, were
Wrought by God. God is in this sense recognized
ae hae full of compassion, jealous, and aven-
Relative attributes are those that arise from the
relations of man, the worshiper, to God, the one
worshiped. God is holy, sublime, and to be praised ;
prehen
more and
j.¢., four €
God
but though man in this wise expresses his thoughts
concerning God, God’s essence is not thereby de-
scribed and is not taken out of His unity (“me-aha-
duto ”).
The third class seemingly express positive quali-
ties, but in reality negative their contraries. God is
living. This does not mean that He moves and
feels, but that He is not unmoved or without life.
Life and death belong to the corporeal world. God
is beyond this distinction. This applies also to His
unity; it excludes merely the notion that He is more
than one. His unity, however, transcends the unity
of human conceptual construction. Man’s “one” is
one of many, a part of a whole. In this sense God
can not be called “One.” Even so, in strict accu-
racy, God may not be termed “the first.” He is
without beginning. And this is also true of the
designation of God as “the last.” Anthropopathic
expressions are used; but they result from the
humanward impression of His works. “God’s will”
is a term connoting the cause of all lying beyond
the sphere of the visible things. Concerning Ha-
Levi’s interpretation of the names of God sce
NAMES OF GOD.
In discussing the question of God’s providential
government and man’s freedom Ha-Levi first con-
troverts FaraLisM; and he does this by showing
that even the fatalist believes in possibilities. Iu-
man will, says he, is the secondary cause between
man and the purpose to be accomplished. God is
the First Cause: how then can there
Contro- be room for human freedom? But
verts will is a secondary cause, and is not
Fatalism. under compuision on the part of the
first cause. The freedom of choice is
thus that of man. God’s omnipotence is not im-
pugned thereby. Finally, all points back to God as
the first cause of this freedom. In this freedom is
involved God’s omnipotence. Otherwise it might
fail to be available. The knowledge of God is not
a cause. God’s prescience is not causal in reference
to man’s doings. God knows what man will do;
still it is not He that causes man’s action. To sum
up his positions, Judah ha-Levi posits: (a) The ex-
istence of a first cause, 7.e., a wise Creator always
working under purpose, whose work is perfect. It
is due to man’s lack of understanding that this per-
fection is not seen by him in all things. (6) There
are secondary causes, not independent, however, but
instrumentalities. (c) God gave matter itsadequate
form. (d) There are degrees in creation. The sen-
tient beings occupy higher positions than those
without feelings. Manis thehighest. Israel as the
confessor of the one God outranks the polytheistic
heathen. (e) Man is free to choose between good
and evil, and is responsible for his choice.
Abraham ibn Daud, in his “Emunah Ramah,”
virtually traverses the same ground as his predeces-
sors; but in reference to God’s pre-
Abraham science he takes a very free attitude
ibn Daud. (2. p. 96). He distinguishes two
kinds of possibilities: (1) The subjec-
tive, where the uncertainty lies in the subject him-
self. This subjective possibility is not in God. (2)
The objective, planned and willed by God Himself.
While under the first is the ignorance of one living
God
in one place concerning the doings of those in an-
other, under the second falls the possibility of man's
being good or bad. God knows beforehand of this
possibility, but not of the actual choice. The later
author RaLBaG advances the same theory in his
“Milhamot ha-Shem” (ii. 2). Tbn Daud also argues
against the ascription of positive attributes to God
(* Emunah Ramah,” ii. 8).
Moses ben Maimon’s “ Moreh Nebukim ” (“ Dalalat
al-Ha‘irin”) is the most important contribution to
Jewish philosophical thought on God. According
to him, philosophy recognizes the existence and per-
fection of God. God’s existence is proved by the
world, the effect whence he draws the inference of
God’s existence, the cause. The whole universe is
only one individual, the parts of which are interde-
pendent. The sublunar world is dependent upon
the forces proceeding from the spheres, so that the
universe is a macrocosm (“ Moreh,” ii. 1), and thus
the effect of one cause.
Two gods or causes can not be assumed, for they
would have to be distinct in their community: but
God is absolute; therefore He can not be composite.
The corporeal alone is numerical. God as incorpo-
real can not be multiple (“ Yad,” Yesode ha-Torah,
i. 7). But may God be said to be one?
Mai- Unity is accidence, as is multiplicity.
monides. “God is one” connotesa negative, 7.¢.,
God is not many (“ Moreh,” i. 57). Of
God it is possible only to say that He is, but not
what He is (2.; “hayuto bi-lebad lo mahuto”; in
Arabic “anniyyah ” = ére éore [quodditas]). All at-
tributes havea negative implication, even existence.
God’s knowledge is absolute (#. iii. 19). God’s
knowledge is never new knowledge. Thereis noth-
ing that He does not know. In His knowledge He
comprehends all, even infinitude (28, iii. 20). God’s
knowledge is not analogous to man’s. Evil is
merely negation or privation (2d. tii, 8). God is not
its author; for God sends only the positive. All
that is, save God, is only of possible existence; but
God is the necessarily existent (¢d. i. 57), In Him
there is no distinction between essence (“‘ezem”)
and existence (“ha-mezi’ut”), which distinction is
in all other existing things. For this reason God is
incorporeal, one, exalted above space and time, and
most perfect (¢b. ii., Preface, 18, 21, 23, 24).
By the successors of Maimonides, ALBo, Ralbag
(LEVI BEN GERSHON), and CREsCAS, no important
‘modifications were introduced. Albo contends that
only God may be designated as one, even numerical
oneness being not exclusive connotation of unity
(“‘Ikkarim,” ii. 9,10; comp. Ibn Zaddik, “‘ Olam
Katon,” p. 49: “ehad ha-mispar eno ka-ehad ha-
elahut”). He, too, enphasizes God’s incorporeality,
unity, timelessness, perfection, etc. (“‘Ikkarim,”
ii. 6).
Crescas pleads for the recognition of positive at-
tributes in God. He concedes that the unity of God
can not be demonstrated by speculation, but that
it rests on the “Shema‘” alone. It may be noticed
that Aaron ben Elijah (“‘Ez ha-Hayyim,” ch. 1xxi.)
also argues in favor of positive attributes, though
he regards them in the light of homonyms.
The precipitate of these philosophical speculations
may be said to have been the creed of Maimonides
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 12
(see ARTICLES OF FaitH). It confesses that God is
the Creator, Governor of all. He alone “does, has
been and will be doing.” God is One; but His
unity has no analogy. He alone is God, who was,
is, and will be. He is incorporeal. In corporeal
things there is no similitude to Him. He is the first
and the last. Stress is also laid on the thought
that none shares divinity with Him. This creed is
virtually contained in the ApoN ‘OLaM and the
YIGDAL,
The cabalists (see CABALA) were not so careful as
Maimonides and others to refrain from anthropo-
morphic and anthropopathic extravagances and
ascriptions (see Sa1‘un Koman). Nevertheless their
efforts to make of the incorporeality of Goda dogma
met with opposition in orthodox circles. Against
Maimonides (“ Yad,” Teshubah, iii. 7), denying to
the believers in God’s corporeality a share in the
world to come, ABRANAM BEN Davip oF Pos-
QUIERES raised a fervent protest. Moses Taku is
another protestant (“Ozar Nehmad,” iii. 25; comp.
Abraham Maimuni, “ Milhamot,” p. 25).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Schmiedl, Studien tiber Jtidische Religions-
philosophie, Vienna, 1869; P. J. Muller, De Godsleer der Mid-
deleeuwsche Joden, Groningen, 1898; D. Kaufmann, Attri-
butenlehre, Leipsic, 1880; Guttmann, Die Retigionsphiloso-
phie des Saadia; idem, Die Religionsphilosophie Abraham
thn Dauds; M. Joél, Zur Gesch. der Jiidischen Religions-
philosophie, Leipsic, 1872; Munk, Mélanges.
E. G. H.
——The Modern View: On the whole, the mod-
ern Jewish view reproduces that of the Biblical
books, save that the anthropomorphic and anthro-
popathic terminology is recognized as due to the in-
sufficiency of human language to express the super-
human. Theinfluence of modern philosophers (Kant
and Hegel) upon some sections of Jewish thought
has been considerable. The intellectual elements in
the so-called demonstrations of God’s existence and
the weakness of the argument have been fully recog-
nized. The Maimonidean position, that man can not
know God in Himself (min), bas in consequence
been strengthened (see AGNosticisM). The human
heart (the practical reason in the Kantian sense) is the
first source of knowledge of God (see Samuel Hirsch,
“Catechismus,” s.v. “Die Lehre”). The experience
of man and the history of Israel] bear witness to God’s
existence, who is apprehended by manas the Living,
Personal, Eternal, All-Sustaining, the Source of all
life, the Creator and Governor of the universe, the
Father of all, the Righteous Judge, in His mercy
forgiving sins, embracing all in His love. He is
both transcendenta! and immanent. Every human
soul shares to a certain degree in the essence of the
divine. In thus positing the divinity of the human
soul, Judaism bridges the chasm between the tran-
scendental and the immanent elements of its concep-
tion of God. Pantheism is rejected as one-sided;
and so is the view, falsely imputed to Judaism,
which has found its expression in the absolute God
of Islam.
The implications of the Jewish God-idea may be
described as “ pan-monotheism,” or “ethical mono-
theism.” In this conception of God, Israel is called
to the duty, which confers no prerogatives not also
within the reach of others, of illustrating in life the
godliness of the truly human, through its own
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
13
aeaese and of leading men to the knowledge of
i spe eternal, holy God (see Detsm; EVOLUTION).
the ¢
samuel Hirsch, Die Religionsphilosophie der
Me Leipsic. 843; Formstecher, Die Religion des Geistes ;
J uden Te TECHISM § Rif, Der Einheitagedanke.
= E. G. H.
BIBLIOGRAPHY =
2
Critical View : Biblical historiography pre-
ae the theory that God revealed Himself succes-
he ' - to Adam, Noah, Abraham and his descend-
ee a finally to Moses. Monotheism was thus
mee known to the human race in general and to
aa jin particular from the very beginning. Not
jgnorance but perverseness led to the recognition
of other gods, necessitating the sending of the Proph-
ets to reemphasize the teachings of Moses and the
facts of the earlier revelation. Contrary to this view,
the modern critical school regards monotheism as
the final outcome of a long process of religious evo-
lution, basing its hypothesis upon certain data dis-
covered in the Biblical books as well as upon the
analogy presented by Israel's historical development
to that of other Semitic groups, notably, in certain
stages thereof, of the Arabs (Wellhausen, “Skizzen
und Vorarbeiten,” iii. 164; Ndldeke, in “Z. D. M.
G.” 1887, p. 719).
The primitive religion of Israel and the God-con-
cept therein attained reflected the common primi-
tive Semitic religious ideas, which, though modified
in Biblical times, and even Jargely eliminated, have
left their traces in the theological doctrines of the
Israel of later days. Renan’s theory, formulated in
his “Precis et Systéme Comparé des Langues Semi-
tiques” (1859), ascribing to the Semites a monothe-
istic instinct, has been abandoned because it was
found to be in conflict with facts. As far as epi-
graphic material, traditions, and folk-lore throw
light on the question, the Semites are
Polythe- shown to be of polytheistic leanings.
istic Astral in character, primitive Semitic
Leanings religion deified the sun, the moon, and
of the the other heavenly bodies. The
Semites. storm-clouds, the thunder-storms, and
the forces of nature making for fertil-
ity or the reverse were viewed as deities. As long
as the Semites were shepherds, the sun and the
other celestial phenomena connected with the day
were regarded as malevolent and destructive; while
the moon and stars, which lit up the night—the time
when the grass of the pasture was revived—were
looked upon as benevolent. In the conception of
Yrwu found in the poetry of the Bible, speaking
the language of former mythology and theology,
the element is still dominant which, associating Him
with the devastating cloud or the withering, con-
suming fire, virtually accentuates His destructive,
fearful nature (Wellhausen, /.c. iii.77, 170; Baethgen,
" Beitrige zur Semitischen Religionsgeschichte,” p.
9, Berlin, 1888; Smend, “Lehrbuch der Alttesta-
ee Religionsgeschichte,” p. 19, Leipsic,
The intense tribal consciousness of the Semites,
however, wielded from a very early period a deci-
sive Influence in the direction of associating with
each tribe, sept, or clan a definite god, which the
tribe or clan recognized as its own, to the exclusion
of others. For the tribe thought itself descended
God
from its god, which it met and entertained at the
sacrificial meal. With this god it maintained the
blood covenant. Spencer's theory, that ancestral
animism is the first link in the chain of religious
evolution, can not be supported by the data of
Semitic religions. Ancestral animism as in vogue
among the Semites, and the “cult of the dead ” (see
Witch of Expor) in Israel point rather to individ-
ual private conception than toa tribal institution.
In the development of the Israelitish God-idea it
was not a determining factor (Goldziher, “Le Culte
des Ancétres et des Morts chez les Arabes,” in “ Revue
de l’Histoire des Religions,” x. 332; Oort, in “The-
ologisch Tijdschrift,” 1881, p. 850; Stade, “ Ge-
schichte des Volkes Israel,” i. 387).
Characteristic, however, of the Semitic religions
is the designation of the tribal or clan deity as
“adon” (lord), “melek” (king), “ba‘al” (owner,
fructifier). The meaning of “cl,” which is the
common Semitic term, is not certain. Jt has been
held to connote strength (in which case God would
= “the strong”), leadership (“the first”), and bril-
liancy (Sprenger, in his “Das Leben und die Lehre
des Mohammad,” in which God=“sun”). It has
also been connected with “elah,” the sacred tree (Ed.
Meyer, in Roscher’s “ Ausfithrliches Lexikon der
Griechischen und Rémischen Mythologie,” s.v. “ El” ;
and Smend, /.¢c. p. 26, note 1). Equally puzzling
is the use of the plural “Elohim” in Hebrew (ods
in Phenician; comp. Ethiopic “amlak”), The in-
terpretation that it isa “pluralis majestatis” with
the value of an abstract idea (“the Godhead ”), as-
sumes too high a degree of grammatical and philo-
sophical reflection and intention to be applicable to
primitive conditions. Traces of an original poly-
theism might be embodied in it, were it not for the
fact that the religion of Israel is the outgrowth of
tribal and national monolatry rather than of poly-
theism. 7
Each tribe in Israel had its tribal god (see, for in-
stance, Dan; Gap; ASHER). Nevertheless from a
very remote period these tribes recognized their af-
finity to one another by the fact that
Tribal above their own tribal god they ac-
Gods. knowledged allegiance to YHwuH.
This YuwuH was the Lord, the Master,
the Ruler. His will was regarded as supreme. He
revealed Himself in fire or lightning.
In Ex. vi. 2 YawuH is identified with El-Shaddai,
the god of the Patriarchs. What the latter name
means is still indount (see Néldeke in “Z. D. M. G.”
1886, p. 735; 1888, p. 480). Modern authorities have
argued from the statement in Exodus that Yuwu
was not known among the Hebrews before Moses,
and have therefore insisted that the name at least,
if not the god, was of foreign origin. Delitzsch’s al-
leged discovery of the name “ Yawn” on Babylonian
tablets has yet to be verified. Moses is held to have
identified a Midianite-Kenite deity with the patri-
archal El-Shaddai. However this may have been,
the fact remains that from the time of the Exodus
onward Israel regarded itself as the people of
YuwuH, whose seat was Sinai, where he manifested
Himself amidst thunder and lightning in His unap-
proachable majesty, and whence He went forth to
aid His people (Judges v. 4; Deut. xxxiii. 2). It
God
God, Children of
was YHwu who had brought judgment on the gods
of Egypt, and by this act of His superior power had
renewed the covenant relation which the fathers of
old had maintained with Him.
From the very outset the character of YawH must
have been of an order conducive to the subsequent
development of monotheistic and ethical connota-
tions associated with the name and the idea, In
this connection it is noteworthy that the notion of
sex, sO pernicious in other Semitic cults, was from
the outset inoperative in the worship of YuwuH. As
Israel’s God, He could not but be jealous and in-
tolerant of other gods beside Him, to whom Israel
would pay honor and render homage. Enthroned
in the midst of fire, He was unapproachable (“ko-
desh”); the sacrificial elements in His cult were of
a correspondingly simple, pastoral nature. The
jealousy of YHwu was germinal of His unity; and
the simplicity and austerity of His original desert
worship form the basis of the moralization of the
later theology.
With the invasion of the land, Israel changed from
a pastoral Into an agricultural people. The shep-
herd cult of the desert god came into
Change of contact and conflict with the agricul-
Social tural deities and cults of the Canaan-
Conditions. ites. YuHwsH was partly worshiped
under Canaanitish forms, and partly
replaced by the Canaanitish deities (Baalim, etc.).
But YHwH would not relinquish His claim on
Israel. He remained the judge and lawgiver and
ruler and king of the people He had brought out
from Egypt. The Nazarites and the Prophets arose
in Israel, emphasizing by their life and habits as
well as by their enthusiastic and indignant protest
the contrast of Israel with the peoples of the land,
and of its religion with theirs (comp. the Yuwa of
Evian; He is “Ha-Elohim”). With Canaanitish
cults were connected immoralities as well as social
injustice. By contrast with these the moral nature
of YHwuH came to be accentuated.
During the first centuries of Israel’s occupation
of Palestine the stress in religious life was laid on
Israel’s fidelity to YHwu, who was Israel’s only God,
and whose service was to be different from that
offered unto the Baalim. The question of God’s
unity was not in the center of dispute. YHWH was
Israel’s only God. Other peoples might have other
gods, but Israel’s God had always shown His supe-
riority over these. Nor was umbrage taken at this
time at the representations of Yuwu by figures,
though simplicity still remained the dominant note
in His cult. A mere stone or rock served for an
altar (Judges vi. 20, xiii. 10; I Sam. vi. 14); and
natural pillars (holy trees, “mazebot ”) were more fre-
quent than artificial ones (see Smend, U.c. pp. 40 e¢
seg.). The EpHop was perhaps the only original
oracular implement of the Yawn cult. Teraphim
belonged apparently to domestic worship, and were
tolerated under the ascendency of the YHwH na-
tional religion. “Massekah” was forbidden (Ex.
xxxiv. 17), but not “pesel”; hence idols seem not
to have been objected to so long as YHwH’s exclu-
sive supremacy was not called into doubt. The
Ark was regarded as the visible assurance of YHwuH’s
presence among His people. Human sacrifices, af-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 14
fected in the Canaanitish Moloch cult, were espe.
cially abhorred; and the lascivious rites, drunken.
ness, and unchastity demanded by the Baalim and
their consorts were declared to be abominations in
the sight of YHwu.
These conceptions of God, which, by comparison
with those entertained by other peoples, were of an
exalted character, even in these early centuries, were
enlarged, deepened, refined, and spiri-
The God _tualized by the Prophets in proportion
of the as historical events, both internal and
Prophets. external, induced a widening of their
mental horizon and a deepening of their
moral perceptions. Firstamongtheseis Amos. He
speaks as the messenger of the God who rules all
nations, but who, having known Israel alone among
them, will punish His people all the more severely.
Assyria will accomplish God’s primitive purpose.
In Amos’ theology the first step is taken beyond
national henotheism. Monotheism begins through
him to find its vocabulary. This God, who will
punish Israel as He does the other nations, can not
condone social injustice or religious (sexual) degra-
dation (Amos iv.). The ethical implications of
YuHwnh’s religion are thus placed in the foreground.
Hosea introduces the thought of loveas the cardinal
feature in the relations of Israel and God. He
spiritualizes the function of Israel as the exponent
of divine purposes. YHWH punishes; but His love
is bound ultimately to awaken a responsive love
by which infidelity will be eliminated and over-
come.
Isaiah lays stress on God’s holiness: the “ko-
desh,” unapproachable God, is now “kadosh,” holy
(see Baudissin, “ Der Begriff der Heiligkeit im Alten
Testament,” in “Studien zur Semitischen Religions-
gesch.”). It is Israel’s duty as God’s people to be
cleansed from sin by eschewing eviland by learning
to do good. Only by striving after this, and not by
playing at diplomacy, can the “wrath of God” be
stayed and Jerusalem be saved. The remnant in-
deed will survive. Isaiah’s conception of God thus
again marks an advance beyond that of his prede-
cessors. God will ultimately rule as the arbiter
among the nations. Peace will be established, and
beasts as well as men will cease to shed blood.
Jeremiah and his contemporaries, however, draw
near the summit of monotheistic interpretations of
the Divine. The cultus is centralized; Deutero-
nomic humanitarianism is recognized as the kernel of
the God-idea. Israel and Palestine are kept apart
from the rest of the world. YHwH ceases to be
localized. Much greater emphasis than was insisted
on even by Isaiah is now laid on the moral as dis-
tinct from the sacrificial involutions of the God-idea.
The prophets of the Exile continue to clarify the
God-concept of Israel. For them God is One; He is
Universal. He is Creator of the All. He can not
be represented by image. The broken heart is
His abiding-place. Weak Israel is His servant
(“‘ebed”). He desires the return of the sinner.
His intentions come to pass, though man’s thoughts
can not grasp them.
After the Exile a double tendency in the concep-
tions of God is easily established. First, He is
Israel’s Lawgiver; Israel shall be holy. Secondly,
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
mankind’s Father. In the Psalms the
redominates. Though the post-exilic
congregation is under the domination
lic of national sacerdotalism (represented
by P), in the Wisdom literature the
universal and ethical implications of
Israel’s God-belief came to the fore-
In the later books of the Biblical canon the
learly traceable to remove from God all
an attributes and passions (see ANTHROPOMOR-
saaaae and ANTHROPOPATHISM). The critical school
ey nits in the final result what the traditional view
aie: as the starting-point. The God whom
Israel, through the events of its history, under the
teachings of its men of genius, the Prophets, finally
learned to proclaim, is One, the Ruler and Creator
of all, the Judge who loveth righteousness and
hateth iniquity, whose witness Israel is, whose true
service is love and justice, whose purposes come
and have come to pass.
y:; Kuenen, The Religion of Israet (Eng. transl.
Boar dione van Israel, Haarlem, 1869-70); idem, National
Religions and Universal Religion (Hibbert Lectures, 1882);
Knappert, The Religion of Israel; Duhmn, Die Theologie der
Propheten, Bonn, 1875; Wilhelm Vatke, Die Religion des A.
T. Berlin, 18385; Ewald, Die Lehre der Bibel von Gott, Gat-
tingen, 1871-76; Wellhausen, Prolegomena zur Gesch. Israels,
3d ed., 18
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front.
effort 1S €
86: idem, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, i.-vi., 1882-
1903: Baudissin, Studien zur Semitischen Religionsgesch.
Leipsic, 1876, 1878; W. Robertson Smith, Rel. of Sem. Edin-
purgh, 1885; Ed. Konig, Grundprobleme der Alttest. Re-
ligionsgesch. 1885; idem, Der Offenbarungsbegriff, ete.;
Friedrich Baethgen, Beitrdige zur Semit. Religionsgesch.
Berlin, 1888; Smend, Lehrbuch der Alttestamentlichen Re-
ligionsgesch. 1893; Budde, Vorlesungen tiber die Vorex-
ilische Religion Israels, 1901; Kayser-Dillmann, Alt. Test.
Theologie. E.G.
GOD, CHILDREN OF (“bene ha-Elohim,” per-
haps = “sons of the gods”): The “sons ot God”
are mentioned in Genesis, in a chapter (vi. 2) which
reflects preprophetic, mythological, and polytheis-
tic conceptions. They are represented as taking, at
their fancy, wives from among the daughters of
men. For the interpretations given to this state-
ment see FALL oF ANGELS, and FLoop IN RaBBIN-
ICAL LITERATURE. As there stated, the later Jew-
ish and Christian interpreters endeavored to remove
the objectionable implications from the passage by
taking the term “bene ha-Elohim” in the sense of
“sons of judges” or “sons of magistrates.” In the
introduction to the Book of Job (i. 6, ii. 1) the “ bene
ha-Elohim” are mentioned as assembling at stated
periods, Satan being one of them. Some Assyro-
Babylonian mythological conception is held by the
critical school to underlie this description of the
gathering of the “sons of God” to present them-
Selves before Yuawu. Another conception, taken
from sidereal religion, seems to underlie the use of
the phrase in Job xxxv. 7.
The Israelites are addressed as “the children of
the Lord your God” (Deut. xiv. 1). When Israel
was young, he was called from Egypt to be God’s
nh (Hosea xi.1), The Israelites are designated also
the children of the living God ” (db. ii. 1[R.V.i. 10];
a J er. iti. 4). They are addressed as “ backsli-
Gee children ” (Jer. iii. 14) that might and should call
their father (2b. iii. 19). Deut, xxxii. 6, though
€ text is corrupt, seems to indicate that through
perverseness Israel has forfeited this privilege. Isa-
» also, apostrophizes the Israelites as “children
God
God, Children of
[of God] that are corrupters,” though God has reared
them (Isa. i. 4). Asa man chastises his son, so does
God chastise Israel (Deut. viii. 5); and like a father
pities his children, so does God show pity (see Com-
PASSION).
The critical school refers this conception to the
notion commonly obtaining among primitive races,
that tribes and families as well as peoples are de-
scended from gods regarded by them as their phys-
ical progenitors; community of worship indicating
community of origin, or adoption into the clan be-
lieved to be directly descended from the tutelary
god through the blood covenant. Hence the re-
proach, “Saying toastock, Thou art my father; and
to a stone, Thou hast begotten me” (Jer. ii. 27).
Even in Deutero-IJsaiah (li. 2) this notion is said to
prevail (“ Look unto Abraham your father,” in cor-
respondence with verse 1: “the rock whence ye are
hewn”).
That this view was deepened and spiritualized to
signify a much sublimer relation between the gods
and their physical descendants than that which the
old Semitic conception assumed, the following pas-
sages demonstrate: “Surely they are my people,
children that will not lie” (Isa. )xiii. 8). “In all
their affliction he was afflicted ” (zd. verse9). “Thou
art our father, for Abraham knows us not” (2b. verse
16, Hebr.). “Thou art our father; weare the clay ”
(4b. Ixiv. 8). “Have we not all one father?” (Mal.
ii. 10).
The relation of God to the individual man is also
regarded as that of a parent to his child. “For my
father and my mother have forsaken me, but YHwu
taketh me up” (Ps. xxvii. 10, Hebr.; comp. II Sam.
vii. 14). That other peoples besides Israel are God's
children seems sug gested by Jer. iii. 19, the rabbinical
interpretation of the verse construing it as implying
this (odin nidik—p3, Tan., Mishpatim, ed. Bu-
ber, 10; Yalk., Jer. 270; Bacher, “Ag. Pal. Amor.”
ii. 34, note 1).
Israel as the “first-fruits” (ANIA MwR) is the
“bekor,” or first-born, in the household of God’s
children (Jer. ii. 8; Ex. iv. 22). In the interpreta-
tion of the modern Synagogue this means that
Israel shall be an exemplar unto all the other chil-
dren of God (see Lazarus, “Der Prophet Jeremias,”
pp. 31, 32). According to the teachings of Judaism,
as expounded in the CATECHISMS, every man is God’s
child, and, therefore, the brother of every other man.
Mal. ii. 10 is applied in this sense, though the proph-
et’s appeal was addressed solely to the warring
brothers of the house of Israel. In this, modern Ju-
daism merely adopts the teachings of the Apocrypha
and of the Rabbis. See Ecclus. (Sirach) xxiii. 1, 4;
li. 10; Wisdom ii. 18, 16, 18; xiv. 3 (comp. xvili.
18; III Macc. v. 7; Jubilees, i. 24); Job xiii. 4;
Enoch Ixii. 11; Psalms of Solomon, xvii. 30; Sifre,
Deut. 48 (ed. Friedmann, 84b); Ab. iii. 14; R. H.
iii. 8; Yer. Ma‘as. 50c; Sifra (ed. Weiss), 98d; Midr.
Teh. xii. 5 (comp. Bacher, “Ag. Tan.” ii. 487). See
Son oF GOD.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, pp. 150 et seq., Leip-
sic, 1898: Taylor, The Sayings of the Fathers, to AD. iii. 14;
Schreiner, in Jahrbuch, 1899, pp. 61-62; idem, Die Jtingsten
Urteile, ete., in Jahrbuch, 1902, pp. 21, 22; Perles, Bousset 's
Religion des Judentums, pp. 127 et seq., Berlin, 1903
E. G. H.
Goad, Names of
Godliness
GOD, NAMES OF. Sec Names or Gop.
GOD, SON OF. Sce Son oF Gop.
GODEFROI, MICHAEL H.: Dutch jurist and
minister of justice; born at Amsterdam Jan. 13, 1814;
died at Wiirzburg June 27, 1882. He devoted him-
self to the study of jurisprudence, and at a very
early age secured employment under thestate. When
but thirty-two, upon the death of Boas, he became
by royal appointment judge of the provincial court
for North Holland; and two years later (1848) he was
elected in the city of Amsterdam a member of the
second chamber of the States General of the Nether-
lands, which position he held until the year 1881.
In 1860 he prepared a new code of judicial practise
and procedure; this was adopted, and in recognition
of his labors thereon the king decorated him with
the cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion. On
several occasions at the formation of ministries he had
been offered a portfolio, but had each time declined,
until in Feb., 1860, the king himself joining the
finance minister, Van Hall, in soliciting Godefroi to
aid in the formation of a cabinet, he accepted the
ministry of justice. He has the distinction of being
the first Jew to till a cabinet position in Holland,
and this is the more noteworthy since he was a con-
sistent and outspoken adherent of his faith, occupy-
ing the prominent position of president of the Jew-
ish consistory and having been a member of the
Institut zur Forderung Israelitischer Literatur dur-
ing the eighteen years of its existence.
Godefroi in his public life was a very ardent friend
of his people. At one time he exposed in the cham-
ber the abuses of the missionary efforts in Amster-
dam, and protested vigorously against the excesses
of the proselytizing zealots. As minister of justice
he contributed greatly toward securing the eman-
cipation of the Jews in Switzerland; the commer-
cial treaty between the Netherlands and Switzerland
was not ratified until assurance had been given of
the establishment of the legal equality of Jews and
Christians in the latter country. Again, on Sept.
23, 1872, and in Dec., 1876, he delivered exhaustive
speeches in the chamber, insisting that the commer-
cial treaty with Rumania should not be ratified un-
til guaranties should have been given that Nether-
land Jews in that country should enjoy perfect
equality before the law. The influence of this atti-
tude upon his Christian colleagues in the chamber
was evidenced after his death, when, early in July,
1882, the Rumanian commercial treaty was again the
subject of discussion in the chamber. A member,
Von Kerwijk, dwelt with fervor upon the intoler-
ance manifested in Rumania against the Jews, re-
ferring with indignation to the awful persecutions
they had endured in Russia, Germany, and other
countries. With creditable pride he pointed out that
Holland embodied the true spirit of religious free-
dom; and he illustrated the contention by showing
the honor and respect manifested toward Godefroi,
paying a loving tribute to the great Jewish states-
man,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserling, M. H. Godefroi, in Allg. Zeit.
des Jud. 1882, pp. 524, 529.
8 M. Co.
GODFATHER: Primarily, one who assists in
the performance of the rite of circumcision by hold-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 16
ing the child upon his knees; secondarily, one who
ina measure takes the place of the father, interess.
ing himself in the lad’s welfare. In the first senge
the function of the godfather undoubtedly has its
origin in Hebrew antiquity, and arose naturally
from the necessity of having some one to assist the
mohel, or circumciser, by holding the child firmly
during the performance of the operation. In Ta].
mudic literature the godfather is called “sandik”
or “saudikus,” a term which is usually identifieg
with the Greek ofvd:xoc (Latin, *syndicus”), in the
sense of “representative,” “patron,” “advocate.”
Kohut (“ Aruch Completum,” vi. 84) and Léw (“Le.
bensalter,” p. 84) claim, on the authority of the me.
dieval rabbinical works “ Rokeah ” and “ Or Zarua‘,”
that the correct reading is D°3)73D, and identify it
with the Greek otv7exvoc (“ companion to the father”:
comp. the German “Gevatter,” French “compére,”
Spanish “padrino,” which all contain this idea of
association with the father). A number of references
in Midrashim and other early rabbinical works tes.
tify to the existence of the godfather in the Talmudic
age (see the Midrash to Ps. xxxv. 10, and passages
in interpretation of Gen. xviii. 1 and of Neh. ix. 8.
also a reference in Pirke R. El.). The version of
the Targum of Jonathan ben Uzziel to Gen. |. 28 is
also an apparent allusion to the office. In medie-
val rabbinical literature the references to the office
are numerous, and it appears to have been well
established and highly esteemed. Thus the “ Hag.
gahot Maimuniyyot” (on the “Yad,” Milah, iii.)
mentions that many “covet and eagerly desire to
hold the child upon their knees as it is circumcised.”
The godfather became known in medieval times
by many names in addition to the ancient designa-
tion of “sandik.” Heis called “ ba‘al berit ” (master
of the covenant), “ba‘al bérit ha-milah ” (master of
the covenant of circumcision), “tofes ha-yeled”
(holder of the child), “ab sheni” (second father), and
also “shaliah” (messenger). The office was sur.
rounded with marks of honor, <A special seat, usu-
ally richly decorated, was prepared in thesynagogue
for the sandik, and if the circumcision happened on
a day on which the Law was read, he was entitled
to be “called up.” The privilege was reserved for
persons of standing and of good moral and religious
character. It was restricted also in other ways.
Rabbinical authorities (for instance, Rabbenu Perez
of Corbeil and Judah the Pious) decreed that the
privilege should not be given more than once to the
same man in the same family, neither should it, un-
less unavoidable, be given to women. This latter
prohibition was based on motives of delicacy.
Women were, however, permitted to participate in-
directly in the privilege as associates to the god:
father. They carried the child to the entrance of
the synagogue or to the room in which the circum:
cision was about to take place, where it was taken
by the godfather.
The modern manner of observing the custom is
practically identical with the medieval. The Get-
man Jews do not use the term “sandik,” but only
the German “Gevatter” and, for the godmother,
“Gevatterin.” According to Polish custom, the of
fice is divided into two parts, one performed by the
sandik, the other by the Gevatter, or, as he is termed
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
17
- corrupted Polish-Jewish form of the word,
in jaar “ Where there is difficulty in obtain-
the eae 3 to act as godfathers it is customary to
jng pe a
“ onieties of religious persons for this purpose.
form SO “eties are Known as “hebrot sandika’ut.”
These . stom has been to some extent affected
That t nocdl Christian practise is, no doubt, true,
ae 11 essential respects it rests on historic Jew-
bur re eae Reggio is, therefore, as has been well
Sen by Levinson, not justified in attacking it.
BIB LIOGRAE a : oe a a ru ies Bae Pbuniechon
he und Sagenkunde, Breslau, 1873; Glassberg, Zikron
ae la-Rishont As Bo Eee ; foge Die Beschneidung,
ip, 1996; Koha, Ob Berth, Cracow, B. D.
A.
GODING: Town of Moravia, Austria; it has a
population of about 10,000 (1900), of whom over
1.000 are Jews. The Jewish community there is one
of the oldest in the province. As appears from the
records of the old hebra kaddisha of Géding, two
Jewish cemeteries, an old and a new one, existed
there as early as 1682, at the time when the statutes
of the hebra kaddisha were drafted. In the month of
Nisan, 1693, these statutes were revised as published
by I. Willheimer in the Vienna “ Neuzeit” of 1864.
The community seems to have suffered greatly dur-
ing the Thirty Years’ war, and was so reduced that
for years it could not keep a rabbi of itsown. It
called upon outside rabbis to decide religious dis-
putes, appealing especially to the Moravian district
rabbi, Menahem Mendel Krochmal, who several
times decided questions for it (“ Zemah Zedek,” No.
33), At that time (between 1648 and 1661) large
vineyards and cellars in the villages in the vicinity
of Gdding were owned by wealthy Jews, In 1670
the community was considerably increased by Jew-
ish exiles from Vienna and Lower Austria. Ref-
ugees settled in large numbers in the neighboring
crownlands. Among them was David b. Isserl, who
had placed himself under the protection of Prince
Dietrichstein of Nikolsburg as “rabbi of Giding ”
(Sept. 1, 1672), paying the yearly sum of three
florins for protection; he officiated there until 1676.
Moses b. Isaiah, author of “Berit Matteh Mosheh,” a
large commentary to the Pesah Haggadah (Berlin,
1701), and for a time house rabbi of the “ Hofjude ”
Jost Licbmann at Berlin, passed a part of his child-
hood at Géding, after his parents had been expelled
from Vienna,
In 1689 and 1716 synods were held at Gidding, at
which important resolutions were adopted relating
to the communal life of the Moravian Jews. In the
middle of the eighteenth century the community
Seems still to have been an important one, for in
1753 it numbered 140 families, In June, 1774, all
the Jews were expelled from Géding by command
of the empress Maria Theresa; but after her death
Emperor Joseph II. recalled thirteen
ara of families to complete the number of
689 and 5,400 families allotted to Moravia.
1716. The neighboring estate of Kosteletz
1 had received twenty of the families ex-
Peet aact town. Theabove-mentioned thirteen
= a ormed the nucleus of the new community
~oding, which had increased to fifty families by
1864 new community at first had no rabbi of
2
God, Names of
Godliness
its own, but called at need upon the rabbi of the
neighboring Hungarian community of Holics. In
agreement with the law of 1890 relating to the organ-
ization of the congregations of Austria, an independ-
ent congregation was organized at Géding. For
several years after this date the rabbi of Lundenburg
officiated at Géding, but in 1899 the community
again inducted its own rabbi, after an interval of
126 years.
Among the noteworthy rabbis of Géding was
(Moses) Samson BACHARACH, who settled at Géding
in 1629, where he officiated for a number of years.
There he wrote, at the age of twenty-four, a treatise
on “the 118th Psalm” under the title “ Kol Shirim ” ;
the work, however, was carried down only to the
letter . About that time he also wrote several
“kinot ” (lamentations), describing the sufferings of
the Moravian Jews during the Thirty Years’ war;
these poems were inscribed on the walls of the old
synagogue of Giding. Abraham Parzova (d. 1758),
twice proposed as chief rabbi of Moravia, was at
one time rabbiof Géding. The present incumbent
(1903) is Dr. Ludwig Lazarus.
E. C. L. Laz.
GODLINESS: The quality of being godly, @.e.,
godlike, manifested in character and conduct ex-
pressive of the conscious recognition and realization
of man’s divine origin and destiny, and in the dis-
charge of the duties therein involved. Regarding
man as fashioned in the likeness of God (Gen. i. 26,
27), Judaism predicates of every man the possibility,
and ascribes to him the faculty, of realizing godli-
ness. According to its anthropology, this faculty
was never vitiated or weakened in man by original
sin.
In the Authorized Version “ godly” corresponds
to the Hebrew “hasid” (Ps. iv. 8, xii. 2 [A. V. 1]);
but the term “zaddik” (righteous; Ps. i. 5, 6)
equally connotes the idea. The characteristics of
the godly may best be derived from the fuller ac-
count given of their antonyms. The ungodly
(“resha‘im”; Ps. i. 1, 5) are described as men com-
passed about with pride, clothed in violence, speak-
ing loftily and corruptly, denying God’s knowledge,
prospering by corruption in this world, and wrong-
fully increasing their riches (Ps. Ixxiii.). They are
those that make not God their strength (2d. lii. 7).
Godliness is thus also the antithesis to the conduct
and character of the wicked (“mere‘im ”), the work-
ers of iniquity (“po‘ale owen”; 2). lxiv.), “who
whet their tongue like a sword”; who encourage
themselves to do evil, denying that God will see
them.
The godly, by contrast, is he whose delight is in
the Torah of Yuwu (ib. i. 2), or who, to use Micah’s
phrase, does justly, loves mercy, and walks humbly
with his God (Micah vi. 8). The godly may be
said to be actuated by the desire to learn of YHwu’s
way, to walk in His truth, and to keep his heart in
singleness of purpose to fear His name (Ps, 1xxxvi.
11). “To walk in God’s ways” (Deut. xiii. 5;
“halok ahare middotaw shel ha-kadosh baruk hu”:
Sotah 14a) is the definition of “ godliness,” with the
explanation that man shall imitate God’s attributes
as enumerated in Ex. xxxiv. 6, 7a (comp. Yalk.,
Deut. 873). As God is merciful, man also should be
Godliness
Gog and Magog
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA «1g
Se ee ee ee ee ee ee eS ee ae Po oe a ee
merciful; and so with respect to all other character-
istics of godliness.
According to the Rabbis, the beginning and the
conclusion of the Torah relate deeds of divine benev-
olence. God clothed the naked; He comforted the
mourners; He buried the dead (Sotah 14a; B. K.
99a; B. M. 30b based on Mek., Yitro, 2 [ed. Weiss,
68a; ed. Friedmann, 59b]; comp. the second “ bera-
kah” in the SHEMONED ‘EsrREH), Godliness thus
involves a like disposition and readiness on the part
of man to come to the relief of all that are in dis-
tress and to be a doer of personal kindness to his
fellow men (“gomel hasadim”; comp. Ned. 89b,
40a). Thus, whatever is involved in “ gemilut hasa-
dim” (see Carty) is characteristic of godliness.
Matt. xxv. 81 e¢ seg. is anenumeration of the impli-
cations of Jewish godliness, the con-
Charity the text (“then shall he sit upon the throne
Essence. of his glory”; 7b, xxv. 31) indicating
that this catalogue was derived from
a genuinely Jewish source (comp. Midr. Teh, to Ps.
exviii. 20, ed. Buber, p. 486). Jewish godliness
also inculcates modesty and delicate consideration
of the feelings of one’s fellow man. According to
Eleazar ben Pedat, “to do justly” (Micah vi. 8)
refers to judgments rendered by judges; “to love
mercy [love],” to the doing of acts of love (“ gemilut
hasadiin ”); “to walk humbly,” to quiet, unosten-
tatious participation in burying the dead and the pro-
viding of dowries for poor girls about to be married.
“Tt,” he continues, “for the prescribed acts the
Torah insists on secrecy and unostentatiousness, how
much more in the case of acts which of themselves
suggest the propriety of secrecy” (Suk. 49b; Mak.
24b). He who is charitable without ostentation is
greater than Moses (B. B. 9b). Greater is he that in-
duces others to do kindly deeds than one that
thoughtlessly or improperly performs them himself
(B. B. 9a). He who does justly and loves mercy
fills as it were the whole world with divine love (Ps.
xxxiii. 5; Suk. 49b). Jewish godliness is not an
“opus operatum,” as is so often held by non-Jewish
theologians. Charity without love is unavailing
(“en zedakah meshallemet ela lefi hesed she-bah” ;
Suk. 49b). It comprises more than accurate justice,
insistence being laid on “exceeding” justice (Mek.,
Yitro, 2, cited above).
Godliness also comprehends the sense of depend-
ence upon divine grace and of gratitude for the op-
portunity to do good. “Prayer is
Considera- greater than good works” (Ber, 32b).
tion for The question why God, if He loves
Others’ the poor, doesnot Himself provide for
Feelings. them, is answered by declaring it to
be God’s intention to permit man to
acquire the higher life (B. B. 10a). Jewish godliness
is careful not to put another to shame (Hag. 5a, on
public boastful charity); God’s consideration for
the repentant sinner (Hosea xiv. 2) is commended
to man for imitation (Pesik. 163b). He who gloats
over the shame of his fellow man is excluded from
the world to come (Gen. R.i.). “ Better be burned
alive than put a fellow man to shame ” (Sotah 10b).
It is ungodly to remind the repentant sinner of
his former evil ways; as is it to remind the descend-
ant of non-Jews of his ancestors (B. M. 58b). There
is therefore no forgiveness for him who puts ap.
other to shame or who calls him by an offensive
name (B. M. 58b), Godliness includes the forgiving
disposition (Prov. xvii. 9; Ab. i. 12, v.14; RL
17a). To be beloved of God presupposes to be be.
loved of men (Ab. iii. 18). Slander and godlinegg
are incompatible (Pes. 118a). Pride and godlinegg
are absolute contraries (Prov. vi. 16-19; Ta‘an. 7%.
Sotah 4b, 5a, b; ‘Ab. Zarah 20b: humility is the
greatest virtue). To beamong the persecuted rathey
than among the persecutors is characteristic of the
godly (Git. 36b). “God says, ‘Be like untome. Ag
I requite good for evil, so do thou render good foy
evil’” (Ex. R. xxvi.; comp. Gen. R. xxvi.).
E. ©. BK. G. H.
GODOWSKY, LEOPOLD: Russian pianist and
composer; born at Wilna Feb. 138, 1870. Ata very
early age he showed remarkable talent for music,
and when nine years old was taken upon the road
as a child wonder, traveling in Russia and Germany,
In 1882 he entered the Hochschule fiir Musik at
Berlin, where he remained for two years, at the end
of that time going to the United States to tour the
country, and the following year to Paris, where he
studied music until 1890, In 1887 he appeared in
England with much success, being heard even at
Marlborough House. He then traveled through Eu-
rope, and went again to the United States in 1891,
Since then he has played on both sides of the At-
lantic. He has been connected with the Thomas or-
chestra, the New York Philharmonic orchestra, the
Kneisel quartet, and other well-known orchestras,
He has composed over one hundred pieces.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Maurice Aronson, in The Reform Advocate,
Chicago, Feb. 24, 1900.
H. R. F. T. 4H.
GOEL (5x3): Next of kin, and, hence, redeemer.
Owing to the solidarity of the family and the clan
in ancient Israel, any duty which a man could not
perform by himself had to be taken up by his next
of kin. <Any rights possessed by a man which
lapsed through his inability to perform the duties
attached to such rights, could be and should be re-
sumed by the next of kin. This applied especially
to parcels of Jand which any Israelite found it nee-
essary to sell, This his go’cl, or kinsman, had to re-
deem (Lev. xxv. 25). From the leading case of
Jeremiah’s purchase of his cousin Hanancel’s prop-
erty in Anathoth (Jer. xxxii. 8-12) it would appear
that in later Israel at any rate this injunction was
taken to mean that a kinsman had the right of pre-
emption. Similarly, in the Book of Ruth the next
of kin was called upon to purchase a parcel of land
formerly belonging to Elimelech (Ruth iv, 8), It
would appear from the same example that another
duty of the go’el was to raise offspring for his kins-
man if he happened to die without any (7d. 5). This
would seem to be an extension of the principle of
the LEVIRATE MARRIAGE; hence the procedure of
“halizah” was gone through in the case of Naomi’s
go’el, just as if he had been her brother-in-law. The
relative nearness of kin is not very definitely deter-
mined in the Old Testament. The brother appears
to be the nearest of all, after whom comes the uncle
or uncle’s son (Lev. xxv. 49),
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
19
duty of the go’el was to redeem his kins-
lavery if sold to a stranger or sojourner
xv. 47-55). In both cases much depended
cea i. nearness or remoteness of the year of jubi-
bs ake a would automatically release either the land
ae person of the kinsman from subjection to
aa ie go’el had his duties, so he had his privi-
gs and compensation. If an injured man had
lege to damages and died before they were paid to
comet go’el would have the right to them (Lev. v.
ae [A. V. vi. 1-7]). The whole conception of the
“ o’el was based on the solidarity of the interests of
the tribe and the nation with those of the national
God, and accordingly the notion of the go’el became
spiritualized as applied to the relations between
God and Israel. God was regarded as the go’el of
Israel, and as having redeemed him from the bond-
age of Egypt (Ex. vi. 6, xv. 18). Especially in
Deutero-Isaiah is this conception emphasized (Isa.
xli, 14: xliii, 14; xliv. 6, 24, e¢ passim).
However, the chief of the go’el’s duties toward his
kinsman was that of avenging him if he should hap-
pen to be slain by some one outside the clan or tribe.
This custom is found in all early or primitive civili-
zations (comp. Post, “Studien zur Entwickelungs-
gesch. des Familienrechts,” pp. 118-1387). Indeed,
it is the only expedient by which any
Avenger of check could be put upon the tendency
Blood. todoinjuryto strangers. Here again
the principle of solidarity was applied
to the family of the murderer, and the death of one
member of a family would generally result in a ven-
detta. It would appear that this custom was usual
in early Israel, for the crimes of a man were visited
upon his family (Josh. vii. 24; II Kings ix. 26); but
at a very early stage the Jewish code made an ad-
vance upon most Semitic codes, including that of
Hammurabi, by distinguishing between homicide
and murder (Ex. xxi. 13, 14). It was in order to de-
termine whether a case of manslaughter was acci-
dental or deliberate that the CrTIEs of REFUGE were
instituted (Deut. xix.; Num. xxxv.). In a case
where the elders of the city of refuge were satisfied
that the homicide was intentional, the murderer was
handed over to the blood-avenger (“ go’el ha-dam ”)to
take vengeance on him. Even if it was decided that
it was a case of unintentional homicide, the man
who committed the deed had to keep within the
bounds of the city of refuge till the death of the
high priest, as the go’el could kill the homicide
with impunity if he found him trespassing beyond
the bounds (Num. xxxv, 26, 27).
In other legislations grew the principle of com-
muting the penalty by a money fine, known among
the Anglo-Saxons as “ wergild,” which varied in
amount according to the rank of the person; but
such a method was distinctly prohibited in the Is-
Taelite code (Num, xxxv. 31).
aoe would appear that the custom of the blood-
Sr still existed in the time of David, as the
kin ae Tekoah refers to it in her appeal to the
fear Sas xiv. 11), but no further trace of it is
in ae ater the concentration of the population
to Se sane fuller power to the courts of justice
cases of murder. The term “go’el” thus
Another
man from §
Godliness
Gog and Magog
became entirely confined to the spiritual sense of
“redeemer.” It is probably used in that way in the
celebrated passage in Job xix. 25: “I know that my
redeemer [go’el] liveth.” In the Talmud it is used
exclusively in this manner,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hastings, Dict. Bible, s.v.; Fenton, Early
Hebrew Life; W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage, pas-
sim ; idem, The Religion of the Semites, pp. 32 et seq., 272 et
seq.; Benzinger, Arch. pp. 335-336; Levy, Neuhebr. Worterb.
8.V.
E. C. a:
GOG AND MAGOG.—Biblical Data: Magog
is mentioned (Gen. x. 2; I Chron, i. 5) as the second
son of Japheth, between Gomer and Madai. Gomer
representing the Cimmerians and Madai the Medes,
Magog must be a people located east of the Cim-
merians and west of the Medes. But in the list of
nations (Gen. x.) the term connotes rather the com-
plex of barbarian peoples dwelling at the extreme
north and northeast of the geographical survey cov-
ered by the chapter. Josephus (“ Ant.” ii. 6, § 1) iden-
tifies them with the “Scythians,” a name which among
classical writers stands for a number of unknown
ferocious tribes. According to Jerome, Magog was
situated beyond the Caucasus, near the Caspian Sea.
It is very likely that the name is of Caucasian ori-
gin, but the etymologies adduced from the Persian
and other Indo-European dialects are not convincing.
In Ezek. xxxviii. 2 “Magog” occurs as the name of
a country (with the definite article); in Ezek. xxxix.
6 as that of a northern people, the leader of whom is
Gog. This “Gog ” has been identified with “Gy ges,”
but is evidently a free invention, from “ Magog,” of
either popular tradition or the author of the chapter.
The vivid description of the invasion indicates that
the writer, either from personal knowledge or from
hearsay, was acquainted with a disaster of the kind.
Probably the ravages committed by the Scythians
under Josiah (comp. Herodotus, i. 108, iv. 11) fur-
nished him with his illustrative material. As con-
tained in Ezekiel, the prophecy partakes altogether
of the character of the apocalyptic prediction; ¢.e.,
it is not descriptive of events but predictive ina
mystic way of happenings yet to be, according to
the speculative theology of the writer. Winkler’s
theory (“ Alt-Oriental. Forschungen,” ii. 187, iii. 36)
is that Alexander the Great and his invasion are the
background. But this anticipates the development
of the Gog legend, which, indeed, saw in the Mace-
donian king the Gog of the Biblical prophecy (see
Goa anD Macoa 1n ARABIC LITERATURE).
The Gog myth is probably part of a cycle which
goes back to the Babylonian-Assyrian Creation ac-
counts (the fight with and the defeat of the Dracon)
and, on the other hand, enters largely into the escha-
tology of Judaism and Christianity (see Bousset,
“The Anti-Christ Legend,” London, 1896; Gunkel,
“Schépfung und Chaos,” Gottingen, 1895).
For the rabbinical development of the legendary
material in connection with the advent of the “end
time ” and the Messiah, see EsCHATOLOGY.
E. G. H.
——In Arabic Literature: Gog and Magog, or
Yajuj and Majuj among the Arabs, are mentioned
in the Koran and by most Arabic geographers as
more or less mythical peoples. The chief interest in
Gog and Mago
Golden Rule, The
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 20
them centers about two points: (1) the wall built by
Dhu al-Karnain (Alexander the Great) to shut them
off from the rest of the world, and (2) their reap-
pearance asa sign of the last day. Geographically
they represent the extreme northeast, and are placed
on the borders of the sea which encircles the earth.
Descended from Japheth, son of Noah, they num-
ber twenty-four tribes. Six of these are known by
name (one being that of the Turks); and the number
of each tribe equals that of all the other people in
the world. Some say that they belong to the Cha-
zars, who are all Jews (Yakut, ii. 440).
They are of small stature, attaining to only one-
half the size of a man (another report, in Yakut, 1.
118, makes them larger). Very ferocious, they have
claws instead of nails, teeth like a lion, jaws like a
camel, and hair which completely hides the body.
Their ears, hairy on one side, are so large that they
use one for a bed and the other for a covering.
They live principally on fish, which are miraculously
provided for them. They resemble animals in their
habits; and Mas‘udi classes them among the beasts.
They used to ravage the country, devouring every
green thing; and it was to prevent this that the
people living near them begged Alexander to build
the wall shutting them in, It iseven said that they
were cannibals (Baidawi).
The wall is generally supposed to have been at
Derbent, although in later times it seems to have
become confused with the Great Wall of China
(Abual-Fida). The geographers frequently quote an
account of it given by Sallam, the interpreter. The
calif Wathik Billah had seen the wall destroyed in a
dream, and he sent Sallam to investigate. The latter
recounts marvelous things of the countries through
which he passed on his way thither, and gives a
minute description of the wall itself. It was built
in a gorge 150 cubits wide, and reached to the top
of the mountains. Constructed of iron bricks em-
bedded in molten brass, it hada peculiar red-and-
black striped appearance. In it was an immense
gate provided with a giant bolt, lock, and key, the
last of which was suspended by @ chain. Yakut
remarks on this story that God, who knoweth all
things, also knows whether it be true or not, but of
the existence of the wall there can be no doubt, since
it is mentioned in the sacred book.
As one of the signs of the approaching day of
judgment this wall will be broken down and Yajuj
and Majuj will appear at Lake Tiberias, the water
of which the vanguard of their hosts will entirely
consume, so that the rear will pass over on dry
ground. They will then proceed, eating every one
they meet, even corpses, and every green thing,
until they come to Jerusalem. Here, until God shall
destroy them, they will annoy Jesus and his faithful
companions, It issaid that Mohammed gave. Yajuj
and Majuj an opportunity to embrace Islam on the
occasion of his night journey to Jerusalem; but they
refused to do so, and consequently are doomed to
destruction.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Koran. suras xviii. 94-99, xxi. 96; the Koran
commentaries of Baidawi and others; Bibliotheca Geo-
graphorum Arabicorum, ed. De Goeje, vol. iii.; Mas*udi,
v.: Ibn al-Fakih, vi.; Ibn Kbordadhbeh, vii.; Yakut, Geogra-
phisches Wirterh.: Tabari, Annales; Yule, Marco Polo, i.
52 et seq., 250, London, 1875.
E, G. I. M. W. M.
GOITEIN, BARUCH (BENEDIT): Hunga.
rian rabbi; died at Hoégyész, Hungary, Nov. 16,
1842. He occupied the rabbinate of Hogyész for
many years, and wrote a work on Talmudic meth.
odology under the title of “ Kesef Nibhar” (Prague,
1827-28, and republished several times). It containg
160 principles of rabbinical law, giving the sources
as found in the Talmud and their application to
practical cases. The work is of great value because
of its lucid presentation of an intricate subject,
Goitein retired in 1841, and was succeeded in the
rabbinate of Hégyész by his son Hermann (Hirsch)
Goitein (b. 1805; d. 1860), who was himself suc.
ceeded by his son Elijahu Menahem (b. 1837 in
Hoégvesz; d. Sept. 25, 1902). Of the latter’s song
one, Hirsch (b. 1863; d. Aug. 28, 1903), was rabbi
at Copenhagen; another, Eduard, is rabbi at Burg.
kunstadt, Bavaria. Hirsch is the author of “Op.
timismus und Pessimismus in der Jiidischen Re.
ligionsphilosophie.” Eduard wrote “Das Vergelt.
ungsprincip im Biblischen und ‘Talmudischen
Strafrecht” (1893).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Winter and Wiinsche, Die Judische Littera.
tur, iii. 759; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. p. 775; Allg. Zeit,
des Jud. 1859, pp. 506-507.
D. A. R,
GOLD: One of the precious metals. There are
six Hebrew words which denote “gold,” four of
which occur in Job (xxviii. 15-17): (1) 357, the most
common term, used on account of the yellow color;
it is generally accompanied by epithets, as “pure”
(Ex, xxv. 11), “beaten,” or “mixed” (I Kings x,
16), “refined ” (I Chron, xxviii. 18), “fine ” (II Chron.
iii. 5). (2) Wap, “treasured,” fine gold (Job xxviii.
15; used elsewhere as an adjective with anf). (8)
1D, pure or native gold (Job xxviii. 17 and elsewhere);
the word }bpip (I Kings x. 18) cither is an adjective
formed from }5 or it stands for S\N (comp. Jer. x. 9
and Dan. x. 5). (4) 983, gold ore (Job xxii. 24). (5)
On, 2 poetical term the meaning of which is “hid-
den” (Cant. v. 11 and elsewhere). (6) y1in, also a
poetical term, the meaning of which is “yellow”
(Prov. viii. 10 and elsewhere). Gold was known from
the earliest times (Gen. ii. 11) and was chiefly used
at first for the fabrication of ornaments (Gen. xxiv.
22). It is only Jater, in the time of the Judges, that
‘gold is mentioned as money (Judges viii. 26). It
was abundant in ancient times (I Chron. xxii. 16;
II Chron. i. 15; and elsewhere), and a great quantity
of it was used to ornament the houses of the rich and
more especially the temples. Both sides of the
walls of the Tabernacle were covered with gold,
while the Ark of the Covenant and all the other
utensils were made of pure gold (Ex. xxv.- xxvii.
passim). In the Temple of Solomon even the floor
and the ceiling were covered with gold (I Kings vi.
22,80). Gold was used also in making the garments
of the high priest (Ex. xxviii. passtm). The crowns
of kings were of gold (II Sam. xii. 80). Solomon
and certain other kings had their shields and buck-
lers made of gold (I Kings x. 16, 17; I Chron.
Xviili. 7).
The countries particularly mentioned as producing
gold are: Havilah (Gen. ii. 11, 12), Sheba (I Kings x.
2, 10), Ophir (2. ix. 28; Job xxviii. 16), Uphaz
(probably the same as Ophir, })iN being a corrup-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
21
er, x. 9; Dan. x. 5), and Parvaim (II
Gold in the Bible is the symbol of
—_ xiii, 10), of nobility (Lam. iv. 1), of
pone ae (Isa. es Lam. iv. 2). Babylon was
aaa [saiah (xiv. 4) the “golden city,” and the
callec “ipire figures in Daniel (ii. 88) as a head of
a ‘rhe human head is compared to a golden
tion of DIN) (J
Chron. j11.
gold. ae
bowl (Bee! xii. 6). M. SE.
GOLDBAUM, WILHELM: German writer
and journalist ; born at Kempen, Posen, Jan. 6, 1848.
ie studying law for some time at the University
of Breslau, he became editor of the “ Posener Zei-
tung.” He lives at present (1908) at Vienna, and
since 1872 has been one of the editors of the “ Neue
Freie Presse.” He is the author of * Entlegene Kul-
turen” (1877) and “ Literarische Physiognomien ”
(1884), the first of which contains several sketches
relating especially to Jewish history and les a
GOLDBERG, ALBERT: German opera-singer;
born at Brunswick June 8, 1847. Educated at the
Conservatorium of Leipsic (1865-69), he made his
début at the court theater at Munich, and played,
between 1869 and 1883, successively in Mayence,
Bremen, Neu-Strelitz, Strasburg, Augsburg, and
Konigsberg, at the last-named place directing the city
theater for three years. In 1883 he became manager
of the opera at Leipsic, where he is at present (1903)
engaged. The Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha con-
ferred upon him the title of “court singer.” His
repertoire includes: Barbier, Don Juan, Hans Hei-
ling, Telramund, Wotan, Pupagino, ete.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Eisenberg, Biographisches a ae
8 oe i
GOLDBERG, BAER BEN ALEXANDER
(known as BAG [3°3]): Russian scholar; born at
Soludna near Warsaw in 1799; died at Paris May 4,
1884. When he was scarcely fifteen years of age
his parents contracted a marriage for him, and at
eighteen he had to provide for the wants of a fam-
ily. Having toiled without.success for more than
twenty-three years, he left his native country for
Berlin, where he hoped to earn a livelihood by his
knowledge of Hebrew and the Talmud.
The passion for science which prevailed at that
time among the German Jews Jaid hold of Goldberg,
and at the age of forty he resumed his neglected
education, taking up the study of Oriental lan-
guages. During his sojourn at Berlin he published
two works: “Kontres mi-Sod Hakamim,” a com-
mentary on the Jewish calendar, with chronolog-
Ical tables, Berlin, 1845; and “ Hofes Matmonim,”
a selection of essays contained in old and rare man-
uscripts, these essays including: (1) 28 decisions of
Solomon ben Isaac (Rashi); (2) letter of Sherira
Gaon on the methodology of the Talmud, and the
Succession of the Amoraim and Geonim; (8) “ Hai
ben Mekiz,” Abraham ibn Ezra’s psychology and
eschatology, according to Ptolemy; (4) “ Milleta de-
sa fables of the Geonim; (5) “Piyyut Asher
. ishesh,” a liturgic poem of ten strophes on the
Baruk she-Amar” of Isaac ibn Ghayyat.
Ret eo avere went to London, where he re-
aie Until 1852, there publishing, in collaboration
1 his brother, A. L. Rosenkranz, the astronom-
cbs J and Magog
Golden Rule, The
ical work “ Yesod ‘Olam,” by Isaac Israeli of Toledo,
with a German summary and mathematical figures
(Berlin, 1848). He finally settled at Paris (1852),
and there published: (1) “Sefer ha-Rikmah,” Judah
ibn Tibbon’s Hebrew translation of the Hebrew
grammar written in Arabic by Ibn Janah (Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, 1857); (2) “Birkat Abraham,”
Abraham Maimonides’ answers to the criticisms and
questions of Daniel the Babylonian (Lyck, 1859);
(3) “Sefer Taggin,” treating of the crowned letters in
the Scroll of the Law, after an old manuscript in the
Bibliothéque Nationale of Paris, and containing ex-
tracts from “ Badde Aharon” and “ Migdo!l Hananel ”
on the same subject, together with “Midrash Ka-
ton,” attributed to the tanna R. Akiba, on the coro-
nation and embellishments of the letters (published
at the expense of theabbé J. J. L. Bargés, Paris, 1856) ;
(4) “Risalat R. Judah ben Koreisch Tiharetensis
Africani ad Synagogam Judeorum Civitatis Fez”
(published in collaboration with the abbé J. J. L.
Bargés, Paris, 1867); (5) “ Ma‘aseh Nissim,” a transla-
tion from the Arabic into Hebrew of Daniel the Baby-
lonian’s critical work on Maimonides’ “Sefer ha-
Mizwot ” (Paris, 1866); (6) “Iggeret R. Sherira Gaon,”
a corrected edition of Sherira’s letter, with glosses
and notes (Mayence, 1873); (7) “Sefer ha-Zikronot,”
Elijah Levita’s Biblical concordance, after a manu-
script in the Bibliothéque Nationale of Paris (Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, 1878).
Goldberg contributed to the Hebrew periodicals
many valuable articles on Jewish history and liter-
ature.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Kereset Yisrael, p. 181; Ozar ha-
ee 1878, ii. 71; Univ. Isr. May, 1884; Fiirst, Bibl. Jud.
H. R. I. Br.
GOLDBERGER, SIGISMUND: Austrian
jurist; born in Jigerndorf, Austrian Silesia, June
15, 1854. He was educated at the gymnasium of
Troppau and at the University of Vienna. He
began the practise of law in Vienna in 1887. He has
written: “Oesterveichische Gewerbeordnung,” 1888;
“Das Neue Volksschulgesetz,” 1883; “ Die Directen
Steuern,” 1884; “Die Nenen Directen Steuern,”
1898; “Das Neue Oesterreichische Patentrecht,”
1899. S
GOLDBLATT, JACOB SEMENOVICH:
Russian painter; born at Suwalki 1860; studied at
the St. Petersburg Academy of Fine Arts from 1878
to 1888, gaining many prizes, among them the small
gold medal for “Priam Imploring Achilles,” and
the large gold medal] for “The Last Moments of
Socrates.” He graduated with the title of “class
artist of the first degree in historical painting,” and
with a scholarship from the academy with which he
completed his studies abroad. At present (1902)
Goldblatt is at the head of a private school of paint-
ing and sculpture at St. Petersburg.
H. R. J. GL.
GOLDEN CALF. See CaF, GOLDEN.
GOLDEN RULE, THE: By this name is desig-
nated the saying of Jesus (Matt. vii. 12): “All
things therefore whatsoever ye would that men
should do unto you, even so do ye also unto them.”
In James ii. 8 it is called “the royal law.” It has
been held to be the fundamental canon of morality.
*
1
Golden Rule, The
Goldfaden, Abraham
In making this announcement, Jesus is claimed to
have transcended the limitations of Jewish law and
life. The fact is, however, that this fundamental
principle, like almost if not quite all the “logia”
attributed to Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount,
had been proclaimed authoritatively in Israel. In
the instructions given by Tobit to his son Tobias
(Book of Tobit, iv.), after admonishing him to love
his brethren, the father proceeds to urge upon the son
to have heed of all his doings and to show himself
of good breeding (“derek erez”) in all his conduct.
“And what is displeasing to thyself, that do not
unto any other” (verse 15). Again, there is the well-
known anecdote in which Hillel explains to a
would-be proselyte that the maxim “not to do unto
one's feilow what is hateful to oneself” is the foun-
dation of Judaism, the rest being no more than com-
mentary (Shab. 31a). See BrorHErty Love and
DIDACHE.
It has been argued (by Hilgenfeld, Siegfried, and
recently by Bousset) that the maxim of Hillel ap-
plied, like the Biblical command “Thou shalt love
thy neighbor as thyself” (Lev. xix.
Meaning of 18), only to fellow Jews. In proof of
** Haber.” the contention, the word “haber” used
by Hillel is noted. As in a technical
sense HABER designates a member of the Pharisaic
fraternity of learned pious men, so here, according
to the scholars referred to above, it has a restricted
significance. The circumstances under which Hil-
lel was speaking preclude the possibility of his
having thought of the technical meaning of the
word. He addresses himself to a non-Jew who
at best could not for years hope to be a haber.
“Haber” is the usual rendering for the Hebrew
“rea‘” (neighbor). Much philological hair-split-
ting has been used to restrict the meaning of
this word to “compatriot,” but the context of Lev.
xix. 18 makes it plain that “rea‘,” as interpreted by
these “holiness laws” themselves (see ETutcs), em-
braces also thestranger. Tobit’s admonition proves
the same. After speaking of “brothers,” ¢.e., men
of his race and people, the father proceeds to give his
son advice regarding his conduct to others, “ the hired
man,” for instance; and in connection with this, not
in connection with the subject of his marriage, he
enjoins the observance of the Golden Rule.
Love of one’s friends and hatred of one’s ene-
mies are nowhere inculcated in Jewish literature,
despite the fact that Bousset (“ Religion des Juden-
thums,” p. 113), referring to Matthew v. 43, calls
this verse the comprehensive statement of Jew-
ish ethical belief and doctrine. Either the second
half of the sentence is an addition by a later hand,
or, what is more likely, it resulted from a misappre-
hension of a rabbinical argumentative question.
According to Schechter the statement should read
as follows: “You have heard that (“ettemar” =
éppé6y| it has been said {in the Law} ‘Thou shalt
love thy neighbor.’ Does this now mean [“sho-
mea‘ ani”) love thy neighbor [friend} but hate
thine enemy?” No. Nevertheless while Jewish
ethics has never commanded and paraded love for
an enemy, it has practised it (Chwolson, “Das
Letzte Passahmahl Christi,” p. 80). Hillel in an-
other of his sayings speaks of love for all creatures
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 20
(“ha-beriyyot”), which term certainly embraces al]
humanity. Nor is it true that the seeming uni-
versalism of this sentence (Abot i. 12) is restricteq
by the addition “bring them toward the Torah,”
as Bousset, following Hilgenfeld, would have it
appear. “Torah” is the equivalent of the modern
“religion,” and if Jesus in the Golden Rule de.
clares it to be “the law and the prophets,” he
puts down merely the more specific for the wider
implications of the word “torah.” R. Akiba ascribed
the wider application to the command * Thou shalt
love thy neighbor as thyself” (Lev. xix. 18; Sifra
Kedoshim to the verse [ed. Weiss, p. 89b]; comp.
Gal. v. 14; Rom. xiii. 8; Yer. Ned. 41c; Gen. R.
xxiv.; and Kohler in Erarcs, RagnpryicaL). The
needy or the dead of non-Jews were never outside
the range of Jewish brotherly love (Tosef., Git,
v. 4-5; Git. 61a). The phrase “mi-pene darke
shalom” (on account of the ways of peace), which
motivates Akiba’s injunction, does not inject a non-
ethical, calculating element into the proposition, but
introduces the principle of equity into it.
The negative form of the Golden Rule marks if
anything a higher outlook than the positive state-
ment in which it is cast in Matthew. “What you
would have others do unto you,”
Negative makes self and possible advantages to
Jewish — self the central motive; “ what is hate-
Form. ful to you do not unto another,”
makes the effect upon others the regu-
lating principle. But be this as it may, the Golden
Rule is only an assertion of the essentially Jewish
and rabbinical view that “measure for measure”
should be the rule regulating any one man’s ex-
pectation from others (rights), while more than meas-
ure should be the rule indicating one’s services to
others (duties). The former is phrased “ middah ke-
neged middah ” (Nedarim 32b), and “ ba-middah she-
adam moded modadin lo” (Sotah 8b); the latter is
“li-fenim mishshurat ha-din” (B. K. 99b), or to be
“ma‘abir ‘al middotaw,” that is, of a forgiving,
yielding disposition (see CRUELTY).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jacob Bernays, Gesammelte Abhandlungen,
i. 274-276; L. Lazarus, Zur Charakteristik der Ta
mudischen Ethik; Herm. Cohen, Die Ndchstenliehe im
Talmud, Marburg, 1888; idem, in Jahrbuch fiir Jiid. Ge-
schichte und Litteratur, 1900; L. Léw, Ges. Schriften, i.
45; Chwolson, Das Letzte Passahmahl Christi, p. 60, St
Petersburg, 1892; Giidemann, Niichstenliebe, in Oesterreich-
ische Wochenschrift, 1900; idem, Neutestamentliche Stu-
dien, in Monatsschrift, 18938, pp. 1 et. seqg.; Bacher, Ag. Tan.
i. 7 (2d ed., p. 4); Felix Perles, Bousset’s Religion des
Judenthums, Berlin, 19038; Hirsch, The Times and Teach-
ings of Jesus, Chicago, 1894.
K E. G. H.
GOLDENBERG, JOHN: Russian merchant;
born on the confines of Russia and Rumania; died
1895. He followed the army in the Crimea (1856-57)
asa sutler, and there acquired wealth, which he after-
ward greatly increased in Burma, He had settled
in Turkey after the war, and reached Burma through
Persia. In Burma he superintended for King The-
baw some of the large transactions in timber-cutting
by which the king was enriched. Goldenberg after-
ward resided for a time in Vienna and Wiesbaden.
By his will, made in England, he left the greater
part of his fortune of £160,000 ($800,000) to six Lon-
don charities and hospitals.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. June 21, 1895.
J.
G. L.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
23
OLDENBERG, SAMUEL LOB: Austrian
G ‘st: born at Bolechow, Galicia, 1807; died at
Hebra® 1 Jan. 11, 1846. He was the founder and
pavaage the Hebrew periodical “Kerem Hemed ”
oie and ii, Vienna, 1883 and 1886; vols. iii.-
Ore: cue, 1888-48), the appearance of which
ee ee epoch in Hebrew literature, in that it
ading-matter of a thoroughly scientific
Among its contributors were Rapoport,
Zunz, Slonimsky, Pineles, 8. D. Luz-
o, Abraham Geiger, Isaac Erter, Samuel
Brk, Tobias Feder, Joseph Perl, and Aaron Chorin.
The pure, classic Hebrew em ploy ed by these scholars
ut an end to the conceits and circumlocutions of the
idee Hebraists; and the spirit of criticism and his-
eteal investigation manifested in all their articles
‘valta blow in Galicia to Hasidism, which had for-
merly counted among its followers many of the con-
tributors to the “ Kerem Hemed.”
ny: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1846, pp. 104 1085 Gritz,
Beach. zi. 498, 498: Jost, Neuere Gesch. lit. 105-106.
GOLDENTHAL, JACOB: Austrian Oriental-
jst; born at Brody, Galicia, April 16, 1815; died at
Vienna Dec. 28, 1868; educated at the University of
Leipsic. In June, 1848, he became principal of the
Jewish school at Kishinef, Bessarabia, and held the
office for some years. He was appointed professor
of rabbinica and Oriental languages at the Univer-
sity of Vienna in Sept., 1849, and held the chair until
his death. Upon the nomination of Hammer-Purg-
stall he was elected corresponding member of the
Vienna Academy of Sciences. His chief literary
activity consisted in editing the following manu-
scripts: (1) “Mozene Zedek,” a treatise on philo-
sophical ethics by Al-Ghazali, translated into Hebrew
by Abraham ibn Hasdai, with an introduction on the
lives and works of Al-Ghazali and Ibn Hasdai, 1888.
(2) “Bi'ur ibn Roshd,” Todrosi’s Hebrew translation
of Averroes’ commentary on Aristotle's “ Rhetorica,”
with a historical and philosophical introduction,
1842. (3) “Mesharet Mosheh,” commentary by Ka-
lonymus on Maimonides’ system of Divine Provi-
dence, with his explanation of Ps. xix. and xxxvii.,
1845. (4) “Mafteah,” methodology of the Talmud
by Nissim ben Jacob of Kairwan, with introduction,
notes, and references, 1847. (5) “Mikdash Me’at,”
Moses Rieti’s didactic poem on ancient philosophy
and the history of Jewish literature, with an Italian
and Hebrew preface, 1851 (see “ Allg. Zeit. des Jud.”
1859, p. 124).
Goldenthal further published a catalogue of He-
brew manuscripts in the Imperial Library of Vienna,
1854, and an Arabic grammar in Hebrew for the use
of the Oriental Jews, with a French preface, 1857.
Volume i. of the “Denkschriften” of the Vienna
Academy of Sciences contains his “ Beitriige zu ei-
hem Sprachvergleichenden Rabbinisch-Philosophis-
chen Worterbuche.” He issued “ Das Neue Zion,”
4 monthly periodical, Leipsic, Nisan, 1845, of which
a one humber appeared. Another periodical which
le edited, “Das Morgenland,” was also short-lived.
BIBLIOGRAPHY - Brit ‘
7 ty: Brull, in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie,
Rone peeipsic. 1879: First, Bibl. Jud,: Zedner, Cat. Hebr.
der K. rit. Mus.: Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels.; Almanach
O45 64 at erlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1869, pp.
8eq.; Neue Freie Presse, 1868, No. 1556.
S. MAN.
marke
supplied re
character.
Krochmal, «
zatto, Regg!
Golden Rule, The
Goldfaden, Abraham
GOLDFADEN, ABRAHAM B. HAYYIM
LIPPE: Hebrew and Yiddish poet and founder of
the Yiddish drama; born at Starokonstantinov, Rus-
sia, July 12, 1840. He graduated from the rabbinical
school of Jitomir in 1866. For nine years he taught
in government schools,
first at Simferopol and
afterward at Odessa,
and in 1875 went to
Lemberg, where he
founded “ Yisrolik,” a
humorous weekly in
Yiddish which circu-
lated mostly in Russia,
but ceased to exist
six months later, when
its entrance to that
country was prohib-
ited. Goldfaden then
went to Czernowitz,
where he established
the “Bukowiner ls-
raelitisches Volks-
blatt,” which also had
only a brief existence.
While on a visit to Jassy, Rumania, in 1876, his
initial dramatic creation, “The Recruits,” was put
upon the first regularly organized modern Yiddish
stage. It was entirely his own creation, for he him-
self built the stage, painted the decorations, wrote
the piece, composed the music, and instructed the
actors. In 1878, when he already had a tolerably
good troupe of actors, and a repertoire of fourteen
pieces from his own pen, he carried his enterprise into
Russia and at first established himself in the Maryin-
ski Theater in Odessa. He conducted several very
successful tours through Russia until it was for-
bidden by the government to continue Yiddish
theaters (1888). After a few years in Rumania and
Galicia he revived his theater in Warsaw for a short
time, but ina German guise. In 1887 he came to
New York, founded the “New Yorker Illustrirte
Zeitung,” the first Yiddish illustrated paper, and
was connected with the Rumanian Opera-House of
that city. He returned to Europe in 1889, and lived
in Paris, but in 1903 he settled in New York. He
died Jan. 9, 1908.
Goldfaden’s Hebrew poetry, most of which is con-
tained in his “Zizim u-Ferahim” (Jitomir, 1865),
possesses considerable merit, but it has been eclipsed
by his Yiddish poetry, which, for strength of expres-
sion and for depth of true Jewish feeling, remains
unrivaled. He wasthe most Jewish ofall the Yiddish
poets, and his songs, especially those contained in
his popular plays, are sung by the Yiddish-speaking
masses in all parts of the world. His earliest col-
lection of Yiddish songs, “Das Yiidele,” has been
reprinted many times since its first appearance in
1866. But his fame rests on his dramatic produc-
tions, which number about twenty-five. The best
of them, “Shulamit” and “Bar Kochba,” are consid-
ered the most popular dramatic works in Yiddish.
Of the others, “Shmendrik,” “ Die Kishufmacherin,”
“Die Zewei Kune Lemels,” and “ Dr. Almasada ” de-
serve special mention. Most of them were reprinted
many times, both in Russia and in the United States,
Abraham Goldfaden.
Goldfogle, Henry
Goldschmidt, Hermann
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 24
a en,
and “Shulamit ” was played with considerable suc-
cess in Polish, German, and Hungarian transla-
tions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sefer Zikkaron, p. 18, Warsaw, 1890; Ha-
Meliz, No. 153; Eisenstein, The Fatherof the Jewish Stage,
in Jewish Comment, Nov. 1, 1901; Hapgood, Spirit of the
Ghetto, pp. 149 et seg., New York, 1902; Wiernik, Abraham
Goldfaden, in Minikes’ Hebrew Holiday Papers, vol. iv.,
No. 33; Jew. Chron. Oct. 18, 1899.
J. P. W1.
GOLDFOGLE, HENRY MAYER: Amerti-
can lawyer and politician; born in New York city
May 28, 1856; educated in the public schools and at
Townsend College; admitted tothe bar 1877. Gold-
fogie was elected judge of the municipal court,
New York city, 1888, and reelected, unopposed,
1898. He resigned to resume the practise of law in
1900. He has taken part in every Democratic state
convention, as delegate, during the past twenty-two
years, and in 1896 was elected delegate to the Dem-
ocratic national convention. He served several
termsas grand president of District No. 1, Independ-
ent Order of B’nai B’rith, and also as governor of
the Home for the Aged and Infirm, Yonkers. As
representative of the ninth district, New York city,
he was elected to the Fifty-seventh Congress (1901),
and was reelected for the same district to the Fifty-
eighth Congress (1908). During the year 1902 he
took steps in Congress looking to the removal of
the restrictions placed upon American Jews travel-
ing in Russia,
A. FR. H. V.
GOLDMAN, BERNARD: Austrian deputy;
born at Warsaw Feb. 20, 1842; died at Lemberg
March 28,1901. His father, Isaac Goldman, was the
owner of a Hebrew printing establishment. Bernard
attended the rabbinical school] in Warsaw under the
direction of the censor Tugendhold. At the out-
break of the Polish revolution in 1863 he was ar-
rested in a synagogue and sentenced to banishment
in Siberia. He managed to escape, however, and,
after a brief stay in Paris, settled in Lemberg (1870).
In 1876 Goldman was elected to the Galician Land-
tag as deputy for Lemberg, and thereafter took an
active interest in the welfare of the Galician Jews.
In the council of the Jewish community, of which
he was a member, he especially promoted the edu-
cation of his coreligionists. In the year 1894 he
was decorated by the emperor with the ribbon of the
Order of Francis Joseph.
8. J.C.
GOLDMANN, EDWIN ELLEN: German
physician; born at Burghersdorp, Cape Colony,
Nov. 12, 1862; studied medicine at the un‘versities of
Breslau, Freiburg, and London, graduating (M.D.)
in 1888. After having been for half a year assistant
at Weigert’s pathological-anatomical institute at
Frankfort-on-the-Main, he became assistant at the
university surgical hospital in Freiburg, which
position he held until 1898. He was admitted to
the medical faculty of the university as privat-
docent in 1891, was appointed assistant professor in
1895, and became chief physician at the hospital of
the evangelical sisters at Freiburg in 1898.
Goldmann has contributed several essays to pro-
fessional journals: “Zeitschrift fiir Physiologische
him to Vienna, where,
Chemie,” “Centralblatt fiir Pathologie,” “ Beitriige
zur Klinischen Chirurgie,” etc. He published, with
Middeldorp, “Croup und Diphterie.”
s. F. T. H.
GOLDMARK, KARL: Hungarian violinist,
pianist, and operatic composer; born at Keszthely,
Hungary, May 18, 1880, where his father, Ruben
Goldmark, was cantor in the synagogue. Karl re.
ceived a rudimentary musical education from a
schoolmaster in his
native town, and at
the age of twelve
entered the school at-
tached to the Oeden-
burger Musikverein.
At a concert given by
that society in 1843
Goldmark displayed
such talent that his
parents decided to send
after a preparatory
course with Jansa
(1848-44), he entered
the Conservatorium,
becoming a pupil of
Béhm (violin) and
Preyer (harmony).
Here he continued his
studies until the outbreak of the revolution in 1848,
when he was compelled to enter the army.
Upon completing his term of service his eldest
brother, Joseph Goldmark, enabled him to continue
his musical studies. Shortly after
Karl entered the Berlin Conservato-
rium, his brother, who had been an
active participant in the insurrection
and who was suspected of complicity in the assas-
sination of Minister of War La Tour, was compelled
to leave Hungary, and Karl was constrained to sus-
pend his studies and to seek an engagement ina
theater orchestra. In this he was successful; and
after a brief career as an orchestral player in Raab,
Hungary, he in 1850 secured a position as violinist
in the Josefstadter Theater, Vienna.
It was not until 1852 that Goldmark began to
compose, his first efforts showing clearly the influ-
ence of Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy. In 1857 he
gave a concert of his own compositions, which
proved a great success, and he determined, notwith-
standing the offer of an engagement at the Vienna
Carltheater, to discontinue his career as an orchestral
player. In 1864 he wrote his overture to “Sakun-
tala,” a composition which rapidly became popular
and served to establish the fame of the composer.
Goldmark’s next composition, the “Queen of
Sheba,” was played on March 10, 1875, at the
Vienna opera-house. Its reception was a most en-
thusiastic one, and the composer was
His Compo- compelled to appear forty times before
sitions. the curtain. The “Queen of Sheba”
has since been performed in nearly all
the principal cities of Europe and America; in Eng-
land, however, in consequence of the Biblical nature
of the subject, its production was forbidden. The
number of performances in Budapest alone amounted
Karl Goldmark.
Musical
Studies.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
25
It was produced at the Metropolitan
; Tew York, on Dec. 2, 1885, with An-
opera House, Tractor. On Nov. 19, 1886, Gold-
ee ad but somewhat less successful opera,
ete ee was produced at the Vienna opera-house,
: anes imfuence of Oriental, or, more properly
eneaking, Hebraic melody is everywhere discerni-
a) aaa s : sitions of Goldmark. While
ble in the best compos! - te pile
he has undoubtedly accomplished 1is ve wor un
the field of opera, several of his overtures are remal k-
able for their superb orchestration and power of
staphic description. In addition to the foregoing
compositions, Goldmark has written the operas:
oan Heimchen am Herd” (after Charles Dickens’
¥ The Cricket on the Hearth "): which was performed
at Vienna March 21, 1896, with great success ; “ Der
Kriersgefangene,” in two acts (Vienna, Jan. 1%,
1899): “Der Fremdling” (1899) ; and “Gotz von
Berlichingen,” played in the principal theaters of
Europe during the winter of 1902. Among the
other works of Goldmark the following are the most
noteworthy: the overtures “Penthesilea,” “Im
Fribling,” “Der Gefesselte Prometheus,” and “Sap-
pho”; the “Symphony in E-flat,” and that entitled
“Tsindliche Hochzeit”; two suites for violin and
piano; the violin concerto, op. 28, and several songs
and chamber-music compositions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sissibs Maitland, Masters of German
Musie, pp. 187-169; Riemann, Musik-Lexikon,
&. J. So.
GOLDSCHMIDT, ADOLPH: German art
eritic; born at Hamburg Jan. 15, 1868. After a
short business career he devoted himself (1885) to
the study of the history of art at the universities of
Jena, Kiel, and Leipsic. He took his degree in 1889
with the dissertation “ Liibecker Malerei und Plastik
bis 1530,” the first detailed analysis of the medieval
art of northeast Germany. After traveling through
Germany, Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands, Eng-
land, France, and Italy, on the presentation of his
work “Der Albanipsalter in Hildesheim und Seine
Beziehung zur Symbolischen Kirchenskulptur des
12, Jahrhunderts” (1898), he became privat-docent
at the University of Berlin. His “Studien zur
Geschichte der Siichsischen Skulptur in der Ueber-
gangszeit vom Romanischen zum Gotischen Stil”
(Berlin, 1902) traces the gradual development of Ger-
man sculpture with reference to the period of its
llorescence in the thirteenth century. His “Die
Kirchenthiir des Heil. Ambrosius in Mailand ” (1902)
for the first time showed the door of the Church of
“t. Ambrogio in Milan to be a monument of early
Christian art. He has also contributed a number of
important articles on North-German painting, Saxon
sculpture. and early medieval miniature manuscripts
ty the “Repertorium fiir Kunst wissenschaft,” “Zeit-
. —— Curistliche Kunst,” and “Jahrbuch der
i) ‘teussischen Kunstsammlungen.”
: D. J.
ey HENRIETTE (née Be-
ic. aes eas A. M. Goldschmidt (m.
ee ae Ani ATotoschin, Prussia, Nov. 23, 1825;
tie Pit - sae at Leipsic. She was one of
af eae : ‘¢ movement for the emancipation
nu Germany. In 1866 she entered the
to over 169.
Goldfogle, Henry
Goldschmidt, Hermann
Allgemeine Deutsche Frauenverein; in 1867 she was
elected to the board of directors, becoming later its
vice-president. She founded in Leipsica Verein fiir
Familien- und Volkserziehung, in connection with
which were established two public kindergartens
and an institution for the training of kindergarten
teachers which has already rendered about 1,000
young women capable of earning their livelihood.
Asa result of one of her lectures the municipal in-
dustrial school for girls was founded at Leipsic.
Besides numerous articles on the Frdbel system of
education she wrote “Ideen tiber Weibliche Erzie-
hung im Zusammenhange mit dem System Fried-
rich Frébel’s.” Though in her seventy-eighth year,
she still conducts the various institutions which she
helped to found ; and at the Leipsic Teachers’ Asso-
ciation she was invited to speak on the fiftieth an-
niversary of the death of Frébel. This is the only
instance in which a German teachers’ association
has asked a woman not a teacher by profession to
speak on a pedagogic subject.
BELGE SE Ey: Auguste Schmidt, in Newe Bahnen, Dec. 1,
De
8. R..P,
GOLDSCHMIDT, HERMANN: ~ German
painter and astronomer; born at Frankfort-on-the-
Main June 17, 1802; died at Fontainebleau Sept. 10,
1866. Destined originally for a commercial career,
he spent a dozen years in his father’s warehouse,
devoting, however, his leisure to painting. At length
he repaired to Munich, where he studied under Cor-
neliusand Schnorr, 1n1886 he settled in Paris, and
exhibited his first picture, “Woman in AJgerian
Costume.” This was followed by many others until
Goldschmidt became famous as a historical painter.
One of his later works was the “ Death of Romeo
and Juliet” (1857).
In 1847 Goldschmidt became interested in astron-
omy. He procured a little two-inch telescope, and
with this discovered (Nov. 15, 1852) a minor planet
named “ Lutetia” by Arago. With a two and two-
third inch telescope he discovered four more plan-
ets, Pomona, Atalanta, Harmonia, and Daphne.
Next Goldschmidt procured a four-inch telescope,
with which he found nine more planets, Nysa,
Eugenia, Doris, and Pales (discovered in the same
night), Europa, Alexandra, Melete, Dane, and Pan-
opea, Thus within nine years Goldschmidt discov-
ered fourteen minor planets with nothing larger than
a small telescope, and from the windows of his garret,
which necessarily afforded a very limited view of the
heavens.
Goldschmidt’s work was not confined to the dis-
covery of planets. He was one of the observers
who journeyed to Spain to watch the solar eclipse of
1860. The Lalande astronomical prize was awarded
to him eight times by the Academy of Sciences; he
received the cross of the Legion of Honor in 1857
and the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
of London in 1861. In 1862 the French government
awarded him a pension of 1,500 francs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Monthly Notices of the Royat Astronomical
Society, xxvii. 115; Meyers Konversations-Lexikon,
GOLDSCHMIDT, HERMANN (Herman
Taber): German novelist and playwright; born at
Frankfort-on-the-Main July 18, 1860. He attended
Goldschmidt, Julius
Goldschmidt, Meir Aaron
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 26
————— ee . . ee
the local gymnasium, and studied law at the uni-
versities of Heidelberg, Leipsic, and Marburg. He
was first referendar and then (in 1888) became “ Ge-
richtsassessor ” in his native city. Soon thereafter
he embraced a literary career. He published, among
other works, a social novel, “ Ein Weg zum Frieden ”
(1890), and in the following years he wrote the plays
“Fortuna,” “Der Freie Wille,” “Goldene Lige,”
“Hans der Tréiumer,” “Ewige Liebe,” “Kin Gltick-
liches Paar,” and “ Frau Lili,” all of which have been
produced on German and foreign stages, including
the court theaters of Berlin, Vienna, Munich, the
Berliner Deutsches Theater, ete. S
GOLDSCHMIDT, JULIUS: German physi-
cian; born at Mayence Feb. 12, 1848. He studied
at the universities of Wiirzburg and Giessen, receiv-
ing from the latter his degree as doctor of medicine
in 1866. Accompanying in the same year a patient
to Madeira, he established himself there as a physi-
cian, and soon became one of the leading practi-
tioners, In Funchal, the capital of the island, he
founded and endowed an international hospital for
sailors. In 1896 he removed to Paris, where he is
now (1903) practising.
Goldschmidt’s special field is the treatment of pul-
monary diseases and leprosy, on which latter disease
he isa high authority, It was partly through his
endeavors and influence that in 1897 a congress for
the consideration of leprosy was convened at Berlin.
Among Goldschmidt’s essays may be mentioned:
“Sur la Curabilité de la Lépre,” in “ Bulletin de Méde-
cine,” ix.; “Erste Behandlung der Lepra Durch
Tuberculin,” in “Deutsche Medizinische Wochen-
schrift,” 1891; “ Kochsche Reaction und Heilwirkung
bei Lepra Tuberosa,” 7. 1892, No. 4; “ Wirkung
der Tuberculosis auf Lepra,” 72>. No. 15; “Immu-
nitit Gegen Influenza Durch Vaccinirung mit Ani-
maler Lymphe,” 7b. No. 45; “Behandlung und
Heilung der Lepra Tuberosa mit Europhen,” in
“Therapeutische Monatsschrift,” 1893; “Zur Aetio-
logie und Prophylaxis der Lepra,”-in “ Berliner
Klinische Wochenschrift,” 1894.
He is also the author of the following works:
“Madére, Etudiée Comme Station d’ Hiver et d’Eté,”
2d ed., Paris, 1884; “ Madeira und Seine Bedeutung
als Heilungsort” (with Mittermeyer), 2d ed., Leip-
sic, 1885; “Die Lepra auf Madeira,” 7b. 1891; “La
Lépre,” Paris, 1894.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lex. s.v., Leipsic, 1901.
8. F. T. H.
GOLDSCHMIDT, LAZARUS: German wri-
ter; born at Plungiany, Lithuania, Russia, Dec. 17,
1871. He received his rabbinical education at the
Talmudic school in Slobodki, near Kovno. In 1888
he went to Germany, and in 1890 entered the Berlin
University, where, under the guidance of Professors
Dillmann and Schrader, he devoted himself to the
study of Oriental languages, especially Ethiopic.
Goldschmidt, who at present (1903) lives at Berlin,
has published the following works: “Das Buch
Henoch,” retranslated from the Ethiopic into He-
brew, and edited with introduction, notes, and
explanations (Berlin, 1892); “Bibliotheca Aethio-
pica,” a list and description of all the known Ethiopic
prints (Leipsic, 1898); “Das Buch der Schopfung
(MVY" IBD),” critical text, translation notes, ete
(Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1894); “Baraita de-Ma‘age
Bereshit,” the story of the Creation, ascribed to
Arzelai bar Bargelai (Strasburg, 1894; this sup.
posed Midrash is an Aramaic translation of the Ethi.
opic “ Hexaemeron” of Pseudo-Epiphanias, edited
by Trumpp in Ethiopic with a German translation,
Munich, 1882, and the name of the supposed author
is an anagram of Goldschmidt’s Hebrew name, Elie.
zer ben Gabriel); “ Vita do Abba Daniel,” Ethiopie
text, published, translated, and annotated in col.
laboration with F. M. E. Pereira (Lisbon, 189%),
“Die Aethiopischen Handschriften der Stadtbibli.
othek zu Frankfurt a. M.” (Berlin, 1897). In the
year 1896 Goldschmidt commenced the publication
of the Babylonian Talmud (from the edito princeps),
with German translation, variants, and explanations,
Up to the present (1903) the sections Zera‘im and
Mo‘ed have been published, together with a part of
the section Nezikin. Both the edition of the text
and the translation have been severely criticized
by David Hoffmann in Brody’s “Zeitschrift fir
Hebrifische Bibliographie,” i. 67-71, 100-108, 152-
155, 181-185. Goldschmidt replied in a pamphlet,
“Die Recension des Herrn Dr. D. Hoffmann iiber
Meine Talmudausgabe im Lichte der Wahrheit,”
Charlottenburg, 1896. See also “Theologische Li-
teraturzeitung,” 1896, pp. 477-479, and 1897, pp.
63 1-633.
D. L. Grt.
GOLDSCHMIDT, LEVIN: German jurist;
born at Danzig May 30, 1829; died at Wilhelmshdhe
July 16, 1897. From 1847 to 1851 he pursued his
studies at the universities of Berlin, Bonn, and
Heidelberg, receiv.
ing his doctor’s de-
gree in 1851 from the
University of Halle.
He practised for sev-
eral years in the
courts of Danzig, be-
came privat-docent
at the University of
Heidelberg in 1855,
and was appointed
associate professor in
1860. In the years
1857-60 he published
“Kritik des Ent-
wurfs eines Handels-
gesetzbuchs fiir die
Preussischen Staat-
en” and “Gutachten
tiber den Entwurf
eines Deutschen Handelsgesetzbuchs nach den Besch-
lissen Zweiter Lesung,” which at once attracted at-
tention to him as acritical jurist. During the same
period he published “Der Lucca-Pistoja-Aktien-
streit,” Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1859 (Supplement,
1861). He is the founder (1858) of the “ Zeitschrift
fiir das Gesammte Handelsrecht.”
Goldschmidt’s scholarship was next displayed in
his “ Encyclopidie der Rechtswissenschaft im Grund-
riss,” Heidelberg, 1862. He then began the great
Levin Goldschmidt,
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
27
: cupied him during the remainder of
work yh ne which he did not live to complete,
his lifetin Hlandbuch des Handelsrechts,” Er-
pamelys on 68. This is the work with which his
ee a historical jurist is identified, it being rec-
am
wed as a masterly presentation of the general
Coy of commercial law.
= 1866 Goldschmidt was promoted toa professor-
a idical faculty at Heidelberg. He next
1 i jul
ate eke appointment of “Justizrat” in the Bun-
Hesgericht at Leipsic, afterward occupying a judicial
‘tion at the Reichsoberhandelsgericht. In 1875
ange came professor of commercial law in Berlin
ae esl and received the title “Geheimer Justiz-
a From 1875 to 1877 he was also a member of
ae German Reichstag, representing the city of
eas further publications the following deserve
special mention: “Das Dreijahrige Studium der
Rechts- und Staatswissenschaften,” Berlin, 1878;
«Erwerbs- und Wirtschaftsgenossenschaften, Stu-
dien und Vorschlige,” Stuttgart, 1882; “ Rechts-
studium und Prifungsordnung,” 7. 1887; “Die
Haftpflicht der Genossen und das Umlageverfahren,”
Berlin, 1888; “System des Handelsrechts,” Stutt-
gart, 1887, 4th ed., 1891.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Riesser, Geddichtnissrede, Berlin, 1897 (with
portrait); Pappenheim, Vachruf, in Zeitschrift ftir Han-
delsrecht, xlvii.; Deutsche Juristenzeitung, li., No. 15; Ad-
ier, Levin Goldschmidt, in Bettelheim, Biographisches Jahr-
ake ii, 119-122, M. Co.
GOLDSCHMIDT, MEIR AARON: Danish
political writer and journalist; born Oct. 26,
1819, at Vordingborg, an ancient cat! edral town
situated on the south coast of the island of
Seeland, Denmark; died at Copenhagen Aug. 15,
1887,
The dream of his youth was to become a famous
physician, but as Danish church orthodoxy pre-
vented him, because he was a Jew, from taking
his B.A. degree (1836), Goldschmidt gave up the
academic course, and in 1837 started the “ Nastved
Ugeblad” (later called “Sjallandsposten ”), a polit-
ical weekly. He at once came into conflict with the
authorities, and was fined heavily, and condemned
to submit his publication to censorship for a year.
Goldschmidt sold the paper, and as the Danish king
(Frederick VI.) died at this time and a liberal gov-
ernment was expected under his successor (Christian
VIII.), he moved to Copenhagen, and again entered
Into politics, with a new paper, the “Corsaren ” (Oc-
tober, 1840). This journal was a brilliant but reck-
less paper, representing extreme republicanism or
socialism, and taking a strong stand against the
crown, which had failed to grant the expected liber-
ties. For this the government promptly condemned
Goldschmidt to imprisonment on bread and water
for twenty-four days, and to the permanent cen-
sorship of his paper. But he was undaunted and
ea the publication of the “Corsaren.” It
Buble ae aoe into conflict with individual
ine ana ee Beery rare won him
well (i846) ac ke novels of his to sell so
(1847), | at he went abroad on the proceeds
* in Coppet he met the reformed priest
Goldschmidt, Julius
Goldschmidt, Mer Aaron
Piguet and was much influenced by him. Gold-
schmidt himself admits that an unconscious Chris-
tian influence is perceptible in “ Nord og Syd,” which
he edited 1847-59. This magazine was also polit-
ical, but of a much more moderate tone. In 1861
Goldschmidt started another magazine, “Ude og
Hjemme,” but soon discontinued it, and, thoroughly
disgusted with Danish affairs, he moved to England
in 1861. He returned, however, in 1862, but from
that time on remained outside of politics. His career
is not unlike that of Georg BRANDES, with this dif-
ference, that Gold-
schmidt used politics
where Brandes used
literature to rouse the
Danish apathy, hoping
to change its philistine
attitude toward the
problems of life. Gold.
schmidt’s social-polit-
ical influence was imn-
mense, though nega-
tive as far as visible
and systematic results
were concerned, be-
cause he stood alone
and had to fight the
crown as well as the forces of mediocrity.
After his return in 1862 Goldschmidt devoted
himself entirely to literature, in which he became
especially remarkabie as a master of
In style. As a man he was romantic-
Literature. mystic as much as he was Jewish, but
his mysticism was Oriental in cast; and
his romanticism was original and neither ecclesias-
tical nor medieval. These traits are evident in “En
Jéde ” (1845), which has been translated into sev-
eral European languages; “Ravnen” (1868-69);
“ Wjemlés” (1859); “I den anden Verden” (1869).
He wrote also “Fortallinger og Skildringer” (18638-
1865), “ Arvingen ” (1867), and several plays, among
which “ Rabbineren og Ridderen ” (1869) and “Sve-
denborg’s Ungdom” (1863) were staged at the
Royal Theater.
Goldschmidt endeavored to construct a philosoph-
ical world-system on the basis of Nemesis, but his
work on this subject has not yet been published. It
isa noteworthy attempt to translate Hebrew theism
into abstract thought and enliven that thought with
moralsentiment. Goldschmidt called the last volume
of his autobiography “ Nemesis ” (2 vols., 1877), and
everywhere in it points to Nemesis as shaping his
life. Thesame thought is found in “ Ravnen ” (1868-
1869) and “ En Skavank ” (1867). In the latter novel
he connects his doctrine with ancient Egyptian wor-
ship. Goldschmidt is remarkable for his psycholog-
ical insight and his masterly delineation of Jewish
character, especially in its profounder aspects.
Typical in this respect are his “Maser” and “ Av-
rohmda Nattergal.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Goldschmidt, Livserindringer og Resultater,
1877; S. Kierkegaard, Bladartikler, 1857: O. Borchsenius,
Fra Fyrrerne, 1880; G. Brandes, Kritikker og Portrdter,
(Works i., 1899); Jos. Michaelsen, Fra min Samtid, 1890;
Biografisk Lexicon, vi.; Salmonsen's Konversations-
ree ue P. Hansen, Illustreret Dansk Litteratur His-
€, 1902, i.
Ss. Cc. H. B.
Meir Aaron Goldschmidt.
Goldschmidt, Otto
Goldsmid
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 28
ee OE ne eee eG an a a ana
GOLDSCHMIDT, OTTO: German pianist and
composer; born at Hamburg Aug. 21, 1829. He
studied under Jacob Schmidt and F. W. Grund;
with Hans von Biilow under Mendelssohn at the
Leipsic Conservatorium ; and in 1848 under Chopin in
Paris. In1849he played at a concert given in Lon-
don by Jenny Lind; in 1851 he accompanied her on
a tour through America; and on Feb. 5, 1852, was
married to her at Boston. From 1852 to 1855 they
lived in Dresden, and from the latter year until
Madame Goldschmidt’s death (1887), in London and
at Malvern, Worcestershire.
In 1861 Goldschmidt was elected an honorary
member of the London Philharmonic Society; in
18683 he was appointed vice-principal of the Royal
Academy of Music (London); in 1863 and 1866 he
conducted musical festivals at’ Diisseldorf and Ham-
burg respectively ; and in 1875 he founded the Bach
Choir in London.
His principal works are: “Ruth,” an oratorio,
performed at the Hereford musical festival of 1867;
pianoforte concerto, op. 10; trio for pianoforte, op.
12; 12 studies for the same instrument, op. 18; 12
songs, op. 8, 9; and some part-songs. With Bir
William Sterndale Bennett he edited “The Chorale
Book for England.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Riemann, Musik-Lexikon; Meyers Konver-
sations-Lexikon ; Grove, Dict. of Music and Musicians.
s.
GOLDSCHMIDT, SIEGFRIED: German Ori-
entalist; born at Cassel Oct. 29, 1844; died at Stras-
burg Jan. 31, 1884. He was educated at the universi-
ties of Leipsic, Berlin, and Tiibingen, graduating
(Ph.D.) in 1867. His doctor’s dissertation, “ Der
Vilte Prapathaka des SAmaveda-Arcika in der Nai-
geya-Cakhaé Nebst Andern Mitteilungen tiber Die-
selbe,” published in the “ Monatsberichte der Koénig-
lichen Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften ”
(1868, pp. 228~248), was an edition of the single
portion which has been preserved of the Kauthuma
recension of the Sama-Veda. Goldschmidt contin-
ued his studies, first at Gdttingen and later in Paris,
where he gained a thorough mastery of the French
language. On the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian
war he returned to Germany and enrolled as a vol-
unteer. Hetook part in the siege of Paris. At the
close of the war Goldschmidt was appointed assist-
ant professor in the newly created University of
Strasburg, with which he was connected during the
remainder of his life. He became professor Sept. 12,
1881, but was fated never to sit in the faculty. Spinal
consumption, the disease which ended his life, had
already sapped his vitality, and after two and a half
years of suffering death came as a welcome relief.
Siegfried Goldschmidt was not a prolific writer,
He published but fourteen scientific studies, mostly
short notes in Kuhn’s “ Zeitschrift fir Vergleichende
Sprachforschung” and the “ Zeitschrift der Deutschen
Morgenliandischen Gesellschaft.” His interest was
centered upon Prakrit, and brief as his articles were
they formed valuable contributions to the investiga-
tion of the medieval languages of India. His most
important work was his edition of the great Prakrit
poem ascribed to Kalidasa, the Ravanavaha or Sétu-
bandhu (Strasburg, 1880-84). This is in two vol-
umes, the first of which comprises the text and an
index of the Prakrit words, in preparing whic,
Siegfried was assisted by his brother Paul. while th,
second part contains the German translation, The
only other book published by this scholar was a yg},
ume of “Prakrtica” (7d. 1879), containing gray,
matical studies on Prakrit.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Literaturbiatt fiir Orientalische Biblig,
graphie, i, 379-380.
g, L. H. G,
GOLDSCHMIEDT, GUIDO: Austrian chen,
ist: born in Triest Oct. 5, 1850; studied at Vienna
and Heidelberg. First as assistant, later as assoc.
ate professor at the chemical laboratory of Vienna
University, he published a number of importay
articles on organic chemistry, for which he receiveg
the Lieben prize of the Imperial Academy of Sci.
ences on different occasions. After a short activity
as professor at the High School for Agriculture
in Vienna, he was called as professor to the univer.
sity at Prague in 1892, He won distinction by his
demonstration of the constitution of papaverin,
of which he had made a thorough study. In con.
junction with several of his pupils, as well as ip.
dependently, he published a large number of treatiseg
on substances of the pyridin and quinolin order, be.
sides essays in other departments of organic chem.
istry. The University of Prague elected him dean
of the philosophical faculty in 1900. He is also a
member of the council of the university and of the
Imperial Academy of Sciences.
8 A. Kt.
GOLDSMID: A family of English financiers,
who trace descent from a certain Uri ha-Leviof Em-
den, as shown in the pedigree on opposite page.
The following were some of the prominent mem-
bers of the family:
Aaron F. Goldsmid: London merchant and
founder of the Goldsmid family of England; born
at Amsterdam; died June 3, 1782. He was the son
of Benedict Goldsmid, a Hamburg merchant. In
1765 he left Holland with his family to settle in
London, where he founded the firm of Aaron Gold-
smid & Son, subsequently Goldsmid & Eliason.
The firm of Aaron Goldsmid & Son experienced seri-
ous reverses through the failure of Clifford & Sayer,
one of the principal housesin Holland. Hence only
George, the eldest son, entered into partnership with
his father. The other sons founded new businesses
for themselves in which they amassed large fortunes.
Goldsmid left four sons and four daughters. The
second son, Asher, was one of the founders of the
firm Mocatta & Goldsmid, bullion-brokers to the
Bank of England. Benjamin and Abraham were
famous as financiers and philanthropists.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Levy Alexander, Memoirs of, Benjamin Gold-
smid of Roehampton, 1808; James Picciotto, Sketches of
Anglo-Jewish History.
J. I. H.
Abraham Goldsmid: English financier and
philanthropist; born in Holland in 1756 (2); died at
Morden, near London, Sept. 28, 1810; third son of
Aaron Goldsmid. About 1765 he went to England
with his father, and soon entered into partnership
with his brother, Benjamin Goldsmid, the tw?
starting in business as bill-brokers about 1777. They
afterward took a house in Capel street, and soon be
came successful bidders for the national loan. It
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
don the Stock Exchange as an unprece-
+ that men, till then scarcely known,
jd succeed in wresting the negotiation of gov-
shoult 7 ans from the hands of the banking clique.
ernment Be e first step in their rise to eminence; and
been very successful in negotiating sev-
they acquired considerable wealth.
afrer the death of his brother Benjamin in 1808,
Abraham continued the operations of the firm. In
was regarde
Goldschmidt, Otto
Goldsmid
pean Magazine, lviii.. The Morning Post, Loudon, Oct. 9,
1810; Young Israel, vol. i., No. 6; Picciotto, Sketches of An-
glo-Jewish History, pp. 232-254, 259, London, 1873; Jet.
World, March, 1878.
Albert Goldsmid: Major-general in the British
army; born in 1794; died Jan. 6, 1861; son of Ben-
jamin Goldsmid. He entered the army in 1811 as
cornet in the 12th Light Dragoons, and the follow-
ing year went on active duty in Spain, where he
continued to serve until the close of the war in 1814.
Uri ha-Levi of Emden (¢. 1593)
Benedict cone of Hamburg
Aaron Goldsmid, London merchant (d. 1782)
George = «+». Cohen Asher = .... Keyser
Sir Isaac Lyon, Bart. (1841)
== 1804 Isabel ‘eae
Sir Francis Henry Frederick David (b. 1812)
Moses Goldsmid
Benjamin = Jessie Salomons Abraham = .... Eliason 4 daughters
Rachel] = Count Solomon Emma = 1850 Nathaniel
(2d bart.) = Caroline Samuel Henry Avigdor (d. 1902) Monteflore
l Elim Henry d’Avigdor Claude Joseph Montefiore
Sir Julian (a.1896) Helen = Mary = : :
(3d bart.) = Lionel Frederick D, Osmond eae ie ca
Virginia, daugh- Lucas Mocatta Goldsmi
ter of A. Philipson |
] son and
8 daughters 1 daughter
O. E. v’A. G.
J.
1810 the house of Baring & Goldsmid contracted for
the government loan of £14,000,000 ($70,000,000).
Sir T. Baring, with whom the Goldsmids had been
connected in business, died at this juncture; and his
death added greatly to Goldsmid’s many burdens,
he having now to struggle alone. In addition, a
| powerful organization
had been formed
against the loan, and
the resources of the
two houses of Baring
& Goldsmid combined
were scarcely sufficient
to combat it.. The
price of scrip fell
: daily, and the fortunes
“AG § of Goldsmid fell with
a Eh, ee ¢ it. At the same time,
"4 We 27 the East India Com-
pany, which had
placed in his hands for
sale bills of exchange
ue to the value of half
& million, became alarmed, and claimed the price of
on ate - The payment was fixed for Sept. 28,
ay Goldsmid was unprepared, and on the fol-
ee morning he was found dead, with a pistol
Y his side,
oe Goldsmid firm Subsequently made great ef-
‘8 to discharge their liabilities. By 1816 they had
ae fully fifteen shillings on the pound; and in 1820
a setae on the petition of the creditors, annulled
aiming portion of the debts.
BIBLIOGRAPHY ;
. : Dict. National Biography: :
a : graphy; Gentleman's
gazine, 1xxx.: The Morning Chronicle, London, Sept. and
t., 1810; The Times, London, Apri! 12 and 18, 1808; Euro-
Abraham Goldsmid.
He was present at the cavalry affairs of Castrajon,
Quintare de Puerta, and Monasterio, and at the bat-
tles of Salamanca, Vittoria, Nivelle, and Nive, and
was awarded the silver medal and four clasps.
He served also during the campaign of 1815, and
was present at Waterloo. In June, 1826, he retired
on half-pay with the rank of major, but was ga-
zetted lieutenant-colonel Nov. 28, 1841; colonel
June 20, 1854; and major-general Oct. 26, 1858.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Times, London, Jan. 9, 1861.
Albert Edward W. Goldsmid: Colonel in the
British army; born at Puna, Bombay, Oct. 6, 1846;
son of Henry Edward Goldsmid. In June, 1866, he
was gazetted from Sandhurst, England, to his first
commission in the 104th Foot of the Bengal Fusiliers.
He became adjutant of battalion in 1871, captain
in May, 1878, major in 1883, lieutenant-colonel
in 1888, and colonel on April 21, 1894. In 1892
Colonel Goldsmid was selected by Baron de Hirsch
to supervise the colonies in Argentina, but retired
from the task to take up his appointment as colo-
nel-in-command of the Welsh regimental district at
Cardiff in 1894. In 1897 he was promoted chief of
staff, with the grade of assistant adjutant-general
in the Thames district. At the departure of the
Aldershot staff with Sir Redvers Buller in the con-
flict with the Boers in 1899, he acted as chief staff-
officer at the camp at Aidershot, and was entrusted
with the duties of mobilization. In Dec., 1899,
when the sixth division of the South-African field
force was mobilized, Goldsmid was selected as chief
staff-officer to General Kelly-Kenny with the grade
of assistant adjutant-general, and in that capacity
was present at the battle of Paardeberg. During
Gcldsmid
the earlier stages of the war he was commandant of
the Orange River, Herbert, and Hay districts, 1900.
Colonel Goldsmid was an ardent Zionist, and was
chief of the Chovevei Zion of Great Britain and Ire-
land. The success of the Jewish Lads’ Brigade in
London and the provinces is mainly due to Gold-
smid’s initiative. In 1903 he became president of
the Maccabeans, of which he had been one of the
founders. He died in London, March 27, 1904.
Sear Jew. Chron. Dec. 8, 1899; Young Israel, i.
0. °
Anna Maria Goldsmid: Writerand communal
worker; born in London Sept. 17, 1805; died there
Feb. 8, 1889; daughter of Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid,
Bart. She wasa pupil of the poet Thomas Camp-
bell, and translated (1839) into English twelve ser-
mons delivered by Dr. Gotthold Salomon at Ham-
burg, Ludwig Phillipson’s “ Die Entwickelung der
Religidsen Idee” (1853), and J. Cohen’s “Les Déi-
cides” (1872). Miss Goldsmid also published many
original pamphlets on educational and other ques-
tions, and the formation of the Jews’ Infaut-Schools
was largely due to her enthusiasm and support.
She was also interested in University College School
and Hospital and the Jews’ Deaf and Dumb Home.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. and Jew. World, Feb. 15, 1889;
Allibone, Dictionary of Authors.
Benjamin Goldsmid: English financier and
philanthropist; born in Holland 1755; committed
suicide April 15, 1808; eldest son of Aaron Gold-
smid, a London merchant. In 1777 Benjamin and
his brother Abraham established themselves in busi-
ness as bill-brokers. Their means increased on the
death of an uncle in Holland who bequeathed to
them £15,000. The marriage of Benjamin Gold-
smid to Jessie, daughter of Israel Levin Salomons
of Clapton, with a dowry of £100,000, placed the
credit of the firm on a solid footing. Large sums
passed through the hands of the Goldsmids in the
purchase and sale of bullion, stocks, navy and ex-
chequer bills, and in negotiating English and foreign
bills of exchange. They became the largest loan-
contractors of their day in England. Benjamin’s
great wealth brought him much social recognition,
and he was intimately connected with Pitt, whose
financial schemes were largely carried out through
him, and with several members of the royal family,
who visited him at Roehampton.
Goldsmid was the founder of the Naval Asylum,
which for a time was under his management. ‘The
two brothers collected a fund for a Jewish hospital.
This was never erected, but some of the money
raised was used in building and endowing the Neweh
Zedek at Mile End.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ge2tleman’s Magazine, |xxviii.; L. Alexan-
der, Memoirs; Young Israel, i., No.6; Jew. World, March,
1878; Picciotto, Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History, pp. 249-
252, London, 1875.
Sir Francis Goldsmid: English philanthropist
and politician; born in Spital square, London, May
1, 1808; died May 2, 1878. The eldest son of Sir
Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, Bart., he was educated pri-
vately, and was called to the bar in 18838, becoming
queen’s counsel in 1858. In 1859 he succeeded to
his father’s honors, which included a barony of
Portugal. He entered Parliament in 1860 as mem-
ber for Reading, through a by-election, and repre-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 80
cc ae
sented that constituency in the Liberal interest unty
his death. While still a young man he active)
cooperated with his father to secure to the Jews fyj
emancipation from civil and political disabilitig,
In 1839 he wrote “ Remarks on the Civil Disabiliticg
of the Jews,” and in 1848 “A Reply to the Argy,
ments Against the Removal of the Remaining Digg
bilities of the Jews.” He was one of the chief Sup.
porters of University College, and gave material aig
to University College Hospital.
He was associated with various Jewish relig.
ious and charitable organizations. He was cop.
nected with the Reform movement from its com.
mencement, and was elected president of the Coungjj
of Founders of the West London Synagogue. He
was vice-president of the Anglo-Jewish Association
from its establishment in 1871, and was president of
the Rumanian Committee which originated in the
association. His greatest services to his race were,
however, in the direction of improving the social
condition of the Jews in those countries in which
they were oppressed. The condition of the Poles in
1863 moved him to organize meetings for the pur.
pose of securing some alleviation of their sufferings,
and he also forcibly protested on several occasions
in Parliament against the oppression of the Jews,
notably that in Servia and Rumania.
Goldsmid was deputy lieutenant for Berks and a
justice of the peace for Berksand Gloucester. Hay.
ing no children, the baronetcy devolved upon hig
nephew, Julian Goldsmid. His writings include,
besides those already mentioned : “Two Letters in
Answer to the Objections Urged Against Mr. Grant’s
Bill for the Relief of the Jews” (1830); “A Few
Words Respecting the Enfranchisement of British
Jews Addressed tothe New Parliament” (1833); “A
Scheme of Peerage Reform, with Reasons for the
Scheme ” (1835).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Marks and Liwy, Life of Sir Francis Gold-
smid, 1882; Jew. Chron. and Jew. World, May 10, 1878; The
Times (London), May 4, 1878.
Frederick David Goldsmid: English member
of Parliament; born in London 1812; died there
March 18, 1866. Hewas the second son of Sir Isaac
Lyon Goldsmid, and was educated at University
College, London, After his marriage (1834) he
spent a year in Italy, and on returning to England,
became a member of the firm of Mocatta & Gold-
smid. Goldsmid was an active member of the
Metropolitan Association for Improving the Dwell-
ings of the Laboring Classes, as well as of a large
number of Jewish charities. He was also a mem-
ber of the council of University College, London,
and of the committee of the college hospital, as
well as president of the Jews’ Hospital and of the
West Metropolitan Jewish School.
Goldsmid was member of Parliament for Honiton
from July, 1865, until his death.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. March 23, 1866; Boase, Modern
English Biography, Truro, 1898.
Henry Edward Goldsmid: Indian civil serv-
ant; born in London May 9, 1812; died at Cairo,
Egypt, Jan. 8, 1855. He entered the service of the
East India Company in 1882, and three years later
became assistant revenue commissioner for Bom-
bay. While occupying this post he devised the
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
31
Goldsmid
: d assessment system, Puna be- Sir Julian Goldsmid: English baronet, privy
urvey au ent
Paded in its organization. “Goidsmid’s
in
»ag it was called, was a great boon to the
iturists of the presidency ; and it was
nently established by the Bombay legislature
permal It was incorporated in the Bombay revenue
: ee 1879, and was also adopted by the Berars
ae native state of Mysore. . _
mG Idsmid’s health proke down owing to his in-
: t labors; and after holding the positions of
aie ; secretary and chief secretary to the governor
Ponies) he went to Cairo, where he died. Ten
: rg later @ memorial rest-house was erected by
y bic subscription at Decksal, near the place where
Fyoldsmid’s survey had commenced.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Young Israel, i., No. 10.
reve
ing
Survey; ;
oor agricul
Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid: English financier
and the first Jewish baronet ; born in London Jan.
13, 1778; died there April 27, 1859. He was the son
of Asher Goldsmid, and nephew of Benjamin and
Abraham Goldsmid, the financiers. Educated at an
English school in Finsbury square, he received a
sound financial training in the technicalities of his
father’s business of bullion-broking. At a later
period his association with Ricardo made him famil-
iar with the leading questions of political science.
He became in due course a partner in the firm of
Mocatta & Goldsmid, bullion-brokers to the Bank of
England and tothe East IndiaCompany. His early
ventures on the Stock Exchange were unfortunate,
and, after losing on one occasion £16,000, he aban-
doned speculation and contented himself with steady
business as a jobber. Goldsmid gradually rose to
eminence as a financier, and ultimately amassed a
large fortune. His most extensive financial opera-
tions were connected with Portugal, Brazil, and
Turkey; and for his services in settling an intricate
monetary dispute between Portugal and Brazil he
was, in 1846, created Baron de Palmeira by the
Portuguese government.
Goldsmid was one of the founders of the London
Docks. The main effort of his life was made in the
cause of Jewish emancipation. He was the first
English Jew who took up the question, and he en-
listed in its advocacy the leading Whig statesmen of
the time. Soonafter the passing of the Act of 1829,
which removed the civil disabilities of the Roman
Catholics, he secured the powerful aid of Lord Hol-
land, the Marquis of Lansdowne, the Duke of Sus-
Sex, and other eminent members of the Liberal
party, and then induced Robert Grant to introduce
in the House of Commons a similar measure for the
Jews. During more than two years from the time
as Jewish emancipation was first debated in Par-
‘ament, Goldsmid gave little heed to his ordinary
erate! devoting himself almost exclusively to the
ancement of the cause. He was one of the chief
agents in the establishment of University College,
seas purchasing at his own risk the site of the
Iversity.
Bai was a liberal supporter of the Reform
Sue and of all Jewish institutions.
BIBLIOgR 7
APRY: The Banker's Magazine, xix., XxX.; Jew.
ron. May 6 and June 1 .
1878; Dict. National Boece ; Jew. Worid, March 8,
councilor, member of Parliament, and philanthro-
pist; born Oct. 2, 1838; died at Brighton Jan. 7,
1896. He was the eldest son of Frederick D. Gold-
smid, M.P. Educated privately up to the age of
seventeen, he entered
University College, of
which he became a
prizeman. He received
his B.A. degree with
honors at the Univer-
sity of London in 1859,
and in 1861 obtained
his M.A., with the
first place in classics,
In 1864 he was made
a fellow of University
College, and in the
same year was called
tothe bar. Forashort
time he went on the Ox-
ford circuit, but aban-
doned legal practise
when elected M.P. for
Honiton in March, 1866.
When Honiton was disfranchised by the Reform
Bill of 1867 Goldsmid stood unsuccessfully for Mid-
Surrey, but was returned ix 1870 for Rochester, and
sat for that constituency till 1880. He was defeated
at Sandwich, but in 1885 was returned for St. Pan-
cras South. During 1894 Goldsmid, who belonged
to the Liberal party, often had the honor of presi-
ding over the deliberations of the House of Com-
mons as deputy chairman of committecs. In this
capacity he showed great boldness and prompti-
tude in the use of his extensive knowledge of the
rules of Parliament, and acted with an authority
born of his experience as the ruling spirit of impor-
tant financial undertakings. Asthe Liberal Unionist
candidate for St. Pancras South, Sir Julian Gold-
smid was returned in 1895 by an overwhelming
majority.
The Jewish communal institutions with which
Goldsmid was most prominently identified were the
Anglo-Jewish Association and the Russo-Jewish
Committee. He was elected a vice-president of the
former at its foundation in 1871, which office he held
till 1886, when he was unanimously chosen to suc-
ceed Baron de Worms in the presidency. His thor-
ough knowledge of foreign affairs enabled him to
present in the clearest light the situation of the Jews
in Eastern countries; and his intimacy with minis-
ters was utilized by him to carry through many a
difficult and delicate diplomatic negotiation. The
period of his presidency wasthe most brilliantin the
history of the Anglo-Jewish Association. In 1895
the state of Goldsmid’s health obliged him to give
up many of his responsible positions. He resigned
his presidency in that year, and also relinquished
many of his financial interests.
Goldsmid was chairman of the Russo-Jewish
Committee from its foundation in 1882 until 1894;
a member of the visitation committee of the Jewish
board of guardians; president of the Jews’ Infant-
Schools from 1883; and a member of the committee
of the Jews’ Free School. He was warden, and oc-
Julian Goldsmid.
Goldsmith, Lewis
Goldstein, Joseph
casional lay preacher, at the West London Synagogue
of British Jews, and was subsequently elected chair-
man of the council.
In the general community the institutions in which
he took most interest were: University College,
of which he was treasurer in 1880-81; University
College Hospital, of which he served as a mem-
ber of council: and the University of London, of
which he was vice-chancellor at the time of his
death.
In 1878 Goldsmid succeeded his uncle, Sir Francis
Goldsmid, Q.C., M.P., in the family honors and
estates, in Sussex, Kent, Berks, and elsewhere.
He filled many offices, among them that of deputy
lieutenant for Kent, Sussex, and Berks; magis-
trate for Kent, Sussex, and Lonclon; colonel of the
1st Sussex Rifle Volunteers, and honorary colonel of
the 1st Sussex Artillery Volunteers; chairman of the
Submarine Telegraph Company, and of the Imperial
and Continental Gas Association; and director of
the London, Brighton, and South Coast Railway.
His chief country-seat was at Somerhill, near Tun-
bridge, once the home of Sir Philip Sidney. In
1868 he married Virginia, daughter of A. Philipson
of Florence, by whom he had eight daughters. The
entailed Goldsmid estates devolved upon Osmond
Elim d’Avigdor.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Jan. 10, 1896; Jew. World, Jan.
10, 1896: The Times, London, Jan. 8, 1896.
J G. L.
GOLDSMITH, LEWIS: English political wri-
ter and agitator; born 1768; died Jan. 6, 1846.
Educated in London, he was trained for the legal
profession, but soon abandoned this profession for
the writing of political pamphlets and satires. He
started his career as an enthusiastic defender of the
French Revolution. His first literary venture was
an edition of Barlow’s “ Advice to the Privileged
Orders in the Several States of Europe” (1792).
This was followed (1801) by “State of the French
Republic at the End of the Year 1800,” a trausla-
tion from the French. In the same year he pub-
lished “The Crimes of Cabinets, or a Review of
the Plans and Aggressions for Annthilating the
Liberties of France, and the Dismemberment of
Her Territories.” So unpopular in England were the
views which he held that the London booksellers
scarcely dared to offer his books for sale. Being
threatened with prosecution for this last work, he
sought safety in flight, and went to Paris (1803).
There he offered the French government the help of
his pen against England. The offer was accepted,
and resulted in the publication of an English journal
at Paris—“ The Argus, or London Reviewed in
Paris.”
But there were limits to his denunciations, and
because he refused to do as his employers wished.
they negotiated with the English government to sur-
render him in exchange for a French political pris-
oner in England named Peltier. He continued to
reside in France, however, and was taken back into
the confidence of Napoleon, who employed him
upon various secret missions. In 1809 he was con-
veyed to England, formally tried for treason, and
discharged. Embittered by the treacherous conduct
of the French government, he started (1811) a Sun-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 89
eS
day newspaper called the “ Anti-Gallican Monitor »
in which he denounced the French Revolution as Vio.
Jently as he had formerly espoused it. He went go
far as to propose the assassination of Napoleon. Jy
his “Secret History of the Cabinet of Bonaparte»
and his “Secret History of Bonaparte’s Diplomacy »
he brought the most serious charges against hig
former employer. Jn pursuance of his new policy
he advocated the restoration of Louis XVIII, ang
when this event took place that monarch rewardeg
Goldsmith with a pension for life. The latter pay
of his life was spent principally in Paris. He hag
one daughter, Georgiana, who became the sccong
Lady Lyndhurst.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Didot, Biographie Générale; J. H. Rose, Big.
graphical Dictionary; Querard, La France Littéraire.
Picciotto, Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History, pp. 230-23]:
Dict. Nat. Biog. ‘
J. I. H.
GOLDSMITH, MILTON: American merchant
and author; bornat Philadelphia May 22, 1861. I
1877 he went to Europe and studied three years at
Zurich. Goldsmith has written two novels: “ Rabb}
and Priest,” 1891; “A Victim of Conscience,” 1908
and in addition several librettos for comic operas and
several dramatic pieces. He has also contributed
short stories to newspapers and poems to the mags.
zines. A
GOLDSMITHS AND SILVERSMITHS:
The earliest descriptions of productions of the gold-
smnith’s art refer to the work of Jewish. goldsmiths,
The Bible, which coutains these descriptions, gives
also the names of the workers—Bezaleel b, Uri and
Aholiab b. Ahisamach (Ex. xxxi., xxxvi.). [mpor-
tant as were their achievements, the Jewish gold-
smith’s art did not reach its height until the time of
King Solomon. Although he used foreign skill to
a certain extent in the making of the utensils for his
house and for the Temple, yet Hiram, the overseer
of the whole work, was of Jewish extraction, at
least on his mother’s side. Even after the downfall
of the Jewish state Jewish goldsmiths were heard of
everywhere. Thus the Talmud relates that the syn-
agogue of Alexandria had a section reserved for gold-
and silversmiths, just as for the other trades. It is
also related of the Jewish tribe Kainuka‘ in north-
ern Arabia in the sixth century, that it engaged in
the goldsmith’s trade and in money-changing
(Gratz, “Geschichte,” v. 84). In the eleventh cen-
tury the Jewish goldsmiths in Languedoc bought the
church treasure of Narbonne, and the tombstone of
the goldsmith Joseph b. Joziz (1100) evidences the
existence of Jewish goldsmiths in Spain (“C. J. H.’
No. 175). In the thirteenth century Jews carried 0
the goldsmith’s craft in England (Jacobs, “Jews of
Angevin England,” p. 207; Levy, in “Jew. Chron.”
April 4, 1902), and toward the end of the fourteenth
century there were Jewish goldsmiths in Avignon,
in the county of Venaissin (Bardinet, in “Rev.
Hist.” 1880, Sept.-—Oct.), in Navarre, where in the
larger towns like Tudela and Pan
In the Mid- plona they had their own shops (Kay:
die Ages. serling, “Die Juden in Navarra,” pP-
59, 73), and in Lyons, whence, how
ever, they were expelied. The refugees from Lyons
settled in Trevoux, whither they carried the art 0
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
7 and making it into wire (Depping,
Mittelalter,” pp. 200 e¢ seq.).
Jewish goldsmiths at this time in
Castile may
one of whom (Solomon) Ercole
after he had gone over to Chris-
for himself by his rich ornamen-
“ Les Israélites de Constantinople ”), as
ro were ainong the original inhabitants of Krem-
a ankl-Griin, “Geschichte der Juden in Krem-
i i. 10); there were many also in Poland (“ De-
ee des Galizischen Landtags,” 1868, p. 72). Pe-
AG Teixeira (Kayserling, in Benjamin, “ Acht Jahre
in Asien und Afrika, ” p. 44) states they were also in
Aleppo, and Leo Africanus (“ Africe Descriptio ay
that they were in Morocco. There were goldsmiths
also in Venice, and Lecky declares that many of
those who cultivated the art of carving were Jews
(* Rationalism in Europe,” ii. 287, note). In Rome,
however, Jewish goldsmiths are first mentioned in
1726 (Vogelstein and Rieger, “ Geschichte der Juden
in Rom,” ii. 821).
There were numerous Jewish goldsmiths in
Prague, where they formed a separate gild until
the middle of the nineteenth century, just as did the
Jewish shoemakers, tailors, and butchers (Jost,
“Neuere Geschichte der Israeliten,” i. 341). Ac-
cording to the gravestones in the old cemetery of
Prague, twenty-one goldsmiths were buried there in
the years 1601-1700, and twenty-six in 1701-80
(“Zeitschrift fiir die Geschichte der
In More Juden in Deutschland,” v. 351), In
Recent 1847 the Prague directory gave the
Times. number of Jewish gold- and silver-
smiths as twenty-one. In the seven-
teenth century the French ambassador St. Olon
found in Morocco “a comparatively large number
of Jews, most of whom were goldsmiths” (Schudt,
“ Jtidische Merckwtirdigkeiten,” i. 90). In the same
century (1664), Jewish goldsmiths are spoken of in
Poland, six of whom—among them a woman, Joze-
fowa—met with a loss of more than 26,000 gulden
by plunder at the time of the Jewish persecution in
Lemberg (Caro, “ Geschichte der Juden in Lemberg,”
pp. 74, 168 e¢ seg.). In the eighteenth century the
Jews of Bucharest seem to have included many
skilful goldsmiths (see Jew. Encyc. iii. 441-412).
In Germany for a longer period than in any other
Country Jews were strictly forbidden to practise
any trade, and Jewish goldsmiths are mentioned
only as living in Berlin, at the beginning of the
eighteenth century (Geiger, “Geschichte der Juden
in Berlin,” i. 26, 43); beyond Berlin they were found
only in the former Polish provinces, in Posen as
early as the seventeenth century; but they do not
eG have been very numerous, since they did
batehe 4 corporation as did the Jewish tailors,
(Perl Ts, furriers, and haberdashers of that town
“ries, In “ Monatsschrift,” 1864, p. 420, and 1865, p.
), oe one Jewish goldsmith, Baruch,
soy
Goldsmith, Lewis
Goldstein, Joseph
does appear in East Franconia, who, on being re-
ceived in Schwarzach in 1587, promised to live only
by his craft (" Monatsschrift,” 1880, p. 463).
At present there are many Jewish goldsmiths in
Russia, who, according to Rilf (* Drei Tage in
Jiidisch-Russland,” pp. 55 et seg.), are highly skilled
workers. The number is still greater in Rumania,
where in 1879, in Bucharest, out of a total of 212
goldsmiths, 164 were Jews (Jacobs, “Jewish Statis-
tics,” p. 26). In Jerusalem, where in 1865 L. A.
Frankl found only five Jewish goldsmiths and sil-
versmiths, the number has recently increased to
twenty-seven (73.). According to Andree (“ Volks-
kunde der Juden,” p. 191), Jewish goldsmiths and
silversmiths are found in Benghazi (Barca), Jebel
Ghurian, Bagdad, Arabia, and Persia. In 1898
eleven gold-workers belonged to the Jewish commu-
nity in Berlin, forty-four to that in Vienna,
For illustrations of the goldsmith’s and silver-
smith’s art, relating to Jewish ceremonial, see the
following articles: AMULET; BETROTHAL; BInp-
ING; CIRCUMCISION; CROWN OF THE LAW; CUP;
Estuer; Erroe; HaspaLaAH; HaANuKKAn; LAVER;
‘OMER; Passover; Rincs, ENGAGEMENT AND WEpD-
DING; SABBATH; SCROLLS OF Law (for breastplates,
mantels, and pointers); SEDER; SYNAGOGUE,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Wolf, EHtwas thher Jitidische Kunst und
Aeltere Jlidische Ktinstler, Hamburg, 1901.
A. A. W.
GOLDSTEIN, EDUARD: Russian musician;
born at Odessa 1851; died at Leipsic Aug. 8, 1887.
He was an accomplished pianist at the age of
thirteen, and obtained a position in the Italian
opera-house of Kishinef. In 1868 he was sent to
the Leipsic Conservatorium, where he studied under
Moscheles and Reinecke. Goldstein graduated with
honors in 1872, and soon afterward madea successful
tour through Germany. In 1874 he returned to
Odessa and became leader of the orchestra in the
Berner Theater. Later he occupied for some time
the position of director of the opera in Kharkof,
and in 1876 went to St. Petersburg, where he soon
attracted attention asa pianist. Goldstein struggled
for official recognition for ten years, until Anton
Rubinstein returned to the St. Petersburg Conserva-
tory of Music as its director (1886) and appointed
him professor of music and leader of the Philhar-
monic Society. Goldstein wrote various songs and
melodies, and began the composition of “Count
Essex,” an opera, which he left unfinished. He was
the musical critic of the “Golos” and the “ Pravi-
telstvennyj Vyestnik.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ha-Asif, iv. 66-67.
H, R. P. Wr.
GOLDSTEIN, JOSEPH: Austrian cantor and
composer; born at Kecskemét, Hungary, March 27,
1836; died in Vienna June 17, 1899. He occupied
the position of chief cantor at the Leopoldstidter
Tempel), the largest synagogue in Vienna, for forty
years. He was one of the ten children of Hazzan
Goldstein of Neutra, Hungary, who died when
Joseph was buteleven. Attheage of twelve he was
so well acquainted with the liturgy and possessed
such a phenomenal tenor voice that the congrega-
tion of Neutra elected him as his father’s successor,
Goldstein
Goldziher
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 34
SS ay ts aS ee Bg gg pr pe ee a ee oe ae OG egg
Ife remained there for two years, and then made a
four years’ tour through Austria and Germany,
officiating in some of the largest congregations.
Upon his return an admirer of his voice sent him to
Vienna to be educated for the stage. On the com-
pletion of his course, and when about to enter upon
his first engagement in Florence, he decided to re-
turn to the position of cantor, and received an ap-
pointment at the Leopoldstidter Tempel in Vienna
in 1857, retaining the position until his death.
Among Goldstein’s published works are: “Shire
Yeshurun,” a collection of songs for the Sabbath
and festival service, 1865; a requiem, 1892; a col-
lection of “ Festgesinge.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Die Neuzeit; Ungarische Cantorenzeitung,
June, 1899.
8, A. Kat.
GOLDSTEIN, JOSEPH: Political economist
and statistician; born in Odessa, Russia, Jan. 9,
1869. After completing his studies at the gymna-
sium of his native town, he entered the technolog-
ical institute in Carlsruhe, Baden, and took a diploma
as chemist. He next studied political economy at
the University of Munich, graduating (Ph.D.) in
1895. He continued his studies in England and
France until 1898, when he was appvinted privat-
docent in political science at the University of
Zurich. In 1899 and 1900 he revisited France and
England, and went to Russia in the winter of 1901-
1902, when he submitted to the Russian minister of
commerce, W. Kowalewski, and to the minister of
finance, at the request of the former, an expert opin-
ion with reference to the renewal of the commercial
treaty between Germany and Russia. Before re-
turning he took the degree of A.M. at the Univer-
sity of Moscow, which practically conferred upon
him the right to lecture in any university in Russia.
Goldstein’s “Deutschlands Sodaindustrie in Ver-
gangenheit und Gegenwart,” Stuttgart, 1895, occa-
sioned the introduction of a bill by the German gov-
ernment effecting a50 percent reduction in the duty
on soda. Among his other works may be men-
tioned: “Berufsgliederung und Reichthum in Eng-
land,” inaugural dissertation, 1897; “Die Zukunft
Deutschlands im Lichte der Agrarischen Beweis-
fiihrung,” 1898; “Dic Vermeintlichen und die Wirk-
lichen Ursachen des Bevodlkerungsstillstandes in
Frankreich,” 1898; “Die Statistik und Ihre Bedeu-
tung ftir das Moderne Gesellschaftsleben,” 1899;
“Bevélkerungsprobleme und Berufsgliederung in
Frankreich,” 1900; “ Gewerbefreiheit und Ihre Licht-
und Schattenseiten,” 1901. ‘
GOLDSTEIN, MICHAEL YULYEVICH:
Russian chemist; born at Odessa 1858; educated in
the Richelieu Gymnasium of Odessa, and graduated
from the Medico-Surgical Academy of St. Peters-
burg. In 1877 he went abroad and obtained the
degree of doctor of philosophy. On his return he
became assistant in chemistry in the St. Peters-
burg medical academy. In 1880 Goldstein passed
the examination for master of chemistry, and in
1890 obtained his degree, his dissertation being on
the rise of salt-solutions in capillary tubes, “ Materialy
K Voprosu o Vysotakh,” etc. In 1891 he became
privat-docent in theoretical and physical chemistry
| at the University of St. Petersburg, but in 1901 wa,
compelled, by circumstances of a political natu
to discontinue his lectures, The researches of Gotg.
stein, mostly in theoretical and physical chemist;
have been published in the folowing magazingg.
“Zhurnal-Russkavo Fisiko-Khimicheskavo Obgh,
chestva”; “ Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen @,,
sellschaft ”; “ Annales de Chimie et Physique”; anq
“Zeitschrift fir Physikalische Chemie.” Goldstejy
also published in the “ Nauchnoe Obozryenie” fo,
1898-99 a portion of his work, “Elementy Filosog;
Chimii,” on the elements of chemical philosophy.
and, between 1894 and 1900, under the psecudonyy
“ Cardanus,” several articles in the “Novosti.”
has published in book form “Zhivoye i Mertvoe»
(Living and Dead) and “ O Fisicheskom Dukhovnoy
Vospitanii” (On Physicai and Intellectual Edueg.
tion). He has translated into Russian Daneman’,
sketches of the history of natural science, publisheg
with supplementary notes in “Mir Bozhi,” 1897
At present he is the editor of the department of
physics, chemistry, and technology of the “Bol.
shaya Entziklopedia.”
BIB TIOGRARIEY : Bolshaya Entziklopedia, vii., St. Petersburg
H. R. J. G. L.
GOLDSTUCKER, THEODOR: German San.
skritist; born at Kénigsberg, Prussia, Jan. 18, 1821.
died in London March 6, 1872. In 1840 he gained
his degree of Ph.D. at Konigsberg University,
where he first studied Sanskrit under Bohlen, con.
tinuing his studies in that language at Bonn and
Paris. In 1842 he published a German translation
of the Sanskrit drama “ Prabodha-Chandrodaya”
At Paris he collected materials foran extensive work
on Indian philosophy and for a new edition of the
great epic poem “ Mahabharata.” In 1850 he went
to England, where he assisted Professor Wilson in
preparing a new edition of his Sanskrit-English dic-
tionary. This edition outgrew all practicable pro-
portions, and, having reached page 480 without
completing the first letter of the alphabet, it was
abandoned.
Goldstiicker was professor of Sanskrit at Univer-
sity College, London, from 1851 until his death, and
was the chief founder of the Sanskrit Text Society,
established in 1866. He was also president of the
Philological Society, and was well known in many
of the literary societies of London. He left an edi-
tion of the “Nyaya-mala-Vistara,” an important
work on mimansa philosophy, and an edition of the
“ Mahabhashya,” the well-known commentary 01
Panini’s grammar (London, 1874); he had previously
written a monograph on Panini (1861). From 186?
to 1868 Goldstiicker was a contributor to “ Chambers’
Encyclopedia” and the “Westminster Review."
ilis essays were collected under the title “Literary
Remains,” 1879.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Goldstticker’s Literary Remains, 1879: The
Times, London, Mareh 12 and 14, 1872; Dict. Nat. Blog.
Meyers Konversations-Lexthkon.
J. G. L.
GOLDSZMIDT, JOSEPH: Polish lawyer;
born at Hrubieszow, government of Lublin, 1846;
died 1896; graduate of the University of Wat
saw. He wrote: “ Wizerunki Wslawionych ZydoW
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
35
cketches of famous Jews of the nine-
century (Warsaw, 1867-68); a biography of
pth cen vopwicz, in “ Tygodnik [lustrowany ”;
ee ai Talmudic law, under the title
veld pees Rozwodowego Podlug Ustaw
aS ae -o-Talmudyeznych ” (¢. 1870); an essay
MO) eS oats of the Jews in Spain, under the title
on the St ani Pobytn Zydow w Hiszpanji” (@.
: ee essaVv on marriage according to law and
1805 eau the title “O Malzenstwie pod Wzgle-
custony nym iObyezajawym ” (¢b. 1874), He also
dom navies many Jewish articles to “Izraclita.”
eee ae HY: Eneyklopedya Powstechna, vi., Warsaw, 1900.
Xl X Wieku. ;
lee
Lukas4
4 comment
a G. LL.
H. R.
GOLDZIEHER, WILHELM: Hungarian ocu-
+ halmological writer, born at Kopesény
es eae oe Jan. 1, 1849. He studied
Seaaicine at Vienna, Berlin, Prague, and Heidelberg,
graduating (M.D.) at Vienna Dec. 25, 1871. In 1874
ne settled in Budapest as an oculist ; was appointed
privat-docent at the University of Budapest in 1878;
and became professor in 1895. While a student he
published an essay written by him in Helnholtz’s
laboratory, “Zur Theorie des Elektrotonus,” in
« Archiv fir Physiologie,” 1870. He has since writ-
ten many monographs and articles for medical period-
‘cals. He is one of the chief contributors to Eulen-
purg’s “Realencyclopadie der Medicinischen Wis-
senschaften,” for which he prepares most of the ma-
terial relating to practical ophthalmology. He also
wrote “Die Therapie der Augenkrankheiten ” (1881 ;
2d ed., 1900), and “Szemészet Kézikényve ” (1890),
a manual of ophthalmology written in Hungarian,
the first work of the kind in that language. In
April, 1903, he was decorated by the Austrian em-
peror with the officer’s cross of the Order of Franz
Joseph.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Ocsterreichische Wochenschrift, May 8, 1903.
8. W. B.
GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ: WUungarian Oriental-
ist; born in Stuhlweissenburg, Hungary, June 22,
1850; attended the gymnasium in his native town,
and continued his studics at the universities of Bu-
dapest, Berlin, Leipsic (Ph.D., 1870), and Leyden.
In 1872 he became privat-docent at the University
of Budapest. In 1873, commissioned by the Hun-
garian government, he undertook a scientific jour-
ney through Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, spending
several months at the Azhar mosque in Cairo, where
he attended the lectures of learned sheiks on Mo-
hammedan theology and the science of law. In
1894 he was promoted to a professorship—the first
Instance in the history of the Budapest University
of a Jew being admitted to the faculty. Goldziher
samember of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences,
corresponding member of the Imperial Academy of
an Petersburg, honorary member of the Royal Asiatic
ae of England, and corresponding member of
Jewish Historical Society of England and of
ae societies, He was appointed to rep-
* seas Hungarian government and the Academy
Msi é.g., at the first meeting of the
the Oriental es Académies, held in Paris (1901). At
ceived eh Congress in Stockholm (1889) he re-
é large gold medal. He holds the office of
Goldstein
Goldziher
secretary of the Jewish community at Budapest,
and since 1900 has )cen leeturer on religious phi-
losophy at the Budapest rabbinical seminary.
Goldziher’s chief importance for Semitic history
and philology rests on the fact that he was the first
to give a critical history of Arabic traditions (“ Mu-
hammedanische Studien,” ii.), and that his esti-
mates of Arabic civil
and religious law
have withstood the
test of criticism. He
has likewise placed
the various theolog-
ical movements
which have arisen
within Islam in their
true light, and _ his
knowledge of ancient
Arabic poetry has
enabled him to make
valuable — contribu-
tions to the know}l-
edge of pre-Moham-
medan paganism.
Jewish science is
likewise indebted to
him; he has pointed
out the traces of Hebrew mythology in the
Bible, and has presented comparative studies of
Jewish and Arabic folk-lore and culture in the
Middle Ages.
Goldziher’s principal writings are the following:
“Studien tiber Tanchum Jeruschalmi,” Leipsic,
1870; a second edition of Ballagi’s Hebrew gram-
mar, Budapest, 1872; “ Beitriige zur Geschichte der
Sprachgelehrsamkeit bei den Arabern,” in three
parts, Vienna, 1871-73; “Beitrige zur Literatur-
gesch. der Schi‘a,” 7b. 1874; “Der Mythos bei den
Hebréern und Seine Geschichtliche Entwickelung,”
Leipsic, 1876: English transl. by R. Martineau,
“Mythology Among the Hebrews and Its Historical
Development,” London, 1877; “Az Iszlam,” Buda-
pest, 1881; “Die Zahiriten, Ihr Lehirsystem und Ihre
Geschichte,” Leipsic, 1884; “ Muhammedanische
Studien,” two vols., Halle, 1889-90; “Der Diw4n
des Hoteia,” Leipsic, 1892; “Abhandlungen zur
Arabischen Philologie,” two vols., Leyden, 1896-
1899; “Die Legende vom Monch Barsisa,” Kirch-
hain, 1896; and many treatises on Oriental history
and the science of religion, published in the col-
lections of the Hungarian Academy. He has con-
tributed numerous articles and reviews to German,
French, Enghsh, and Hungarian periodicals, among
which may be mentioned the following: “ Matcria-
lien zur Kenntnis der Almohadenbewegung in Nord-
afrika,” in “Z. D. M. G.” xli. 80-140; “Das Prinzip
des Istishtb in der Muhammedanischen Gesetzes-
wissenschaft,” in “W. Z. K. M.” i. 228-236; “Ara-
bische Beitrage zur Volksetymologie,” in “Zeit-
schrift fiir Vélkerpsychologie,” xviii. 69-82; “Tn-
fluences Chrétiennes dans la Littérature Religieuse
de 1’Islam,” in “Rev. de ) Histoire des Religions,”
xviii. 180-199; “Das Arabische Original von Mai-
muni’s Séfer Hammiswot,” in “W. Z. K. M.”
iii. 77-85; “Muhammedanisches Recht in Theorie
und Wirklichkeit,” in “Zeitschrift fir Verglei-
Ygnaz Goldziher.,
Golem
Goliath
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 3g
Fe a a Ee a a ge ae ee eg ee be Oy ee ee ae a ge a eee av ee
chende Rechtswissenschaft,” vili. 406-423; “Der
Chatib bei den Alten Arabern,” to “ W. Z. Js. ML.”
vi, 97-102: “Der Divan des Garwal b. Aus Al-
Huteja,” in “Z. D. M. G.” xlvi. 1-53, 178-225, 471-
527; xlvii. 48-85, 163-201; “Le Dénombrement des
Sectes Mohamétanes,” in “Rev. de VHistoire des
Religions.” xxvi. 129-137; “La Notion de la Sakina
chez les Mohamétans,” in 7}, xxviii, 1-18; “Salih b.
‘Abd al-Kudditis und das Zindikthum Wiihrend der
Regierung des Chalifen Al-Mahdi,” in “ Transactions
of the Congress of Oriental Languages,” 1892, ii.
104-129; “Mohammedan Propaganda in America”
(Hungarian), in “Budapesti Szemle,” 1xxix. 45-60;
“Sa‘d b. Mansfir ibn Kammifina’s Abhandlung tiber
die Seele,” in “ Steinschneider Festschrift,” pp. 110-
114; “Neue Materialien zur Litteratur des Ueber-
lieferungswesens bei den Muhammedanern,” in “Z.
D. M. G.” 1, 465-506; “Ueber eine Formel in der
Jiidischen Responsenlitteratur und in den Muham-
medanischen Fetwas,” in “Z. D. M. G.” Ixxx.
645-652; “Die Sabbathinstitution im Islam,” in
“Kaufmann Gedenkbuch,” pp. 86-102; “ Proben
Muhammedanischer Polemik Gegen den Talmud,”
in Kobak’s “ Jeschurun,” viii. 76, ix. 18; “Ibn Hud,
the Muhammedan Mystic, and the Jews of Damas-
cus,” in “J. Q. R.” vi. 218; “Bemerkungen zur
Neuhebriischen Poesie,” in 7), xiv. 719; “Sa‘id b.
Hasan d’Alexandrie,” in “R. E. J.” xxxi. 1; “Meé-
langes Judéo-Arabes,” in 73. xliii, 1, xliv. 63, xiv. 1,
xl vii. 41.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Brockhaus, Konversations-Lexikon ; Meyers
Konversations-Lexikon; Pierer, Universal-Lexikon; Gu-
bernatis, Dictionnaire International; Pallas Lex.; La
Grande Encyclopédie.
8. M. Sc.
GOLEM (pbs): This word occurs only once in
the Bible, in Ps. cxxxix. 16, where it means “em-
bryo.” In tradition everything that is in a state of
incompletion, everything not fully formed, as a
needle without the eye, is designated as “ golem”
(“ Aruch Completum,” ed. Kohut, ii. 297). A. woman
is golem so long as she has not conceived (Sanh.
22b; comp. Shab. 52b, 77b; Sanh. 95a; Hul. 25a;
Abot v. 6; Sifre, Num. 158). God, father, and
mother take part in the creation of the child: the
skeleton and brain are derived from the father; the
skin and muscles from the mother, the senses from
God. God forms the child from the
seed, putting the soulinto it. If the
male seed is emitted first, the child is
of the male sex; otherwise it is of the female sex
(Nid. 31a). Although God impresses all men with
the seal of Adam, there is no resemblance between
any two of them (Sanh. 37a).
In the womb the navel is first formed, and from
this roots spread out, until the child is fully devel-
oped. According to another opinion the head is
first developed. The two eyes and the two nostrils
of the embryo resemble the eyes of a fly; the aper-
ture of the mouth is like hair (or a barleycorn). RK.
Jonathan says: “The two arms are like two pieces
of string; the other members are combined in a
mass” (Yer. Nid. 50d; comp. Nid. 25a; Sotah 45b).
Women that eat much mustard give birth to glut-
tonous children; those that eat many dates, to blear-
eyed children; those that eat much small fish, chil-
Embryo.
dren with unsteady eyes; those that eat cla,
naughty children; those that drink beer, dark.
skinned children; those that cat my
Causes meat and drink much wine, heaitp
Influencing chiJdren; those that eat many eggs
the Embryo. children with large eyes; those that eg,
much large fish, beautiful childrep.
those that eat much celery or parsley, children wig,
fine complexions; those that eat oleander, well-noyy,
ished children; those that eat paradise-apples, fr.
grant children (Ket. 6la), The same Babylonia,
amora, of the fourth century, also indicates wh,
epileptic and otherwise defective children are boy,
(Brecher, “Das Transcendentale, Magie und Ma.
gische Heilarten im Talmud,” pp. 174 et seg.). Moral
not physical, reasons are given as the principal fae.
tors in the birth of healthy or sickly children. De
cent behavior produces male children (Sheb, 18p.
comp. Nid. 71a), who are also regularly produceg
under certain conditions (‘Er. 100b; B. B. 10b; Nig.
3la, b). A dwarf should not marry a dwarf (Bek
46a). Other references to the embryo are found jp
Nid. 15a, 17a, 81b, 37b, 38a, 45b, 66a; Bezah %.
Bek. 44b-45a; Hul. 127a; Ned. 20a; Pes. 112a, ang
passim, Unfounded hatred causes abortion and the
death of the child (Shab. 32b).
The imagination of the ancient Israelites fre.
quently turned to the birth of the first man, who
was formed of dust and not born of woman, 4A
principal passage reads as follows: “ How was Adam
created? In the first hour his dust was collected.
in the second his form was created; in the third he
became a shapeless mass [golem]; in the fourth his
members were joined; in the fifth his apertures
opened; in the sixth he received his soul; in the
seventh he stood up on his feet; in the eighth Eve
was associated with him; in the ninth he was trans.
ferred to paradise; in the tenth he heard God’s con-
mand; in the eleventh he sinned; in the twelfth he
was driven from Eden, in order that Ps. xlix. 18
might be fulfilled” (Ab. R. N., ed.
Adam Schechter, Text A, i. 5; comp. Pesik.
as Golem. R. ed. Friedmann, 187b, and note 7;
Kohut, in “Z. D. M. G.” xxv. 13).
God created Adam as a golem; he lay supine, reach-
ing from one end of the world to the other, from
the earth to the firmament (Hag. 12a; comp. Gen.
R. viii., xiv., and xxiv.; Jew. Encyc. i. 175), The
Gnostics, following Irenzeus, also taught that Adam
was immensely long and broad, and crawled over
the earth (Hilgenfeld, “ Die Jiidische Apokaly ptik,”
p. 244; comp. Kohut, de. xxv. 87, note 1), Al
beings were created in their natural size and with
their full measure of intelligence, as was Adam (R.
H. ila). According to another tradition Adam was
only one hundred ells high (B. B. 75a); according t¢
a Mohammedan legend, only sixty ells (Kohut
i.e. xxv. 75, note 5; the number “sixty ” indicate
Babylonian influence). When he hid from the fact
of God, six things were taken from him, one of thes
being his size, which, however, will be restored %
him in the Messianic time (Gen. R. xii.; Num.
xiii. ; Kohut, Jc. xxv. 76, note 1; 91, note 8). Other
conceptions, for instance, that Adam was created §
hermaphrodite (see ANDROGYNOS), or with tw?
faces (DIDO = detpdowroc: Gen. R. viii. 7), be
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
37
Golem
Goliath
ture of Gnosticism. For similar | Israel Ba‘al Shem-Tob, but apparently the claims
litera
ae Plato and Philo, see Freudenthal,
views, &*
». Fellenistische Studien,” p. 69 (see ADAM).
. G. Brecher, Das Transcendentale, Magie
BIBLIOGRAPHY « Fiettarten im. Talmud, Vienna, 1850; A. Ko-
und eee -Miriraschische Adamssage in Ihrer
Jong to t
a Tiseh oe :
te Fos ut die Persische Yima-und Meshiasage,
5
uf. ‘
Riickt ed Si - 59-94: M. Grinbaum, Newe Beitrdige zur
in Z.D. Me Sage nkunde. pp. d4 et seq. Leyden, 1893; JEW.
Semitiscne Lii3; A. Hilgenfeld, Die Jtdische Apokalyptik,
Eycyc. 1. 6
L. B.
Jena. loo:
E. C.
In Medieval Times: In the Middle Ages
anes the belief in the possibility of infusing life
arose clay or wooden figure of a human being,
es ficure was termed “golem” by writers of
ye eighteenth century. The golem grew in size,
nd could carry any message Or obey mechanically
= order of its master. It was supposed to be
ee by the aid of the “Sefer Yezirah,” that is,
. ‘ combination of letters forming a “Shem” (any
ope of the names of God). The Shem was written
on a piece of paper and inserted either in the mouth
or in the forehead of the golem, thus bringing it
into life and action. Solomon ibn Gabirol is said to
have created a maid servant by this means. The
king, informed of this, desired to punish him, but
Ibn Gabirol showed that his creature was not a real
being by restoring every one of its parts to its origi-
na] form.
Elijah of Chelm, in the middle of the sixteenth
century, was the first person credited with having
made a golem with a Shem, for which reason he
was known asa “Ba‘al Shem.” It is said to have
grown to be a monster (resembling that of Franken-
stein), which the rabbi feared might destroy the
world. Finally he extracted the Shem from the
forehead of his golem, which returned to dust
(Azulai, “Shem ha-Gedolim,” i., No. 168). Elijah’s
grandson, known as the “hakam Zebi,” was so con-
vinced of the truth of this that he raised the ques-
tion as to whether a golem could be counted as one
ina “minyan” (quorum; Responsa, No. 93, Amster-
dam, 1712; Baer Heteb to Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah
Hayyim, 55, 1). The best-known golem was that
of Judah Léw b. Bezaleel, or the
Golem of “hohe Rabbi Low,” of Prague (end of
Hohe 16th cent.), who used his golem asa
Rabbi Liw. servant on week-days, and extracted
the Shem from the golem’s mouth
every Friday afternoon, so as to lect it rest on Sab-
bath. Once the rabbi forgot to extract the Shem,
and feared that the golem would desecrate the Sab-
bath. He pursued the golem and caught it in front
of the synagogue, just before Sabbath began, and
hurriedly extracted the Shem, whereupon the golem
fell in pieces; its remains are said to be still among
the débris in the attic of the synagogue. Rabbi Low
18 credited with having performed similar wonders
before Rudolph II. (“ Sippurim,” p. 52; comp. Gans,
i ue Dawid,” p. 46a, Frank fort-on-the-Main,
a A legend connected with his golem is given
_ man verse by Gustav Philippson in “ Allg.
Zeit. des Jud.” 1841, No. 44 (abridged in “Sulamith,”
ae 254; translated into Hebrew in “Kokebe Yiz-
nak,” No. 28, p. 75, Vienna, 1862).
a : 8 sometimes alleged that Elijah of Wilna also
ace a golem, and the Hasidim claim the same for
are based on the similarity in the one case of the
name “Elijah” and in the other of the appellation
“Ba‘al Shem” to the name and appellation of the
rabbi of Chelm. The last golem is attributed to R.
David Jaffe, rabbi in Dorhiczyn, in the government
of Grodno, Russia (about 1800), This golem, unlike
that of R. Léw, was not supposed to rest on Sab-
bath. Indeed, it appears that it was created only
for the purpose of replacing the Sabbath goy in
heating the ovens of Jews ou winter Sabbaths. All
orders to make fires were given to the golem on
Friday, which he executed promptly but mechanic-
ally the next day. In one case a slight error in an
order to the golem caused a conflagration that des-
troyed the whole town.
From this story it becomes probable that the whole
of the golem }egend is in some way a reflex of
the medieval legends about Vergil, who was cred-
ited with the power of making a statue move and
speak and do his will. His disciple once gave
orders which, strictly carried out, resulted in his
destruction. The statue of Vergil saved an adul-
teress, just as did the golem of R. Léw in Philipp-
son’sabove-mentioned poem (J. A. Tunison, “ Mas-
ter Virgil,” p. 145, Cincinnati, 1888).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ha-Maggid, 1867, Supplement No. 42; Pasche-
les, Sippurim, pp. 51-32, Prague, 1870; Rubin, Ma‘ase
Ta‘atuim, p. 117, Vienna, 1887; Tendlau, Sagen und Le-
genden der Jtidischen Vorzeit.
J. J. D. E.
GOLGOTHA (literally, “the skull”): Locality
mentioned in the New Testament as the scene of
Jesus’ execution (Matt. xxvii. 83 and parallels).
The name is an Aramaic emphatic state, and corre-
sponds to the Hebrew nbabs. In the Greek trans-
literation of the Gospels the “1” iselided except in one
manuscript (Codex Bez); “Golgotha ” is the proper
form. It was outside the city wall (John xix. 20),
near a tomb, a gate, and a road, and in a promi-
nent position (Mark xv. 29, 40; John xix. 20,
41). Two places answer to this description: (1) The
Church of the Holy Sepulcher, which is identified by
tradition with Golgotha; it lay beyond the second
wall and was near tombs and a road. <A temple of
Venus was erected on the site; and from the ana)-
ogy of the temple of Zeus, which was built on the
site of the Second Temple, this seems to imply that
it was once a sacred spot. (2) A skull-shaped rock
above the grotto of Jeremiah, about which there is
a Jewish tradition that it was the place of stoning.
The name does not occur in Talmudic literature.
See also ADAM.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. MeGrigor, in Encyclopedia Britannica,
s.v. Sepulchre, Holy; Cheyne and Black, Emcyc. Bibl. s.v.
J.
E. Cc,
GOLIATH: A Philistine giant of Gath ({ Sam.
xvii. 4). Thename “Goliath” is probably connected
with the Assyro-Babylonian “Guzali” = “running,
ravaging spirits,” “destroyers” (Jastrow, “ Religion
of Assyria and Babylon,” p. 500; Muss-Arnolt,
“Concise Dictionary,” s.v. “The Throne-Carriers ” ;
Delitzsch, “ Assyrisches Handworterb.” s.v.).
—~—Biblical Data: Goliath was the champion of
the Philistines, who had encamped between Shochoh
and Azekah against Saul and the men of Israel ar-
rayed for battle in the valley of Klah. He is described
Goliath THE JEWISI ENCYCLOPEDIA 38
Gollancz
ee ee ee es ee ee ee
as being six cubits and a span in height, having
upon his head a helmet of brass, and wearing a coat
of mail weighing five thousand shekels of brass,
with greaves of brass upon his legs and a target or
gorget of brass between his shoulders, The staff of
his spear is said to have been like a weaver’s beam,
the spear’s head weighing six hundred shekels of
iron.
Insolently challenging Isracl to appoint one of
their number to mect him in single combat, with the
condition that the people whose champion should
be killed should become the slaves of the other,
Goliath strikes fear into the hearts of Saul and his
men. David, sent by his father with some provi-
sions to his brothers and to their captain in Israel’s
army, hears the giant’s challenge, and inquires what
reward there shall be for the man who dares meet
the monster. Rebuked by his brother Eliah for his
presumption in leaving the sheep, and taxed by him
with idle curiosity, David persists in his inquiry.
Saul hears of David, and sends for him. The latter
relates his experiences with lions and bears, and de-
clares that the uncircumcised Philistine shall at his
hands mect a similar fate.
On being armed with Saul’s armor, David finds
that it impedes his gait, whereupon he discards it,
takes his staff, and chooses five smooth stones out of
the brook for use in his sling. He meets the giant,
who, upon catching sight of his diminutive adver-
sary, resents his coming as an insult. David de-
clares that he comes in the name of YHWH of hosts,
the God of Israel, and warns the monster of his im-
minent destruction. David, using great strategy in
running forward and backward, watches until the
giant exposes his face, when, rushing upon him,
he slings one of the stones, which,
Is Slain well directed, strikes the giant be-
by David. tween the eyes, and, sinking deep into
his forehead, fells him to the ground.
Drawing the giant’s own sword, the shepherd boy
severs the head from the trunk. The defeat and
death of their champion are the signal for a hasty
flight of the Philistines. In consequence of this
feat, David is received into Saul’s family, but Saul
becomes jealous of the young conqueror’s popular-
ity (I Sam. xviii. 9). Goliath’s sword is reported to
have been kept, “wrapped in a cloth behind the
ephod,” in the sanctuary at Nob in which Ahimelek
was priest. David, a fugitive from Saul, knowing
its worth, takes it with him in his flight to the King
of Gath (J Sam. xxi. 9 [A. V. 10]). According to
another account (II Sam. xxi. 19), Goliath was killed
by Elhanan from Bethlehem.
—In Rabbinical Literature: Goliath was of
ignoble birth. His mother is said to have been Or-
pah (MBI = Ap: ID Sam. xxi. 16; Yalk. ii. 125),
who, after making a pretense of accompanying
Ruth, her mother-in-law, and walking with her forty
paces, had left her and had led a very profligate life,
so that Goliath, her son, was of uncertain paternity
(Midr. Ruth ji. 14, where the ketib ninpor (I Sam.
xvii. 23) is read MWY MNYD; comp. Yalk. ii. 126,
601). She bore besides Goliath three other giants
(Tan., Wayiggash, 8).
In defying [srael Goliath boasted of having slain
the two sons of Eli, captured the holy Ark, brought
it to the house of Dagon, where it stayed sey,
months, and of having led the van of the Philistin,
in every war, scattering the enemy before him lig,
dust. Notwithstanding all these valorous deeds, y,
had not been found worthy to be the captain oy,
a thousand. But what had Saul done? Why hag
he been made king? If he was a man and warrio,
he should now come forward and meet him; but jy
he was a weakling, let Israel choose another cham.
pion (Targum to [Sam. xvii. 8). Thenaine the gian,
bore indicated his supernatural insolence, Goliath yp.
calling that he Aa"pnA 2965 p35 593 Ty, stood with
“uncovered [arrogant |countenance before even Gog"
(Sotah 42b). Goliath challenged the Israelites every
morning and every evening, so as to disturb they,
at the hour set for reciting the SHEeMA‘ (Yalk, ij
126). He was permitted to repeat his defiances fo,
forty days because of the forty paces which Orpay
had accompanied Ruth (Tan., Wayiggash, 8). Hig
accouterments weighed, according to R. Hanina
60 tons; according to R. Abba bar Kahana, 120 tong
(Sotah 48b). The Biblical account is said to have
described the immense proportions and strength of
the giant only in order to convey the lesson that it
is unlawful to sing the praises of an evil-doer
(Yalk. @.c.).
The accouterments of Saul fitted David; but the
latter, seeing Saul’s displeasure, doffed them (Mid.
rash Tan., Emor, ed. Buber, p. 48a; comp. a similar
tradition among the Arabs in Tabari and Mas‘udi),
When David went forth to battle, however, God
placed greaves upon his limbs (Yalk. Z.¢.). Why
did Goliath fall on his face? In order that David
should not be put to the trouble of going far when
rushing upon him to behead him. According to R.
Huna, Goliath had the picture of Dagon engraved
upon his heart, which also came to shame through
the giant’s death (Cant. R. to iv. 4). Goliath is
mentioned as the typical case where strength leads
to downfall (Ex. R. xxxi.). He died like a dog
(¢b.). The sword of David (probably Goliath’s)
had miraculous powers (Midrash Golyat, Jellinek,
“B. H.” iv. 140-141), Inorder to guard the slayer
of Goliath against becoming overbearing, God ex-
posed him to the revenge of his slain adversary’s
brother and mother (see GIANTS; Sanh. 95a; Jelli-
nek, “B, H.” iv. 140 et seg.). The Targum to If Sam.
xxi. 19 makes David, not Elhanan, the slayer of
Goliath; Rashi identifies Elhanan with David.
——Critical View: Thetwo accounts of Goliath’s
death prove that many old traditions concerning
valorous deeds performed in the wars against the
Philistines were current among the people, the
names of the herocs being variously given, Popu-
lar imagination attributed gigantic stature to the
champions of the enemy; speaking not of one giant
only, but of four (II Sam. xxi. 15 et seq.), and asso-
ciating with David other men, “his servants,” whe
after one of these encounters (with Ishbibenob; seé
GIANTS), in which David had run great dangers,
swear to prevent him from again taking part in such
expeditions,
The endeavor to harmonize the variant accounts
is apparent in the version of I Chron. xx. 5, wheré
Elhanan is credited with the slaying of Lahmi, the
brother of Goliath. This Lahmi clearly owes bis
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
39
Goliath
Gollancz
ithet by which Elhanan is distin- | of which only the first volume, covering the period
he epl
existence to Tn x3 19, namely, the “ Beth-lehem-
The confusion in the text is plain
i “oregim” after the name of
ee father, Jaare (Jair), from the end of the
Suaeee = staff of whose spear was like a weaver’s
beam. prief sketch in Il Sam, xxi. is the more trust-
oe The men of David—freebooters—mani-
worthy:
in their movements against the enemies.
f David’s duel exhibits great literary
skill, and the purpose is plainly to exalt David.
’ want and the mere lad—the one in heavy, for-
a midable equipment, the other with
the simple outfit of a shepherd; the
insolence of the Philistine; the faith
and fortitude of David; the cowardice
of Israel; the distrust of David's own brothers ; the
helplessness of Saul; the blind animal passion of the
champion; the shrewd, calm strategy of the shep-
nerd—all these are contrasted effects worked out
with consummate art. But they point to the fact
that in this version reflection and tendency had the
dominating part. From the point of view of liter-
ary effectiveness, few portions of Old Testament
literature equal this.
Underlying this tradition concerning Goliath and
other giants is the undoubted fact that many huge
weapons of bronze (brass) and iron were found by
the invading shepherd tribes of Israel. Many of
these were stored away at old shrines, perhaps be-
cause they were votive gifts of former generations
(I Sam. xvii. 54). The sword incident in the ver-
sion of I Sam. xvii. reflects, according to Cheyne,
the religious temper of late Psalms (Ps. xx. 7[A.
V. 8], xliv. 5 [6}). The battle-cry in Gideon’s army
(Judges vii. 20) may be remembered as significant
in this connection. The later religious construction
of the David-Goliath incident (see Ecclus. [Sirach]
xlvii. 2-11) is indeed woven into the accountin I Sam.
xvii., just as the valorous deed of David furnished
the basis for the late superscriptions of psalms within
and without the Hebrew canon (Ps. cxliv. [cexliii.])
and of one in the Greek psalter, wer tod apidtpod:
“when David fought against ToAcad ” (Goliad[th]).
The text of the Septuagint differs materially from
the Hebrew: verses 12-81, 41, 48b, and 50 are miss-
ing. These omitted, a coherent and consistent nar-
rative is presented, recounting how David, a mere
recruit, becomes suddenly a renowned warrior.
Some critics have assumed that these omissions were
made intentionally (so Wellhausen, “Die Composi-
Hen des Hexateuchs,” etc., 8d ed., p. 249; Kuenen,
Historisch-Kritische Einleitung in die Biicher des
Alten Testaments,” i., part 2, p. 61; Budde, “ Richter
und Samuel,” p. 210). Others (W. R. Smith and
Cornill) believe that the Hebrew verses not found in
the Septuagint represent a second David-Goliath
tradition,
E. ¢.
fest no fear
The story ©
Literary
Treatment.
E. G. H.
Prieta bei COUNT NICHOLAS: Rus-
nel me ; born in the second half of the nineteenth
R ‘ury. He became notorious through his history of
; i legislation dealing with the Jews, entitled
Storia Russkavo Zakonodatelstva O Yevreyakh,”
from Alexis Mikhailovich (1649) to 1825, has ap-
peared. His work is anti-Semitic in tendency. Al-
though Golitzyn assumes that his compilation will be
of historical value to students of the Jewish question,
he does not conceal his prejudice against the Jews,
and he even admits in the preface that the question,
because of its vitality and urgency, can hardly be
studied in a cold, impartial spirit. In speaking of
the attitude of the Russian Jews toward the inva-
sion of Napoleon, he belittles their patriotism and,
in spite of direct testimony to the contrary (see
ALEXANDER I.; Russia), even accuses them of self-
ish motives. Referring to the attempts of the Senate
under Elizabeth and Catherine IL. to revise the laws
concerning the Jews, Golitzyn neglects the facts
which made such attempts necessary, and ascribes
the action of the Senate to the intrigues of the Jews.
The work is a compilation from the writings of Or-
shanski, Leontovich, Dobrynin, Bershadski, Nikitin,
Derzhavin, Levanda, and others, supplemented by
speculations of the author utterly at variance with the
facts. Count Golitzyn, however, styles his work
original, and claims, for instance, that Bershadski’s
“Litovskiye Yevreii” is strongly in favor of the
Jews. Using Nikitin’s history of the Jewish agri-
cultural colonies in 1804-25, he not only imposes a
different and unwarranted meaning upon the facts
brought out by that author, but accuses him of par-
tiality and lack of thoroughness, though admitting
at the same time that Nikitin’s work possesses great
value as an extensive collection of interesting facts.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Voskhod, 1887, iii. 29, iv. 15; Entziklopedi-
cheski Slovar, s.v. St. Petersburg.
J. G. L.
H. R.
GOLLANCZ, HERMANN: English rabbi;
born at Bremen Nov. 30, 1852; educated at Jews’
and University colleges, London. He officiated at
several synagogues in England, and on the death of
the late chief rabbi succeeded Dr. Hermann Adler
as rabbiat Bayswater Synagogue, London. In Jan.,
1900, he obtained the degree of Lit.D. from the Uni-
versity of London, being the first Jew to obtain that
honor. Gollancz was secretary to the International
Congress of Orientalists (Semitic Section) held in
London in 1891, and was appointed to represent the
University of London as delegate at the Oriental
Congress held at Rome. Heis professor of Hebrew
at University College, London. He has published
“ Selections of Charms from Unedited Syriac MSS.,”
1891; English translations of “The Syriac Version
of Sindban,” 1892; “The Ethical Treatises of Ber-
achyah” (with Eng. transl.), London, 1902; and
“Clavis Solomonis,” 1902. In 1902 he edited an
English version of the Bible for use in Jewish
families.
pi oGesenes Jew. Chron. Jan. 5, 1900; Jew. Year-Book,
J. G. LL.
GOLLANCZ, ISRAEL: Secretary of the Brit-
ish Academy; born in London 1864. He was edu-
cated at the City of London School and Cambridge
University (B.A., 1887). He was lecturer in English
at University College 1892-95; lecturer at Cambridge
Golomb
Gomez
under the Special Board 1888-96; and examiner for
the medieval and modern tripos 1895-96. He was
elected lecturer in English at the University of Cam-
bridgein March, 1896. When, owing in large meas-
ure to Gollancz’s initiative, the British Academy
was founded in 1902, he was appointed secretary.
In 1903 he became professor of English literature
at King’s College, London. Gollancz has always
interested himself in communal affairs; he is con-
nected with several of the chief institutions, has
been for several years theological tutor to the Jew-
ish students at Harrow School, and in 1908 was
elected president of the Union of Jewish Literary
Societies.
Gollancz has edited: “The Pearl,” a Middle-Eng-
lish poem prefaced with a special verse by Tenny-
son, 1891; “ Cynewulf’s Christ,” 1892; “ Exeter Book
of Anglo-Saxon Poetry ” (Early English Text Soci-
ety), 1895; “Temple Shakespeare,” 1894-96, of
which nearly three million copies have been sold,
and which led to the publication of the “Temple
Classics,” a series of the best books; “The Parlia-
ment of the Three Ages” (Roxburgh Club), 1897;
and “Hamlet in Iceland,” 1898. Gollancz is now
(1903) editing another series entitled “The King’s
Classics.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who’s Who, London, 1908; Jew. Chron.
March 20, 1896; Jewish Year-Book, 1908.
J. V. E.
GOLOMB, HIRSCH NISSAN: Russian He-
braist and writer on music; born at Podzelve, gov-
ernment of Wilna, Dec. 15, 1853. He studied in the
yeshibah of Wilkomir, and received a good musical
training at Wilna. At the beginning of his literary
career he was a corrector in Romm’s printing-house
at Wilna, and while there he translated into Judzo-
German the “ Hilkot De‘ot” of the Yad ha-Hazakah,
Wilna, 1876. He also published several pamphlets
in Judeo-German, among them “ Mishle Hakamim.”
He then published aseries of works on music: “Kol
Yehudah,” a musical chrestomathy, Wilna, 1877;
“ Menazzeah bi-Neginot,” a manual of singing and the
violin, partly in Hebrew and partly in Judeo-Ger-
man, 2). 1884; “ Zimrat Yah,” a manual of harmony,
in Hebrew and Judeo-German, followed by a mu-
sical glossary, 7b. 1885. He has also written the fol-
lowing school-books: “Heder la-Tinokot,” a He-
brew reader, 7b. 1883; “ Lahakat Nebi’im,” a graded
Hebrew chrestomathy, 7d. 1888; “Kiryat Sefer,” a
description of Wilna, Grodno, Byelostok, and War-
saw, and of their Jewish communities.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Sokolov, Sefer Zikkaron, p. 15, Warsaw, 1889;
Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendets. pp. 119, 120.
M. SE.
H, R.
GOLYATOVSKI or GALIATOVSKI, JOAN-
NIKI: Little-Russian clericand anti-Jewish writer ;
died 1688. After having studied in the Kiev-
Mogilian College, Golyatovski took holy orders, and
was later appointed rector of the Little-Russian
schools. He declared himself the enemy of the
Roman Catholics, Jews, and Moslems, but showed
the greatest animosity toward the Jews, knowing
that this would increase his popularity among the
populace of Little Russia. Golyatovski soon found
in the appearance of Shabbethai Zebi a good oppor-
tunity for venting his ill-will, Taking the latter’s
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 49
assumptions as a pretext, he wrote, in the form of,
dialogue between a Jew and a Christian, a Violen,
polemic against the Jews under the title “Megg,
Pravdivi.” He says in the preface that the reasg,
which induced him to write the work was that th
dishonesty of the Jews in Little Russia, Lithuani,
and Poland “raised its horns too high.” He de.
scribes the Shabbethaian movement from a strong}
anti-Jewish point of view. The work was writte,
in Little-Russian, then translated into Latin, ang
afterward into Russian by I. Nitzkevich (Kiev, 1887)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Entziklopedicheski Slovar; Bolshaya Eny.
ziklopedia; Kostomarov, Russkaya Istoria, ii. 357 et seq
St. Petersburg, 1895; Voskhoa, 1887. *
H. R. M. Set,
GOMEL. See HomMELt.
GOMEL BENSHEN (* gomel” = Hebr., “who
bestoweth”; “benshen” = Judso-German, “tg
bless”): The pronouncing of the benediction fo,
escape from danger after passing through the
desert; after confinement in prison; after severe
sickness; and after crossing the sea and arrivin
safely in port. From the verses “ Men should praise
the Lord for his goodness, and for his wonderfy|
works to the children of men!” and “They should
exalt him also in the assembly of the people, at
the seat of the elders they should praise him” (Ps,
cvii. 8, 15, 21, 82, Hebr.), the Talinud (Ber. 54b) de.
rived theduty of giving thanks on the four occasions
enumerated, and of doing this in public, that js,
where ten or more men are gathered together for
common worship. Itis suggested that a literal com.
pliance with the text (“at the seat of the elders”)
would require the presence of two rabbis, but this
notion has been ignored. The words of the benedic-
tion suggested in the Talmud are: “Blessed be .
who bestoweth [“ gomel”] goodly mercies” ; but in
modern usage the one “bound to give thanks” is
called to the desk to read a subsection from the Penta-
teuch, and, after the usual benediction at the close,
he adds the following: “Blessed be Thou . . . who
bestoweth favors on the guilty, and who hath be-
stowed on me all that is good”; whereupon all the
bystanders answer: “He who has bestowed good on
thee may further bestow good on thee: Selah.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Maimonides, Yad, Berakot, x. 8; Caro, Shul-
han ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 319, 1.
8. S. L. N. D.
GOMER (7193): 1. Eldest son of Japheth, and
father of Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah (Gen.
x. 2,3; I Chron. i. 5, 6). In Yoma 10a and Yer.
Meg. i. 9 “Gomer” is explained to be the same as
won 3s, which stands either for “DDI (“ Cim-
merii”) or for s373 (“Germany”). In Gen. R.
xxxvii. “Gomer” is Africa, and “Magog” is Ger-
many (comp. Lenormant, “Origines,” ii. 382).
Gomer, standing for the whole family, is mentioned
in Ezek. xxxviii. 6 as the ally of Gog, the chief of
the land of Magog.
2. Daughter of Diblaim, and wife of the prophet
Hosea (Hosea i. 8).
E. G. H. M,. SEL.
GOMEZ: The Gomez family, or rather that
branch of it which has established itself in America,
traces its descent from Isaac Gomez, a Marano who
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Gompertz
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 49
re cr A I LLL Cty
left Madrid early in the seventeenth century and
went to Bordeaux, whence his son Lewis removed
to London and, luter, to New York. His descend-
ants have intermarricd with most of the old-time
American Jewish families. For the genealogical
tree of the Gomez family see page 41.
J. E. N. 8.
GOMEZ, ANTONIO ENRIQUEZ (called at
the Spanish court Enrique Enriquez de Paz):
Spanish poet; born in Segovia toward the end of the
sixteenth century; died in 1662. He wasason of the
Marano Diego Euriquez de Villanueva, Of excep-
tional abilities, Antonio devoted himself to study
while very young. At the age of twenty he entered
upon a military career, in which he distinguished
himself so greatly that he was soon advanced to the
rank of captain, was decorated with the Order of St.
Michael, and received the title of “Royal Counselor.”
Later, however, he was suspected by the Inquisi-
tion, and fled to France. For several years he re-
mained in Bordeaux, Rouen, or Paris, and then
settled in Amsterdam, where he openly professed
Judaism. In April, 1660, he was publicly burned
in effigy in Seville.
Gomez cultivated almost every branch of litera-
ture. He distinguished himself as philosopher, poet,
theologian, statistician, and author. In the pro-
logue to his heroic poem, “El Samson Nazareno,” he
gives a list of his works which had appeared up to
that time, as follows:
Academias Morales de las Musas. Bordeaux, 1642; Madrid,
1660; Barcelona, 1704.
La Culpa del Primer Peregrino. Rouen, 1644; Madrid, 1735.
La Politica Angelica, divided into five dialogues. Rouen, 1647,
Luis Dado de Dios 4 Luis y Ana, Samuel Dado de Dios 4 El-
cana y Ana, dedicated to Louis XIV. Paris, 1645.
El! Siglo Pitagorico y Vida de D. Gregorio Guadafia. Rouen,
1647 5 2d ed., 1682.
La Torre de Babilonia.
sterdam, 1726.
El Samson Nazareno: Poema Heroico. Rouen, 1656.
Romance al Divin Martyr Juda Creyente, Martirizado em
Valladolid por la Inquisicion, an account of the martyrdom of
Juda Creyente or D. Lope de Vera y Alarcon, who was burned
to death at Valladolid July 25, 1644. See Daniel Levi de Bar-
rios, ‘‘Relacion de los Poetas,”’ p. 57; Neubauer, ‘“‘ Cat. Bodl.
Hebr. MSS.”’ No. 2481, 5.
Part i., ib. 1649; Madrid, 1670; Am-
Gomez was also a prolific dramatist, as he himself
has stated in the prologue to his “Samson Nazareno ” ;
up to the year 1642 he had written twenty-two
dramas, some historical and some heroic. Many of
them show a strong similarity to those of Calderon,
who was twenty years his junior; indeed, his plays
were often passed off as Calderon’s productions.
Of his dramas there appeared: “A Jo que Obliga
el Honor,” together with “Academias Morales,”
Bordeaux, 1642; Valladolid, n.d.; Barcelona, 1704;
“La Prudente Abigail,” Bordeaux, 1642; Barcefona,
1704; Valencia, 1762; Amsterdam, 1726. “A lo que
Obligan los Celos” was falsely attributed to D. Fer-
nando de Zarate. Gomez is also said to be the au-
thorof “ Triunfo Lusitano, Acclamacdao do Sr. Rei D.
Joao IV.,” Paris, 1614, and of the “ Lamentaciones de
Jeremias ” (“ Revista de Gerona,” xii, 76 e¢ seq.).
Gomez’s lyric poems are especially praiseworthy
for their purity of form, beauty of expression,
wealth of thought, and depth of feeling. He was
less successful with his heroic poems, which, in the
opinion of Tickuor, are full of Gongorisms.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ticknor, Hist. of Spanish Literature, M1. 449
et seq., iii. 68 (Spanish translation, ii. 459et seg.); Rios. sty.
dios, pp. 569 et seq.; Kayserling, Sephardim, p. 216, adopteq
in Annuaire des Archives Tsraélites, 5646 (1885); idem, Bid},
Esp.-Port,-Jud. pp. 49 et seq.
G. M. K.
GOMEZ, DUARTE. See Usque, SoLomon,
GOMEZ, MANUEL: Physician; born about
1580 of Portuguese parentage at Antwerp. After
studying medicine at Evora he settled as a physician
at Amsterdam. He wrote “De Pestilentiz Cura.
tione” (Antwerp, 1603; 3d ed., 7b. 16438), and is said
to have been one of the first to call attention to the
uselessness of milk as a specific in the treatment of
confirmed phthisis.
This “Doctor Antwerpiensis,” who was highly
esteemed by Amato Lusitano, was also a poet. Sev.
eral of his poems—on the spider, the ant, and the
bee—were added to his metrical commeniary on the
aphorism of Hippocrates, “ Vita brevis, ars longa.”
The commentary, written in Spanish and published
in 1648, was eulogized in a Latin ode by his coun.
tryman Manuel Rodriguez of Antwerp.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Barbosa Machado, Biblioteca Lusitana, itt,
277; Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. iii. 875; Lindo, The History of the
Jews in Spain and Portugal, p. 368; Kayserling, Sephar-
dint, pp. 209, 347.
G. M. K.
GOMEZ DE SOSA (SOSSA), ABRAHAM:
Spanish physician; died at an advanced age Elul 21
(= Sept.10), 1667. He was physician in ordinary to
the infante Ferdinand (son of Philip III. of Spain),
governor of the Netherlands. His epitaph is recorded
in D. H. de Castro’s “ Keur van Grafsteenen,” p. 83,
G. M. K.
GOMEZ DE SOSA (SOSSA), ISAAC: Latin
poet (“famoso poeta Latino,” according to De Bar-
rios); son of Abraham Gomez de Sosa. He was
arbiter at the academy of poetry founded by Don
Manuel de Belmonte in 1677. Gomez wrote the
Latin epitaph on his father’s tomb, a Latin poem in
honor of Jacob Judah Leon’s “Las Alabancas de
Santitad,” and two other poems in honor of a work
by Joseph Penco de la Vega. He also caused 8
translation to be made of the work “ Divinidad de
la Ley.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. H. de Castro, Keur van Grafsteenen, p. Hi
Kayserling, Bibl. Esp.-Port.-Jud. pp. 13, 22, 59, 74, 94, 104.
G. M. K.
GOMORRAH: One of the destroyed cities of
the Pentapolis. Comp. Sopom and Zoar.
GOMPERS, SAMUEL: Aunerican labor-leader;
born in London Jan. 27, 1850. At ten years of age
he became a wage-earner, working in a shoc-fac-
tory; later he was apprenticed toa cigar-maker. In
1863 he emigrated to America, where a year later he
helped to organize the Cigar-Makers’ International
Union, becoming its first registered member. Fo?
a number of years Gompers was the secretary and
president of this organization and helped to make it
the most successful of American trade-unions,
In 1881 he became a delegate to the first conveD:
tion of the American Federation of Labor. His nat
ural abilities as a leader were soon recognized; 10
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
43
o ed to the presidency of the Federa-
1892 he oC ae body working men
tion, Te ited States, possibly in the world, its mem-
in the ene ng estimated at over 2,000,000. He has
pership being been continuously re-
elected president, ex-
cept in 1894, when he
was defeated by John
McBride. The first six
years of his presidency
he served without re-
muneration, and he
also paid his own ex-
penses incidental to the
agitations of 1886 in
favor of the eight-hour
law.
Gompers was instru-
mental in placing on
the statute-books of
the national govern-
ment and of the vari-
ous states laws for the
benefit of the working
classes. Among the numerous laws passed at his
instance are those providing for an eight-hour work-
day for mechanics and laborers in government
service, and a ten-hour limit for street-railway work-
ers; for the regulation of child labor, and the con-
trol of sweat-shops; and also for making the first
Monday in September a legal holiday, since known
as “Labor Day.”
In 1901 Gompers was appointed a member of the
National Civic Federation as a representative of the
interests of labor.
In addition to being the editor of the “ American
Federationist,” the oflicial organ of the American
Federation of Labor, Gompers has written numer-
ous articles on the labor question.
Samuel Gompers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nattonal Cyclopedia of American Biogra-
phy, xi. 589; Who's Who in America, 1903; The En-
cyclopedia of Social Reform, s.v.; New International
Encyclopedia, s.v.
A. I. G. D.
GOMPERTZ, BENJAMIN: British actuary;
born in London March 5, 1779; died there July 14,
1865. He wasdescended from the family of Gomperz
of Emmerich. In 1798 he began to contribute to the
“Gentleman’s Mathematical Companion,” fora long
ume carrying off the annual prizes of that magazine.
Though he entered the Stock Exchange, he contin-
ued to study mathematics, became a member of the
old Mathematical Society of Spitalfields, and acted
as its president when it became later the Astronom-
ical Society. He was a contributor to the “Transac-
tions "of the Royal Society, and in 1817-18 pub-
lished tracts on imaginary quantities and porisms
Which established his reputation asa mathematician.
In 1819 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society,
nS became a member of its council in 1882, In
yitens was made a member of the council of the
a nomical Society, subsequently contributing
= valuable papers to its proceedings.
“i panded reputation rests mainly on his work
ae ry. On the establishment of the Guardian
ance Office in 1821 he was a candidate for its
Gomez
Gompertz
actuaryship, but the directors objected to him on
the ground of his religion. His brother-in-law, Sir
Moses Montefiore, in conjunction with Nathan
Rothschild, thereupon founded the Alliance Assur-
ance Co. (1824), and Gompertz was appointed actu-
ary under the deed of settlement. In this capacity
he developed in 1825 a mathematical law of human
mortality which remains the foundation of all actu-
arial calculations. In 1848 Gompertz, after twenty-
four years’ service, retired from the actuaryship and
devoted himself to scientific labors. He had been
frequently consulted by the government, and was a
member of numerous learned societies as well as of
the leading Jewish charities, THe worked outa plan
of poor-relicf which was afterward adopted by the
Jewish board of guardians.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. de Morgan, in Athenwum, July 22, 1865;
list of Gompertz’s scientifie papers in Notes and Queries, 2d
series, x. 1683; M. N. Adler, in Assurance Magazine, 1865;
Jew. Chron. Oct. 6, 1843; Dict. National Biography, s.v.
J. G. LL.
GOMPERTZ, ISAAC: English poet; brother
of Benjamin and Lewis Gompertz; born 1774; died
1856. He wrote: “June, or Light and Shade,” a
poem in six parts, London, 1815; “The Modern
Antique, or the Muse in the Costume of Queen
Anne,” London, 1813; “Devon, a Poem,” Teign-
mouth, 1825. Gompertz was much admired by his
contemporaries; Dr. Jamieson, in his “Grammar of
Rhetoric” (p. 357), classes Gompertz with Dryden,
Pope, Addison, and Gray.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dict. Nat. Biog. s.v. Benjamin and Lewts
Gompertz.
Ji J. H.
GOMPERTZ, LEWIS: English inventor of
London; died Dec. 2, 1861; brother of Benjamin
Gompertz, the mathematician. He devoted his life
to the cause of kindness to animals, and in 1824 set
forth his views in a work entitled “ Moral Enquiries
on the Situation of Men and Brutes,” which at-
tracted considerable notice, resulting in the founda-
tion of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals, Gompertz became honorary secretary of
the society and worked for it with much enthusiasm.
In 1882 religious difficulties arose between Gompertz
and the executive committee; his “ Moral Enquiries ”
was denounced as hostile to Christianity, and he
severed his connection with the society. He then
proceeded to form “The Animals’ Friend Society,”
which speedily outstripped the parent institution.
In connection with the new society Gompertz edited
“The Animals’ Friend, or the Progress of Human-
ity”; but owing to ill health he was obliged to re-
tire in 1846 from public work, and the society dis-
banded.
Gompertz was the inventor of shot-proof ships,
with contrivances for reflecting the balls to the
places from which they were fired; a mechanical
cure for apoplexy ; and the expanding chuck, which
is now to be found in almost every workshop.
Besides a volume of articles from “The Animals’
Friend,” Gompertz was also the author of “ Mechan-
ical Inventions and Suggestions on Land and Water
Locomotion,” London, 1851.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Nov. 1, 1889; Allibone, Dict. of
Authors; Dict. National Biography, 8.v. GL
Js Xe Lie
Gomperz
Gopher-Wood
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 44
ssa ee a GE Ee Te ee ee ea
GOMPERZ, BENJAMIN: Austrian physician ;
born at Vienna Oct. 6, 1861. He was educated at the
Leopoldstédter communal gymnasium and the Uni-
versity of Vienna, and received the degree of doctor
of medicine in 1885. He was appointed assistant at
the hospital of the university (1885-1900), and subse-
quently established himself in the Austrian capital
as a physician and specialist in aural and nasal dis-
eases. Since 1897 he has been curator of the Baronin
Hirsch Kaiser-J ubiliiums- Wohlthitigkeit-Stiftung.
Gomperz has written many essays for the medical
journals; e.g.: “Das Weiche Papillire Fibrom der
Unteren Nasenmuschel,” in “ Monatsschrift fir
Ohrenheilkunde,” 1889, No. 2; “ Erfahrungen tiber die
Verschliessbarkeit Alter Tromme}felliicken,” in the
“Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift,” 1896; and a
number for the “Oesterreichisch-Ungarische Cen-
tralblatt fir die Medizinischen Wissenschaften,”
His “Beitriige zur Pathologischen Anatomie des
Ohres” was published in the “Archiv fir Obren-
heilkunde.” Other essays appeared in the “ Central-
blatt fiir die Gesammte Therapie,” in the “ Wiener
Medizinische Wochenschrift,” and in the “ Deutsche
Medizinische Wochenschrift.”
8. F. T. H.
GOMPERZ-BETTELHEIM. See BETTEL-
HEIM.
GOMPERZ, JULIUS, RITTER VON: Aus-
trian merchant and statesman; brother of Theodor
Gomperz; born at Brinn 1824; studied at the gym-
nasium and Philosophische Lehranstalt there. In
1859 he became a member of the chamber of com-_
merce (president in 1872). He took his seat in the
Moravian diet in 1861; and in 1871 he was a member
of the Lower House, entering the Upper House in
the year following. In this year he was knighted
and decorated with the Order of the Austrian Crown
(8d class). He is also an officer of the French
Legion of Honor. Gomiperz is one of the owners
of the cloth-factory of Auspitz Enkel at Brinn,
and a member of the firm of Philipp Gomperz of
Vienna. For many years he was president of the
Jewish congregation of Brtinn. S.
GOMPERZ, THEODOR: Austrian philologist ;
born at Briinn March 29, 1832, His great-grandfather,
Benedictus Levi Gomperz, was the financial
agent of the duchy of Cleve, whose influence with
the Dutch government was exemplified by his suc-
cessful intercession (1745) in behalf of the Jews of
Bohemia and Moravia when they were to be expelled
from these countries (see BoHEmMiIaA; Marra THE-
RESA; comp. David Kaufmann, “Barthold Dowe
Burmania und die Vertreibung der Juden aus
Mahren,” in “ Gritz Jubelschrift,” pp. 279-313).
Toward the close of the eighteenth century Bene-
dictus’ son, Theodor Gomperz, went to Briinn,
Moravia, where he held a modest position in the
internal revenue service of the Austrian govern-
ment under Joseph IJ. Soon afterward, however,
he retired from public life and devoted himself to
business, in which he acquired a moderate fortune.
The business was continued by his sons, the father !
and uncle of Theodor Gomperz, the subject of this
biography, both of whom attained to positions of
trust and respect in the community.
Gomperz entered the University of Vienna in 1849
and studied classical philology under Hermany
Bonitz and philosophy under Robert Zimmermann.
He especially applied himself to the study of the
works of Spinoza and James and John Stuart Mj}.
the works of the last-named he subsequently trang.
lated into German (Leipsic, 1869-80).
Gomperz became privat-docent in 1867, assistant
professor in 1869, and professor of classical philo}.
ogy in 1873. He is honorary Ph.D. of the Univer.
sity of Konigsberg and “doctor litterarum” of the
University of Dublin. He became correspondin
member of the Vienna Academy of Sciences in 1868
and full member in 1882, He is also corresponding
member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences,
In 1901 he was appointed by the emperor Francig
Joseph member of the Austrian House of Lords.
Gomperz’s principal writings are: “ Philodemi de
Ira Liber,” 1864; “Demosthenes als Staatsmann,”
1864; “ Herculaneische Studien,” 1865; “ Beitriége zur
Kritik und Erklarung Griechischer Schriftsteller,”
1875-90; “ Herodoteische Studien,” 1883; “ Ueber ein
Bisher Unbekanntes Griechisches Schriftsystem aus
der Mitte des 4. Vorchristlichen Jahrhunderts,” 1884,
“Platonische Aufsitze,” 1887; “ Ueber die Charakterg
Theophrasts,” 1888; “Die Schrift vom Staatswesen
der Athener,” 1891. He resigned his professorship
a few years ago to devote his entire energy to his main
work, “Griechische Denker,” which began to ap:
pear in 18938 (8 vols. ; vol. i. transl. into English by L.
Magnus). Gomperz declares the object of his under.
taking to be “to present a comprehensive picture
of this department of knowledge” as a kind of pro-
legomena to an “exhaustive universal history of the
mind of antiquity.” Each volume is divided inte
three books.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: AJeyers Konversations-Lexctkon ; Brockhaus
Konversations-Lexikon; La Grande Encyclopédie, s.v.;
Th. Gomperz, Erinnerungen aus Meinem Leben, I., it
Deutsche Revue (ed. R. Fleischer), June, 1908, pp. 305-310.
S
GONZALO GARCIA DE SANTA MARIA:
Spanish bishop and enemy of the Jews; born at Bur
gos in 1379; baptized as a boy of eleven, togethe!
with his father, Paul de Burgos or de 8, Maria. He
was appointed Archdeacon of Briviesca in 1412, and
then successively Bishop of Astorga, of Placentia,
and of Siguenza. Besides his classical and historical
studies, he made himself familiar with Jewish litera
ture, and was one of the most learned men of bit
time in Spain. Gonzalo showed his hostility to thé
Jews at every opportunity. He was sent to the
council at Basel as a delegate from Aragon, and wai
one of those who instigated the decisions hostile té
the Jews which were formuiated there. Gonzald
was entrusted with the oversight of the punctilious
execution of the laws against the Jews which had
been decreed by the anti-pope Benedict XIII, and,
on the advice of Paul de 8. Maria, by Juan I. an
other Castilian kings.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rios, Hist. tii. 20 et seq.: idem, Estudios, PP
379 et seq.; Gratz, Gesch. viii. 1383, 185.
G. M. K.
GONZALO, MARTINEZ (also called Martin
de las Castillas): A poor Spanish knight who wa
promoted to high offices through the instrumentality
of Joseph de Ecija, in whose service he was. He
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
45
Gomperz
Gopher-Wood
a inst his master and against Sam- | not be crossed (B. K. 55a; Bek. 8a). They are
es agal
bn ee pefore King Alfonso XI. (1312-60),
ruined and soon afterward met
and boy Shel he became minister and grand-
their deat the Order of Alcantara, he conceived the
master veterminating all the Jews of Castile, direct-
idea of els first against two prominent Jews,
ing a Apidiel and Ibn Ya‘ish, who, however, main-
ante snemselves in the king’s favor by means of
tape nifts of money. When in 1339 Abu al-
are oe Morocco sent an army to conquer Cas-
ec proposed that the Jews be expelled
ee their fortunes confiscated. On account of its
aD : caicuey this plan was opposed, especially by
gee de Albornoz, Archbishop of Toledo. Gon-
ae led the king’s troops against the Moroccan
commander ‘Abd al-Malik, who was put to flight.
But shortly after this Gonzalo was overthrown by
the help of the king’s mistress, Leonora de Guz-
man. He fied and entrenched himself in a tower,
but was forced to surrender; in 1340 he was burned
at the stake and his fortune was confiscated.
PHY: Joseph b. Zaddik, in M. J.C. p. 97; Shebet
BE dal ed. Wiener, pp. 30 et seg.; Zacuto, Yuhasin, ed.
Filipowski, p. 24a; Gratz, Gesch. vil. 341 ef seq. Nae
G.
GOOD AND EVIL. See Eruics.
GOODMAN, TOBIAS: English preacher and
author; died after 1824; one of the earliest preach-
ers in English of the London Jewish community.
Tobias Goodman was a reader and minister at the
Denmark Court Synagogue, the first synagogue es-
tablished in the West End of London. Here as
early as 1817 he preached an English sermon on
the death of Princess Charlotte of Wales, and if
not the tirst sermon delivered in English in a Lon-
don synagogue, it is the earliest sermon printed in
English of which any record exists. Some time
afterward he preached a sermon in the same syna-
gogue on the death of King George III. (London,
1820). About 1824 he was preaching regularly on
Sabbaths in English at the Rosemary Lane Syna-
gogue. But Goodman’s work as a preacher was not
confined to London. On May 2, 1819, in the Seel
Street Synagogue, Liverpool, he delivered a dis-
course on “The Faith of Israel,” which was replied
toby William Smith of Glasgow ina published letter
dated Oct. 8, 1825.
Goodman, who described himself at times as a
“public lecturer,” and at other times as a “teacher
of the Hebrew language,” was the author, also, of
various works. His sermon at Liverpool on “The
Faith of Israel” was subsequently elaborated into.
a text-book, published in 1884.
As early as 1806 he had trenslated into English
Jedaiah Bedersi’s “Behinat ‘sa-‘Olam.” In 1809 he
Published a pamphlet containing a protest against
the London Society for Promoting Christianity
among the Jews.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Matthi
: thias Levy, The Western Synagoque
ome Materials for Its History, 1897 9 et seq.: Jew.
Chron, Nov. 12, 1897; Jew. World, Oct. yt tera ea
° J, H.
— (MN, pl. pm; xprp, pl ‘pxp): Ac:
wild & to the Talmudists the domestic and the
f00s8e are two different species which should
distinguished by the following criteria: The domes-
tic goose has a longer beak than the wild species;
its genital organs are more retired under the skin,
and it has several eggs in its ovary at the same
time, while the wild goose has only one, another
being formed after the first has been laid (d.). In
the Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 297, 7, only the
second criterion is mentioned. In Yer. B. K. v. 10
and Kil. viii. 6 a sea-goose is spoken of, which, be-
cause it belongs toa different species, ought not to be
crossed with a domestic goose. The goose, being a
water-fowl, has a very thin brain-membrane (Haul.
56b). It is permitted to hold a goose by its wings
on the Sabbath while it is moving, but it is not
permitted to do so with a hen; because the former
when held by the wings moves of its own ac-
cord, while the latter has to be dragged; and on
Sabbath the moving of things from one place to
another in an open space is not allowed (Shab. 128b,
Rashi). The foot of a goose is as wide as long
(Bek. 45a). Generally a goose returns to its abiding-
place at night (Bezah 24a), but occasionally it settles
in a garden (Hul. 88b). Geese were known for their
honking; compare the saying “You gabble like
geese” (Yer. B. B. viii. 7). The Talmudists, refer-
ring to Prov. i. 20, declared that one who seesa goose
in his dream may hope for wisdom (Ber. 57a). R.
Gida] called women “white geese” (Ber. 20a), a
term applied by Raba to old and selfish judges
(Git. 18a).
Besides the flesh and feathers, which are widely
used also in modern Jewish households, the fat and
lungs of the goose were used, the latter two for medic-
inal purposes (Hul. 49a; Yoma 84a). Geese were also
used in thrashing (Sanh. 29b). Rabba bar bar Hana in
one of his stories similar to the “Ligenmirchen”
of modern foltk-lore says that he once saw in the
desert geese whose feathers were falling out of their
bodies on account of their fat, while rivers of oil
issued from them. They will be preserved for the
great meal to be given tothe righteous in the Messi-
anic times (B. B. 73b).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lewysohn, Die Zoologie des Talmuds, pp.
190-192,
8. 8. M. SEL.
GOPHER-WOOD: The material of which the
ark of Noah was made. The word “ gofer” occurs
but once in the Bible, viz., in the expression 453 ‘yy
(Gen. vi. 14). A comparison of the ancient versions
shows that the word was just as obscure when they
were made as it is to-day.
The renderings proposed by modern interpreters
are as a rule arbitrary and unsatisfactory. The
identification of “ gofer” with “cypress” (Celsius,
“Hierobotanicon,” i. 3828; Bochart, “Geographia
Sacra,” ii. 4) rests on the mere assumption that the
roots of these two words are akin. According to
P. de Lagarde, “ gofer” stands for “ gofrit,” meaning
originally “pine,” from old Bactrian “ vohukereti,”
and later also “sulfur,” on account of the like-
ness in appearance which sulfur bears to pine-resin
(“Semitica,” i. 64; comp. “Symmicta,” ii, 93, and
“Uebersicht tiber die im Aramiischen, Arabischen
und Hebriischen Uebliche Bildung der Nomina,” p.
218).
Gopher-Wood
Gordon, Leon
Others think that “ gofer” can best be explained
from the Assyro-Babylonian literature. Cheyne,
starting from the assumption that the Hebrew nar-
yative of the Deluge is amere translation from some
similar Babylonian document, supposes that the
passage under discussion read in the original “gu-
shure ig erini” (cedar-beams). He thinks that first
the word “erini” was overlooked by the Hebrew
translator, who afterward mistook “gushure” for
a tree-name, and accordingly wrote 1w3 °Np; next
a scribe, whose eye was caught by 155 at the end
of the verse, miswrote 43 (Stade’s “Zeitschrift,”
1898, p. 163: comp. Cheyne and Black, “Encyc.
Bibl.” s.v.). F. Hommel holds the Hebrew 753 to
be the Assyrian “ giparu ” (reed).
The “kufa” (Arabic, “ufr” =,Hebr. “kofer” =
“ gofer”) now in use on the rivers and canals of the
land that gave birth to the Hebrew narrative of the
Deluge are made of willow-branches, palm-leaves,
etc., closely interwoven like basket-work, with a
coat of bitumen on the inside. This is evidently a
very old type of water-craft, suggested by the natu-
ral resources of a land devoid of large trees suitable
for ship-building, but having an abundance of
lighter material and bitumen. Such must have been
the ark of Noah (Hastings, “Dict. Bible,” 8.v.
“Babylonia ”). J. Halévy implicitly adopts the
same view (“Recherches Bibliques,” i. 180).
The reading of the Masoretic text is correct, at
least in the consonants. It is none the less certain
that in course of time the Assyrian 453 (whether first
Hebraized “gefer” or “ gofer”) became obscure to
the Hebrews. This might have necessitated the
addition of an explicative clause with a Hebrew
word asa substitute for 463, viz., D'3p. This, when
the Hebrews had become familiar with the Pheni-
cian methods of ship-building, came by degrees to
be considered as an absurdity, and was altered into
mp, much against the usage of the Hebrew lan-
guage and in violation of the most elementary rules
of composition, yet seemingly quite in agreement
with the early Jewish methods of emendation.
For passages of the Bible supporting, though only
indirectly, the identification of “ gofer” with “reed,”
see the Bible commentaries to Ex. ii. 3, Isa. xviii. 2,
and Job xi. 26, and the Hebrew lexicons s.v. x15 and
sox. Seealso Papyrus; REED; SHIP AND SHIPPING.
E. G. H. H, H.
GORDIN, JACOB (JAKOV MIKHAILO-
VICH): Yiddish playwright and reformer; born
May 1, 1858,.in Mirgorod, government of Poltava, He
received a good education and acquired a thorough
knowledge of Hebrew. In 1870 he began to contrib-
ute articles to various Russian periodicals. His first
sketches appeared in “Zarya,” the organ of the
Liberals of South Russia. Jn 1880 he wrote for
“ Nedyelya” a series of short stories of Jewish life,
and also a novel entitled “ Liberal-Narodnik.” For
a time Gordin was unofficially the editor of “ Yeli-
savetgradski Vyestnik” and “Odesskiya Novosti,”
to which he contributed weeky feuilletons under the
pseudonym “Ivan Koliuchy.”
In 1879 Gordin founded in Yelisavetgrad the
rational sect of the BisiErrzy (“Bible Brother-
hood”), which broke away from dogmatic Judaism.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 46
ge, each a ie Ate
He remained the moving spirit of the fraternit
throughout its short career. In 1890 he emigrateg
to New York.
In America Gordin entered a new field of literg.
ture, becoming a Yiddish playwright. In this ¢g.
pacity he did much to improve the Jewish stage
which, largely through his efforts, has attained g
reputable position. Gordin was a prolific writer,
and, after his first play, “Siberia,” was produced jp
1891, he composed about sixty Jewish dramas ang
vaudevilles. While some of these belong to the
poorest kind of literature, others have scarcely
their equal on the Jewish stage, and may justly be
ranked among the higher productions of dramatic art,
Gordin’s best plays are: “The Yiddish King Lear,”
“Mirele Effros,” “Shechite,” “Sappho,” “ Gott,
Mensch un Taiwel,” “ Kreutzer Sonata,” “ Yetomoh,”
Gordin wrote a number of sketches in Yiddish,
some of which are pathetic, and some grotesquely
humorous. He died in 1909.
RIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Hapgood, The Spirit of the Ghetto, New
York, 1902.
H. R. W. A. M.
GORDON, DAVID B. DOB BAER: Russian
journalist; born in Podmerecz, near Wilna, in 1836;
died in Lyck, Prussia, May 21, 1886. At the age
of ten he went to Wilna, where he studied in the ye.
shibah. When eighteen he settled in Sergei (Serhei),
government of Suvalki, where he married and con-
tinued his studies, becoming a teacher. About
1850 he left Russia for England. While passing
through Lyck he made the acquaintance of Eliezer
Lipman Silberman, who was then planning the
foundation of a Hebrew periodical. After three
years of hardship in Liverpool he became a school-
teacher, but was finally forced by ill health to re-
linquish that position. When in 1856 Silberman
began to publish the first Hebrew weekly, “ Ha-
Maggid,” he invited Gordon to act as his assistant
editor. Gordon went to Lyck in 1858, and, in addi-
tion to his editorial duties, assisted Silberman in the
formation and conduct of the society Mekize Nir-
damim (1864), established for the purpose of pub-
lishing old and valuable Hebrew works. Forashort
time Gordon edited the “Maggid Mishneh,” a liter-
ary supplement to the above periodical, and for
many years he edited the German tri-weekly
“Lycker Anzeiger.” After Silberman’s death in
1882 Gordon succeeded him as editor of “Ha-
Maggid.” Gordon was one of the pioneers in the
Zionist movement, and one of the intellectual leaders
of the Chovevei Zion. In 1884 he went to London
as the representative of the Zionists to congratulate
Sir Moses Montefiore on the hundredth anniversary
of his birth.
Gordon translated the following: under the title
“ Masse‘e Yisrael,” Israel b. Joseph Benjamin’s (Ben:
jamin II.’s) account of his travels through Asia
and Africa (Lyck, 1854); “ Milhemet ha-Or weha-Ho-
shek,” describing the trial of S. Brunner and [Ignaz
Kuranda in Vienna (from the German; 7. 1860); and
“Mosheh wi-Yerushalayim,” on Sir Moses Monte-
fiore’s journey to Jerusalem (from the English; 2.
1867). He wrote “Darke ha-Refu’ah,” on popular
medicine and hygiene, part i. (2b. 1870); several
biographies which appeared in “Ha-Maggid” and
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Gopher-Wood
Gordon, Leon
- and one of Leo Hebreeus, as an | he lived quietly in the house of a Jew, wearing a
re Maggid Mishneh ve
rate eh Chronicle” in 1881-82, affords a trust-
: f the Russian persecutions of 1881.
rthy anaes June 7, 1886; Ha-Asif
, e Times, London, June : Ha-Asif,
nee ath Keneset Yisrael, p. 228, Warsaw, 1886,
P. Wr.
ON, LORD GEORGE: English agita-
cnet to Judaism; born in London on
T ae 1751; died in 1798; son of the third Duke
wo
H. R.
to
Dec. 26,
Lord George Gordon After Conversion to Judaism.
(From a drawing by Polack.)
of Gordon. After serving as midshipman and lieu-
tenant in the navy, he entered Parliament for In-
verness in 1774. In 1778 Gordon at the head of
a disorderly mob presented a bill for the repeal of
the act by which the Catholic disabilities had been
removed, and, a riot ensuing, Gordon was sent to the
Tower, but was acquitted. In 1784 he came for-
ward as the Protestant champion in the quarrel be-
tween the Dutch and the emperor Joseph. Mean-
While he was in correspondence with the English
J ews, and made an application to Chief Rabbi Tebele
(David) Schiff to be converted to Judaism, which
application Was refused. He was, however, re-
oe Into the covenant in Birmingham, through
ae agency of Rabbi Jacob of that city, but without
ee of the ecclesiastical authorities. The
. - we his conversion, it was thought at the time,
rete y to gain adherents among the Jews to his
eae . schemes; and he trusted that they would
a to withhold loans for carrying on war.
Gna Britt 1787, Gordon was convicted of a libel
ish justice; and, retiring to Birmingham,
long beard and adopting Jewish customs. In 1788
he was sentenced to five years’ imprisonment and
to pay a fine of £500 and furnish two securities in
£2,500 apiece. During his stay in Newgate he con-
formed strictly in all respects to the Jewish religion,
eating kasher meat and wearing phylacteries. On
the expiration of the five years he was unable to
obtain the necessary securities, and had to stay in
Newgate, where he caught the fever that caused his
death. Dickens describes Gordon and the “No
Popery ” riots in “Barnaby Rudge,” introducing a
reference to his change of religion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Trials of Lord G. Gordon, London, 1787;
Jew. Chron. March 10, 1899; Robert Watson, Life of Lord
George Gordon, London, 1795; Picciotto, Sketches of Anglo-
Jewish History; Dict. National Biography, s.v.
J. G. L.
GORDON, LEON (JUDAH LOB BEN
ASHER): Russian Hebrew writer and poet; born
at Wilna Dec. 7, 1831; died at St. Petersburg Sept.
16, 1892. He graduated in 18538 from the rabbinical
seminary of Wilna, becoming teacher of Hebrew in
the governmental schools, and was engaged in that
capacity about twenty years. Hisefforts were highly
praised by the inspectors of the government schools.
During the time of Gordon’s activity the struggle be-
tween the younger generation, or the Maskilim, and
the older, or the conservatives, took place. Gordon
was accused of heresy by the latter, but was not
alarmed, and satirized them in articles in different
Hebrew and Russian periodicals. In 1872 he was
invited to St. Petersburg as secretary of the Society
for the Promotion of Culture among the Jews of
Russia, and secretary of the Jewish community.
There he had more scope for his literary activity,
and he enriched Hebrew literature with his contri-
butions. He was also active in communal work.
During his secretaryship the Jews of St. Petersburg
obtained permission to
build a synagogue and
to acquire a piece of
ground for a new cem-
etery, the old one hav-
ing become too small.
He also improved the
regulations of the com-
munity, especially
those of the hebra
kaddisha. But this
communal work caused
him great trouble ow-
ing to a quarrel be-
tween the MHasidim
and Mitnaggedim Leon Gordon.
about the nomination
of a rabbi, the Hasidim accusing Gordon of
being the cause of the discord. They denounced
him as a political criminal, and in
Accused 1879, when an attempt was made
of Treason. against the life of Alexander IT., Gor-
don was accused of having partici-
pated in the affair. He and his wife and children
were therefore thrown into prison, April 4, 1879,
where they remained forty days. Later they were
exiled to a small town in the government of Olonetz.
But the innocence of Gordon was quickly proved,
Gordon, Leon
Goring Ox
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 48
SS Sy pe ae RS Sia eT ee Tae a ema
and he was permitted to return to St. Petersburg,
though he lost his position. He then became co-
editor with Zederbaum of “ Ha-Meliz,” and he occu-
pied that post, with an interruption of two years,
till 1888, when he resigned. The Russian govern-
ment conferred on him the title of “ Honorary Citi-
zen” in return for the services he had rendered
through his propagation of science among the Jews.
Gordon was the leading Hebrew poet of his time.
His chief merit consisted in the fact that he turned his
attention to Jewish history, presenting in his poems
a complete account of the Jews from the Biblical
epoch till his own day. He was also an unrivaled
prose-writer; his language was fluent and his style
very biting and satirical. Gordon employed his
satirical talent not only in scourging Jewish fanat-
ics, but also in defending the Jews against their
enemies. His worksare: “ Ahabat Dawid u-Mikal,”
a Biblical epopee in twelve poems with an introduc-
tion (Wilna, 1856); “ Mishle Yehudah,” a collection
of 100 fables in verse, many of which are adaptations
from ancient fabulists (7b. 1860); “‘Olam ke-Min-
hago,” in two parts, the first being a description of
Russian Jewish life (Odessa, 1870), and the second a
satirical description of the Hasidim (Wilna, 1873);
“Gam Eleh Mishle Yehudah,” 21 fables in verse
(Vienna, 1871); “Kozo shel Yud,” a satire in verse
on mora)s (2). 1876); “‘Ofel bat-Ziyyon,” an elegy in
four parts on the death of Michael Joseph Lebensohn
(ib. 1877); “Kol Shire Yehudah,” his collected poet-
ical works in 4 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1883-84); “ Kol
Kitbe Yehudah,” a collection of his novels (Odessa,
1889). He translated the Pentateuch into Russian
in collaboration with J. Gerstein. Gordon contrib-
uted to almost all the Hebrew periodicals, to many
Russian papers, to the “Allgemeine Zeitung des
Judenthums” (1860-64), and to Brockhaus’ “ Kon-
versations-Lexikon.” His letters were published by
J. Weissberg (Warsaw, 1894).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sokolov, in Ha-Asif, vi., part 1, pp. 155 et seq.;
J. Slutzki,in Luah Ahiasaf, 1893, cols. 258-285; L. Kantor,
in Voskhod, 1881, Nos. 11,12; S. Dubnov, in Voskhad, 1884 ;
Brainin, in Ha-Shiloah, i. 62, 244, 332, 421; Luah Ahiasaf,
1898, pp. 81-91. ;
H, R. D. G.~—M. SEL.
GORDON, MICHEL: Judzo-German poet and
Hebrew writer; born at Wilna Nov. 4, 1828; died
at Kiev Dec. 26,1890. While at the bet ha-midrash
he wrote his first poetry and prose. Gordon was a
personal friend of Michael Lebensohn, Wolf Kaplan,
and Hirsch Katzenellenbogen. He married a sis-
ter of the poet Leon Gordon, and exerted considera-
ble influence upon the Jatter. In 1846 his first poem
appeared in “Kol Bokim,” a collection published by
Kalman Schulmann upon the death of Mordecai
Aaron Giinzburg (Wilna, 1846). After the Crimean
war Gordon removed to Poltava, and from there to
Krementchug, where he found employment in the
office of Joseph Giinzburg. In 1868 he was en-
gaged as teacher by Brodski at Shpola, and until
1881 he remained in the employment of the Brodski
family at Smyela. In 1869 Gordon published a
history of Russia in Yiddish. About that time an
anonymous collection of his poems was issued. In
1881 he published at St. Petersburg, under the title
of “ Tif’eret Banim,” 4 dissertation in Hebrew on the
moral obligations and responsibilities of Jewish
youth. In 1886 his“ Sheber Ga’on” appeared. Go,
don was a contributor to “Ha-Shahar,” “ Ha-Boke
Or,” and “ Ha-Karmel.”
His reputation, however, is based mainly upop
his poetry, which appealed strongly to the popula,
imagination. Many of his songs, set to musjp
are known throughout Russia. To quote Le,
Wiener, the author of “ The History of Yiddish Ljr.
erature”: “Gordon’s poems are of a militant oy.
der: he is not satisfied with indicating the right
road to culture, he also sounds the battle-cry of aq.
vance. The key-note is struck in his famous ‘Arise
My People!’ . . . In this pocm he preaches to hig
race that they should assimilate themselves in map.
ners and culture to the ruling people; that they
should abandon their old-fashioned garments and
distinguishing characteristics of long beard and fore.
lock ” (pp. 83-84). In pursuance of his purpose of
arousing his people to the necessity of adapting
themselves to modern conditions, he assails the Hagi.
dim, bewailing their fanaticism and ridiculing thejy
Asiatic manners and customs, their ignorance and
superstition. His ridicule is sharp and cutting,
For a time Gordon dared not disclose his identity,
and published his songsanonymously. A collection
of these with his name appended was first published
at Warsaw in 1889 under the title of “ Yiddishe
Lieder,” comprising “ Die Bord,” “ Der Borsht,” “ Die
Mashke,” “ Mein Vida,” “Die Bildung,” “Steh Oif,
Mein Folk,” and many others. Their language
and style are plain, popular, and idiomatic, occa.
sionally bordering on the profane, as in the con.
cluding stanza of “ Mein Vida,” or in the ninth and
twelfth stanzas of “Ikh Ken Nit Ferstein.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. Volodierski, A Kurze Biographie fun
Michel Gordon, in Hausfreind, ti. 147-148, iii. 815; Leo
Wiener, The History of Yiddish Literature in the Nine-
teenth Century, pp. 82-85, New York, 1899; M. D. Gordon,
Mebakker Tif’eret Banim, in Voskhod, 1881, No. 4, pp. 48-44.
H. R. M. Z.
GORDON, SAMUEL: English novelist; bornat
Buk, Germany, Sept. 10, 1871. He went to England
with his parents in 1883, and was educated at the
City of London School and Cambridge University.
He was appointed secretary of the Great Synagogue,
London, in 1894. He has published several novels and
volumes of short stories, almost all dealing with
Jewish life and character, among them “ A Handful
of Exotics” (1897); “Daughters of Shem” (1898);
“ Lesser Destinies ” (1899); “Sons of the Covenant”
(1900); and “Strangers at the Gate” (Jewish Publi
cation Society of America, 1902). “In Years of Tra:
dition” (1897) and “The New Galatea ” (1901) have
been hischief attempts outside Jewish lines.
tt ae Jewish Year Book, 1903, p. 293; Who's Wha
. 8.0,
J.
GORGIAS: Syrian general of the second cel:
tury Bc. After Judas Maccabeus had defeated
the Syrians, they determined to send a strongét
force against him. According to I Macc. iii. 38
which Josephus follows (“ Ant.” xii. 7%, § 8), i¢ wa
the governor Lysias who commissioned the generals
Nicanor and Gorgias, sending them with a largé
army to Judea; but according to II Macc. viii. 8, It
was Ptolemy, governor of Coele-Syria and Phenicl
who sent them. Nicanor seems to have been the
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
49
der-in-chief, although II Maccabees praises
commal litary ability. The Syrians were so sure
Gorgias 5 that they took with them a number of
of eee to whom they intended to sell the Jewish
merchan"s: slaves. The Syrians camped at Em-
ane rg aS . .
prisonel nd Gorgias was sent thence with 5,000 in-
meet ae 1,000 horse to attack Judas by night, his
ey being treacherous Jews. Judas had been in-
guides
formed of the expedition, and attacked the main
tay army at kmmaus, completely routing it.
aay ot finding the enemy in camp, concluded
retired into the mountains, and went in
m. Judas sagaciously kept his men
thing the booty, preparing them for the
ee with eros When the latter
nae to the main camp, he found It in flames,
and the Jews ready for battle. The Syrians, seized
with panic, fled into the Philistine territory, and
only then did the Jews seize the rich spoils (166 B.c.).
Gorgias did not again dare to enter Judea. Once
when ‘Judas and Simon Maccabeus were carrying
the war outside of that country, two subordinate
cenerals, Joseph and Azariah, in violation of orders
undertook an expedition against Jamuia, but were
severely beaten by Gorgias (I Mace. v. 18, 19, 55-
62), who is designated in “ Ant.” xii. 8, § 6, “ general
of the forces of Jamnia.” JI Maccabees does not
mention this expedition, but refers to another, and
calls Gorgias “governor of Idum#a” (xii. 32),
which seems to be more correct than “of Jamnia.”
He set out with 3,000 infantry and 400 horse, and
killed a number of Jews; whereupon a certain Do-
sitheus of Tobiene (so the correct reading of the Syr-
ian translation), one of those whom Judas had pro-
tected against the pagans, threw himself upon Gor-
gias and seized his mantle, intending to take him
prisoner; but a Thracian horseman cut off Dositheus’
arm and so saved Gorgias. The last-named then
retired to Marissa (2d. verse 85; comp. “ Ant.” -xii.
8, § 6), after which he is lost to view. Willrich
assumes (“ Judaica,” p. 33) from the description of
the booty in I Macc. iv. 23 that “ Holofernes ” in the
Book of Judith represents Gorgias.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Gesch. li. 343, 3857; Schiirer, Gesch. 3d
ed., i. 205, 212; Niese, in Hermes, xxxv. 466.
G. S. Kr.
GORIN, BERNARD (noi de plume, Isaac Goi-
do): Yiddish journalist; born in Lida, government
of Wilna, April, 1868. Heis the author of two short
stories in Hebrew, “Ha-Naggar ha-Na’or” and “ Ha-
‘Agunah ” (Warsaw, 1892). Gorin went to America
about 1893, and has since been a regular contributor
to the radical Yiddish press of New York. He has
translated into Yiddish some of the works of Zola,
Hawthorne, Maupassant, Prévost, and various Rus-
Hie authors, He has also written two dramasin that
, gue, “Der Wilner Balebesel ” (in reference toa
amous hazzan) and “Baruch Spinoza” (1901). He
edited * Jiidisch-A merikanische Volksbibliothek,”
‘on pa hoe. ” (1898), and “ Theater Journal ” (1901-
» All now defunct.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wi rea. ‘ .
teenth Century, pp. 21 Yiddish Literature in the Nine-
io UrY, Pp. 214, 224-295, New f :
ye rit of the Ghetto, pp. 219-299. ib. 1902 NAPBOOM
GORING ox:
81 ox doing harm
Viva
Gorgias, D
they had
yursuit of the
P. WI.
Two passagesin Exodus treat of
: the first of harm to a person
Gordon, Leon
Goring Ox
(xxi, 28-32); the second to the ox of another owner
(tb. 35-36). The verb used in the first passage is
“nagah” (to gore); that in the second, “nagaf” (to
strike or hurt). But, according to the tradition, the
rules Jaid down in either passage apply to goring,
striking with the body, biting, kicking, and lying
on. These rules are also extended to animals other
than oxen, either injuring or injured (B. K. i. 4):
and, while the texts contemplate killing only, the
rules apply to lesser injuries also.
In each of these passages a distinction is made
between the ox which has not given evidence of its
vicious character and one whose mas-
‘‘Tam” ter has been forewarned in this regard.
and The former is known in the Mishnah as
‘““Mu‘ad.” “tam” (lit. “innocent,” “harmless ”);
the latter is called “ mu‘ad ” (lit. “ testi-
fied”). An injury committed by an innocent ox is
deemed a kind of accident; while the master who is
forewarned, but does not watch his beast, is Hable
for full damage, and, in case of the death of a hu-
man being, toa mulct or forfeiture. To render an
ox mu‘ad, two witnesses must testify in court, in
the presence of its owner, that the ox has on three
separate days acted viciously. Acting thus to his
kind or to other domestic animals does not render
him mufad as to injury to persons; nor vice versa
(2d, ii. 4).
Ananimal that killsa human being must be stoned
to death: its flesh may not be eaten. But it should
first be tried by a criminal court of
twenty-three judges; for the owner,
who is also morally guilty of homi-
cide, can be tried only in sucha court.
Even a lion, bear, or wolf that kills a person must
be so tried; only a serpent should be killed by the
first comer (Sanh. i. 4). “The ox of the stadium
[arena] is not stoned: it is not he that gores; he is
made to gore” (B. K. 39a).
Concerning the owner of a mu‘ad the text says:
“and his owner, also, shall be put to death; if there
be laid upon him a ransom, then he shall give for
the redemption of his life,” etc. According to the
rabbinic interpretation, the judges have no discre-
tion as to putting to death or placing a ransom: they
always place theransom, which goes to the heirs of
the decedent. But whose life is to be estimated?
R. Ishmael says, that of the person killed; R. Akiba
more logically says, that of the guilty owner, who
redeems himself from death (db. 40a). Hence Mai-
monides draws the conclusion that where the ox
belongs to two owners jointly, both of whom have
been warned, each of them has to redeem himself in
the fullamount. This amount is fixed according to
age and sex (Lev. xxvii.; see ESTIMATE).
When the person killed is a (Canaanite) bondman
or bondwoman, the text fixes the mulct, payable to
the owner, at thirty shekels, without regard to the
value of the slave (Ex. xxi. 32; B. K. iv. 5).
While the text speaks only of the ox that kills
either man or beast, the animal may strike and
wound without killing its victim, and thus inflict a
lesser injury. In such cases the owner of a mu‘ad
pays full damage; the owner of a tam half damage,
as will be shown hereafter.
When a human being is hurt the owner of the ox
Punish-
ment.
Goring Ox
Gottheil, Gustav
pays only for damage proper, or diminution in value:
he does not pay for pain, stoppage of work, cost of
cure, or shame, as would one guilty of ASSAULT AND
Barrery. And the words of the text, “He shall
surely pay ox for ox, and the dead shall be his own,”
are construed contrary to their apparent meaning;
the owner of the killed ox keeps the carcass, and the
owner of the goring ox pays in money the difference
between the value of the live animal and of the car-
cass, just as he pays for a hurt not resulting in
death. This rule naturally followed when restora-
tion in kind fell into disuse and the courts gave
judgments for money in all cases.
Where one man’s tam kills the ox of another, the
text says, “they shall sell the living ox and di-
vide the price of it, and the dead also
Half they shall divide.” Should the gor-
Compensa- ing and the gored ox be of equal
tion. value, this wouid amount to making
good half the damage; and, in the
words of the Mishnah, “ this is the ox of the Torah.”
Nothing is said in the text about any responsibility
of the owner beyond the value of the offending
beast. Hence the sages drew the conclusion that
the two purposes of the Torah were: (1) to fix the
payment at half the damage done, and (2) to declare
the lack of responsibility beyond the value of that
beast, or, as they put it, beyond “half damage from
its body,” the latter element answering to the “ pau-
peries”” of the Roman law.
The penalty of “half the damage done from the
body ” must be paid whether the injury be done by
an ox or any other animal; whether by goring or in
any other way except by “foot or eating tooth”;
whether to a man (short of death) or to a beast or
other property; and whether the injured animal die
or not; the owner of the offending animal, however,
is then free from all further liability. And where
the oxen of two men injure each other, the harm
or diminution of value to each is appraised, and
the owner whose ox did the greater harm pays half
of the difference, to the extent of the living se-
curity (B. K. iii. 8). Ifthe offending ox is in the
keeping of a bailee, it may nevertheless be taken
for the damage done, and the owner then has re-
course to the bailee.
For the case of doubt as to which of several oxen
has committed an injury, see BURDEN oF PROOF.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Maimonides, Yad, Nizke Mamon, iv.-xi.
8. 8. L. N. D.
GORNI, ISAAC BEN ABRAHAM.
Isaac BEN ABRAHAM GORNI.
GOSHEN: Region of Egypt which the Israelites
inhabited during their sojourn in that country. It
is described as situated on the eastern frontier of
Lower Egypt (Gen. xlvi. 28, 29; Ex. xiii. 17;
I Chron. vii. 21), forming an outpost of it (Gen.
xlvi. 84); apparently not at all (or scantily) inhabited
by Egyptians (2).), but, in the estimation of shep-
herds, evidently “ the best of the land” (2d. xi vii. 6,11),
since Pharaoh’s cattle grazed there (6). According to
verse 11 “the land of Rameses ” (P 7) is synonymous
with “the land of Goshen.” “Goshen” alone (with-
out the addition “land of”) is used only in xlvi. 28,
29. Inthese two verses it may designate acity, as the
See
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 59
LXX. understands it, which here renders “ Goshey »
by “Heroonpolis,” adding in verse 28 to “ Unt
Goshen” the words “into the land of Ramesses ” ; 5,
xIv. 10 the LXX. transliterates “Gesem of Arabia»
This name “Arabia” means, in Egy ptian Usage
either, generally, all land east of the Nile or, ag ,
special district, the “nome Arabia,” the 20th of
Lower Egypt. Heroonpolis or Heropolis (accordiy
to the excavations of Naville, modern Tell al-Mag.
khuta) was, however, the capital of the 8th or Hero.
opolitan nome, east of the Arabian. Neverthelegg
the name “ Arabia” seems to be used by the LXX, 4,
the special sense, for in the reign of Ptolemy IT. the
Greek administration seems to have treated the neigh,
boring 8th and 20th nomes as one district (comp. the
“Revenue Laws of Ptolemy Philadelphus,” eq
Grenfell, 1896, p.1.). Later, the two districts seem
to have been separated again (comp., ¢.g., Ptolemy,
“ Geographia,” iv. 5, 53).
The name “ Goshen” (Egyptian, “ Ksm,” sometimes
abbreviated into “ Ks”), occurring first ina papyrus
of dynasty 12 (Griffith, “ Kahun Papyri,” 2, 14), desig.
nated, however, the 8th or so-called “ Arabian ” nome,
z.e., the land west of the Bubastide nome, between
the Pelusiac branch of the Nile and the canal now
branching off at Belbeis. It touched the entrance to
the desert valley, now called Wadi al-Tumilat,
where a fortification, erected in dynasty 12, pro.
tected the easiest entrance to Egypt. It is likely
that the capital P(er)-sopd(u) (Pisaptu of the Assyr.
jans), situated near modern Saft al-Hannah, had as
profane name the same name as the region, because
the classical writers speak of a city Phacus(s)a on
that spot (Ptolemy, l.c.; less distinct are Stephen of
Byzantium, the “ Tabula Peutingerina,” Geographbus
Ravennatu, and Strabo, who may have confounded
with Goshen a city with a similar name, modern
Fakus, northeast of Bubastus). If so, the Biblical
pronunciation of the name is authenticated as
against the “Ges(sjem” of the LXX. and the de-
pendent versions.
The synonymous designation, “land of Rameses,”
has not yet been found on the monuments, but seems
to refer to the region bordering eastward on the
land of Goshen, the 8th or Hero(on)pol-
‘‘Land of itan nome, which is known to have
Rameses.” been colonized by the famous pharaoh
RamesesII]. The LXX. certainly erm
in identifying Heroonpolis with Goshen, but is other-
wise correct in seeking the Israelitish settlements in
that region (which contained the towns of Pithom and
Succoth, Ex. i. 11, xii. 37, ete.), the narrow valley
Wadial-Tumilat of modern time, between the Croc:
odile Lake and the old land of Goshen. This part
of the country answers perfectly to the description
of Goshen in the Bible. It was reached only irreg-
ularly by the yearly inundation of the Nile, and
therefore was less suited for agriculture. It i
necessary only to assume that with the Semites oria
popular Egyptian usage the name of “Kosem”
(Goshen) was extended beyond the limits of the
old country and its frontier fortifications. Unfortu
nately, little is known of the whole region before
Rameses II. It might also be assumed that the Is
raelites settled, in Joseph’s time, in the old land of
Goshen, and spread in the subsequent period ové!
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
51
ized district; but this agrees less
the new ; ee. No Egyptian etymology for
with the « Goshen” (Kosem) has been found, which
the name pe of Semitic origin; this would indicate
paar rulers already ¢. 2000 or earlier. In Judith
Saas land of Gesem [R. V. “Goshen ”] until
i. 9 ( above Tanis and Memphis ”) the name
mest ;
Lakes be used without precise knowledge as to
sce
the location of the place. | .
puy: The fullest discussion of the Egyptian data
BIBLIOGRA nd in Naville, The Shrine of Saft el-Henneh and
will he nat Goshen, in the 5th Memoir of the Egypt Ex-
Ebers, Dure
theories pronounce
ments, etc.).
nas H. W. M. M.
GOSLAR: Town in the province of Hanover,
Germany; on an affluent of the Ocker at the north-
enst foot of the Harz. According to the chronicle
of Erdwin von der Hardt, “ Plebis Tribunus et An-
tiquitatum Goslariensium Mirator,” Frederick I. in
1153 collected from the Jews of Goslar a third of
their possessions as “allegiance money” (“ Huldig-
ungsabgabe ”); such a tax, however, was unknown
until the fifteenth century; and the original docu-
ment which the chronicle cites as authority for its
statement has not been found. On April 3, 1252,
King William of Holland promised not to molest
the Jews nor to imprison them unjustly, but to
protect them as his “servi cameree. ” Rudolph L., in
confirming the privileges of the citizens of Goslar,
expressly reserved his rights over the Jews of that
town. In 1285 Emperor Rudolph directed the latter
to pay more promptly the yearly tax of 6 marks for
the maintenance of the royal palace at Goslar.
The Jews of Goslar escaped the massacres at the
time of the Black Death, but suffered so much from
the plague in 1350 that their cemetery, situated on
Mount St. George, no longer sufficed, and another,
near the forts, had to be acquired. Like all the other
Jews of the province of Hanover, those of Goslar
were expelled in 1591.
At present (1903) there exists in Goslar a small
Jewish community numbering about 100 persons in
a total population of 18,311.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wiener, in Jahrbuch fiir Gesch. i. 107: idem,
in Monatsschrift, x. 121; Aronius, Regesten, p. 249; Adolph
Kohut, Gesch. der Juden in Deutschland, passim: Hebr.
Bibl. xii.9; Stobbe, Die Juden in Deutschland, p. 18; Zeit-
schrift des Harzvereins, v. 457.
G. I. Br.
. SEES, THE FOUR. See New Testa-
GOTENDORF, JAMES (JAMES NA-
THAN): German-American merchant and littera-
teur; born Feb. 9, 1811, at Eutin, Holstein, Ger-
many; died at Hamburg Oct. 5, 1888. He went to
me United States in 1880, and for the next twenty
a was engaged in the commission business in
New York. About 1843 he became friendly with
hate Greeley (upon whose advice he changed his
ie es J ames Nathan” to “Gotendorf”), and
ae . see with Margaret Fuller, afterward Count-
fina in whom he aroused feelings of passionate
dBep ie In 1845 he left New York, but returned
pe i oe two years engaged in a banking busi-
wheres all street. Te then retired to Hamburg,
© spent the remainder of his life. Fifty of
Goring Ox
Gottheil, Gustav
Margaret Fuller’s letters to him were published un-
der the title “Love-Letters of Margaret Fuller”
(New York, 1903).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Love-Letters of Margaret Fuller, p. 190.
Letters from Gotendorf appeared in the Tribune (New York),
Sept. 10, 12, 16, 1845.
S. J
GOTHA: Capital of the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha, Germany, A Jew named Jacob who lived
at Cologne in the middle of the thirteenth century is
designated as a native of Gotha (Héniger, “Das
Judenschreinsbuch der Laurenzpfarre in Koln,” p.
7, Nos. 39, 40). In 1308 the Jews of Gotha were
persecuted in consequence of an accusation, which
originated in the province, of having murdered the
son of aminer forritual purposes. The Nuremberg
“Memorbuch” gives the names of the victims of
this persecution, The community was annihilated
at the time of the Black Death, and a new com-
munity must have sprung up, which appears to have
disappeared again in 1459-60, a period of renewed
persecution. The exegete Solomon is designated as
a native of Gotha.
In the nineteenth century, prior to 1848, no Jews
were permitted to live in the duchy of Gotha, al-
though they could trade there under restrictions;
after 1848 they were free to enter. They began to
settle there in the sixth and seventh decades, and
founded a community in the capital which at first
numbered only from ten to twelve families. The
first communal officials were appointed in the cighth
decade. There is no rabbi, affairs being managed
by three teachers. The community has a literary
society and a B'nai B’rith lodge. The synagogue
was built in 19038. The first cemetery was situated
on the Erfurter Landstrasse; when this was closed
by the local authorities, in the eighth decade, a new
cemetery was acquired on the Eisenacher Land-
strasse. In 1903 Gotha had a population of 29,184,
of whom about 350 were Jews.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Salfeld, Martyrologium, p. 217; Gritz, Gesch.
vii. 343; Adolph Kohut, Gesch. der Judenin Deutschland,
Pea Aronius, Regesten, No. 608; Monatssechrift, xliv.
G. D. K.
GOTTHEIL, GUSTAV: Americanrabbi; born
at Pinne in Prussian Posen May 28, 1827; died in
New York city April 15, 1908. He was educated
in Posen under Rabbi Solomon Plessner, and later
continued his studies at the universities of Berlin
and Halle (Ph.D.), receiving in the meanwhile his
“hattarat hora’ah” in the former city from Samuel
HoupDHE IM, whose assistant he became (1855). He
also studied under Zunz and Steinschneider. In
1860 he set out from the Berliner Reform Gemeinde
to labor for progressive Judaism in new fields.
In 1860 he received a call from the Reform Jews
of Manchester, England, and he went thither as
rabbi to the Manchester Congregation of British
Jews, remaining as incumbent for thirteen years.
During this time he was connected with the faculty
of Owens College as teacher of German. Two of
his most noteworthy sermons preached in Manches-
ter were on the slavery question, attacking those
who had declared the institution to be sanctioned
by Mosaic law. Dr. Gotthei] was a member of
the Synod of Leipsic in 1871, which took a de-
cided stand on the question of Reform. He left
Gottheil
Gottingen
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 59
SSS SSS re ee ee pe gg nn ge tptne we wp om fenany = warps f
Manchester in 1878, having been elected to succeed
the Rev. J. K. Gutheim as assistant to Dr. Samuel
ADLER, the senior rabbi of Temple Emanu-El,
New York. When Adler retired about eighteen
months later, Gottheil succeeded him. On taking
charge he reorganized
the religious school,
and assisted in found-
inga theological school
where preliminary
training might be im-
parted to future can-
didates for the rabbin-
ate. He prepared in
1886 the first Jewish
hymn-book printed in
America (with music
in a separate volume
by A. Davis); it con-
tains not only tradi-
tional Jewish hymns,
but also others of Chris-
tian origin, and upon
it was based the Union
Hymnal, which has
since been generally adopted by the Reform congre-
gations in the United States. In 1889 he started
the first Sisterhood of Personal Service, a philan-
thropic organization affiliated with Temple Emanu-
El which has served as a model for similar institu-
tions elsewhere. Dr. Gottheil was the founder of
the Association of Eastern Rabbis, and when it was
assimilated with the Central Conference of American
Rabbisin 1890 he took an active part in the delibera-
tions. He was one of the founders and the presi-
dent of the (American) Jewish Publication Society,
vice-president of the Federation of American Zion-
ists, chairman of the Revision Committee for the
Union Prayer-Book, and one of the governors of
the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati.
The broad catholicity of Dr. Gottheil’s sympathies
and interests is evidenced by his connection with
various non-Jewish institutions as well as by many
of his sermons and writings. He was one of the
founders of the New York State Conference of Re-
ligions, assisting in the editing of its “Book of Com-
mon Prayers”; and a founder and for many years
vice-president of the Nineteenth Century Club. In
1892 Gottheil was one of the representatives of the
Jews at the Parliament of Religions held in Chicago
during the World’s Fair. He published “Sarah ” ;
and “Sun and Shield” (New York, 1896), a sur-
vey of Judaism as he saw it. Essays by Dr. Gott-
heil have appeared in various periodicals and collec-
tions. He was retired as rabbi emeritus of Temple
Emanu-El in October, 1899. In honor of his seventy-
fifth birthday a “Gustav Gotthei] Lectureship in
Semitic Languages” was founded at Columbia
University.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Markens, The Hebrews in America, New
York, 1888; The Reformer and Jewish Times, New York,
Oct. 25, 1878, pp. 4-5; Who’s Who in America, 1901-02;
Jewish Chronicle, May 1, 1908, p. 21; May 15, 1908, p. 16;
American Hebrew, April 17, 19038; April 24, 1908; New
York Times, April 16, 1903.
A. F. H. V.
GOTTHEIL, PAUL EDUARD: German Prot-
estant missionary; born at Fraustadt, April 5, 1818;
Gustav Gottheil.
died at Stuttgart in 1893. A convert to Christianjt
in 1848 he entered the service of the British Socie},
for the Propagation of the Gospel Among the Jew,
with which he was connected until the end of pj,
life. He was for many years minister of the Englig,
church at Cannstadt, near Stuttgart, and then mip.
ister of the Diakonissenhaus in Stuttgart. As a mig.
sionary he was very successful. Some of those whom
he instructed and baptized at Nuremberg, Canp.
stadt, and Stuttgart have become ministers of the
gospel or missionaries among the Jews. He pup.
lished “Blatter fiir die Evangelische Mission Unte;
Israel,” 1850-58; “Der Messias, Israels Hoffnung
und Aller Volker Verlangen,” 1863 (translated into
English); “ Mischan Lechem, Lebensbrot fiir Gotteg
Volk aus Gottes Wort ” (Hebrew and German), 1871.
(Yiddish and German), 1873; “Die Arbeit an dep
Einzelnen,” in “ Nathanael,” 1891, No. 6. He wag
a brother of Rabbi Gustav Gottheil.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zuchold, Bibliotheca Theologica, s.v.; Dele
Roi, Geschichte der Hvangelischen Juden-Mission, ii. 268-
article Gottheil, in Der Freund Israels, Basel, 1893; Dunlop,
Gospel Triwmphs.
8. B. P.
GOTTHEIL, RICHARD JAMES HORA.
TIO: American Orieutalist ; professor of Semitic lan-
guages, Columbia University, New York; born in
Manchester, England, Oct. 13, 1862; son of Gustav
Gottheil; educated at Chorlton High School, Eng.
land, and at Columbia College, New York. He
was graduated from Columbia College in 1881, and
continued his studies abroad at the universities of
Berlin, Tiibingen, and Leipsic (Ph.D. 1886). On
his return to America he was appointed instructor
in the Syriac language and literature at Columbia
College (Nov. 1, 1886). When the chair of rab-
binical literature at Columbia was endowed, Oct. 7,
1887, Gottheil was elected to it by the board of trus-
tees. On the retirement of Professor Peck in 1889,
the work of the section of Semitic languages was
transferred to Gottheil (June 3), first as instructor
and later (April 4, 1892) as professor, a position he
still holds (1903). He has published: “The Syriac
Grammar of Mar Elia of Zobha,” Berlin, 1887 ; “ Jewish
History in the Nineteenth Century ”; and numerous
articles in educational works, including the “ World’s
Best Literature,” “ Johnson’s Encyclopedia,” and the
“International Encyclopedia.” He has edited two
volumes of “Persian Classics” in Euglish for the
Colonial Press; is permanent editor of the “Co-
lumbia University Oriental Series” and (with J.
Jastrow, Jr.) of the “Semitic Study Series” (Ley-
den). In 1898 he was elected president of the
American Federation of Zionists, and chief of the
Oriental Department of the New York Public Lt
brary. Professor Gottheil is a member of the Cen-
tral Committee of the Zionist organization, and ™
the capacity of delegate attended the Zionistic con:
gresses held at Basel in 1898, 1899, and 1903 (se¢
BaskL ConcGreEss) and at London in 1900; he 38
also a member of various learned societies. He is
a member of the council of the American Oriental
Society, and president (1908) of the Society of Bib-
lical Literature and Exegesis; he was one of tbe
founders and the first vice-president of the “JU:
deans”; founder and president of the (Jewish) Re
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
53
Gottheil
Gottingen
- School Union in New York; and is con- | on these streets, among them the Jewish school,
jigious with the Jewish Chautauqua Society.
nected * apHy: Who's Who, 1908-05; American Israelite.
Bipge. 11. 1M, De > F. IL. V.
HEIL, WILLIAM §&.: American physi-
n in Berlin Feb. 5, 1859; eldest is x
: ottheil. He was educated at Chor!-
epee eee Manchester, England; New
are Eniversity, and Cornell University (A.B.
} =9): and took his special training at the College of
Pcacane and Surgeons, New York (M.D. 1882).
From 1882 to 1883 he held the post of house surgeon
of the Charity Hospital, New York; and from 1885
to 1888 he lectured on dermatology at the New York
In 1890 Gottheil was appointed pro-
athology at the New York College of Vet-
pee Saerrd in 1893 professor of dermatol-
pay ai the New York School of Clinical Medicine.
In the following year he published a “ Manual of
General Histology,” and in 1897 “Illustrated Skin
Diseases.” Gottheil was editor of “ The Clinical Re-
corder” in 1898, and has conducted the department
of dermatology in “ Progressive Medicine.” He is
consulting dermatologist of Beth Israel Hospital,
and visiting dermatologist at the Charity and Leba-
non hospitals, New York. In 1896 he was elected
president of the Eastern Medical Society, and in 1899
president of the Manhattan Dermatological Society.
A F. H. V.
GOTTINGEN : City in the province of Hanover,
Germany; formerly capital of the principality of
Grubenhagen under the dominion of the Guelfic
dukes. Jews settled in Gottingen in the thirteenth
century, as is shown by a document dated March 1,
1289, by which Dukes Albrecht and Wilhelm per-
mitted the council of the city to receive the Jew
Moses and his legal heirs and grant them the rights
of citizenship. On March 10, 1848, at the time of
the Black Death, Duke Ernest issued a patent of
protection to the Jews of Gdttingen; but they
did not escape persecution. On Dec. 24, 13850, the
house which had been the Jewish “Schule” was
given to the city by the same duke. Jews settled
once more in GOttingen, and the city council in 1370
announced its willingness to protect them, but de-
manded that the Jews on their part should perform
their civic duties. A Jew named
From the Meyer is mentioned asof Géttingen in
Thirteenth a record dated. Oct. 1, 1885; and in
tothe 1894 three Jews lived in the city, and,
Fifteenth according to an entry in the registry
Century. of receipts, had to pay three marks
annually as protection-money. The
amount paid as protection-tax for the year 1899-1400
was 6 marks 14 pfennigs. When Duke William took
over the government of the territory of Géttingen
paid a 1437), and pledged himself to pay 10,000
aa or the debts and engagements of Duke Otto,
the es to the latter the Jewish protection-money,
ae . of Gottingen, as regards the Jewish tribute,
S excluded from the agreement.
, atone of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries
cde lan seen of a long and a short Jews’ street
‘i ee oedenstrate, “de _korte Joedenstrate ” ;
as also called “die Kipper”). The houses
mo
Gott
cian: bor
Polyclinic.
were often damaged, especially on New-Year's eve
and Shrove Tuesday, when the young members of
the Bourse Society, whose place of meeting was in
the neighboring Barfiissenstrasse, went through the
city committing all sorts of depredations, until the
Jewsappealed tothe magistracy for aid. In 1447
they obtained a decree to the effect that the depre-
dations against them should cease; and in return
each Jewish house and the Jewish school paid a
stoop and a half of wine to the members of the
Bourse.
On July 11, 1457, the council of Gottingen ap-
plied to the council cf Hildesheim in behalf of the
Jew Nahman Cynner for a safe-conduct for his
mother, Gele Cynner, and his sister, who desired to
sojourn for two months in Hildesheim. Jn the lat-
ter city, also, lived Meier (Meyer, Meyger, Meiger)
of Gottingen (1423-47), and a woman from Gottingen
called “ Michelsche ” (1429-34). When on June 28,
1591, Duke Heinrich Julius issued an edict revoking
the protection and safe-conduct even of those Jews
whose patents explicitly extended over a longer
period, the council of Gottingen tried
From the to defend its rights. On Ang. 13 of
Fifteenth the same year it addressed to the gov-
to ernor, chancellor, and counselors at
the Eight- Wolfenbiittel a remonustrance concern-
eenth ing the proposed expulsion of the
Century. Jews, in which it pointed out that
by the charter granted to the prece-
ding council there were still some years of sojourn
legally due to these Jews, and that, moreover, the
proposed expulsion would be a hardship for the in-
digent citizens of G6ttingen in that it would not al-
low them sufficient time to redeem their pledges
from the Jews. The governor, V’olf Ernst, Count
of Stolberg, senta very ungracious answer (Aug. 18).
In the following century only a few Jews lived in
G6ttingen, among them Eliezer Liepmann Géottin-
gen, father of Judah Berlin (Jost Liebmann) and of
Rabbi Wolf, author of “ Nahalat Binyamin.” One
of his two sisters was Leah, mother of Liepmann
Cohen (Leffmann Behrens) of Hanover. The seven
Jews enumerated by Freudenthal in “ Monats-
schrift,” 1901, p. 480, as having attended the Leip-
sic fairs between the years 1678 and 1699, probably
lived in Géding, Moravia. The respected Gum-
precht ha-Levi (c. 1720) and Elijah Magdeburg (c.
1737) lived in Gottingen. The latter is landed asa
benefactor by Wolf Ginzburg, who studied medi-
cine in the same place.
Light is thrown on the social conditions existing
at the beginning of the eighteenth century by an
edict promulgated Jan. 5, 1718, which declared that
no Jew could own a house in the duchies of Gét-
tingen and Grubenhagen. During the first few
years after the founding of Géttingen University
(1787) there were only three Jewish families -in
the city; and the authority of the university was
requisite for the issue of almost all patents of pro-
tection. Gradually the number of Hebrews in-
creased to ten or eleven families. In 1786 the Gét- .
tingen Jews held a patriotic celebration at the
“ festival of thanksgiving for the deliverance of his
Majesty . . . George III.”
Géttingen
Gottschalk
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 54
ee ee ee yw ws ae Py eae a ep gt ES Sr ee ee ae a ye Sy ade ee ee tp
Most of the Jews of Géttingen attained a certain
prosperity through their financial dealings with the
students, to whom they gave credit and loaned
money on pledges, although they were forbidden,
under penalty of losing their right of protection, to
go to the students’ rooms, or to address them on the
street orin public places in regard to money mat-
ters. As certain Jews were accused of having con-
tributed to the ruin of students by advancing
money for which the notes given by the latter ex-
ceeded the amount actually received, it was decreed
in 1796 that only three Jewish families might live in
the university city. The chancellor (“ Grossvogt ”),
Von Beulwitz, energetically executed this decree,
expelling even those against whom no complaint
had ever been made.
At the time of the Franco-Westphalian dominion
(1806-138) Reuben Meyer from Gottingen was one of
the Jewish deputies presented to Min-
In ister Siméon by Jacobson at Cassel.
the Nine- In 1812 the district (“Syndikat”) of
teenth Gottingen included about 160 families,
Century. of which only three were resident in
the city itself. August Wilhelm Ni-
ander, ecclesiastic historian, formerly David Mendel,
was born in Gottingen. Moritz Abraham Stern,
appointed professor of mathematics at Géttingen
University in 1859, was the first Jew to be appointed
to a full professorship ina German university. In
1902 there were 600 Jews in the community of Gét-
tingen, which now includes the towns of Gaismar
and Roésdorf, and belongs itself to the district rabbin-
ate of Hildesheim. The present rabbiis Dr. B. Jacob.
He was preceded by Dr. Loevy. Persons bearing
the name “ Géttingen” have lived in various places,
e.g., in Frankfort-on-the-Main, Halberstadt, Ham-
burg, Altona, Hildesheim, and Hanover.
The community possesses a synagogue and the fol-
lowing institutions: Israelitischer Briderschafts-
vereir, which cures for the sick and buries the
dead; Israelitischer Frauenverein; and Benfey’sches
Stipendium, for the support of the poor and of stu-
dents.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zeif- und Geschicht-Beschreihbung der Stadt
Gottingen, Hanover and Géttingen, 1754, part i., book it., p.
61; 1786, part ii., book i, p. 63; Jung, De Jure Recipiendi
Judcwos, p. 150, Gottingen, 1741; Beitriige zur Statistth von
Gittingen, pp. 65, 246 et seq., Berlin, 1785; Awuszug aus Hini-
gen Chur-Haimnoverischen Landes-Ordnungen Besttitigten
Statuten und Observanzen der Stadt Gottingen, 1790, p. 57,
8 164; p. 58, 3 165b (Zinsen der Jude); Billerbeck, Geseh.
der Stadt Gottingen, W9T, p. 25; Brandes, Ueber den Gegen-
wéirtigen Zustand der Universitédt Gottinyen, 1802, pp. 294,
298 ; Cohen, Ueher die Lage der Juden, etc., p. 17, Hanover,
1832: Schmidt, Urkundenbuch der Stadt Gottingen bis zum
Jethre 1400, passim; idem, Urkundenhuch der Stadt Got-
tingen vom Jahre 1401 bis 1500, p. 127, Nos. 179, 419, note 33;
Oesterley, in Hannoverisches Magazin, 1836, No. 83, p. 659;
Havemann, Gesch. der Lande Braunschweig wid Liine-
burg, i. 637; idem, in Zeitschrift dex Historischen Vereins
ftitr Niedersachsen, 1857, p. 206; Wiener, in Jahrbuch fiir
die Gesch. der Juden, i. 170, 173, 213 (ote 7), 214 (note 12);
idem, in Zeitschrift des Histor. Vereins filr Niedersachsen,
1861, pp. 260, 287; Hansische Geschichtsblidtter, 1878, p. 13;
Doebner, Urkundenbuch der Stadt Hildesheim, iv. and vi.,
passim; vii., No. 277; Thimme, Dic Inneren Zustdinde des
Kurfiirstentums Hannover, ete., 1895, it, 229+; Horwitz, Die
[sraeliten unter dem Kénigreich Westfalen, pp. 9, 99:
Bodemeyer, Die Juden, 1855. p. 7; Landshuth, Toledot An-
she Shem, p. 2; Kaufmann, Die Memoiren der Glilckel von
Hamelin, 1645-1719, p. 79, remark 1; Lewinsky, in Monats-
schrift, 1900, p. 872; Jacob Emden, She’ilat Ya'‘bez, i., re-
sponsum 41; Maggid, Sefer Toledot Mishpahot Ginzburg,
p. 52, St. Petersburg, 1899; Roest, Cat. Rosenthal. Bibl. i.
677, s.v. Levy: Horowitz, Frankfurter Rabbiner .. . tii.
95, iv. 35; idem, Die Inschriften des Alten Friedhofs der
Israclitischen Gemeinde zu Frankfurt-a.-M. p. 708, gy
Gottingen and Gautingen; Auerbach, Geach. der Targg.
litischen Gemeinde Halberstaadt, p. 107, Halberstadt, 1866,
G. A. Lew,
GOTTLIEB, ABRAHAM: Civil engineer ang
contractor; born at Tauss, Bohemia, June 17, 1837.
died in Chicago, IL, Feb. 9, 1894. Gottlieb grad.
uated from the University of Prague in 1861, ang
was at once employed on the Kaiser Francis-Joseph
Railroad, then in process of construction. Though
pronioted to the position of principal assistant to the
chief engineer of construction, he emigrated in 186¢
to the United States and settled in Chicago, Il,,
where, in 1868, he was appointed chief engineer of
the American Bridge Works.
In 1873 Gottlieb became Western agent of the
Keystone Bridge Company; in 1877 he was elected
president of the company, removing to Pittsburg,
During his presidency he constructed the Susque.
hanna River bridge at Havre de Grace for the Balti.
more and Ohio Railroad; the Point Pleasant bridge
over the Ohio River for the Ohio Central Railroad;
the Plattsmouth bridge over the Missouri River
for the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad (the
first steel-truss bridge erected in America); the
Missouri River bridge at Blair Crossing, Nebraska;
the New River Viaduct for the Cincinnati Southern
Railway; the Monongahela River bridge at Pitts.
burg for the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago and
St. Louis Railroad; the Madison Avenue bridge,
New York city; the train-shed at Broad Street
Station, Philadelphia; the Mexican Government Ex-
position and Mining Building at the New Orleans
Exposition; the Sixth Avenue Elevated Railroad,
New York city; and the New York approach to the
East River bridge.
In 1884 Gottlieb resigned the presidency and re-
turned to Chicago to engage in civil engineering
and contracting and to act as consulting engineer
and Western agent of the Edgemoor Bridge Works.
In Chicago he supplied the ironwork for the Ma-
sonic Temple, the Tattersall Horse Market, and
the Administration and Fine Arts buildings of the
Columbian Exposition. In 1890, when work on the
World’s Fair was begun, Gottlieb was appointed
consulting engincer, and was afterward appointed
chief engineer of the construction department, which
position he resigned in September, 1891, when his
plans had been largely carried out and the more
important buildings eventually erected in Jackson
Park were well under way.
Gottlieb became a member of the American Soci-
ety of Civil Engineers in 1872, and at the time of his
death was one of its directors; he wasa charter mem-
ber and twice president of the Engineers’ Socicty of
Western Pennsylvania; president of the Western
Society of Engineers; president of Rodeph Shalom
congregation of Pittsburg; and president of Zion
congregation, Chicago.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Transactions of American Society of Civil
Engineers, 1891; Columbian Exposition Dedication Ceré
monies, Chicago, 1898 ; Joseph Stolz, In Memoriam of Abra-
ham Gattlieh, Chieago, 1894.
A. J. STo.
GOTTLOBER, ABRAHAM BAER (pseudo-
nyms, Abag and Mahalalel): Russian-Hebrew poet
and author; born at Starokonstantinov, Volhynia,
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
55
1811; died at Byelostok April 12, 1899.
-was a cantor who sympathized with the
His fathet : dv Gott] ‘
ogressive mov ement, and young Gott ober was
red ted in that spirit to the extent of receiving
educa tion in Biblical and modern Hebrew as an
jnstrucho : rs
ddition to the usual Talmudical studies. At the
‘ of fourteen he married the daughter of a wealthy
aad ” in Chernigov, and settled there. When his
ot inclination for secular
knowledge became
known, his father-in-
law, on the advice of a
Hasidic rabbi, caused
the young couple to
be divorced, and Gott-
lober, who had joined
the Hasidim after his
marriage, now became
their bitterenemy. He
married again, but
found his second wife
unbearable and soon
divorced her. In 1830
he married for the third time and settled in Kre-
menetz, where he formed a lasting acquaintance
with Isaac Bir Lewinsohn.
Gottlober traveled and taught from 18386 to 1851,
when he went to Jitomir and passed the teachers’
examinations at the rabbinical school. After teach-
ing for three years at a government
school for Jewish boys in Kamenetz-
Podolsk, he was transferred to a
similar position in his native city,
where he remained for about eleven
years. In 1865 he became a teacher in the rabbin-
ical school in Jitomir, and remained there until it
was closed by the government in 1873. He then set-
tled in Dubno with his son-in-law, Bornstein, who
was the official rabbi of that town. Thence he re-
moved to Kovno, and subsequently to Byelostok,
where the aged poet, who in later years had become
blind, ended his days in poverty and neglect.
Gottlober was a prolific writer and one of the fore-
most of Neo-Hebrew pocts. The first collection of his
poems, which was entitled “Pirhe ha-Abib,” ap-
peared in Yozefov in 1886. A second collection, en-
titled “Ha-Nizanim” (Wilna, 1850), was followed
by “‘Anaf ‘Ez Abot,” three poems, on the death of
Emperor Nicholas I., on the peace of 1856, and on
the coronation of Alexander II., respectively (db.
1858). Soon afterward he visited Austria, where
he published “Shir ha-Shirim,” a translation of a
Passover sermon delivered by Adolph Jellinek (Lem-
berg, 1861), and “Mi-Mizrayim,” a translation of
Ludwig August Frankl’s account of his travels in the
Orient, with an appendix by Max Letteris (Vienna,
1862). His next important work was the “ Bikkoret
le-Toledot ha-Kara’im,” a critical investigation of the
history of the Karaites, with notes by Abraham Firko-
vich (Wilna, 1865), In the same year were published
his Yerushalayim,” a translation of Mendelssohn’s
ao with an introduction, and his allegor-
a Graina “Tif’eret li-Bene Binah” (Jitomir, 1867),
oe after Moses Hayyim Luzzatto’s “La-Ye-
: un Tehillah.” His “Iggeret Za‘ar Ba‘ale Hay-
yim" (7. 1868) is a polemic against Kovner’s critical
Jan. 14,
Abraham Baer Gottlober.
Traveling
and
Teaching.
Géttingen
Gottschalk
work “Heker Dabar.” His “Toledot ha-Kabbalah
weha-Hasidut” (2). 1869), which purports to be a
history of Cabala and of Hasidism, is
His Works. only a diatribe against Cabala in which
the history of Hasidism is scarcely
mentioned. He also wrote several short Hebrew
novels, and translated Lessing’s “ Nathan der Weise,”
to which he added a biography of the author
(Vienna, 1874).
Gottlober was the founder and editor of the He-
brew monthly “ Ha-Boker Or,” to which some of the
best contemporary writers contributed poems, arti-
cles, and stories. It had an interrupted existence of
about seven years, first appearing in Lemberg (1876-
1879) and then in Warsaw (1880-81), in which place
also the last five numbers were issued in 1885-86,
His most important contribution to this magazine
was undoubtedly his autobiography “Zikronot mi-
Yeme Ne‘urai,” containing much material for the
culture-history of the Jews of Russia, which was re-
printed in book form at Warsaw, 1880-81. The
last collection of his poems is entitled “Kol Shire
Mahalalel,” 3 vols., Warsaw, 1890.
Like Levinsohn, Gordon, and other leaders of the
progressive movement, Gottlober wrote in Yiddish
for the masses. Among his works in that dialect
are: “Das Lied vun’m Kugel,” Odessa, 1868; “Der
Seim,” Jitomir, 1869; “Der Decktuch,” a comedy,
Warsaw, 1876; and “Der Gilgul,” Warsaw, 1896.
Most of these works were written a Jong time be-
fore the dates of their publication.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ha-Asif, iii. 430-489; Sefer Zikkaron, p. 14,
Warsaw, 1890; Ahiasaf, 5660 (= 1900), pp. 386-388: Sokolov,
Sefer ha-Shanah, 5660, pp. 808-314; Wiener, Yiddish Liter-
ature in the Nineteenth Century, Index, New York, 1899.
H. R. P. Wu.
GOTTSCHALK, LOUIS MOREAU: Ameri-
can pianist; born at New Orleans May 8, 1829; died
at Rio de Janeiro Dec. 18, 1869. He completed his
musical education at Paris (1841-46), and was but
sixteen when he wrote his well-known compositions
“Le Bananier,” “La Savane,” “La Bamboula,” and
“La Danse Ossianique.” From 1845 to 1852 he
made successful tours through France, Switzerland,
and Spain. In 1853 he traveled through many parts
of the United States, playing and conducting his
own compositions; and such was the success of these
concerts that Max Strakosch engaged him fora tour
extending through the United States, the West
Indies, and Spanish America. Among other deco-
rations, Gottschalk was honored with the Order of
Carlos ITT., presented to him by the Spanish minis-
ter at Washington at the request of Queen Isabella.
Gottschalk was the first American pianist to at-
tain to cosmopolitan fame. The original element in
his compositions was derived from the Spanish,
Cuban, and negro folk-songs, and certain dances,
which he had heard in his boyhood; and this mate-
rial he skilfully developed into a distinctive genre.
His principal orchestral works are: two operas,
“Charles IX.” and “Isaura de Salerno” (never per-
formed); two symphonies, “La Nuit des Tropiques ”
and “Montevideo”; “Gran Marcha Solemne” (to
the Emperor of Brazil); “Escenas Campestres Cu-
banas”; and “Gran Tarantella.” His pianoforte
works, about ninety in number, include: “Jota Ara-
Gottstein
Government
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 356
ae Re ee ge TE a eg ee ee a eg eg eae Tt GN ee Roe PS pee,
gonesa” (banjo), “Caprice Espagnol,” “Caprice
Americain,” “Last Hope,” “Marche de Nuit,”
“Marche Solennelle,” “Berceuse,” and “ Pasqui-
nade.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Luis Ricardo Fors, Gottschalk (in Spanish),
Havana, 1880; W. J. Henderson, in the Nation, xxxiv. 16;
Music, ii. 117-182 ; Baker, Bioy. Dict. of Musicians.
s. J. So.
GOTTSTEIN, ADOLF: German physician;
born at Breslau Nov. 2, 1857. He was educated at
the gymnasium of his native town, and at the uni-
versities of Breslau, Strasburg, and Leipsic, obtain-
ing from the last-named the degree of doctor of
medicine in 1881. In the same year he became as-
sistant at the hospital of the city of Breslau, which
position he resigned in 1883. He then removed to
Berlin, where he is still practising (1902).
He has written several essays in the medical jour-
nals, especially on bacteriology and epidemiology.
Gottstein is also the author of “ Epidemiologische
Studien tiber Diphtherie und Scharlach,” Berlin,
1895, and of “ Allgemeine Epidemiologie,” Leipsic,
1897.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biographisches Lexikon, s.v.
S. F. T. H.
GOTTSTEIN, JACOB: German pibysician;
born at Lissa, Austria, Nov. 7, 1882; died at Bres-
lau, Prussian Silesia, Jan. 10, 1895; graduated
(M. D.) from the University of Breslau in 1856. Gott-
stein devoted himself especially to diseases of the
throat and ear, giving up his general practise in
1864. Admitted in 1872 to the medical faculty of
his alma mater as privat-docent, he received the
title of professor in 1890. He is the author of
“Die Krankheiten des Kehlkopfes und der Luft-
rohre,” Vienna and Leipsic, 1st ed. 1884, 4th ed.
1893,
Among his contributions as a specialist to the
medical journals may be mentioned: “ Ueber Ozaena
und eine Einfache Behandlungsmethode Dersel-
ben,” in “Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift,” 1878;
“Ueber die Abtragung der Adenoiden Vegetation,”
ib, 1886.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biographischer Lexikon, s.v.
S. F. T. H.
GO6TZ, JOSEPH ISSACHAR BAER BEN
ELHANAN : German rabbi; born at Frank fort-on-
the-Oder about 1640; died at Jerusalem after 1701.
In 1675 he was rabbi of his native town, and in 1687
became rabbi of Kremsir, in Moravia, where in 1694,
with David Oppenheim as associate rabbi, he organ-
ized the district rabbinate. In 1696 he resigned the
rabbinate of Kremsir, and started toward Jern-
salem by way of Nikolsburg and Vienna. At
Vienna he spent a short time at the house of Samson
Wertheimer. Leaving Vienna, he spent two years
at Venice before reaching Jerusalem. He wrote:
“ Arba‘ Harashim,” cabalistic discourses and com-
ments on the earlier Prophets, Frankfort-on-the
Oder, 1680; “Sheloshah Sarigim,” comments on the
Haftarct, Venice, 1701.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Frank!-Griin, Gesch. der Juden in Kremsier,
p. 81, Breslau, 1896: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1455; Bu-
ber, Kiryah Nisgabanh, p. 49, Cracow, 1903.
K. B. FR.
GOUDCHAUX, ABRAHAM. See METz, Ty.
POGRAPHY.
GOUDCHAUX, MICHEL: French statesmap.
born at Nancy March 18, 1797; died at Paris Dep
27, 1862. After having been established for some
time as banker in his native town, he settled jy
Paris in 1826. His reputation for probity and phj.
lanthropy won for him the confidence of his corelig.
ionists in Paris, and he was soon elected vice-pregj.
dent of the Central Consistory of France. A democrat
by nature and education, Goudchaux was s00n ip.
volved in the political movements of his time, ang
became one of the founders of the “ National,” g
paper established in the interests of the workin
classes. He took an active part in the Revolutioy
of July (1830), and foughtat the barricades. In 183;
the government of Louis Philippe appointed him
paymaster-general at Strasburg, a position which
he resigned in 1834, being dissatisfied with the pol.
icy of the government. In 1848, urged by Lamar.
tine and Arago, Goudchaux accepted the portfolio
of minister of finance in the provisional government,
but resigned his office ten days later. Recalled by
General Cavaignac, he remained in the ministry
until Dec. 20 of the same year. As the representa-
tive of Paris in the Constituent Assembly, he op.
posed the politics of the Elysée. Jn 1857 he was
elected deputy to the legislature, but did not take
his seat because of his refusal to swear allegiance to
Napoleon ITT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : La Grande Eneyclopédie ; Carmoly, in Arch,
isr. 1863, p. 608, where the year of Goudchaux’s birth is given
as 1789; Univ. Isr. 1868, p. 200.
8. T. Br.
GOUDSMIT, JOEL EMANVEL: Dutch ju-
rist; born in Leyden June 13, 1818; died there March
17, 1882. He graduated in law May 12, 1842. Alter
practising Jaw for some time he was, on the rec-
ommendation of his former teacher, Van Assen, ap-
pointed professor of Roman law at the University of
Leyden (Dec. 31, 1858). As a writer Goudsmit is
especially known through his “Pandect System,”
the first volume of which appeared in 1866, the
second in 1880. This work was never completed;
it was the first to treat the system in the Dutch
language, and was translated into the French, Eng-
lish, and Russian languages. In 1873 Goudsmit
made a tour of the United States, and described his
impressions and experiences, especially those of
New York, in “De Gids,” 1874, it. 79. THe was
made a member of the Dutch Royal Academy of
Sciences, the Utrecht Society, the Society of Liter-
ature (Leyden), and the Academy of Jurisprudence
(Madrid), and a knight of the Order of the Nether-
lands Lion. Goudsinit was also active in all Jew-
ish matters; in 1863 he addressed an open letter on
the Jewish question to J. J. L. van d. Brugghen,
and he also exerted his efforts in behalf of the
Jews of Rumania. He was president of the board
of examiners of rabbis and Hebrew teachers in Ley-
den, and chairman of the Society for the Promotion
of the Interests of the Jews of Holland.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. Levy, in Mannen van Beteekenis i
Onze Dagen; Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1882, pp. 231-232; A-
Winkler Prins, Geillustreerde Encyclopedie, vii.
8. A. RB.
GOURD, See Borany,
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
57
GOVERNMENT. Biblical Data: The only
od of political institution extant among the
kip ites before the time of the Kings was the divi-
Jsrae : to tribes, according to tradition twelve in
ce es corresponding to the sons of Jacob, who
oD ded as the respective progenitors of the
were regar : . se
Organized, therefore, like the modern Bed-
tribes. pastoral Hebrews held the theory, also
ouins, the pastoral Hebrews held t y;
nd in the genealogies of the ancient Arabs, that
Lee > grows into the clan by natural accessions ;
the family : .
the clan develops into the tribe; and the tribe be-
comes & people and splits up into several constitu-
ent tribes. This theory is based among the He-
prews and Arabians on the correct assumption that
the tribe is not held together by some external bond
of union, but primarily by the sense as blood relation-
ship. “Our blood has been spilled,” they say when
one of them has been slain; and the duty of aven-
cing the blood was originally not confined to the next
“ kin, in the true sense of the word, but was ip-
cumbent upon all the members of the tribe. Blood
relationship, however, was not necessarily natural ;
st was regarded as existing also among persons that
had entered into the “blood covenant.”
The family also enlarges through the acquisition
of slaves, the accession of freedmen, and the absorp-
tion of isolated families; all these “artificial ” adop-
tions, taking the tribal name, regard and revere the
father of the tribe as their progenitor, Tribes hav-
ing their fixed pasture districts entertain close rela-
tions with neighboring clans and families that share
with them the privileges of watering their flocks at
certain wells. Moreover, a permanent or accidental
community of other interests occasionally unites
entire tribes into one body, called “hilf,” existing
for a longer or shorter period. <A tribe of this kind
has no actual organized government; its head is a
sheik, whose authority, however, is largely moral.
In case of war only, the sheik assumes command,
and determines, together with the divan of the heads
of families, when and where the tents shall be pitched
orcamp broken. But the sheik is without author-
ity in time of peace. The members of the tribe
listen to hig counsel because he is respected, and he
is called upon to decide disputes because his wis-
dom is recognized; but his decision is final only if
both parties are willing to submit to it; he can not
cnforce it against the will of either, since there is no
executive body to carry out his commands, The
family one of whose members commits any offense
must Judge in the matter. Furthermore, each fam-
ity is perfectly free and independent, as regards the
tribe, in time of peace, and may at any time secede
from it. But in time of war it is a measure of se-
curity to remain within the tribe.
The tribes of Israel were probably organized
along these lines at the time of their entry into
ae The bond that united them more strongly
roe sense of a common origin could was the
eich of Yawn and his cult (see THEOCRACY),
ae notwithstanding all differences of
ae interests, The sense of unity among all the
rae ne of Yuwu was more or less strong; the
fae lat Isracl waged were Yawn’s wars, and
ig & matter of common concern (Judges v. 23).
Common religion held the tribes together, even
Gottstein
Government
after the period of settlement and the resultant
wars.
Many things connected with the settlement in
Canaan tended to increase the difficulties of this
tribal union, and to favor its final dis-
Settlement solution. The idea of blood relation-
in Canaan. ship became more and more secondary.
As the Canaanites continued to live
among the new settlers (Judges ii. 3 e¢ seg.), many
mixed marriages occurred, and the two peoples were
at last peaceably fused into one. Naturally the
sense of community of interest among the inhab-
itants of a given locality asserted itself and led to
the instituting of local governments; in fact, the
Canaanites had developed such before the Israelitish
invasion. The heads of the most prominent fami-
lies of a city constituted its administration as elders
of the city (“zikne ha-‘ir”; Judges viii. 14). The
fact that cities and villages are frequently designated
in their interrelations as “mother” and “daughter,”
and that cities and “their” villages are mentioned
(Num, xxi, 25, 32; Josh. xvii. 11; [1 Sam. xx. 19),
indicates that the beginnings of the territorial organ-
ization of Israel go back to the earliest time, and
were adopted from the Canaanites. The surround-
ing smaller villages were in some way dependent
on the cities that in time of need offered protection be-
hind their walls to those who dwelt in the open coun-
try. This, in time, resulted in a closer political or-
ganization, but tended to weaken the national con-
sciousness, since local interests divided the country
into separate communities. The physical features of
the country were more favorable to segregation, as,
for instance, in the case of the tribes in the east-
Jordanic districts, where, owing to the character of
the land, the dwellers remained nomadic herdsmen
to a greater extent and for a longer period of time
than their neighbors across the stream, which was
difficult to cross. These circumstances contrived to
loosen the bond of union between the tribes on each
side of the river (comp. Judges v. 16 ef seq., viii. 4
et seq., xii. 1 et seg.). But among the tribes in the
country west of the Jordan the feeling of union also
weakened greatly after their settlement, and even
a war of Yuwu like that to which Deborah sum-
moned the people did not unite them all: (Judges
v. 16 ef seq.).
Notwithstanding the fact that the bond that united
the several tribes was the common worship of Yuwu,
there was great danger that Israel might split up
into a number of small “kingdoms,” such as existed
among the Canaanites. The El-Amarna tablets
show that before the advent of the Israelites a num-
ber of these petty princes recognized the King of
Egypt as their common overlord, though they waged
wars among themselves frequently. The story of
Gideon illustrates the prevalence of similar disin-
tegrating tendencies in Israel. For the fact is em-
phasized that he succeeded in retaining rulership
over his tribe even in time of peace, while other so-
called “judges” were leaders only in time of war.
The check to this disintegrating tendency was
due mainly to external influences. So long as
the Israelites had to contend only with the no-
madic hordes on the east and south, the Midianites,
Amalekites, etc., as in the wars in the time of
Government
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 5g
Oy oe Sa ere CT oe ee Fgh ee pC SPO gg STE RIO TR Gr yee eR eee eS fe ee NS Eh ge ee ee a ae,
the Judges, the strength of a single tribe or of
several united tribes sufficed for repulsing the
But the scattered forces of
enemy.
Origin of the Israelites were not a match for the
the organized armies of the Philistines
Kingdom. advancing upon them from the west.
After the battle of Aphek, many
of their districts fell under Philistine control (J
Sam. passim). These reverses evoked a decided
feeling in favor of a stronger national union, and
when Saul, a nobleman from the tribe of Benjamin,
had been presented by Samuel to the people as a
suitable chief of the state, and had proved his fitness
in the war with the Ammonites, the people unani-
mously elected him king. In its origin, therefore,
the Israelitish national kingdom does not differ essen-
tially from the tribal kingdom established by Gideon,
for the people primarily demanded from the king
aid against a foreign enemy (see Kine). But Saul
in time of peace acted alsoas judge for his subjects.
Under the oak at Gibeah he judged the controver-
sies that they brought before him. In order to as-
sure the security of the throne it became necessary
that the power of the old family and tribal chiefs,
and hence that of the tribes themselves, should be
broken; for the rivalry among the tribes did not die
out, even when the idea of nationality became dom-
inant for the nonce and resulted in the establish-
ment of the kingdom, This rivalry flashed up in
the refusal of the Judahites to recognize the Benja-
mite house of Saul, and the uprising of Ephraim
together with the other tribes against the Judean
family of David.
Under David and Solomon the government was
put on a firmer basis, for now there were a small
standing army, Officials, taxes, etc. (see ARMY).
There is little information regarding the king’s
officials (“sarim”). A list of them, preserved in IT
Sam, xx. 23 et seg., is headed by the
Officials. generalof thearmy (“sar ‘al ha-zaba”)
or the commander of the royal body-
guard. Among the administrative officials the
“mazkir” occupies the first position ; as the title im-
plies (“ who brings into remembrance”), he wasa kind
of chief councilor, corresponding to the modern grand
vizier in the Oriental states (II Kings xviii. 18, 37;
Isa. xxxi. 8, 22; I] Chron. xxxiv. 8). His assistant
was the secretary of state (“sofer”), who had to at-
tend to the King’s correspondence. The overseer of
labor is also mentioned in the list of David’s officials
(II Sam. viii. 15 e¢ seq., xx. 23 et seg.). The high
priest likewise belonged to the royal officials. It
appears from other allusions that there was also a
minister of the palace (I Kings iv. 6; II Kings xviii.
18; Isa, xxii. 15), who is perhaps identical with the
“soken ” (Isa, xxii. 15). “‘Ebed ha-melek ” (servant
of the king) also seems, according to II Kings xxii.
12, to have been the title of a high dignitary, per-
haps the chief eunuch. Among the inferior officials
were the prefects (“nezibim ”) of the 12 provinces
(1 Kings iv. 7); and at the court itself, the cupbearer
(“mashkeh”; I Kings x. 5), the keeper of the robes
(Il Kings x. 22), the treasurer (“sar ha-rekush”;
I Chron. xxvii. 25 et seg.), and the chamberlain
(“saris”; I Kings xxii. 9; II Kings vii. 6, ix. 32 e¢
seq.).
With the exception of the first ministers of the
king, no such difference was made in assigning won,
to the officials as obtains in modern times, The
government was not divided into different depart.
ments. Every official was in his district a sort 9
representative of the king, exercising the latter,
prerogatives as military commander, governor, tay.
collector, and judge. According to the Prophets ,
appears that these officials often abused the powe,
placed in their hands; they combined bribery, Op.
pression, and cruelty toward their subordinates wit,
servility toward their superiors (II Sam. xi. 14 ¢
seg.; I Kings xii. 10 et seq.).
The details that are known regarding the admip.
istration of internal affairs relate almost entirely to
the collection of taxes. David madea census of the
people evidently for the purpose of having a basis
for apportioning the taxes and for recruiting (Ij
Sam. xxiv. 1 e¢ seg.). Solomon divided the country
into districts; in the passage referring to this meas.
ure (I Kings iv. 7), it is expressly connected with the
imposts for the court. In the list of the twelve dis.
tricts Judah is omitted; it is uncertain whether be.
cause Judah was exempt, as the tribe to which the
royal house belonged, or because the narrator made
a mistake. It is in any case noteworthy that the
ancient division into tribes was ignored in this new
division. The amount of these taxes is unknown;
under Solomon the people regarded them as an op-
pressive burden. The tithe is apportioned to the
king in the so-called “ King’s Law ” (LSam. viii. 17);
this “‘ King’s Law,” however, may be of later origin,
Crown lands, which the king eventually gave to his
servants as fiefs, are mentioned at an early date
(I Sam. viii. 13). Traders’ caravans had to pay toll
(I Kings x. 15); lands of the condemned were seized
in some cases by the king (I Kings xxi. 1 e¢ seq.),
The first cut of fodder went to the support of his
chariot-horses (Amos vii. 1). Poll and income taxes
seem to have been levied only in times of special need
(II Kings xxiii. 35).
There was no regular constitution determining
the rights of the king and his subjects. The so-
called * King’s Rights ” which Samuel laid before the
people (I Sam. viii. 10 et seg.) is nota
legal document determining the rights
and prerogatives of the king, but a
somewhat prejudiced account of what
the kings actually did. The “ King’s Law ” (Deut.
xvii. 14-20), on the other hand, contains moral and
religious precepts rather than legal enactments: the
king shall diligently study the Law, and shall not
possess much silver or gold, many wives, or many
horses. The principle of heredity, also, was not le-
gally established, although from the beginning it was
accepted as a matter of course. When the Judeans
raised David upon the shield, in opposition to Esh-
baal, and when the northern tribes chose Jeroboam,
these acts were considered as rebellions against the
legitimate royal house. On the other hand, it 38
evident that for a long time the people retained the
idea that the king existed for the sake of the people;
and not vice versa.
The communal government was at all times nearly
unrestricted. The royal government had a greatef
sway only at Jerusalem, the capita), where of nece®
Con-
stitution.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
59
ncided with the city government, and where
‘a) officer was appointed as governor of the
a TO! | Kings xxii. 26). Otherwise the royal officers
city oem to have interfered much officially in the
.-< of the communities so long as the taxes were
ee tly paid. The zikne ha-‘ir (see above), the
nee the community, constituted the local gov-
eee t. and still retained their judicial functions
Caen ix, 12, XXi. Qet seq., xxii. 15 et seg.); no de-
eg aE are known regarding this local coun-
a The number of its members corresponded to
a f the prominent families of the place; ¢.g., the
eee of the small city of Succoth are mentioned
‘ -jii. 14).
J een tribal constitution was revived during
the Exile, after the national kingdom had perished ;
and the heads of the families appear
Gonstitu- again as the representatives of the
tion Under community (Ezra viii, 1, x. 1). The
Persian return to Palestine was also a matter
Rule. of the various families or communi-
ties (comp. Ezra i. 5); and after the
Exile this democratic family organization naturally
was revived among the Jews. The Persian king
did not intend to restore national autonomy; the
country remained with the Persian empire as a part
('medinah”; Neh. vii. 6; Ezra ii. 1) of the west-
Euphratic province (Ezra v. 3). There was, at least
part of the time, a special Persian governor
(* pehah,” “tirshata ") for Judea, under the satrap
of the province. Nehemiah speaks of himself as
being such a governor (Neh. v. 15 e¢ seqg.), but no
mention is made of any of his successors. The
Persian officer, who resided at Samaria, seems to
bave had a representative at Jerusalem (Neh. xi. 24).
These Persian satraps in any case did not interfere
greatly in the internal affairs of the people, having
no reason for doing so as long as the tribute-money
and their salaries were paid regularly. They gave
attention only to the building of temples and walls.
The freedom of worship granted to the Jews entailed
necessarily great freedom in the government, and
especially in the administration of justice. The
courts and the police were in the hands of the Jew-
ish provincial authorities, designated as “sabe Yehu-
dave” (elders of the Jews), who represented the
people before the Persian governor (Ezra v. 9 et seq.,
vi. 7 e€ seg.); it is not known whether this body
is identical with the frequently mentioned “sega-
nim” (prefects). In addition to them, the ancient
local form of government was revived under the
elders of the towns, who administered justice as in
olden times. In relation to them the so-called col-
lege of the “elders of Judah” at Jerusalem may
have constituted a certain supreme authority. It is
hoteworthy that the priests and the Levites did not
eon to this body (comp., e.g., Neh. viii. 9, 38;
<irv it cOl
do net §
xX
The development of the government from Ezra to
¢ Greek period is shrouded in darkness. But the
basis on which it rested was the law
that came into force in 444 B.c.
through Ezra-Nehemiah. It is not
ee known how much time elapsed be-
the 18 Constitution was completely enforced; in
ellenic period affairs were arranged as pre-
th
Hellenic
Time,
Government
scribed by that law. The high priest was the head
of the entire community; he was the president of the
gerusia, the ancient aristocratic senate, the assembly
of the elders. The Ptolemies and Seleucids recog-
nized him as ethnarch. He was empowered to levy
taxes, and was responsible for the tribute of the peo-
ple (Josephus, “ Ant.” xii. 4, $8 Led seq.). In view of
this importance the Ptolemies and Seleucids claimed
the right of appointing and dismissing the high
priest. But otherwise these overlords, like the Per-
sians, so long as their supremacy was recognized,
interfered little in the inner affairs of the people.
The rise of the Hasmonean house marked no
change in government. From the time of Jonathan,
except during war, when the Maccabees exercised
a sort of dictatorship, its members took their places
at the head of the people as high priests (I Mace. xi.
27), for which, however, they did not have the legal
qualifications. The gerusia continued to exist in the
mean while (I Macc. xi. 28; xii. 6, 35; xiii. 86, etc.), al-
though its influence was greatly diminished. Nor
was the constitution actually changed when Aristo-
bulus (105-104 B.c.) took the title of king; the fact
that the Hasmoneans called themselves kings was
merely an external indication that the spiritual im-
plications of their office had long since become for
them a minor matter. The gerusia had little power
under rulers like Hyrcanus and Jannus, but its
authority under Alexander was very great. It is
not known when the term “Sanhedrin” first came
into use.
Under the Romans the high priest, excepting for
a short time, was also ethnarch, and again shared
his functions with the gerusia. But it soon became
apparent that strong rulers like Antip-
ater and Herod had complete control
of this body; Herod simplified mat-
ters for himself by removing his op-
ponents in council (Josephus, “Ant.” xiv. 9, § 4;
comp. xv. 1, § 2).
Soon after Herod’s death Archelaus was deposed
as King of Judea and the country changed into a
Roman province under a procurator, who in some
instances was under the governor of the province of
Syria, but had entire control of military and civil
affairs. The Romans left the Jews full freedom in
their internal affairs, The Sanhedrin then had more
power than it had formerly possessed under the na-
tive princes. The office of high priest was no longer
hereditary after the time of Herod. He as well as
the Romans appointed and deposed high priests in
quick succession, and thus this office lost more and
more its political importance, as did the gerusia (the
Sanhedrin), over which the high priest continued to
preside. See SANHEDRIN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Saalschiitz, Mosaisches Recht, and Michaelis,
Mosaisches Recht; also the histories of Israel by Wellhausen,
Kittel, Klostermann, Stade, Guthe, Graetz ; the archeologies
by De Wette, Ewald, Keil, Nowack, Benzinger; Benzinger,
art. Government, in Cheyne and Black, Encyc. Bibl.; Sel-
den, Synedria Veterum Hebroworum. I
. BE.
E. G. H.
——In Rabbinical Literature: The Mishnah
(B. B. i. 5) says: “They force him [any citizen] to
build for the town walls, gate, doors, and bolts.
How long must one have been there to become ha-
ble asacitizen? Twelve months; but one who buys
Roman
Period.
Governors THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Bo
Grace
a dwelling-house in the town becomes a citizen at
once.” Thus there isa local authority which can
and should levy taxes in money or work for the
common defense. The Talmud (2. Tb-11a) throws
no light on the question whence the judicial body
which enforces the tax derives its appointment or
upon whose initiative it acts. 1 says that the “dis-
ciples of the wise” should be free from all taxes for
the security of the place; but that all are bound for
the cost of wells or aqueducts, and of paving the
streets and squares. It alsospeaks of atax for poor-
relief; but this must not be imposed on the estate of
fatherless minors. It shows that some at least of
the burdens of the citizen must be borne by all who
have dwelt within the town for thirty days.
There is no trace in the Mishnah or Talmud of
any popular elections for local purposes, nor is
there any of elections of kings or high priests by the
body of the people. It is probable that the admin-
istrative offices, corresponding to those of the mayor
and council and taxing officers of modern towns, the
non-judicial elders, as distinguished from “the eld-
ers of the court” (Sotah ix. 6), were handed down in
certain families from father to son (Keritot 5b).
Upon the measure or method of taxation which the
king might employ for the purposes of the state the
Mishnah is silent; the Talmud intimates that it
might be in the nature of a tithe on the products of
the soil (Sanh. 20b). In connection with the ex-
emption from taxes claimed by the learned class
(B. B. 8a) these imposts are cited as the supposed
equivalents of those mentioned in Ezra vii. 24;
namely, gifts to the king, which were of Persian in-
stitution; a capitation tax; and the “arnona” (Latin
“annona,”), a contribution in grain, fruits, etc., in the
nature of a tithe.
E, C, L. N. D.
GOVERNORS, ROMAN, OF JUDEA. See
PROCURATORS.
GOY. See GENTILE.
GRACE, DIVINE: One of the attributes of
God, signifying His loving-kindness and mercy, and
particularly His compassion for the weak, the un-
fortunate, and the sinful. It is in contrast with the
attribute of justice, inasmuch as grace is granted
even to the undeserving. The most significant
Scriptural passage is in Exodus (xxxiv. 6): “The
Lord, The Lord God, merciful and gracious, long-
suffering, and abundant in goodness and truth.” The
relation of this attribute of grace to God’s justice is
not always clearly defined in the Old Testament.
Righteousness, however, is taken to be so compre-
hensive that it includes all moral perfection, of which
all virtues are a necessary corollary. Often grace
and justice are used in parallel construction (Ps.
Ixxxix. 15; ci. 1; cili. 6, 8). Jonah found it difficult
to reconcile grace and righteousness (see Hamburger,
“R. B. T.” i, 6.2. “Gnade und Barmherzigkeit ”;
Jonah iii. 8-9; iv. 2, 11), and the divine answer states
that grace divine is extended not only to the chosen
people, but also to the heathen; it is conditioned,
however, on sincere repentance. The Book of
Jonah is particularly intended to teach divine grace
in its universal aspect (see Driver, “ Iutroduction
to the Literature of the Old Testament,” p. 303).
However, the other books of the Bible are also
replete with this idea, as Deuteronomy, where the
existence of divine grace is cited as a guaran
that God will keep His covenant with Israel (iv, 3;
and grace is promised as a result of obedience (xij
18-19).
The Prophets, while emphasizing God’s Judgmen;
and righteousness, also proclaim His mercy. Isaiah
repeatedly teaches that divine grace will be STanteg
to the repentant (Ix. 7), God's loving-kindness ty
Israel (Ixiii. 7-9). Jeremiah and Ezekiel, while go.
nouncing Judah for its sins, hold before it th
same picture of divine forgiveness (Jer. xviii, g.
Lam. ili. 82; Ezek. xxxiii. 11). Joel ex presgly
states that sincere repentance is the price of diving
grace and mercy (ji. 183; comp. Hosea xiv. 2-9),
Amos, while speaking burning words to sinful Israg]
still promises divine grace to the saving remnant of
Joseph (v. 15; comp. Micah vii. 18-20).
The Psalms abound in expressions of hope for ang
confidence in divine grace. It is found in conjune.
tion with righteousness (cxvi. 5) and mercy (ciij. §)
and compassion (cxi. 4; comp. 1xxxv. 10, where
there may be an effort toward harmonizing the two
attributes of God, grace and righteousness). In the
Psalms there can be traced a gradual extension of
the bestowal of divine grace from the anointed king
and his seed (xviii. 50) to the poor and the needy
(exiii. 7), then to all Israel (cxxx. 7), to all the nations
(cxvii.), and finally to all creatures (cxlv. 9), Di.
vine grace is accorded because God desires to keep
His covenant (cvi. 45), and also out of consideration
for human weakness (1xxviii. 89). It is vouchsafed
to the persecuted (ix. 13), to the fatherless, the
widow, and the stranger (cxlvi. 9).
The apocryphal writings, too, commemorate and
appeal to this divine attribute. Divine grace is ex-
tended over all; “the mercy of the Lord is upon
all flesh” (Ecclus. (Sirach] xviii. 18) out of com-
passion to weak, sinful, and short-lived man, Grace
is given to those who forgive the wrongs done to
them by their fellow men (?). xxviii. 2, 5).
In the Talmud divine grace is designated by the
term DONT NI, the attribute of mercy, in contra
distinction to p47 N30, the attribute of justice. In
creating the world God combined the two attributes:
“Thus said the Holy One, blessed
Inthe be His name! ‘If I create the world
Talmud. with the attribute of mercy, sin will
abound; and if I create it with the at
tribute of justice, how can the world exist? There:
fore I create it with both attributes, mercy and jus
tice, and may it thus endure’” (Gen. R. xii. 19).
The same isasserted about the creation of man (Geb.
R. xxi. 8). This interpretation is based on the sup-
position, often expressed by the sages, that “Elo-
him ” implies the quality of justice, and the Tetra
grammaton the attribute of mercy (see Ex. R. vi. ?:
Ber. 60b). God is sometimes called Damn bys
(“the Merciful One”: Lev. R. xvii. 4).
According to the sages, divine grace is given
those who are merciful to their fellow men (Gen. }
xxx. 8; Shab. 151b); about those who study the La®
God draws a cord of grace (Spon Sy» yn) in the
future world (Hag. 12b). Grace is given to some
because of the merit of their ancestors, to others b&
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
61
of the merit of their descendants (Gen. R.
cause” ‘The righteous have the power to change
sue t “bute of justice to the attribute of mercy (72.
the atts The contrast between man’s cruelty and
xsXull. race is shown in Men. 99b; ‘Er. 19a. As
ee f grace and mercy are interpreted Lev. xxii.
ae. xxv. 6; Deut. xxit. 7 (see Deut. R. vi. 2).
“+ Jose, however, declares that these command-
not founded on grace, put are divine de-
g are
sees hich no reason may be given (Ber. 33b;
erees for W
25a).
ee ue above it is clear that the frequent as-
certion that the idea of divine grace is not fully ex-
ressed in the Old Testament and in the Talmud
a no foundation, As to the Paulinian idea of
nee see CHRISTIANITY and SAUL OF TARSUs. The
medieval Jewish philosophers treating of the at-
tributes of God did not mention grace. Saadia, the
arst to treat of attributes, enumerates only those
-hich express the very essence of God without in-
whic : : :
fringing upon the idea of His unity. The other
philosophers followed Saadia’sexample. Judah ha-
Levi, however, mentions the attributes DIMM PIN
(“merciful and gracious ”) among the so-called “ act-
‘veattributes” (“Cuzari,” ed. Cassel, pp. 87 et seg.).
The Jewish liturgy is full of the idea of divine
grace. Itis expressed in praise and adoration, in sup-
plication (“ Ahabah Rabbah "); and in thanksgiving
(*Shemoneh ‘Esreh "), God is addressed as “ merci-
ful God,” “merciful Father,” and “merciful King.”
The long prayer recited on Mondays and Thursdays,
beginning “Wehu Rahum,” is particularly a prayer
for grace in times of persecution. The liturgy for
the New-Year and the Day of Atonement is perme-
ated with this idea.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hamburger, R. B. 7. i. 483; Hastings, Dict.
Bible, ii. 254.
GRACE AT MEALS: Benedictions before and
after meals. In the prayer-book of the Spanish
Jews grace after meals is called “bendieton de la
mesa” (benediction of the table); the German Jews
speak of “benschen,” a corruption of the Latin
“benedictio.”
The duty of saying grace after the meal is derived
from Deut, viii, 10: “And thou shalt eat and be
sated and shalt bless the Lord thy God for the
goodly land which he has given thee.” Verse 8 of
the same chapter says: “The land of wheat and
barley, of the vine, the fig and the pomegranate, the
land of the oil olive and of [date] syrup.” Hence
only bread made of wheat (which embraces spelt) or
of barley (which for this purpose includes rye and
oats) is deemed worthy of the blessing commanded
Yo verse 10; bread made of rice, millet, or Indian
Corn is not included. Preparations of wheat or
barley other than bread, and grapes, figs, pomegran-
ates, Olives, dates, wine, and oil do indeed come
Within the Scriptural command; but the grace after
oe or drinking such articles is condensed into
= benediction out of the three (or four) that are
Poken after a meal which includes bread proper.
ce three or more men (a boy over thirteen is
aa as a man) eat together, one of them, ac-
ae ng to the Mishnah, says grace for all; in mod-
Practise he only leads, the others joining. Two
Governors
Grace
men of proper age anda boy old enough to have
ideas about God are deemed by others sufficient;
also two men who have had their meal and a third
man who has eaten with them any food the size of
an olive.
The leader, after asking permission in the words
“by permission [bi-reshut] of my masters” or “of
my father and my masters” or “of the master of the
house and my masters,” opens thus: “Let us bless
Him of whose bounty we have eaten.” The others
answer: “Blessed be He of whose bounty we have
eaten and through whose goodness we live.” The
leader repeats this, and then proceeds with the bene-
dictions. When ten are at the table the formula
contains also the name of God, running thus: “ Let
us bless our God of,” etc., and “ Blessed be our God
of,” ete.
A baraita (Ber. 45b; ‘Ar. 3a) teaches that three
women may in like manner choose a leader and have
the like address and response among themselves;
but this custom has fallen into disuse in modern
times. When ten men meet at a wedding-meal they
add after “our God” the words “in whose dwelling
there is joy” (see Ber. vii. 1, 2, 8, and Gemara on
same),
The grace probably consisted originally of three
benedictions: (1) The benediction closing “ blessed,”
etc., “ who feedest all,” an acknowledgment of God
as provider and sustainer of the world. It has no ref-
erence to Israel, to its history or Law, and it may be
recited by men of any race or creed who believe in
God. (2) The benediction closing “ blessed be Thou,
O Lord, for the land and for the food,” and contain-
ing Deut. viii. 10. It opens with words of thanks for
the heritage of the Holy Land, for the deliverance
from Egypt, for the Covenant and the Law; lastly,
for the food. Special thanks for the
“miracles and salvation” that are re-
membered on Purim and Hanukkah
are introduced here. (3) The benedic-
tion calling for God’s mercy on Israel, on Jerusalem,
on the kingdom of the house of David, and on the
Temple; it proceeds with a request for plentiful and
honorable maintenance, and lastly with one for the
building of the Holy City, and closes: “Blessed be
thou, O Lord, whoin Thy mercy buiidest Jerusalem.
Amen.” On the Sabbath a petition for rest undis-
turbed by sadness or sorrow is inserted; on festivals
and new moons the same formula (“ya‘aleh we-
yabo”), which on these days forms a part of the
““amidah” or prayer proper (see SHEMONEH ‘ESRER).
These three benedictions are spoken of in the Tal-
mud as of high antiquity. The words “ who build-
est Jerusalem” do not militate against this; they
occur in the 147th Psalm. There is a fourth bene-
diction of Jater origin and growth. According toa
tradition, it was instituted after the massacre of the
brave defenders of Bethar; when the Jews received
permission to bury their bleaching bones, the fourth
benediction, “who is good and doeth good,” already
in use upon the receipt of good news, was added to
the grace, and was soon enlarged to a length equal-
ing that of the three others, especially by a number
of petitions beginning: “The Merciful” (pon).
Grace as printed in prayer-books of either the
German or Sephardic ritual runs up to over 350 He-
The Bene-
dictions.
Grace
Gradis
brew words, aside from the insertions for Sabbath,
new moons, etc. Maimonides gives in his “ Order
of Prayer” (part of his code) a much shorter form,
each benediction being abridged, and the petitions
commencing “The Merciful” being cut down to
three. Baer in his prayer-book “‘Abodat Yisrael ”
(p. 562, Rédelheim, 1888) also gives another short
form of grace, especially composed for the benefit of
“male and female servants and other people who
have not sufficient time to read the long grace with
proper devotion”; while the Kol Bo has a form of
grace still shorter. But one of the Babylonian wor-
thies, Benjamin the Shepherd, contracted the whole
of grace into five Aramaic words: “ Berik rahamana,
mara dehai pitta”—Blessed be the Merciful, the
master of this bread (Ber. 40b)—and it was thought
that in doing so he complied with his Scriptural
duty, This formula is used by children.
In the house of mourning a modified grace, as given
in the “Siddur Rab Amram,” is recited. The ad-
dress runs: “ Let us bless the Comforter of mourners, ”
etc.; the first and second benedictions are greatly
shortened; the third reads thus: “Comfort, O Lord
our God, those that mourn, the mourners for Zion
and the mourners in this sad infliction; comfort them
after their grief, gladden them after their sorrow, as
it is said: ‘Like a man whom his mother comfort-
eth, so I will comfort you, and in Zion you shall
be comforted.’ Blessed,” etc., “the comforter of
mourners and builder of Jerusalem. Amen.” In the
fourth benediction the words “the truthful judge,”
used upon the receipt of sad news, are inserted;
otherwise it is much shortened.
At the festive breakfast following a circumcision
grace is usually chanted with many poetical addi-
tions; these are of no great antiquity.
Grace may be spoken in any language (Sotah vii.
1). Itshould always be recited at the table at which
the meal was taken.
Grace before meals is spoken on eating the first
morsel of bread and runs thus: “Blessed be Thou,
O Lord our God, King of the world, who bringest
bread forth from the earth.”
For the wine after the meal see Cup oF BENE-
DICTION ; for the “seven benedictions ” at a wedding-
meal see MARRIAGE CEREMONIES; for melodies used
in reciting grace see ZEMIROT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Orah Hayyim, §8 184-201; Yad, Berakot and
Seder Tefillot; Dembitz, Jewish Services, bk. v., ch. 3.
8, S. L. N. D.
GRACIA MENDESIA NASI. See MENDESIA
GRACIA.
GRACIAN (Hebr. ‘*Hen”): A _ prominent
Spanish Jewish family descended from Judah ben
Barzilai, the members of which are known to have
lived chiefly at Barcelona from the thirteenth to the
sixteenth century. Most of the members used the
name “Hen”; one of them, Solomon ben Moses,
signed himself twice “Solomon b. Moses Hen”
(“Minhat Kena’ot,” pp. 154, 157) and once “Solo-
mon Gracian” (zd. p. 163). Several members of this
family signed in 1805, together with Solomon Adret,
the protestation against the teaching of philosophy
(¢. pp. 61, 74, 154, 157,162, 163). The following are
the principal members of the family:
Astruc Vidal Gracian: Flourished at the end
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Bo
of the fourteenth century. There is a res Ponsuy,
of his on the subject of taxes to be paid by Person,
who left Gerona and settled at Perpignan (Neubaup,
“Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 2218*).
Bonsehor Gracian: Contemporary of Astry,
Vidal Gracian; wrote a responsum on the same yp,
ject (20.).
Elijah Hen: Filourished at Candia in the gj,
teenth century; mentioned by Jacob ha-Levi in hig
Responsa, No, 38, and by Joseph di Trani in his R,.
sponsa, ii., No. 15 (Conforte, “Kore ha-Dorot,” Dp.
47a, 48b).
Isaac Hen: Lived at Candia in the sixteept,
century; mentioned in the Responsa of Joseph »
Loeb, iii., Nos. 2, 102 (7b. p. 38a).
Isaac b. Moses ben Shealtiel Hen: Signe,
of the protestation of 1205 (“ Minhat Kena’ot,” p. 6),
Jacob en Shealtiel Hen: Signer of the pro.
testation of 1805 (3. pp. 61, 162).
Judah b. Immanuel Hen: Flourished at Cap.
dia in the sixteenth century, frequently mentioney
in the Responsa of Joseph Caro (Conforte, @.¢, 36),
Makir ben Sheshet Hen: Signer of the pro.
testation of 1805 (“ Minhat Kena’ot,” pp. 61, 157),
Shealtiel Hen. See GRAcIAN, SHEALTIEL,
Shealtiel ben Samuel: Probably a grandson
of the preceding.
Sheshet b. Shealtiel Hen: Signer of the pro.
testation of 1305.
Solomon ben Moses Hen. See GRactAn, Sot.
OMON BEN Mosss.
Zerahiah ben Isaac b. Shealtiel Hen. See
GRACIAN, ZERAHIAH BEN ISAAC BEN SHEALTIEL,
Zerahiah ben Sheshet Hen: Signer of the
protestation of 1805 (‘‘ Minhat Kena’ot,” p. 157).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Notes on Benjamin of Tudela, ed.
Asher, ii. 5.
G. M. SEL.
GRACIAN, SHEALTIEL (HEN): Rabbi of
Barcelona; flourished in the beginning of the thir
teenth century. During the lifetime of R. Nissin
Gerondi, Shealtiel Gracian was rabbi of Fraga,
Spain. Owing to his great learning, he was nom-
inated rabbi at Alcala, and the Jews of that town
made him swear that he would never leave them.
Shealtiel afterward regretted his oath, and applied
to R. Nissim and his pupil, Isaac ben Sheshet, to
absolve him from it. Both refused; yet afterward,
probably after R. Nissim’s death, Shealtiel is
found at Barcelona. Jsaac b. Sheshet applied to
him to be the mediator between his daughter and
her father-in-law. MS. No. 2218 of the Bodleian
Library (p. 156b) contains a responsum signed by
Shealtiel Hen, together with seven other rabbis.
He is besides frequently mentioned by Isaac >.
Sheshet in his responsa.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Weiss, Dor Dor we-Dorshaw, 1. 161: Nel-
bauer, Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS. No. 22184; Zunz, Notes 0%
Benjamin of Tudeta, ed. Asher, ii. 5.
G. M. SEL.
GRACIAN, SOLOMON BEN MOSES
(HEN): Talmudist of Barcelona; lived at the end
of the thirteenth and beginning of the fourteentl
centuries; died in 1807. He was one of the sy2
that signed with R. Solomon b. Adret the decree °
excommunication against Maimonides’ partizat’
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
63
s also one of those who, after Bedersi’s Iet-
U ae tried vo reconcile the two parties (see
oe . EXC. ii. 626). His name occurs three times in
Minbat Kena’ot,” under letters 81, 83, and 87.
ca pacny: Minhat Kena’ot, letters 81, 83, 87; Gratz,
BIBLIO ad. fuden, 3d ed., vil. 241,
oo M. SEL.
“ RACIAN, ZERAHIAH BEN ISAAC BEN
sHEALTIEL (HEN): Physician, philosopher,
nsiator, Hebraist; flourished about the end of
a thirteenth century; born either at Barcelona or
Confounded with Zerahiah b. Isaac ha-
Grace
Gradis
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 111-114, 125,
146, 160, 262, 205, 652, T64, 765; idem, Hebr. Bibl. iv. 125, viii.
89, X. 50, xi. 42, 91, 186, xii. 43, 47, xvi. 86; Zunz, G. S. iii, 269;
idem, Notes on Benjamin of Tudela. ed. Asher, ii. 32; Ozar
Nehmad, ti. 229-245, iti. 109-111; Geiger. in Jitd. Zeit. vii.
149; Carmoly, Revue Orientale, i. 448-445: Michael, Or ha-
Hayyim, p. 370; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, pp. 337, 338.
G. M. SEL.
GRADIS: Name of a family of prominent mer-
chants in southern France, originally from Spain;
flourished in Bordeaux in the eighteenth century.
The following family tree indicates the relationship
of the members of the great Bordeaux firm:
Diego Gradis (1650) = Sara Henriques Bocarro
Antoine = .... Mendes Samuel = ..
Abraham (d. 1738)
Benjamin
Moses II. (d. 1825) Abraham
parid II. (1742-1811)
Benjamin the
.. Mendes David (d. 1751) = .... Mendes
Moses (d. 1788) Abraham Samuel
(d. 1780) (d. 1732).
Jacob
Younger
(1789-1858) Benjamin the Elder Esther = Isaac
(b. 1780) Rodrigues
Henry Moses |
Hippolyte Esther Eugenia,
= Halévy authoress
(the (°° Mary
composer) Fitzgerald ’’)
Levi Saladin, a translator. Zerahiah went to Rome
about 1277, and wrote all. his works there before
1290. In writing to the physician Hillel of Verona
e makes the point that while commenting upon
h kes tl t that whil t
the difficult passages of the “Moreh” he followed
the criticisms of Nahmanides. It may be inferred
from his commentary to Job that Arabic was his
native language. He wrote a philosophical com-
mentary to Proverbs, finished Nov. 28, 1288; an-
other to Job, in which he derives many words from
the Arabic. Both commentaries were published by
Schwarz: the former in “Ha-Shahar” (ii. 65-80,
105-112, 169-176, 209-240, 281-288, 300-314) under
the title of “Imre Da‘at”; the latter in his “Tikwat
Enosh” (Berlin, 1868). He wrote also a commen-
tary on difficult passages of the “Moreh” of Mai-
monides, comparing the work with that of Aristotle.
Zerahiah was a prolific translator from Arabic into
Hebrew of philosophical and medical works. Among
his translations are the following:
‘ (1) Aristotle's ** Physics’? under the Hebrew title ‘Sefer ha-
= ; i) ‘* Metaphysics *? under the title of ‘* Mah she-Ahar
oe ’; (8) “De Colo et Mundo” under the title of ** Ha-
Shamayim weha-“Olam’’; (4) ‘*De Anima’ under the title of
Bie! ha-Nefesh”’; (5) “De Causis” under the title of “ Ha-
oe ha-Gamur’”’; (6) Averroes’ Middle Commentaries
i Aristotle’s Physics,” ‘* Metaphysics,’? and ‘De Ccelo et
=a and the commentary of Themistius to the last-named
: a) the first two books of Avicenna’s ‘Canon’; (8) Al-
Pity Ns “Risalah fl Mahiyyat al-Nafs’ (Treatise on the Sub-
Mite of the Soul), the Hebrew title of which is ** Ma’mar be-
tase ha-Nefesh ” (published by Edelmann in his “* Hemdah
Hier, Konigsberg, 1856); (9) a medical work of Galen
* Ha the title of ** Sefer he-Hola’im weha-Mikrim ’ (The Book
Ishak (are and Accidents), from the Arabic of Hunain ibn
titie in 7 three chapters of Galen’s Karayery%, with the same
ae ebrew characters: (11) Maimonides’ treatise on sexual
ne ei (Fi al-Jima‘’’); (12) the ** Aphorisms ” of Maimone-
ie Musa”), terminated at Rome in 1277. Zerahiah’s
O08 Were mostly ade for Shabbethai b. Solomon in 1284,
H. Gor,
David Gradis: Naturalized in Bordeaux in 1781;
died in 1751. In 1696 he had established the great
mercantile house whose trade relations extended to
England, Holland, southern France, Canada, and
the French West Indies, nearly all the transoceanic
trade being in its hands. In return for sugar and
indigo, the firm exported to Cayenne, Martinique,
and Santo Domingo cargoes of alcohol, linen, meal,
pickled meat, and wine. ‘The serious financial crises
of the years 1715 and 1719 did not materially in-
jure any of the firm’s commercial interests. In 1724
David Gradis, known as “ the Portuguese merchant,”
opened a branch in Santo Domingo, despite the
antagonism toward Jews on the island, where the
Jesuits held sway. The influence of the firm of
Gradis soon stifled all race feeling, and when Samuel
Gradis, son of David and the representative of the
family at St. Pierre, Martinique, died there, in 1782,
he was buried in the garden of the Brothers of
Mercy.
Abraham Gradis: Eldest son of David, who on
his father’s death became the senior member of the
firm. He isdescribed asaman of great genius, who
not only maintained but vastly increased the pres-
tige of the firm of Gradis in the commercial world.
He became intimate with personages of the highest
official rank, M. Maurepas, confidant of Louis XVL.,
among them. In the wars between England and
France he despatched vessels carrying valuable car-
goes of war supplies to Canada at the expense of
the firm, being reimbursed only in part after hostil-
ities had ceased. In 1748 he founded the Society of
Canada, @ commercial organization under the aus-
pices of the French government, and erected maga-
zines in Quebec. In 1758 the trade of the firm with
the French colonies alone aggregated 2,369,326
Gradi | putes
Graetz THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 64
Se Rays Le Pg
francs. From 1759 to 1763, after Canada had ceased GRAETZ, HEINRICH (HIRSCH): German
to bea French possession, the export trade of the
firm amounted to 9,000,000 francs. Nor is it unim-
portant to mention the activity of the firm of Gradis
in the exchange of French prisoners held in Eng-
land; these prisoners were supplied with food and
clothing at the expense of the firm through agents
stationed in London.
The coffers of the state having been depleted ow-
ing to the cost of the wars, the house of Gradis was
more than once seriously embarrassed. Upon one
occasion, being hard pressed for funds, Abraham
Gradis urged Minister Berryer to honor his claims.
The lattcr insinuating that the request was but a
pretext to extort payment, Gradis proudly replied:
“The name of Gradis, better known in the four quar-
ters of the globe than that of the minister of France,
is free from dishonor.” Berryer relented, presented
his claims, and they were duly honored, Louis XV.,
through his minister, acknowledging in glowing
terms Gradis’ services to the state. Exceptional
privileges were granted him and his family in the
colonies; full civil rights were accorded him in Mar-
tinique in 1779. The abbé Grégoire, in commenting
upon Gradis’ generosity and benevolence, urged, as
one of his pleas in favor of Jewish emancipation,
the fact that during the fearful faminein the French
colonies Gradis had despatched seventeen shiploads
of suppHes to the sufferers.
The insurrections in Santo Domingo and Mar-
tinique, where the firm of Gradis owned considera-
ble property, together with losses at home occasioned
by the French Revolution, caused the downfall of
the house. Their West-Indian estates, estimated at
3,000,000 francs, were utterly ruined. The other
members of the firm involved in the fall of the house
were Benjamin, David (the second), and Moses
Gradis.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henri Gradis, Notice sur la Famille Gradis
et sur la. Maison Gradis et Fils de Bordewux, 1875: Gritz,
Die Familie Gradis, in Monatsschrift, xxiv. 447-459; th.
Xxv. 78-85; idem, Gesch. xi. 190, 200, 202, 223, Leipsie, 1870;
Abraham Cahan, Les Juifs de ta Murtinique au XVITe
Siécle, in R. EF, J. ii. 93; George A. Kohut, Enterprise and
Influence of the Gradis Family in the West Indies, and
During the Canadian Wars, in 8S. Wolf’s The American
Jew as Patriot, Soldier, and Citizen, pp. 476-482, Philadel-
pbla, 1895; Jacobs, Sources, xiii.-xiv. 5; R. Gottheil, in J. Q.
D.
XV. 233.
G. A. K.
GRAES, ORTUIN DE (called also Ortui-
nus Gratius): Anti-Jewish writer of the six-
teenth century; born at Holtwick in Westphalia in
1491; died at Cologne May 21, 1542. He was the
son of a priest, and became one of the chiefs of the
Dominican party in Cologne, Ortuin was a rabid
Jew-hater, and wrote much against the Jews. He
took sides with Pfefferkorn during the latter’s con-
troversy with Reuchlin, and with the assistance of
Victor von Karben, a baptized Jew, wrote “De Vita
et Moribus Judseorum ” (1504); he afterward trans-
lated it into German, This book is a fanatical dia-
tribe against Jews and Judaism. Ortuin translated
Pfefferkorn’s anti-Jewish writings into Latin.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. ix., passim; L. Geiger, Reuch-
lin’s Leben und Werke, in Ul. Hutteni Opera, iii. 359-
361, Leipsic, 1871; idem, in Alig. Deutsche Biographie, ix.
600-602; Kohut, Gesch. der Deutschen Juden, p. 466.
D. A. M. F.
historian and exegete; born Oct. 31, 1817, at Xiong
province of Posen; died at Munich Sept. 7, 189)
He received his first instruction at Zerkov, whith,
his parents had removed, and in 1831 was sent 4,
Wollstein, where he attended the yeshibah up to
18386, acquiring secular knowledge by private study
The “ Neunzelhn Briefe von Ben Uzicl” (see Samson
Raphael HrrscH) made a powerful impression On
him; and he resolved to prepare himself for agg.
demic studies in order to champion the cause of Op.
thodox Judaism, His first intention was to go ty
Prague, to which place he was attracted by the fame
of its old yeshibah and the facilities afforded by the
university. Being rejected by the immigration off.
cers, he returned to Zerkov and wrote to 8. R
Hirsch, then rabbi of Oldenburg, intimatiug his de.
sire. Hirsch offered him a home in his house
Graetz arrived there May 8, 1837, and spent three
years with his patron as pupil, companion, and
amanuensis. In 1840 he accepted a tutorship with
a family at Ostrowo, and in Oct., 1842, he entereg
the University of Breslau.
At that time the controversy between Orthodoxy
and Reform wasat its height, and Graetz, true to the
principles which he had imbibed from Hirsch, began
his literary career by contributions to the “ Orient,”
edited by Julius First, in which he severely criti.
cized the Reform party, as well as Geiger’s text.
book of the Mishnah (“ Orient,” 1844), These con.
tributions and his championship cf the Conservative
cause during the time of the rabbip-
Orthodox ical conferences made him popular with
Champion. the Orthodox party. This was espe.
cially the case when he agitated fora
vote of confidence to be given to Zacharias Frankel
after he had left the Frankfort conference because
of the stand which the majority had taken on the
question of the Hebrew language. After Graetz
had obtained his degree of Ph.D. from the Univer.
sity of Jena (his dissertation being “De Auctoritate
et Vi Quam Gnosis in Judaismum Habuerit,” 1845;
published a year later under the title “ Gnosticis-
mus und Judenthum ”), he was made principal of a
religious school founded by the Conservatives. In
the same year he was invited to preach a trial ser-
mon before the congregation of Gleiwitz, Silesia,
but failed completely (“ Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” 1848,
p. 683).
He remained in Breslau until 1848, when, upon
the advice of a friend, he went to Vienna, purposing
to follow a journalistic career. On the way he
stopped at Nikolsburg, where 8. It. Hirsch was Tesi-
ding as Moravian chief rabbi. Hirsch, who then con
templated the establishment of a rabbinical seminary:
employed Graetz temporarily as teacher at Nikols:
burg, and afterward gave him a position as princk
pal of the Jewish school in the neighboring city ©
Lundenburg (1850). In Oct., 1850, Graetz married
Marie Monasch of Krotoschin. Itseems that Hirsch $
departure from Nikolsburg had an influence 0
Graetz’s position; for in 1852 the latter left Lunde
burg and went to Berlin, where he delivered a cours
of lectures on Jewish history before rabbinical st
dents. They do not seem to have been success!
(ib. 1858, p. 506). Meantime his advocacy of Frat
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
65
a wa gp PP ED SN SP SO?
-- course had brou ght him into close contact with
kee sr, for Whose magazine he frequently wrote
the a and accordingly in 1854 he was appointed
articles r of the teaching staff of the seminary at
a mrennve Breslau, over which Frankel presided.
In this position he remained up to his
death, teaching history and Bible exe-
gesis, With a preparatory course in Tal-
In 1869 the government conferred upon him
ie of professor, and thenceforward he lectured
CUniver-
professor
at Breslau.
mud.
the tit
at Breslau
ae 1872 Graetz
went to Palestine in
the company of his
friend Gottschalck
tevy of Berlin, for
the purpose of study:
ing the scenes of the
earliest period of
Jewish history,
which he treated in
volumes i. and ii.
of his history, pub-
lished in 1874-76;
these volumes
brought that great
work to a close.
While in Palestine
he gave the first im-
petus to the founda-
tion of an orphan
asylum there. He also
took a great interest
in the progress of
the Alliance Israélite
Universelle, and par-
ticipated as a dete-
gate in the conven
tion assembled at
Paris in 1878 in the
interest of the Ruma.
nian Jews. Graetz’s
name was promi:
nently mentioned in
the anti-Semitic con-
troversy, especially
atter Treitschke lad
published his “Hin
Wort tiber Unser
Judenthum” (1879-
1880), in which the latter, referring to the eleventh
volume of the history, accused Graetz
Attacked of hatred of Christianity and of bias
by against the German people, quo-
Treitschke, ting him as a proof that the Jews
; could never assimilate themselves to
their surroundin gs.
This arlaignment of Gractz had a decided effect
Upon the public. Even fricnds of the Jews, like
Cmmsen, and advocates of Judaism within the
ewish fold expressed their condemnation of
a S passionate language. It was due to this
as ee unpopularity that Graetz was not in-
of 9 Join the commission created by the union
oe Jewish congregations (Deutsch-Israeli-
T—5
Heinrich Graetz.
tischer Gemcindebund) for the promotion of the study
of the history of the Jews of Germany (1885). On
the other hand, his fame spread to foreign countries ;
and the promoters of the Anglo-Jewish Exhibition
invited him in 1887 to open the Exhibition with a
lecture. The seventieth anniversary of his birthday
was the occasion for his friends and disciples to bear
testimony to the universal esteem in which he was
held among them; and a volume of scientific essays
was published in his honor (“Jubelschrift zum 70.
Geburtstage des Prof.
Dr. H. Graetz,” Bres-
lau, 1887). <A year
later (Oct. 27, 1888)
he was appointed an
honorary member of
the Spanish Acad.
emy, to which, as a
token of his grati-
tude, he dedicated
the third edition of
the eighth volume of
his history.
The summer of
1891 he spent as usu.
al in Carlsbad; but
alarming symptoms
of heart-disease forced
him to discontinue
the use of the waters.
He went to Munich
to visit his son Leo,
a professor at the
university of that
city, and died there
after a brief illness.
He was buried at
Breslau. Besides Leo,
Graetz left three sons
and one daughter,
To posterity Gractz
will be chiefly known
as the Jewish histo-
rian, although he did
considerable work in
the field of exegesis
also. His “ Ge-
schichte der Juden”
has superseded all
former works of its
kind, notably that of
Jost, in its day a very remarkable production; and
it has been translated into English, Russian, and
Hebrew, and partly into Yiddish and French. The
fourth volume, beginning with the
His period following the destruction of
History of Jerusalem, was published first. It
the Jews. appeared in 1858; but the publication
was not a financial success, and the
publisher refused to continue it. Fortunately the
publication society Institut zur Férderung der Isra-
elitischen Litteratur, founded by Ludwig Philipp-
son, had just come into existence, and it undertook
the publication of the subsequent volumes, begin-
ning with the third, which covered the period from
the death of Judas Maccabeus to the destruction of
Graetz
Grammar
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
68
the Temple. This was published in 1856 una was | “Mouatsschrift” essays dealing with CXCREtigg
followed by the fifth, after which the volumes ap-
peared in regular succession up to the eleventh,
which was published in 1870 and brought the history
down to 1848, with which year the author closed, not
wishing to include living persons,
In spite of this reserve he gravely offended the
Liberal party, which, from articles that Graetz con-
tributed to the “Monatsschrift,” inferred that he
would show little sympathy with the Reform ele-
ment, and therefore refused to publish the volume
unless the manuscript was submitted for examina-
tion. This Graetz refused; and the volume there-
fore appeared without the support of the publica-
tion society. Volumes i. and ii. were published, as
stated above, after Graetz had returned from Pales-
tine. These volumes, of which the second practi-
cally consisted of two, appeared in 1872-75, and
completed the stupendous undertaking. For more
popular purposes Gractz published later an abstract
of his work under the title “ Volksthiimliche Ge-
schichte der Juden” (8 vols., Leipsic, 1888), in which
he brought the history down to his own time,
A translation into English was begun by 8. Tuska,
who in 1867 published in Cincinnati a translation of
part of vol. ix. under the title “ Influence of Judaism
on the Protestant Reformation.” The fourth volume
was translated by James K. Gutheim under the aus-
pices of the American Jewish Publication Society,
the title being “ History of the Jews from the Down-
fall of the Jewish State to the Conclusion of the
Talmud” (New York, 1878).
A new translation into English of the complete
work, in five volumes, by Bella Lowy, was pub-
lished in 1891-92 in London, and was republished by
the Jewish Publication Society of America (Philadel-
phia, 1891-98), with an additional volume containing
a copious index (lacking in the German original) to
the whole work, made by Henrietta Szold; it also
contains an extensive biography of the author by
Philipp Bloch. In this translation the foot-notes
and appendixes to the original are omitted. The
French translation is fragmentary. Moses Hess, an
admirer of Graetz, published the third volume under
the title “Sinai et Golgotha” (Paris, 1867), and the
sixth volume under the title “ Les Juifs d’ Espagne ”
(26. 1872). From 1888 onward the translation was
continued by L. Wogue and Moise
Transla- Bloch. The first Hebrew translation,
tions. undertaken .by Kaplan, gave only the
third volume, under the title “ Dibre
Yeme ha-Yehudim” (Vienna, 1875). A. translation
of the first ten volumes, with very valuable original
notes by Harkavy, was published in eight volumes
at Warsaw, 1890-98. It is the work of 8S. P. Rab-
binowicz. The eleventh volume the translator would
not translate, because he considered it too biased.
A great number of historical essays were pub-
lished by Graetz in the annual reports of the Bres-
lau Seminary and in the “ Monatsschrift,” to which
he contributed from the beginning, and of which
he was the editor from the time of Frankel’s retire-
ment (1869) until he abandoned its publication (1887).
Graetz's historical studies, extending back to Bib-
lical times, naturally led him into the field of exege-
sis. As early as the fifties he had written in the
subjects, as “ Fialschungen in dem Texte der Lyy,
(1853) aud “Die Grosse Versammlung: Keneg,
Hagedola” (1857); and with his translation of anq
commentaries on Ecclesiastes and Canticles (Breslay
1871) he began the publication of separate CXCeticg}
works. .A commentary and translation of the Psalms
followed (7d. 1882-83). Toward the end of hig life
he planned an edition of the whole Hebrew Bible
with his own textual emendations. A prospecty,
of this work appeared in 1891. Shortly before th,
author’s death, a part of it, Isaiah and
Jeremiah, was issued in the form in
which the author had intended to pup,
lish it; the rest contained only th,
textual notes, not the text itself. It was edited
under the title “Emendationes in Plerosque Sacra
Scripture Veteris Testamenti Libros,” by W. Bache
(Breslau, 1892-94). |
The most characteristic features of Graetz’s exe.
gesis are his bold textual emendations, which ofte
substitute something entirely arbitrary for the Mago.
retic text, although he always carefully consulteq
the ancient versions. He also determined with to
much certainty the period of a Biblical book org
certain passage, when at best there could only beg
probable hypothesis. Thus his hypothesis of the
origin of Ecclesiastes at the time of Herod, while
brilliant in its presentation, is hardly tenable. Hig
textual emendations display fine tact, and of late
they have become more and more respected and
adopted.
Graetz’s activity was not limited to his special
field. Heenriched other branches of Jewish science,
and wrote here and there on general literature or on
questions of the day. His essay “ Die Verjiingung
des Jiidischen Stammes,” in Wertheimer-Kompert’s
“Jahrbuch fiir Israeliten,” vol. x., Vienna, 1863
(reprinted with comments by Th. Zlocisti, in “Jud.
Volks-Kalender,” p. 99, Brtinn, 1903), caused a
suit to be brought against him by the clerical
anti-Semite Sebastian Brunner for libeling the
Jewish religion. As Graetz was not an Austrian
subject the suit was nominally brought against
Kompert as editor, and the latter was fined (Dec. 30,
1863). -Within the Jewish fold the lawsuit had also
its consequences, as the Orthodox raised against
Graetz the accusation of heresy be
As
Exegete.
Other cause he had denied the personal char-
Literary acter of the prophetic Messiah. To
Work. _ the field of general literature belongs
also his essay on “Shylock,” published
in the “Monatsschrift,” 1880. In the early years of
the anti-Semitic movement he wrote, besides the
articles in which he defended himself against the
accusations of Treitschke, an anonymous essay eD°
titled “Briefwechsel einer Englischen Dame tibet
Judenthum und Semitismus,” Stuttgart, 1883. T°
supplement his lectures on Jewish literature he pub:
lished an anthology of Neo-Hebraic poetry under
the title “Leket Shoshannim” (Breslau, 1862),
which he committed the mistake of reading thé
verses of a poem horizontally instead of vertically,
which mistake Geiger mercilessly criticized (“Jid.
Zeit.” i. 68-75). A very meritorious work was bis
edition of the Palestinian Talmud in one volume
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
67
~~ occhin, 1866). A bibliography of his works
Kroes given by Israel Abrahams in “The Jewish
terly Review ” (iv. 194-203).
Quart facts that Graetz’s history has become very
se r, that it has held undisputed rank as an au-
opul’ ‘that it has been translated into three lan-
thority; guages, and that some volumes have
peen edited three or four times—a
very rare occurrence in Jewish litera-
ture—are in themselves proofs of the
. worth of the work, The material for
Jewish history being so varied, the
rees so scattered in the literatures of all nations,
se the chronological sequence so often interrupted,
se de the presentation of this history as a whole a
ae difficult undertaking; and it can not be denied
a Graetz performed his task with consummate
kill, that he mastered most of the details while not
losing sight of the whole. Another reason for the
opularity of the work is its sympathetic treatment.
This history of the Jews is not written by a cool
observer, but by a warm-hearted Jew. On the other
hand, some of these commendable features are at
the same time shortcomings. The impossibility of
mastering all the details made Graetz inaccurate
in many instances. A certain imaginative faculty,
which so markedly assisted him in his textual emen-
dations of the Bible, led him to make a great num-
ber of purely arbitrary statements. Typical in this
respect is the introductory statement in the first
volume: “Ona bright morning in spring nomadic
tribes penetrated into Palestine,” while the Bible,
which is his only source, states neither that it was in
spring nor that it was on a bright morning. His
passionate temper often carried him away, and
because of this the eleventh volume is certainly
marred. Graetz does not seem to possess the fair-
ness necessary for a historian, who has to understand
every movement as an outgrowth of given condi-
tions, When he calls David Friedliinder a “ Flach-
kopf” (xi. 178) and “Mendelssohn’s ape” (25. p.
130), or when he says of Samuel Holdheim that since
the days of Paul of Tarsus Judaism never had such
a bitter enemy (7). p. 565). His preconceived opin-
ions very often led him to conclusions which were
not borne out and were even frequently disproved
by the sources. His feelings often led him to make
unwarranted attacks on Christianity which have
given rise to very bitter complaints. AJ] these short-
comings, however, are outbalanced by the facts that
the work of presenting the whole of Jewish history
Was undertaken, that it was executed in a readable
form, and that the author enriched Jewish history
by the discovery of many an important detail.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Rippner, in the third edition of the first volume
the In re s peschichte; Abrahams, as above: Ph. Bloch, in
: nglish translation of Graetz’s work,
wary of the Jews, Philadelphia, 1898; M. Wiener, Zur
Nos. 99990 des Verfahrens G. . ., in Ben Chananja, 1863,
D.
CBAETZ, LEO: German physicist; son of
Gra oe GRAETZ; born at Breslau Sept. 26, 1856.
eae from the Klizabeth gymnasium at Bres-
8 875, he studied physics and mathematics at
(Ph a Berlin, and Strasburg, taking his degree
-D.) at the firsi-named university in 1879. In
has pee
Graetz
Gramnar
1882 he became privat-docent in physics at the Uni-
versity of Munich; in 1893 he was appointed pro-
fessor. His scientific papers, published chiefly in
the “Annalen der Physik und Chemie,” include
treatises on the conduction and radiation of heat, on
mechanics and hydrodynamics, but principally on
electricity. He originated a method, now much
used, for converting alternate into continuous cur-
rents, and was the first to experiment. on the dis-
persion of electric waves. He contributed a num-
ber of articles to A. Winkelmann’s “ Handbuch der
Physik,” especially to the part dealing with heat
and electricity.
Among his Jarger works are: “Die Elektricitat
und Thre Anwendung ” (Stuttgart, 1st ed. 1883, 10th
ed. 1903), the most popular work on electricity in
Germany; “ Kurzer Abriss der Elektricitét” (¢b. 3d
ed. 1903); “Compendium der Physik” (Leipsic and
Vienna, 3d ed. 1902); “Das Licht und die Farben ”
(Leipsic, 1900).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. C. Poggendorff, Biographisch-Litera-
risches Handworterbuch, iii. (to 1884), iv. (1884-1902); Eck-
stein, Das Geistige Deutschland, Berlin.
8.
GRAISIVAUDAN. See DAvuPHINE.
GRAMMAR, HEBREW: Although Hebrew
grammar, together with Hebrew lexicography—the
two constituting Hebrew philology, and aiming
at the systematic investigation and presentation of
Biblical Hebrew—originated as an auxiliary science
to Bible exegesis, and was studied as such, it soon
acquired an independent character that found ex-
pression in important literary works. It may be con-
sidered as the only science originated by the Jewish
intellect of the Middle Ages. Cultivated by Jews
alone for centuries, it was brought by them to a
high degree of perfection. The historic task of the
Jewish people—to preserve the sacred literature
that they themselves had originated, and to assure
to it a correct interpretation—is perhaps nowhere
else seen so clearly as in the fact that Hebrew phi-
lology is a product of the Jewish mind. The stimu-
lus for the study of Hebrew philology was, it is
true, strengthened by external influence, namely,
the example furnished by Arabic philology, which
continued to influence materially the character of
the Hebrew science; and it was the Arabic model
which, being that of a kindred language, directed
the development of Hebrew philology into the right
path and led it to permanent results. But, notwith-
standing this foreign stimulus, Hebrew philology
retained its independence and its own character, to
which its connection with the Masorah, the peculiar
collection of old traditions regarding the spelling
and pronunciation of the Biblical text, contributed
not a little.
The term applied to Hebrew grammar as a scientific study is
““dikduk.” In the tannaitic tradition this word, the “nomen
actionis ’ of the verb pps (from the root ppt), means the de-
tails of religious law as found by careful investigation of the
Biblical text; for example: “dikduk ehad” (Sanh. 99a); ** dik-
duke Torah ’’ (Suk. 28a); * dikduke ha-parashah ”’ (Sifra, Lev.
xviii. 5, xx. 8); ‘“‘dikduke mizwot” (Hul.4a). On “dikduke
soferim ’’ see Bacher, ‘* Die Aelteste Terminologie der Jiidischen
Bibelexegese,” p. 24. The verb p75 was also used to designate
the exact and correct pronunciation of the text of the Bible (see
Ber. ii. 83; Yer. Ber. 4d, 42), corresponding to the Aramaic
**dayyek lishana”’ (‘Er. 53b); and it was the latter meaning of
Grammar, Hebrew
the word which gave rise to its subsequent use as the term fer
the grammatical investigation of Hebrew, the language of the
Bible.
It is possible that the term “‘ dikduk,”’ in the sense of the care-
ful reading of the Bible text, with all the subtleties which were
handed down concerning it, was in use among
Probable the Masorites and the teachers of the Bible
Early Use of atavery early period. Later, when, under the
‘*Dikduk.” influence of Arabic grammar, Hebrew gram-
mar grew out of the Masoretic rules for read-
ing, this expression offered itself as a designation for the new
science. Although itis not proved that Saadia Gaon knew the
word, it may be assumed that he did; fur in the century after
him “ dikduk” was the generally accepted term for ‘* grammar,”
both among the Karaites and among the Rabbinites. Japheth
b. Ali, the great Karaite exegete, calls graminarians “ahl al-
dikduk”’’ (the people of the dikduk), and grammar, “ dik-
duk”’’ (see introduction to Bargés’ edition of Japheth b, Ali’s
Commentary on Canticles, p. xvi.). Acontemporary of Japheth,
Abu Ya'kub Joseph b. Noah, wrote a grammar entitled “ Al-
Dikduk” (see * R. E. J.” Xxx. 251; on the date of the author
see “J. Q. R.”” viii. 699, ix. 489; ““R. FE. J.” xxxiii. 215). The
Hebrew expression is therefore used also in Arabic texts as a
fixed term. Abu al-Faraj Harun, the **grammarian of Jerusa-
lem,’”? as he is Known to Abraham ibn Ezra, speaks of the
**method of the language and of the dikduk” (“‘tarikat al-lu-
ghah wal-dikduk’”; ““R. E. J.’ xxx. 254). In a geonie respon-
sum, perhaps by Sherira or his son Hai (** Responsen der Ga-
onen,” pp. 200, 376), the expression “‘min ha-dikduk ”’ (from
the grammatical side) is used in a grammatical explanation.
Abu al-Walid Merwan ibn Janah calls the science of grammar
‘iim al-dikduk” (*Luma‘,”’ p. 320, line 14 = “ Rikmah,” p.
395, line 32), and a large work consisting of a grammar and
a dictionary he calls in Arabic “ Kitab al-Tankit,’? remark-
ing that the Arabian ‘“‘tankit’? means the same as the He-
brew ‘dikduk,” that is, *‘examination’’ and “investigation ”
(**Luma'‘,” p. 17, line 14 = **Rikmah,”’ p. xiv. line 8; comp.
** Kitab al-Usul,” 13, 8). Fur the use of the word “ dikduk ” in
Spain before the time of Abu al-Walid, see the quotations from
Menahem b. Saruk, Dunash ben Labrat, and their pupils, in
Bacher, ** Die Grammatische Terminologie des
Mentioned Hajjug,” p. 12; idem, ** Leben und Werke des
by Various Abulwalid,” etc., p. 34; idem, “Die Anfange
Authors. der Hebriiischen Grammatik,” p. 114. Moses
ibn Gikatilla, in the first line of his translation
of Hayyuj’s work, speaks of “dikduk lashon ‘Yehudit.”
Abraham ibn Ezra prefers the full form “ dikduk ha-lashon”
(see Bacher, ‘* Abraham ibn Ezra als Grammatiker,”’ p. 40).
In his list of the masters of Hebrew philology in the introdne-
tion to the ‘‘Moznayim” he calls works on grammar ‘‘sifre
ha-dikduk.”” His commentary to the Pentateuch is ** bound in
the fetters of the dikduk,”’ that is, it is based throughout on
grammatical explanations. One of his text-books on grammar
he calls ‘“* Yesod Dikduk ’’ (Basis of Grammar; see ** Abraham
ibn Ezra als Grammatiker,” pp. 10 ef seq.). Ibn Ezra’s Karaite
contemporary, Judah Hadassi, calls works on grammar *'‘sifre
ha-dikdukim ” (‘* Monatsschrift,’’x1. 69).
Mention may also be made of Judah ibn Tibbon’s use of the
word * dikduk ” in his translation of Abu al-Walid’s dictionary
(see the index in Bacher’s edition of the ** Sefer ha-Shorashim,”’
p. 562). Joseph Kimhi, in the introduction to his Hebrew gram-
mar, mentions both the Latin and the Arabic names of the sci-
ence of grammar (‘‘ grammatica,” “al-nahw’’), but not the
Hebrew term *dikduk.’? David Kimhi gave to the first part of
his ‘* Miklol” the title ‘‘ Helek ha-Dikduk,” and designated the
three sections of this part ‘* Dikduk ha-Pe‘alim”’; ‘* Dikduk ha-
Shemot’?; and “ Dikduk ha-Millim” (Grammar of the Verbs;
Grammar of the Nouns; Grammar of the Particles). For the
use of the word in titles of the works of Hebrew grammarians,
see Benjacob, ** Ozar ha-Sefarim,”’ pp. lll et seq. On mip as
a synonym for pps see Zunz, “Z. G.” p. 201; Steinschneider,
** Jewish, Literature,” p. 327.
The Masorah was the cradle proper of Hebrew
grammar. The Masorites, as subsequently the gram-
marians. had to differentiate between the several
forms of the words found in the Bib-
lical text, to unite the similar ones into
groups, to register the peculiarities of
the text, and to formulate rules for spelling and
reading. But their work shows no traces of gram-
matical categories, nor of any examination of the
Masorah.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA @g
forms of the language as such, The cure that 4)
bestowed upon the faithful preservation of the Bir
lical text drew their attention to the most delicay
shades of pronunciation, for the preservation
which they finally introduced punctuation,
they were interested only in the correct readin of
the traditional orthography of the text, and diq not
intend to investigate the language and its laws
The Masorah, however, paved the way for fran.
mar; Masoretic vocalization and the invention Of the
various signs enabled the grammarians to determiy,
the laws of Hebrew phonetics and etymology. Ti,
Masorah, which flourished even after the science of
grammar came into existence, was actually consid.
ered by the grammarians as a necessary foundatig,
and, in a way, a constituent part of grammar; and
the later representatives of the Masorah, the SO-Calleq
“nakdanim,” occupied themselves with grammy
also, :
The old Jewish Bible exegesis, the Midrash, like.
wise, did not consciously deal with Hebrew gran,
mar. The voluminous traditional literature, through
which is known the Biblical exposition of the Tap.
naim and the Amoraim, furnishes only a smal
number of very general designations of linguistic
categories, which were incorporated later into th
grammatical terminology. The details of that exe.
gesis, from which it has been assumed that its an.
thors were acquainted with grammar, show merely
that they were thoroughly acquainted with the lan.
guage and that they closely studied its idioms; but
neither the Tannaim nor the Amoraim made any
attempt to study the language as such, or to deter.
mine the principles of word-formation. The Midrash
and the Masorah—those two great branches of Bible
study which flourished within Judaism during the
long period in which the traditional literature orig.
inated—kept the knowledge of the Biblical language
alive, and preserved with minute care the text of
the Bible; but it remained for a subsequent age to
create, by a systematic treatment of ibe Biblical lan.
guage, a new basis for Biblical study.
Long before Hebrew had become a subject of
grammatical study there appeared what may be re-
garded as the earliest products within Judaism of
reflection on the elements of the language; namely,
the classification of the consonants (letters), whichis
found as part of the peculiar cosmogony of the
“Sefer Yezirah,” and the classification of the vowels
as seen in the Masoretic system of punctuation.
Both classifications passed into the later grammat,
that of the vowels, which fixed the vowel-marks,
being the most important legacy that the Masorite
bequeathed to the grammarians. Ben Asher, the
great Masorite of Tiberias, who formulated the
Masoretic notes to the Bible text and laid down ge
eral rules, dealt in particular with the consonabls
and vowels; but in his work, “ Dikduke ha-Te®
mim,” the theory of forms is laid down in a fe¥
sentences that already show the influence of Arad
srammar. In Ben Asher Hebrew grammar appes™
as it were, in its shell, a witness to the fact thi
grammar proceeded from the Masorah.
Ben Asher’s contemporary, the gaon Saadia @
942), transformed Hebrew grammar into a scien?
independent of the Masorah. He wrote his “ Kitab
of
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
69
hah” (Book of the Language) in Arabic and
al-Lu the influence of Arabic philology, for the pur-
under f “explaining the grammatical inflection
: he language of the Hebrews.” This
work, no longer extant, consisted of
twelve parts, the substance of which
can be largely gathered from refer-
ances iD Saadia’s own works, ane especially from
» of his pupy, Dunash ben Labrat. Saadia made
oie to grammar In his other writings also,
Laat in his commentary to the “Sefer Yezirah ”
met the introduction to “Agron,” his first philo-
acai work. Saadia’s division of the letters into
root and functional letters is of primary importance,
and was adopted by all his successors: it is the fun-
damental principle of the theory of word-formation,
leading, on the one hand, to a knowledge of the
rootas the essential and permanent part of the word.
form, and, on the other, to the exact determination
of the grammatical functions of the other elements
thereof. One of the twelve books of Saadia’s work
dealt with the inflections of the verb, giving a sys-
tematic review of the forms that may be produced
by jnflection and affixion from the several root-
words. These are the first paradigms in Hebrew
grammar, and Saadia used as the paradigm-word the
verb pow. Saadia also dealt in his work with the
anomalies of grammar, to which much attention was
devoted by later grammarians.
It is impossible, since all data are lacking, to de-
termine at present how much Karaite scholars con-
tributed to the beginnings of Hebrew grammar.
Even before the time of Saadia there may have been
Karaites who treated Hebrew from a grammatical
point of view in the manner of Arabic philology;
but so far no predecessors of Saadia in this field
have been discovered. The first Karaite to whom
the title of “ grammarian ” (“ medakdek ”) is given is
Abu Ya‘kub Joseph ibn Bahtawi, who must have
been a younger contemporary of Saadia and iden-
tical with Abu Ya‘kub Juseph ibu
Nuh (Noah). He wrote a Hebrew
rammar in Arabic under the title
“Al-Dikduk ” (“R. E. J.” xxx. 257; “J. Q. R.” viii.
698 et seq., ix. 488 e¢ seq.). His pupil, Sa‘id Shiran,
wrote a grammatical work under the same title as
Saadia’s “Kitab al-Lughah” (“J. Q. R.” viii. 698).
Abu al-Faraj Harun was another pupil of Ibn Nuh
(see “J. Q. R.” ix. 489), whose work, “ Al-Mushta-
mil” (That Which Comprehends), finished in 1026,
deals with several divisions of grammar. This
Karaite linguist was included as “grammarian of
Jerusalem ” in the list of the earliest Hebrew gram-
Marians made by Abraham ibn Ezra, but at the
Wrong place and without being designated as a Ka-
Taite (SR. E. J.” xxx. 232-256). All the Karaite
grammarians evidence Saadia’s influence, even those
who attack him; and the same remark applies to
the Karaite exegetes of the tenth and eleventh cen-
turies who touch upon grammar in their Bible exe-
esis, a8 well as to the greatest Jexicographer of the
tik es David b. Abraham of Fez, whose “ Agron,”
J€ all works of this kind, contains much grammat-
ical material. y
Pe ae works of the Karaites did not influence the
sequent development of Hebrew grammar. This
ose OF
feirab ”] of ¢
Karaites.
Grammar, Hebrew
was carried further, some decades after Saadia’s
death, in Arabic Spain, where the intellectual efflo-
rescence of Judaism stimulated primarily grammat-
ical studies. These studies were especially promoted
by two men of African origin who lived in Spain:
Dunash ben Labrat and Judah b. David Hayyuj.
In North Africa Judah ibn Kuraish of Tahort, an
elder contemporary of Saadia, had appeared as early
as the beginning of the tenth century. He empha-
sized, even more than Saadia, the comparative study
of the kindred Semitic languages; in his work deal-
ing with the comparison of Biblical Hebrew with
the Neo-Hebrew of the Mishnah, Aramaic, and Ara-
bic, he treats of the relation between the grammatical
forms of Hebrew and Arabic. Dunash b. Tamim,
a pupil of the philosopher and physician, Isaac
Israeli of Kairwan, follows along the same lines.
Dunash ben Labrat of Fez, mentioned above, made
a specialty of the philological examination of the
Bible text. He exerted an extraordinary influence
on the shaping of the Hebrew literature of the Mid-
dle Ages by introducing Arabic meters into Hebrew
poetry; and he occupics a prominent place in the
history of Hebrew grammar, especially through his
criticism of Menahem b. Saruk’s lexicon.
Menahem b. Saruk, the first to employ Hebrew
itself in treating Hebrew philology (his predecessors
having written in Arabic), offers only a few notes
that may be called grammatical in his lexicon (“ Mah-
beret”). He is primarily occupied with determining
the roots of all the words contained in the Bible,
carrying to the extreme the differentiation, intro-
duced by Saadia, between the radical and the
other parts of a word. All other grammatical
material appears in chaotic juxtaposition, without a
trace of any systematic conception of the forms of
the language and their mutations, although he him-
self constantly refers to the fixed laws of the lan-
guage and to the regularity of its various forms.
Dunash’s criticism of Menahem’s lexicon, also in
Hebrew and partly in metrical form, marks a de-
cided advance in the knowledge of roots as well as
in the more strict separation of the root-forms.
Fundamentally important is especially the use of the
term “mishkal” (weight), which was
Menahem destined to take a prominent place in
b. Saruk Hebrew grammar, Dunash designa-
and ting by it the grammatical model,
Dunash. either of the verborthe noun. In the
introduction to his criticism he drew
up aplan which he considered should have been fol-
lowed in a work like Menahem’s lexicon, and in
which grammatical categories and themes stand in
the foreground as a table of contents for a Hebrew
grammar. In another, incomplete, work Dunash
undertook to criticize Saadia’s writings, especially
from a grammatical point of view. In this work
the nature of the weak vowel-roots is first pointed
out, though it was left fora pupil of Menahem to
develop this point more fully.
Dunash’s criticism of Menahem gave occasion for
a controversy between the latter’s pupils and a pupil
of Dunash. Although the two polemical treatises
expressing the views of the respective parties did
not materially extend grammatical knowledge be-
yond the point reached by Menahem and Dunash,
Grammar, Hebrew
they are highly important as evidences of unusual
intellectual activity and interest in grammatical
problems. The polemical treatise of Menahem’s
three pupils is especially remarkable from the fact
that one of them, Judah b. David, was none other
than Dunash’s countryman Judah ben David (Abu
Zechariah Yahya) Hayyuj, who finally, after the be-
ginnings which have been described
Hayyuj. in the foregoing paragraphs, placed
Hebrew grammar ona firm, permanent
basis. In his two works discussing the weak and the
double verb-roots Hayyuj at once put an end to all
arbitrariness and chaos in dealing with linguistic
phenomena. He applied to these roots the law of
triliteralness, methodically carried out the laws of
vowel-mutation, and separated the grammatical
forms from one another. Creating in this way a
scientific grammar of the most important and most
difficult part of the Hebrew language, he became
the creator of scientific Hebrew grammar as a whole,
which his disciples and successors in Spain in the
eleventh century developed zealously and with bril-
liant success. In his small work entitled “ Tankit ”
(Punctuation = “ Nikkud ”) Hayyuj made some con-
tributions to the grammar of the noun, and to the
rules on vowels and accent. Hayyuj’s works are
written in Arabie, and Hebrew grammars continued
to be written in that language in Spain. The influ-
ence of Arabic grammar became evident also in the
terminology borrowed from it.
According to the weil-founded assertion of the old
historian Abraham ibn Daud, Abu al-Walid Merwan
ibn Janah (R. Jonah) completed the work begun by
Hayyuj. His first book, “ Al-Mustalhak,” was a
criticism and supplement to Hayyuj’s two main
works. His own chief work he named “ Al-Tankit ”
(minute examination or investigation), the Arabic
equivalent of the Hebrew word “ dik-
Ibn Janah. duk”; but it is better known under
the separate designations of its two
parts, lexical and grammatical respectively. The
latter is called “ Al-Luma‘” (in the Hebrew transla-
tion, “Rikmah”), meaning the book of the “ varie-
gated flower-beds,” because, in view of their diver-
sified contents, the sections resemble such beds. In
this standard book Abu al-Walid treats of all the
branches of grammar proper, and he furnishes valu-
able contributions to syntax, rhetoric, and Biblical
hermeneutics. In smaller preceding works, also, he
touched on some questions of grammar. In the
polemical work “ Al-Tashwir,” which has unfortu-
nately been lost, he defended himself against the at-
tacks of Samuel ibn Nagdela, the Nagid, in the so-
called “Circular Letter of the Friends ” (“ Rasa’il
al-Rifak ”). As Abu al-Walid said himself, he had
occasion in this book “to touch upon many linguis-
tic laws and to elucidate many principles of Hebrew
grammar.”
Samuel ibn Nagdela, the statesman and scholar,
and a pupil of Hayyuj, wrote, in addition to the
above-mentioned polemical treatises, other gram-
matical works, twenty in all, which, under the
comprehensive name “Kitab al-Istighna’” (Hebr.
“Sefer ha-‘Osher ”), were at one time among the
standard works on Hebrew philology, but were
lost at an early date. The zeal with which gram-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 2
mar was studied at the time of Samuel and his Brea
antagonists in Spain is evident from the didactj,
poem, written in the form of an acrostic “ Kasidah :
and entitled “Anak,” which Solomon ibn Gabirol q,
voted to this science. A century later another great
poet and thinker, Judah ha-Levi, devoted a Portion
of his “Cuzari” to phonetics and the gTammatics
structure of Hebrew. From the middle of the eley.
enth to the first half of the twelfth century the,
were a number of philologists among the leadjy
Jews of Spain, who continued along the lines }gij
down by Hayyuj and Abu al- Walid, treating larger
or smaller portions of the grammar in independey,
works. The most important grammarian amop
these immediate successors of Abu al-Walid wag
Moses ibn Gikatilla (Chiquitilla), called also Mogeg
ha-Kohen, who wrote a book on grammatical gen.
der, and translated Hayyuj’s writings for the firg
time into Hebrew, adding commentsand notes. Hig
literary opponent, Judah ibn Bal‘am
Gram- wrote, in addition to lexical works,
marians of book on the Masoretic rules of vowels
the 12th and accents. Isaac ibn Yashush of
Century. Toledo, known for his daring exege.
sis, wrote a book on the inflections.
David ibn Hagar, rabbi at Granada, one on the voy.
els: and Levi ibn al-Tabban of Saragossa, a gram.
matical work under the title “ Al-Miftah,” while Ib,
Barun, his pupil, pointed out the grammatical relg.
tion between Hebrew and Arabic in his “ Kitab al.
Muwazanah,” on the relation between the two lan.
guages—the most important monograph on this
subject, part of which has been preserved. Another
Spanish grammarian of the first half of the twelfth
century is Abraham ibn Kamnial of Saragossa.
As the grammatical works of the Spanish philolo-
gists were written in Arabic, they could exert no
influence in countries speaking a different language.
Hence Menahem and Dunash remained the gram.
matical authorities in northern France, where in the
second half of the eleventh and in the first half of
the twelfth century Bible exegesis became an inde-
pendent science dealing with the literal sense of the
text. The same holds good for Italy, where Mena-
hem b. Solomon also treated grammar in his “ Eben
Bohan,” a manual for the study of the Bible, com-
pleted in 1148. Abraham ibn Ezra, the genial and
many-sided writer, was the first to carry the gram-
matical knowledge that had been perfected in Spain
to the other European countries that offered him
refuge between 1140 and 1167; namely, Italy, south-
ern and northern France, and England. He offered
full and interesting information, in pure Hebrew
diction, not only in his exegetical works, in which
the grammatical comments at times become entire
treatises, but also in special grammatical works.
The most popular of these are “Moznayim,” writ-
ten about 1140 at Rome, where he translated Hay:
yuj’s works; and “Sefer Zahot,” a work on linguis-
tic “purity ” or “correctness,” written in 1145 at
Mantua. His other grammatical works
Abraham are: “ Yesod Dikduk” (c. 1145); “ Safab
ibn Ezra. Berurah,” written in southern France:
“Yesod Mispar”; the “Sefer ha
Shem,” in part grammatical; and “Sefat Yeter,” 9
defense of Saadiaagainst Dunash. Ibn Ezra’s gral
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
71
a] works, the first of this kind written in He-
although based for the greater part on his
Usa cources, bear the stamp of his original mind.
stir have the merit of presenting the essentials
tram? within a small compass and in an inter-
Oo re
esting eo Ibn Ezra’s works, Joseph Kinmhi’s gram-
oe 1150) is the first exposition of Hebrew gram-
ae in Hebrew. His “Sefer Zikkaron” surpasses
i Ezra’s works in the methodical clearness of the
resentation and in the even treatment of the whole
e terial, and was the first real manual of Hebrew
annie It marked an epoch by introducing the
S vision of vowels into five long and five short ones,
adivision derived by Kimhi from Latin grammar,
which he mentions. This new vowel system, which
it is difficult to reconcile with the old vowel system
of the Masorah, came to be accepted in Hebrew
grammar, especially through the manuals of Kimhi’s
rwo sons. The elder, Moses Kimhi, wrote the “ Ma-
nalak,” a manual very well adapted to didactic
purposes; it was the first condensed text-book of
Hebrew grammar, giving the most essential rules
and definitions, and containing in addition only par-
adigms. This text-book subsequently took an im-
portant place in the Hebrew studies of non-Jews in
the sixteenth century. It may be noted that Moses
Kimhi introduced as model form the verb 3p, which
was used for the paradigms of the
strong verb down to recent times (Jo-
seph Kimhi, following Ibn Ezra, had
used “yy for this purpose). Moses
Kimhi wrote also another grammatical text-book,
“Sekel Tob,” which has recently come to light again
after having been lost for a long period (“R. E. J.”
xxv.ii,, xxx.). More important than the text-books
of his father and brother was the “ Miklol” of David
Kimhi. Asin the case of Abu al- Walid’s chief work,
this contained a lexicon in addition to the grammar,
the latter forming the first part of the work, and
being subsequently designated separately by the
title of the whole work. David took the material
for his grammar chiefly from Hayyuj and Abu al-
Walid: but he arranged it independently, and
worked it over with scholarly insight, adopting the
paradigmatic method of his brother, and giving evi-
dence throughout of the gift of teaching which
he had inherited from his father. David Kimhi’s
Hebrew grammar became in the following centuries
the source from which the results of the classic Jew-
ish philology of the Middle Ages were drawn, the
Works of the founders of this science having been
forgotten. It is characteristic that the author of the
latest historico-critical work on the Hebrew lan-
guage, Ed. Konig, draws solely upon Kimhi’s gram-
Mar, although its sources, Hayyuj and Abu al-
Walid, have long since become accessible in the
tabic originals and in the Hebrew translations.
cog utemporaneously with the Kimhis, other scholars
tee Yon Ezra’s work, providing aids in He-
ibn or the study of Hebrew grammar. Solomon
fig ee (1160) prefaced his lexicon by a gram-
al Was summary; Judah ibn Tibbon translated Abu
ao 1d’s chief work (1171); Isaac ha-Levi, other-
under unknown, wrote a grammatical text-book
the title “Sefer ha-Makor”; and Moses b.
matic
The
FKimhis.
Grammar, Hebrew
Isaac, in England, prefixed to his lexicon “Shoham ”
a grammar entitled “Leshon Limmudim.” Moses’
teacher was Moses b. Yom-Tob of London, called
also Moses ha-Nakdan, who wrote “Sefer ha-Nik-
kud,” on punctuation, and notes to Joseph Kimhi’s
grammar. The interest in grammatical studies
which arose in northern France is evident in the
work of the greatest Talmudist of his time, Jacob
b. Meir Tam, a grandson of Rashi, who defended
Menahem against Dunash, at the same time present-
ing a complete theory of the classification of root-
words. His “Hakra‘ot” is attacked by Joseph
Kimhi from a more advanced scientific standpoint
in his “Ha-Galui.” The East produced no great
grammarians in the twelfth century, though there
has been preserved a grammar by the “ Babylonian
grammarian” Abraham (ha-Babli), which was quoted
as early as Ibn Ezra. The Karaite Judah Hadassi
of Constantinople incorporated rules of grammar in
his encyclopedic work “ Eshkol ha-Kofer” (e. 1148),
which he took without acknowledgment from Ibn
Ezra’s “Moznayim” (“ Monatsschrift,” 1896, xl. 68
et seg.). The grammar of another Karaite author of
Constantinople may be mentioned here, namely,
that of Aaron b. Joseph (end of thirteenth century)
entitled “Kelil Yofi,” published at Constantinople
in 1581—the only Hebrew grammar by a Karaite
that has been printed.
With the thirteenth century begins for Hebrew
grammar the epoch of the Epigoni, whose works
but rarely evince any independence.
Judah al-Harizi wrote a grammar, of
which only the title, “Ha-Mebo li-
Leshon ha-Kodesh,” is known. An
anonymous grammatical work, “Petah Debarai,”
called after the initial words of Ps. cxix. 180, was
written about the middle of the thirteenth century
by a Spanish scholar, whose name was probably
David. This well-written grammar shows the in-
fluence of the valuable text-book of David Kimhi, to
whom the work has been erroneously ascribed. The
thirteenth century also produced another anonymous
grammar (edited by Poznanski in 1894; see “ Monats-
schrift,” xxxviii. 835). Jacob b. Eleazar of Toledo,
who lived at the beginning of this century, wrote
“ Al-Kamil,” which includes a grammar and a lexi-
con; itis now known only from quotations. Isaac
ha-Levi b. Eleazar, who lived in the same century
at Bagdad, wrote a work under the title “Sefat
Yeter,” for which the works of Hayyuj together
with the “Supplementer” of Abu al-Walid were
used. Grammar was studied in the thirteenth cen-
tury in Germany also. The “nakdanim” (punctu-
ators), prominent among whom are Samson and
Jekuthiel (called also Solomon), wrote grammatical
text-books, in which also the Spanish authorities
were quoted. Mordecai b. Hillel, the halakist,
wrote two Masoretico-grammatical didactic poems,
in which he mentions the rules (“hilkot sefarad ”)
formulated by Hayyuj.
To the beginning of the fourteenth century be-
longs a grammatical treatise intended to serve as an
introduction to the larger grammatical manuals.
This “Introduction” (“Hakdamah”), which was
afterward frequently printed together with Moses
Kimhi’s grammar, was written by Benjamin b. Ju-
The
Epigoni.
Grammar, Hebrew
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 79
dah of Rome, who also wrote a complete summary
of Hebrew grammar under the title “ Mebo ha-Dik-
duk.” Another Roman of the same time, the poet Im-
manuel b, Solomon, discussed, like Menahem b. Solo-
mon’s work of the same title mentioned above, gram-
matical subjects in his “ Eben Bohan,” a handbook of
Biblical hermeneutics. Jn the first third of the four-
teenth century the prolific Joseph ibn Caspi of
Provence wrote a synopsis of logic as a guide to
correct speaking, as well asa grammar; he censured
philologists who preceded him for neglecting logic.
Solomon b. Abba Mari Yarhi of Luncl wrotea gram-
mar under the title “Leshon Limmudim,” in which
for the first time there appeared, with exception of
the “po‘el,” the seven verbal-stems (conjugations)
which later came into general use. Samuel Benve-
niste is mentioned as an “excellent grammarian ”
of the fourteenth century, although the name of the
work in which he attacked David Kimhi is not
known. The summary in Arabic of the theories of
punctuation and accentuation which is extant in
Yemen manuscripts, and of which the material is
taken from grammatical works, probably dates also
from the fourteenth century, as does another, larger,
work of this kind in Hebrew, a “handbook for the
Bible reader ” (“manuel du lecteur”), as it was called
by its editor, J. Derenbourg.
At the beginning of the fifteenth century (1403)
Profiat Duran wrote his grammar, “ Ma‘aseh Efod,”
in which an attempt is made to carry ont Joseph
Caspi’s idea of basing the study of language on
logic. He also undertakes to refute the erroneous
opinions of later grammarians, especially those of
David Kimhi. Duran’s grammar in-
fluenced David ibn Yahya’s grammar,
“Leshon Limmudim,” written toward
the end of the century at Lisbon, and
which is remarkable for its adequate and methodical
arrangement of the material. Duran also influenced
Moses b. Shem-Tob ibn Habib, who had gone to
southern Italy from Portugal before 1488, and who
wrote a larger grammar, “ Perah Shoshan,” besides a
smaller text-book on language, in the form of a cate-
chism, entitled “Marpe Lashon.” In 1517 Elisha b.
Abraham of Constantinople wrote his grammatical
work, “Magen Dawid,” in defense of David Kimhi
against Duran and Davidibn Yahya. Mention must
be made of two other grammatical manuals of the
fifteenth century, written by Italian scholars, and
extant only in manuscript; namely, Joseph Sarco’s
“Rab Pe‘alim,” and the large work “Libnat ha-
Sappir,” by Judah b. Jehiel (Messer Leon), the au-
thor of the Biblical rhetoric “ Nofet Zufim.”
The Reformation marks a great change in the his-
tory of Hebrew grammar, The study of the holy
language became a part of Christian scholarship
and, because of the return to Scripture demanded by
the Reformation, an important factor in the relig-
ious movement by which Germany was the first to
be affected and transformed. The transfer of the
leadership in the field of Hebrew gram-
The Refor- mar from the Jews to the Christians is
mation. ina way personified in Elijah Levita
(1469-1549), of whom Sebastian Miin-
ster, one of the most prominent of the Christian He-
braists, writes in 1546: “ Whoever possesses to-day
Profiat
Duran.
solid knowledge of Hebrew owes it to Elijah’s wo,
or to the sources proceeding from it.” Levita’s text.
book on grammar, called “Sefer ha-Bahur” after
Levita’s cognomen, is confined to the theory of the
noun and the verb, while he treats the theory 4
vowels and other special grammatical subjects j,
four partly metrical treatises entitled “Pirke Py.
yahu.” He also wrotea commentary to Moses Kj.
hi’s brief grammar, which through him became One
of the most popular manuals. Levita'’s works wer,
especially useful in the schoolroom, as he avoided oy
principle all abstract discussions of grammaticg)
categories, on the ground that he was “a gram.
marian and not a philosopher.” Five years afte
Levita’s grammar had appeared at Rome there wag
published in Venice (1523) the work “ Mikne Abram,
by Abraham Balmes, the last independent work of
this period based on thorough knowledge and crit.
cism of its predecessors. Balmes’ presentation of
grammatical questions may in a certain sense be
designated as historico-critical. He attempts to ap.
ply the methods and terms of Latin grammar to
Hebrew, and adds to phonetics and morphology a
treatise on syntax, for which he coins the Hebrew
name “harkabah.” The book was, however, very
complex and clumsy, and its terminology difficult to
understand; and although it was issued at the same
time in a Latin translation, it did not have much jp.
fluence on the early Hebrew studies of the Chris.
tians,
The great humanist, Johann Reuchlin, “is hon.
ored by history as the father of Hebrew philology
among the Christians ” (Gesenius). His “ Rudimenta
Lingue Hebraice,” published in 1506, was the first
successful work of its kind written by a Christian to
introduce Christians to the Hebrew language, the
attempt made by Conrad Pellican two years previ-
ously having been entirely inadequate. Reuchlia,
who honored as his teachers two Jewish scholars,
Jacob Jechiel Loans and Obadiah Sforno, took the
material for his work from David Kimhi’s “ Miklol”;
and fora long time thereafter Chris-
Johann tian writerson Hebrew grammar owed
Reuchlin. their knowledge to Jewish teachers
and Jewish works. The works of
Christians, even in early times, differed from the
works of Jewish authors only in the Latinized ter-
minology (introduced in part by Reuchlin) and in
the method of presentation.
It is not the object of this article to describe the
development of Hebrew grammar and the related
literature which has been produced by Christian
scholars during the last four centuries; but the list
which follows after a short notice of the principal
works of this period, and which includes the titles
of nearly 400 Ilebrew grammars, many of which
have passed through a number of editions, will give
an idea of the extent of this literature, and hence of
the great importance of the study of Hebrew philol-
ogy in the non-Jewish world.
Of greatest importance in the sixteenth centuly
were the works of Sebastian Minster (“ Epitome
Hebr. Gram.” 1520; “Institutiones Grammatice,”
1524), who, following Elijah Levita, perfected the
science of Hebrew grammar as regards both its ma
terial and its methods of presentation. In the sev
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
13
h century the grammar of the elder Buxtorf,
« precepta Gram. Hebr.” (1605), enjoyed a high
eputation. W. Schickard’s “ Horologium Hebr.”
1623), on account of its brevity and pleasing ar-
rangement, passed through even a greater number
of editions. The grammar by Glass (“ Instit. Gram.
Hebr.”) was distinguished by its treatment of syn-
tax. In Holland, Alting’s “Fundamenta Puncta-
tionis ” (1654) was the favorite work after the middle
oftheseventeenth century, Opitz *smanual,“ Atrium
Lingue Saucte ” (1674), although based entirely on
Wasmuth’s “Hebraismus Restitutus ” (1666), passed
through many editions in the course of an entire
century. A great influence was exerted by Danz,
who, in addition to his “ Compendium ” (1699), wrote
various treatises in which he carried
From the out a system of vowel-mutation of
16th to the his own. In the eighteenth century
20th Cen- Schultens wrote his epoch-making
tury. “TInstitutiones”” (1787), in which he
put the treatment of grammar on a
new basis and introduced the comparison of kindred
languages, especially Arabic. He was succeeded by
Schréder, whose grammar, “Institutiones ad Fund.
Ling. Hebr.” (1766), was much used. Vater, in his
“Hebr. Sprachlehre” (1797), prefixed “ philologica:
introductions ” to the main divisions of the grammar.
The greatest advance since the beginning of this
period was made by the grammar of W. Gesenius
(1818), which became the most popular and useful
manual of Hebrew philology of the nineteenth cen-
tury, and was several times translated (since 1874 ed.
bv Kautzsch). The new method of studying lan-
guage as an organism, introduced at the beginning
of the century, was applied by Ewald to Hebrew
grammar, his “Kritische Grammatik” (1827) and
“Grammatik der Hebr. Sprache” (1829) enjoying
with the work of Gesenius the greatest popularity.
Olshausen, in his “Lehrbuch der Hebr. Sprache”
(1861), treated Hebrew grammar throughout with
reference to Arabic. Béttcher’s manual, “ Ausfihr-
liches Lehrbuch der Hebr. Sprache ” (1866), is distin-
guished by thorough and detailed treatment, as are
also more recently Konig’s “ Lehrgebiude” and
“ Historisch-Comparative Syntax ” (1881-95, 1897).
Stade’s “Lehrbuch ” (1879) has not been completed.
Strack’s grammar (1888) is very popular on account
of its brevity and superior critical method.
The lion’s share in the subjoined list belongs to
Germany, where after the Reformation Hebrew phi-
lology received an unusual degree of attention, espe-
clally as an integral part of the science of theology ;
aud where in modern times it has been given its
proper place also in general philology, so that
Germany still retains the leadership in this branch
of science. The first Hebrew grammars written in
languages other than Latin appeared at the end of
the sixteenth century; namely, one in Italian by
fanchi, a converted Jew, “Sole della Lingua
Sancta ” (1591), and one in English by Udall, “The
Key of the Holy Tongue” (1593). A Hebrew gram-
zai in German, “Teutsche Dikduk” (1618), was
ese by Josephus, a converted Jew. But far into
ne eighteenth century Latin remained the principal
guage of these manuals, primarily designed to
8SSist the learned in their studies.
Grammar, Hebrew
The following is a chronological list of manuals
of Hebrew grammar written by Christians from the
beginning of the sixteenth to the beginning of the
twentieth century. It is based chiefly on Stein-
schneider’s “ Bibliographisches Handbuch ” (Leipsic,
1859), with corrections and additions both by him
(“Centralblatt fiir Bibliothekswesen,” 1896, xiii. 343—
379, 441-489) and by Porges (7), 1898, xv. 498-508,
566-578). For the period covering the last fifty
years it was necessary to seek the titles elsewhere,
and the list does not pretend to completeness. The
date first given is that of the first publication of
the book; dates of later editions are given in paren-
theses. Authors who were baptized Jews are in-
dicated by an asterisk.
1504. Pellican, Conr.—De Modo Legendi et Intelligendi He-
vbreum. Strasburg (in Reusch’s Margarita Philos.
Nova; reedited by Nestle, Tubingen, 1877).
1506. Reuchlin (Capnio), Joh.—Rudimenta Linguse Hebraice
Una cum Lexico. Pforzheim. (Ed. Seb. Minster, 15387.
Comp. Gramm. Hebr. 1581.)
1508. Tissardus, Franc.—Gramin. Hebraica et Graeca. Paris.
1513-21. Guidaccerius, Agathius.—Institutiones Gr. Hebr. Rome.
(Paris, 1529, 1539, 1546; see Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim,
p. 368, No. 2170.)
1516. Capito, W. F.—Institutiuncula in Hebr. Linguam. Basel.
1518. Capito, W. F.—Hebraicarum Institutionum Libri Duo.
Basel. (Strasburg, 1525.)
1518. Boeschenstein, Joh.—Hebraica Grammatice Institutiones.
Wittenberg. (Cologne, 1521.)
1520. Miinster, Seb.—Epitome Hebr. Grammatice. Basel.
1520. Pagninus, Sanct.—Institutiones Hebraicse. Lyons. (1526;
Paris, 1549.)
1522. Anonymous.—Rudimenta Hebr. Gramm, Basel.
1524. Miinster, Sebastian.—Institut. Gramm. in Hebr. Lingu.
Basel.
1525. Aurigallus, Matthew.—Compendium Hebr. Chaldzreque
Gramm, Wittenberg.
1526. Zamorensis, A]phonsus *.—-Introductiones Artis Gramm.
Hebr. Complutum.
1528. Campensis (van Campen), Joh.—Ex Variis Libellis Flic
- -- Quidquid ad Gr. Hebr. Est Necessarium. Louvain.
(Paris, 1539, 1543.)
1528. Fabricius, Theod.—Institutiones Linguze Sanctee. Cologne.
1528. Pagninus, Sanct.—Inst. Hebr. Abbreviatio. Lyons.
(Paris, 1546, 1556.)
1529, Clenardus, Nic.—Tabule in Gr. Hebr. Louvain. (Paris,
1534, 1540, 1550, 1555, 1556, 1557, 1359, 1564, 1567, 1471,
1574, 1582, 1591.)
1530. Sebastianus, Augustus (Nouzenus).—Gramm. Lingus
Ebr. Marburg.
1535. Bibliander (Buchmann), Theod.—Inst. Gram. de Lingua
Hebr. Zurich.
1535. Miinster, Sebastian.—Isagoge Elementalis in Hebr. Lin-
guam. Basel. (1540.)
1541. Caligniis, Alanus Reffaut de.—Instit. Hebr. Paris.
141. Tremellius, Emanuel*.—Rudimenta Lingus Hebr.
tenberg.
1541. Uranius, Henricus.—Compendium Hebr. Gramm. Basel.
(1545, 1548, 1559, 1568, 1570.)
1542. Bibliander, Theod.—De Optimo Genere Grammaticorum
Hebrzeorum Commentarius. Basel.
1542. Minster, Sebastian.—Opus Grammaticum Consummatum.
Basel. (1544, 1549, 1556, 1563, 1570, 1576.)
1543. Artopceus (Bekker), Petrus.—-Lat. Greec. et Hebr. Linguse
Gramm. Basel. (1545, 1558.)
c. 1545. Vallensis, Joannes.—Gramm. Hebr. Paris.
1547. Quinquarboreus, Joannes.—De Re Grammatica Hebraica
Opus. Paris. (1549, 1556, 1582, 1588, 1609.)
1547. Stancarus, Franciscus.—Ebr. Grammatices Institutio. Ba-
sel. (1555.)
1548. Martinez, Martinus.—Institutiones in Linguam Hebr. et
Chald. Paris. (Salamanca, 1571.)
155%. Kyberus, David.—De Re Gr. Hebr. Linguz. Basel.
1552, Placus, Andreas.——Instit. Gr. Hebr. Vienna.
1553. Isaacus, Joannes (Johanan Levi *).--Absolut. in Hebr.
Lingu. Institutiones. Cologne. (1554; ed. iv., Ant-
werp, 1564, 1570.)
1554. Baynus, Rudolphus.—Compendium Michlol Hebr. Gr. Da-
vidis Cimhi. Paris.
(1545.)
Wit-
Grammar, Hebrew
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
74
ee es SE a a NO fp pee Pg he a ee eat Gahan wind aeweny Ge at ok od ge ae OP me ae see a ee aw Oe ye Saye oy yy ie Pye
1558,
1559,
1560.
1560.
1561.
1561.
1562.
1568.
1569.
c. 1570. Fortius, Hortensius*.—Gramm. Hebr.
1573.
1575.
1578.
1580.
1580.
1584,
1585.
1586,
1586.
1610.
1612,
1613.
. Rosenbergius.—Gramin. Hebr.
. Franchi, Guglielmo*.—Sole della Lingua Sancta.
. Wasers, Casp.—Archetypus Gramm. Hebr. Basel.
. Schindlerus, Valentinus.—Comp. Gr. Hebr.
. Aslacus, Conradus.—Gramm. Hebr. Libri ii.
. Trilles, Vincentius.—Instit. Linguze Hebr.
Pretorius. Abdias.—Gramm. Hebr. Libri viii. Basel.
Quinquarboreus, Joannes,—Linguee Hebr. Instit. Paris.
(1582, 1609, 1621.)
Cavallerius (Chevalier), Antonius R.—Rudimenta Hebr.
Lingue. Geneva, (1567; Wittenberg, lovt; Leyden.
1575: Geneva, 1590.)
Kerssenbroich. Hermanus.—Epitome Gr. Hebr. Cologne.
Aretius, Benedictus.—Partitiones Methodice Gramm.
Hebr. Basel.
Happelius, Wigand.—Lingue §S. Canones Gramm. Basel.
Avenarius (Habermann), Joannes.--Gramm. Hebr. Wit-
tenberg. (1570, 1575, 1581, 1597, 1625.)
Martinius, Petrus.—Gramm. Hebr. Libri ii. Paris. (1580;
Leyden, 1590, 1591, 1597, 1603, 1612, 1618, 1621, 1684.)
Osiander, Luc.--Comp. Hebr. Gramm. Wittenberg.
(1579, 1581, 1589, 1612, 1623.)
(in Hebrew).
Prague.
Clajus, Joannes.—Elementa Linguwe Hebr.
(1577, 1581, 1597.)
Wittenberg.
Schindlerus, Valentinus.—Instit. Hebr. Libri v. Witten-
berg. (1581, 1596, 1603, 1612.)
Bellarminus, Robertus.—Instit. Linguse Hebr. Rome.
(1580, 1585, 1596, 1606, 1609, 1616, 1618, 1619, 1622, 1640,
1642.)
Junius, Franciscus.—Gr. Hebr. Lingue.
1596.)
Marinus, Mareus.—-Hortus Eden sive Grammatica Lingus
Sancta. Basel. (1585, 1593.)
Selneecerius, Nicolaus.—Isagoge in Libros Gramm. Ling.
Hebr. Leipsic.
Brunnerus, Jos.—Rudimenta Hebr. L. Freiburg. (1605.)
Mellissander, Casparus.— Prima L. Hebr. Elementa. Ant-
werp.
Reudenius, Ambrosius._-Comp. Gramm. Hebr.
berg.
Fraukfort. (1590,
Witten-
. Blebelius, Thom.—Gramm. Hebr. Sanct. Linguez Institu-
tiones. Wittenberg. (1594.)
. Neander, Conradus.—Isagoge Linguze Sanctx. Witten-
berg. (1591.)
. Gualtperius, Otto.—Grammatica Linguz Sanctz per Quées-
Wittenberg. (1611.)
Wittenberg.
tiones et Responsiones.
Ber-
gamo. (1594, 1605, 1800.)
Schadeeus, Elias.—Grammin. L. Sanctz. Strasburg.
Wolderus, David.—Donatus Hebraicus, Cont. Rudimenta
Ling, Hebr. Hamburg.
Weiganmeier, Ge.—Inst. Hebraicee Linguze per Tabulas
Digests: Libri ii. Strasburg. (1603.)
. Udall, John.—The Key of the Holy Tongue (transl. from
Martinius). Leyden.
. Hutterus, El.-—Primna Elementa Gr. Hebr. Nuremberg.
Knowlles, Richardus.—Gramm. Ling. Grace et Hebr. Com-
pendium. London. (1655.)
(1611,
1612, 16235.)
Beringerus,
bingen.
Michael.—Gramm. Hebr. Precepta. Ti-
Wittenberg.
(1613,)
Gibelius, Abr.—Gramm. Sanct. Ling. Hebr. Wittenberg.
Reudenius, Ambrosius.—Isagoge Gramm. in Linguam
Hebraicam. Wittenberg.
Buxtorf, Johann (the elder).—Precenta (Epitome)
Gramm. Hebr. Basel. (1613, 1616, 1620, 1629, 1632, 1640,
1645, 1646, 1647, 1652, 1658, 1665, 1666, 1669, 1672, 1675,
1701, 1705, 1710, 1716.)
Otto, Julins Conradus*.—Gramm. Hebr. Nuremberg.
Copenhagen.
(1608, 1684.)
Valencia.
Meelfiibrer, Joannes.—Compendiosa Institutio Gramma-
tice Ebraics. Anspach. (Jena, 1623; Nuremberg,
1626.)
Blancaccius, Benedictus.—-Institutiones in Ling. Sanct.
Hebr. Rome.
. Helvicus, Christophorus.—Compendiosa Institutio Lingus
Ebraice. Wittenberg. (Giessen, 1609, 1618, 1626.)
. Buxtorf, Johann (the elder).-—Thesaurus Gramm. Ling.
Sanct. Basel. (1615, 1620, 1629, 1650, 1651, 1663.)
Frischlin, Nicodemus.—Gramm. Hebr. Strasburg.
Drusius, Jo. (the elder).—Grainm. Ling. Sanct. Nova.
Franeker.
Josephus, Paui*.—Teutsche Dikduk. Nuremberg.
1614.
1615.
Schickardus, Wilh.—Methodus Lingue Sacre. Tilbingey
Rachelius, Joach.—Compendiosa Linguam Sanctam Adqj.
scendi Via. Rostock.
ce. 1615. Sehramm, David (Agricola).—Libri iv. de Gr. Hebr,
1616.
1016.
1618,
1619.
1621.
1623.
1623.
Calusius, Mar.—Canones Generales L. H. Rome.
Mayr, George.—Inst. L. Hebr. Partibus vi. Augsburg
(1622, 1623, 1624, 1649, 1632, 1659, 1693.) :
Rosselius, Paul.—-Canones Hebr. (Wittenberg, 1621.)
Hambreeus, Jonas.—Institutio Hebr. Comp. Rostock,
Erpenius, Thom.—Grammatica Ebraica Generalis. Ley.
den. (1627, 1651, 1659.)
Glassius, Sal.—Inst. Gr. Hebr. Jena. 1634. —Philologia
Sacra Lib. iii. et iv., in Quibus Gr. Sacra Comprehengj.
tur. Jena. (1635.)
Schickardus, Wilhelm.—Horologium Hebraicum. Ty.
bingen. (1624, 1625, 1626, 1633, 1636, 1639, etc.; 48a eg,
Nova et Plenior Gramin. Hebr. 1731.)
- Hamius, Jac.—‘Padtoudcéera Linguee Hebr., h. e., Gramm,
Hebr. Compendiosissima. Hamburg.
Alstedius, Jon. Henr.—Gramm. Hebr. Frankfort. (1649,
1649.)
Amama, Sixtus.—Gramm. Hebr. Martinio-Buxtorflang,
Amsterdam. (L634, 1637, 1677.)
1625. Blankenburgius, Fridericus.—Gramm. L. S. per Queest, et
Resp. Strasburg.
1625. Keckermannus, Balth.—Systema Gr. Hebr. Hanau.
1626. Dieu, Ludov. de.—Comp. Gr. Hebr. Leyden. (1650,)
1626. Faber, George.—Inst. Hebr. Gr. Libri iv. Nuremberg,
1626. Kromayer, Jo.—Comp. Gr. Hebr. Jena.
1627. Petraeus, Nic.—Compend. Gr. Hebr. Copenhagen. (1633,)
1627. Schickardus, Wilh.—Der Hebriische Trichter. Tibingen,
1635,
1636.
1636.
1636.
1637.
1639.
1642.
1642,
1643.
1643.
1645.
1645.
1646,
1646,
1646.
1647,
1648,
1651.
1633.
. Trostius, Martinus.—Gramm. Hebr. Universalis.
. Csipkés-Comdromi, Georgius.—Sehola Ebraica.
. Davis, Johannus.—English translation of Buxtorf’s Pre
. Parschitius, Daniel.—Octo Tabulze Gramm. Ling.
. Wasmuth, Mattheus._-Hebraismus
(1630, 1633.)
Copen-
hagen. (Wittenberg, 1632, 1637, 1648, 1653, 1655, 1664,
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. Dieu, Ludov. de.—Gramm. Linguarum Orientalium, Hebr,
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. Vallensis, Theophilus.—Enchiridion L. 8S. Hebr. Gramm,
Leipsic.
. Bythnerus, Victorinus.—Lingua Eruditorum sive Instit,
Methodica L. Sacrez. London. (1638, 1639, 1645, 1630,
1664, 1670, 1675; English, 1847, 1853.)
Altstedius, J. H.—Rudimenta Linguz Hebr. et Chald. Alba
Julie (Gyulafehérvar).
Baldovius, Jo.—Medulla Gramm. Hebr. Leipsic. (1664.)
Bohemus, Johann.—Comp. Gramm. Hebr. Wittenberg.
(1652.)
Hanewinkel, Gerhardus.—Elementa Gr. Hebr. Bremen.
Ron, Jo.—inst. L. Hebr. Comp. London. (1644, 1649.)
Mylius, Andreas.—Syntaxis Hebr. KO6nigsberg.
Dufour, Thom.—Linguée Hebr. Opus Gramm. Paris.
Petrus, Severus.—Gramm, Hebr. Copenhagen.
Waltherus, Michael.—Gramm. Linguze Sacre. Nurem-
berg.
W. (Weszelin), Kis-Mariai Paulus.—Brevis Institutio ad
Locutionem L. Hebr. Franeker.
Abrahamus, Nicolaus.—Epitome Rudim. Linguze Ebr. Ver-
sibus Latinis. Paris.
Mitternacht, Jo. Seb.—-Comp. Gr. Hebr. Jena. (1666.)
Bohlius, Samuelis.—Gramm. Hebr. Rostock. (1638.)
Realis, Andr.—Brevis ac Facilis Introd. ad Linguam Sa-
crain. Leyden.
Vasseur, Joshua le.—Gramm. Hebr. Sedan.
Gezelius, Jo.--Comp. Gr. Hebr. Dorpat.
Knollys, Hanserd.—Rudiments of the Hebrew Grammar.
London.
Sionkovic, Martinus.—Synopsis Gr. Hebr. Cracow.
Robertson, William.-—-A Gate or Door to the Holy Tongue
Opened in English. London.
. Altingius, Jac.—Fundamenta Punctationis Ling. Sanct. seu
Gramm. Ebr. Groningen. (1658, 1675, 1686, 1687, 1692,
17@1, 1717, 1780: Claudiopolis, 1698; Duteh, 1664.)
Utrecht.
cepta. London,
. Foecklerus, Jo.~-Fundamenta ad Ling. Sanct. Accurate
Docendam. Amsterdam.
. Scherzer, Joh. Adam.—Nucleus Grammaticarum Heb?-
Leipsic.
Sanct.
Rostock,
. Diest. Henricus van.-—Gr. Hebr. cum Rudim. Ling. Chaid.
et Syr. Daventrix.
... Restitutus (Nova
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THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
75
Grammar, Hebrew
_ asa
667 szathmar-Némethi, Michael.—Tyrocinium Hebraicum.
oud Franeker.
1670, Hulsius. Antonius.—Comp. Regularum Gr. Hebr. Leyden.
670. Koolhaas, Jo. Christoph.—Gramm. Hebr. . . . sive Ebra-
ae ischer Trichter. Coburg.
icolai, Joh. Fr.—Hodegeticum Orientale Harmonicum
(ii, Gramm.). Jena.
1674. Opitius, Henr.—Atrium Lingue Sancte. Jena. (1681,
" "4687, 1692, 1699, 1704, 1706, 1710, 1725, 1789, 1740, 1745,
1769.)
1677. Pilarik, Esaias.—Summarium Lingus Sancte. Witten-
1670. N
1681. Anonymous.—Rudimenta Gramm. Hebr. Venice. =
1681. Cellarius, Chr.—Gramm. Hebr. in Tabulis Synopticis.
Giessen. (1684, 1699.)
1684, Clodius, Dav.—Gramm. Ling. Hebr. Giessen. (1729.)
1685. Viweg, Chr.—Hodegeta Didacticus Ebrzeus. Jena. (1688,
706.)
1686. osgue Ever. van der.—Janua Ling. Sanct. (Dutch). Am-
sterdam.
1638. Kiimmel, Casp.—Schola Hebraica. Wirzburg.
1691. Maius, Jo. Henr.—Institutio Ling. Hebr. Frankfort. (1705,
1715.)
1692. Paulinus, Simon.—Grammatica Hebrea. Abo.
1692. Riesser, Joh.—Comp. Gramm. Hebr. Marburg.
1694. Hardt, Hermanus van der.—Brevia atque Solida Hebr.
Ling. Fundamenta. Helmstadt. (1698, 1700, 1707, 1725,
1739.)
1694. Ludwig (Ludovicus), Chr.—Hebraismus Compendiarius.
Leipsic. (1699.)
1698. Michaelis, Joh. Heinr.—Grindliche Anweisung zur Hebr.
Sprache. Halle.
1699. Bureklinus, Ge. Chr.—Institutio L. Hebr. Frankfort.
1699. Danzius, Jo. Andr.—Compendium Gr. Ebr.-Chald. Jena.
(1706, 1785, 1738, 1742, 1748, 1751, 1765, 1773.)—1686. Nuci-
frangibulum. Jena.—1694. Literator Hebr. - Chald.
Jena.—i694. Interpres. Hebr.-Chald. (Syntax) Jena.
1699. Slaughter, Ed.—Gramm. Hebr. Amsterdam. (1760, 1834,
1843.)
1702. Michaelis, Joh. Heinr.—Erleichterte Hebr. Grammatik.
Halle. (1708, 1728, 1781, 1738, 1738, 1759; Latin, Breslau,
1748.)
1704. Reineccius, Christ.—Gramm. Hebr.-Chald. Leipsic. (1778.)
1705. Levi, Philipp*.—A Compendium of Hebrew Grammar.
Oxford.
1705. Starkius (Starke), Henr. Bened.—Lux Gr.-Hebr. Leipsic.
(1718, 1717, 1737, 1764.)
1707. Hureus, Car.—Grammaire Sacrée. Paris.
1707. Rusehat, Abraham.—Gramm. Hebr. Nova Eaque Facili
Methodo Digesta. Leyden. (1711.)
1708. Arnd, Carol.—Grammatica Analysi
Rostock.
1708. Schmidt, Joach. Frid.—Manuductio Grammaticalis ad
Linguam Ebraicam. Frankfort.
1708. Knipe.—H. Gr. Rudimenta. Oxford.
1709. Schiinnemann, Chr. Heinr.—Leichte Anweisung zur Hebr.
Grammatik. Leipsic.
1711, wren Matth.—Institutiones Ling. Sanct. Tiibingen.
760.)
1716. Mascleflus, Franc.—Grammat. Hebr. a Punctis Libra.
Paris. (1730, 1743, 1750, 1781.)
1716. Schaaf, Carol.—Epitome Gr. Hebr. Leyden.
1/17, Anonymous.—Hebr. Gramm. Rud. in Usum Scholae West-
Hebr. Inserviens.
monaster. London.
Ut, mane es Jo.—Rud. Grammat. Hebr. Rome. (1740,
48.)
1721, Pasinus, Jos.—Gramm. Ling. Sanct. Padua. (1739, 1756,
1779.)
1722. Anonymous.—Fundamenta Ling. Hebr. Berlin. (1732.)
1722. Bernard, Christ. David *.—Hiitte Davids . . . AlleGramm.
Regeln der Hebriischen Sprache (Hebrew and Ger-
% Man). Tubingen.
1124-26, Peis Petr.—Gramm. Hebr. et Chald. 2 vols.
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1726. Bennet, Thom.—Gramm. Hebr. London. (1728, 1731.)
‘21, Braemson (or Brunchmann), Andr. Henrikson.—Gramm.
1728, y Hebr. Copenhagen. (1733.)
The9 eles: Eman.—Comp. Gramm. Hebr. Leyden. —
ar, se Paul.—Rudimenta Linguse Hebree. Stettin.
non Pe ecetins, Jo. Chr.—Novaet Plenior Gr. Hebr. Tiibingen.
39 ngestroem, Jo.—Gramm. Hebr. Biblica. Lund.
- Quadros, Didacus de.—Enchiridion seu Manuale Hebr.
1735 Rome,
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1735. Wachner, Andr. Ge.—Griindliche Grammatik der Hebra-
ischen Sprache. Géttingen.
133. Hertel, W. Chr.—Anweisung zur Hebriiischen Sprache.
Gratz.
1737. Schultens, Alb.—Institutiones ad Fundam. L. H. Leyden.
(1748, 1750, 1753, 1756; Claudiopolis, 1743.)
1738. Grey, Richard.—A New and Easy Method of Learning
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1738. Le-Long, Jac.—Nouvelle Méthode pour Apprendre Facile-
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1739. Rau, Joach. Just.—Kurzgefasste Anfaugsgrimde der He-
braischen Grammatik. Kénigsberg. (1749, 1777, i780.)
1739. Burell, Andrew.—A New Method to Obtain the Knowledge
of the Hebrew Tongue. London.
1739. Lizel, Ge.—Epitome Gr. Hebr. Speyer.
1740. Koch, Fried. Christ.— Fundamenta L. Hebr.... seu
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1742, Anonymous.—Inst. Hebr. Fundamenta. Hildburghausen.
1745. Michaelis, Jo. Dav.—Hebraische Grammatik. Halle. (1748,
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1747. Sisti Gennaro.—Lingua Santa.
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1747. Steinersdorff, Jo. Christ.—Gramm. Hebr. Breviter. Halle.
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1748. Biittner, Christoph. Andr.—Gramm. Hebr. Stettin.
1750. Hase, Christ. Gottfr.._Versunch eines Lebrgebaudes der
Hebraischen Sprache. Halle.
1751. Bate, Jul.—A Hebrew Grammar. London.
1751. Hiibschmann, I. Matth.—Geschwinder Hebrier. Eisenach.
1731. Steinersdorff, Jo. Christ.—Hebriische Grammatik. Halle.
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1752. Kypke, George Day.—Hebriiische und Chaldaische Gram-
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1753. Calcio, Ignazio._Linguze S. Rudimenta. Naples.
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1755. L’Advocat, Jean Bapt.—-Gramm. Hebr. Paris. (1822.)
1755. Traegard, E.—Comp. Gramm. H. Bibl. Greifswalde.
1756. Zeleny, Franc.—Institutiones L.S. Prague.
1756, Hardt, Ant. Jul. van der.—Gramin. Hebr. Helmstadt.
7096, Wartha, Jo. Paul.—Gramm. Nova Hebr.-Chald. Styria.
1757. Sonnenfels, Alois *.—Lapis Lydius, sive Instit. H. L. ...
Priifstein (Latin and German). Vienna.
1758. Kals, Jo. Gul.—Gramm. Hebreeo-Harmonica cum Arab. et
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498. Maller, Jo. Mart.—Anfangsgriinde der MHebriischen
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1758. Robertson, Jac.—Gramm. L. Hebr.
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1758. Gireandeau, Bonar.—Abrégé de la Gramm. Hébr. Paris.
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1758. Engotler, Jos.—Institutiones Linguze Sacre. Gratz.
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1760. Kalmar, Geo. (Hungarus).—Genuina Lingus Hebr. Gram-
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1762. Biedermann, Jo. Gottlieb.—Anfangsgriinde der He-
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1764. Ussermann.—Compendium Syntax. Hebr. Salisbury.
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1770. Bosch, Jac.—Onderwijz in d. H. Taalkunst. Leeuwarden.
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1774. Bayly, Anselm.—A Plain and Complete Grammar of the
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1775. Rota, Orazio.—Gramm. della Lingua Santa. Venice.
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1778. Patzschius, H. D.--Institutio L. Hebr. Litneburg.
1780. Pfeiffer, Aug. Fr.—Hebraische Grammatik. Erlangen.
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1782. Gitte, Heinr. Ernst.—Anfangsgriinde der Hebraischen
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Grammar, Hebrew
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1782.
1783.
1784.
1784,
1786.
1787,
1787.
1787.
1788.
1788.
1788.
1789,
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179],
1791.
1798.
1799.
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1813.
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Bayley, C.—Entrance into the Sacred Language. London.
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Tirsch, Leopold.—Gramm. Hebr. Prague.
Uri, Johannes.—Pharus Artis Gramm. Hebr. Oxford.
Hasse, Jo. Gottfried.—Die Hebraische Sprachlehre nach
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Fessler, Ign. Aur.—Institutiones L. Hebr. Breslau.
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Helmstadt.
London. (5th ed.,
1823.)
Vienna. (1799;
Latin, 1809.)
Scheidius, Ever.—Elementa Hebr. Harderwick.
Thiele, E. E.—Anleitung zur Erlernung der Hebriéischen
Sprache. Jena. (1812.)
Bulman, E.—Introduction to the Hebrew Language.
don.
Wetzel, Jo. Chr. Frid.— Hebriische Sprachlehre,
Lon-
Berlin.
Co-
penhagen.
Dowling, Ed. Dowman.—The Elements and Theory of the
Hebrew Language. London.
. Jacobi, J. Ad.—Elementarbuch der Hebridischen Sprache.
Jena.
Vater, Jo. Sever.—Hebriische Sprachlebre. Leipsic. (1814.)
Weckberlin, Chr. Christ. Ferd.—-Hebraische Grammatik.
Part i., Stuttgart (1798, 1818, 1832); part ii., 1805 (1819).
Hartmann, Jo. Melch.—Anfangsgriinde der Hebriischen
Sprache. Marburg. (1819.)
Vater, Jo. Sever.—Kleinere Hebriische Sprachlehre.
sic.
Fitz-Gerald, Gerald.—A Hebrew Grammar. Dublin.
Vater, Jo. Sever.—Grammatik der Hebraischen Sprache.
Leipsic. (1807, 1816.)
Wittig, Jo. Sigm.—Hebraische Sprachlehre. Wittenberg.
Bloch, S. N. J..—Det Hebraiske Sprogs Formlere. Copen-
hagen. (1819.)
Smith, John.—Boston.
Hetzel, W. Friedr.—Neue Hebr. Sprachlehre fiir Anfanger.
Dorpat.
Audran, Prosper Gabr.—Grammaire Hébraique en Ta-
bleaux. Paris. (1818.)
Valperga, Tommaso.—Prime Lezioni di Gramm. Hebr.
Turin. (1820.)
Mall, Scbastian.—Hebriische Sprachlehre. Landshut.
Newton, James William.—Hebrew Language upon the
Plan of Grammar in General. London. (1809.)
Dereser, Thadd. Ant.—Lateinisch-Hebraische Grammatik.
Freiburg.
Frey, Jos. 8S. Chr. Fr.*—A Hebrew Grammar in the Eng-
lish Language. London. (1815, 1828.)
Gesenius, Fr. Heinr. Wilh.—Hebraisches Elementarbuch
(Hebriische Grammatik). Halle. (1816, 1817, 1819,
1820, 1823, 1824, 1826, 1828); rewritten 1831 (1834, 1839,
1842); revised by Rédiger 1845 (1848, 1851, 1854, 1857,
... 2ist ed. 1872); worked over by E. Kautzsch, 22d ed.
1878 (1881, 1887, 1889, 1896, . . . 2th ed. 1902).
Fetimoser, Andr. Ben.—Auszug der Hebriischen Sprach-
lebre nach Jahn. Innsbruck.
Leip-
1814-16. Gyles, J. F.—-A New Hebrew Grammar, in Two Parts.
1814,
1817.
1819.
1820.
London.
Setiers, L. P.—Grammaire Hébraique. Paris.
Gesenius, Fr. H. W.—Ausftihrliches Grammatisch-Kri-
tisches Lehrgebaude der Hebriischen Sprache. Leipsic.
Anonymous.—Grammaire Hébraique par un Professeur du
Séminaire d@’Avignon. Avignon.
Bolaffey, H. V.—An Easy Grammar of the Primeval Lan-
guage. London,
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Se ao
1820.
76
Cellérier, Jac. Elisée.—Eléments de la Grammaire Hébra.
ique. Geneva. (1824.)
1821. Stuart, Moses.—A Hebrew Grammar with a Copious Syp.
tax. Andover. (1823, 1831, 188s.)
1822, Doeleke, W. H.—Kleine Hebraische Grammatik. Leipsic,
1822, Lindberg, Christian.—Hebraisk Grammatik. Copenhagen,
1824. Boeckel, E. G. Ad.—Anfangsgriinde der Hebraischep
Sprache. Berlin.
1825. Barnard, Sam.—A Polyglot Grammar of the Hebrew, Cha}.
dee, etc. Philade)phia.
1825, Keyworth, Thom.—The Analytical Part of the Principleg
of Hebrew. London.
1825. Reyher, C.—Formenlehre der Hebraischen Sprache,
Gotha.
1825. Salome, 8. C.—A Grammar of the Hebrew Tongue. Lon.
don.
1826, Bekker, Ge. Jo.—Rudimenta Linguee Hebr. Loéwen.
1826. Benzelin.—Nouvelle Méthode pour Etudier l’Hébrey.
Paris.
1826. Boettcher, F.—Hebriisches Elementarbuch fiir Schulen,
Dresden.
1826. Chiarini, L. A.~Grammatyka Hebrayska. Warsaw.
1827. Ewald, Ge. Heinrich Aug.—Kritische Grammatik der He.
1838.
. Preiswerk, S.—Grammaire Hébraique. Geneva.
braischen Sprache. Leipsic.
Lee, Sam.—A Grammar of the Hebrew Language. Lon.
don. (1882, 1841, .. . 1844.)
Uhlemann, Fried.—Hebraische Sprachlehre. Berlin.
Szigmondy, Sam.—Gramm. Hebr. Usui Scholarum, Vi.
enna.
. Ewald, G. H. A.—Grammatik der Hebraischen Sprache
des A. ¥. Leipsic. (1835, 1838; Engl. transl. by J,
Nicholson ; see below.)
Pettersson, J.—Fullstandig Hebraisk Grammatica. Lund,
Philipps, Wilh. Thomas.—Elements of Hebrew Grammar,
Bristol.
Schubert, Heinr. Fr. W.—Grammatik der Hebriischen
Sprache. Schneeberg.
Roorda, Taco.—Grammatica Hebreea. Leyden. (1833.)
Lindberg, Jo.—Hovedreglerne af den Hebraiske Gramma.
tik. Copenhagen. (1887; Swedish. Upsala, 1843, 1844.)
. Glaeser, Jos.—_Grammatik der Hebréischen Sprache. Rat-
isbon. (1838, 1842, 1844.)
Glaire, J. B.—Principes de Grammaire Hébraique et
Chald. Paris. (1837.)
. Hincks, Edw.—Grammar of the Hebrew Language. Lon-
don.
. Noble, James.—Rudiments of the Hebrew Language.
Glasgow. (1848.)
Somosi, Janos.—Sidé Grammatica (after Gesenius). Buda,
Wilson, John.—Rudiments of Hebrew Grammar in Ma-
rathi. Bombay.
. Stier, Rud.—Neugeordnetes Lehrgebaude der Hebriischen
Sprache. Leipsic. (1849.)
Groenewoud, Jae. Corn. Swyghuisen.—Institutio ad
Gramm. H. Ducens. Utrecht.
Seots, David.—Elements of Hebrew Grammar. Edinburgh.
Tullberg, Hamp. Kr.—Hebraisk Sprakléra, Lund. (1835.)
Willis, Arthur.—An Elementary Grammar for the Use of
Shrewsbury School. London.
Miuuler, Ludv. Christian.—Kortfattet Hebraisk Grammatik.
Copenhagen.
. Freytag, Georg Wilh.—Kurzgerasste Grammatik der He-
briischen Sprache. Haile,
Johannson, Th. Carl.—Hebraisk Formigwre. Copenhagen.
Riegler, G.—Hebraische Sprachschule. Parti., Hebraische
Sprachlehre, Bamberg.
Latouche, Auguste.—_-Grammaire Hébraique. Paris.
Leo, Christopher.—Hebrew Grammar. Cambridge.
Nicholson, I.—A Grammar of the Hebrew Language of the
O. T. (transl. from Ewald). London.
Seidenstiicker, W. F. F.—Elementarbuch der Hebriischen
Sprache. Soest.
Sjébring, P.—Hebraisk Spraklira. Upsala.
D’ Allemand, J. D.—Hebraische Grammatik. Munich.
Kalthoff, J. A.—Grammatik der Hebraischen Sprache.
Ratisbon. ~
Lowndes, Is.—Tpayupe. ths ‘EBp. TAdoons ets Xppow Tw
“EAAnvav. Malta.
Sebestyén, Istvin.—KézikoOnyveeske. Buda.
Fritsch, Ernst Aug.—Kritik der Bisherigen Grammatikev.
... Frankfort.
(Basel,
1864.)
Prosser, James.—A Key to the Hebrew Scripture, with
Hebrew Grammar. London.
1856.
1860.
. Veth, P. J.—Beknopte Hebr. Spraakkunst.
. Nagelsbach, Carl W. E.—Hebraische Grammatik.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bush, George.—A Grammar of the Hebrew Language.
New York.
Conant, ‘I’. I--Gesenins’ Hebrew Grammar Translated.
London. (1840, 1846, 1857.)
Baillie, William.—A Grammar of the Hebrew Language.
publin.
_ Hupfeld, Hermann.—Ausfithrliche Hebraische Grammatik
(only the first part, 128 pp., appeared). Cassel.
stengel, Lib.—Hebraische Grammatik. Freiburg.
" gwald, G. H. E.—Hebriische Sprachlehre fiir Anfanger.
Leipsic. (1855.)
. Thiersch, H. Wilh. Jos.—Grammatisches Lehrbuch fir den
Ersten Unterricht In der Hebraischen Sprache. kEr-
langen.
_ Beeston, William.—Hieronymian Hebrew, or a Grammar
of the Sacred Language on the System .. . of St. Je-
rome. London.
. Robrbacher.--Eléments de Grammaire Hébraique. Metz.
, Ewald, G. H. E.—Ausfihrliches Lehrbuch der Hebraischen
Sprache des Alten Bundes. 5th ed., Leipsic. (1855,
1863, 1870.)
. Seffer, G. A.—Elementarbuch der Hebriaischen Sprache.
Leipsic. (1854, 1868, 1874, 1881; 9th ed., 1891.)
. Davies. Benj.—Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar Translated.
London. (1852, 1869.)
. Dietrich, Fr. E. Chr.—Abbandlungen fiir Hebriische Gram-
matik. Leipsic.
. Stuart, Moses.—Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar Translated.
Andover.
. Burgh, William.—A Compendium of Hebrew Grammar.
Dublin.
. Prifer, K. E.—Kritik der Hebraischen Grammatologie,
Leipsic.
Amsterdam.
(1852.)
. Wheeler, H. M.—Hebrew for Self-Instruction. London.
Schauffler, W. G.—Grammatica de la Lengua Santa.
Smyrna.
. Ransom, Samuel.—A Hebrew Grammar, London.
. Vosen, C. H.—Kurze Anleitung zum Erlernen der Hebra-
ischen Sprache. Freiburg. (18th ed., 1900.)
Leipsic.
{1862.)
. Ballagi Mor (Bloch).—A Héber Nyelv Elemi Tan-Kdényve.
Prague. (Ed. Goldziher, Budapest, 1872.)
Geitlin, Gabriel.—Hebraisk Grammatik. Helsingfors.
Vosen, ©. H.—Rudimenta Linguze Hebr. Freiburg.
(Auxit Fr. Kaulen, 1884.)
¢. 1860. Wolfe, J. Robert.— London.
1861.
1861.
1861.
1861.
1863.
1864,
1866,
1867,
1868,
1868,
1869,
Olshausen, Justus.—Lehrbuch der Hebraischen Sprache.
Brunswick.
Hollenberg, W.—Hebraisches Sehulbuch. Berlin. (8th
ed., 1895.)
Reinke, Laurent.—Rudimenta Lingus Hebr. Minster.
Green, W. H.—A Grammar of the Hebrew Language.
New York. (1876, 1889.)
Paggi, Angiolo.—Grammatica Ebraica Ragionata. ...
Florence.
Blech, W. Ph.—Gramm. der Hebraischen Sprache. Dan-
zig.
Boettcher, Friedrich.—Ausfithrliches Lehrbuch der Hebra-
ischen Sprache. Leipsic. (1868.)
Scholz, Hermann.—Abriss der Hebraéischen Laut- und
Formenlehre. Leipsic. (1879.)
Gelbe, H.—Hebraische Grammatik. Leipsic.
Petermann, H.—Versuch einer Hebriischen Formenlehre
nach der Aussprache der Heutigen Samaritaner. Leip-
sic.
Land, J. P. N.—Hebreeuwsche Gramm. Amsterdam.
1869, 1870. Bickell, Gustav.—Grundriss der Hebraischen Gram-
1870,
1871,
1873,
1874,
1874,
1876,
1877,
matik. Leipsic. (Engl. transt., 1877.)
Ewald.—Introductory Hebrew Grammar, Translated by
Fred. Smith. London.
Friedrichson, D.—Elementarbuch der Hebraischen Sprache.
Mayence.
Martinet, A., and Rigeler, G.—Hebraische Sprach-Schule.
Bamberg.
Driver, S. R.—A Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in He-
brew. Oxford. (1874, 1881, 1892.)
ven W. H.—An Elementary Hebrew Grammar.
ork.
Land, J. P. N.—The Principles of Hebrew Grammar.
Trans}. from the Dutch by R. L. Poole. London.
Bickell, Gustav.—Outlines of the Hebrew Grammar... .
Annotated by the translator, 8. I. Curtiss. Leipsic.
New
Grammar, Hebrew
1878. Miiller, August.—Hebraische Schulgrammatik, Halle.
1879. Stade, Bernhard.—Lehrbuch der Hebraischen Gramumatik.
Leipsic.
1879. Ewald, G. H. A.—Syntax of the Hebrew Language. Transl.
by Kennedy. Edinburgh.
1880. Pea T.—Hebraische Schulgrammatik. Stuttgart.
6.)
1881, Ballin, A. 8.--A Hebrew Grammar. London.
1881-1895, Konig, Eduard.—RHistorisch-kritisches Lehrgebiiude
der Hebraischen Sprache. Leipsie.
1881, Stier, G.—Kurzgefasste Hebraische Graminatik. Leipsic.
1881. Harper, W. R.—Elements of Hebrew. Many later editions.
1882. Ball, C. I.—The Merchant Tailors’ Hebrew Grammar.
London.
Bowman, T.—Edinburgh.
Strack, H. L..—Hebriische Grammatik (Porta Linguarum
i.). Carlsruhe and Leipsic. (1885, 1886, 1891, 1898, 1896,
1900, 1902; Engl. ed., 1885, 1889; French ed., 1886.)
Shilling.—Nouvelle Méthode pour Apprendre la Langue
Hébr. Lyons.
Siegfried, Carl.—Grammatik der Neuhebriischen Sprache
(Strack-Siegfried, Lehrbuch der Neuhebriaischen Sprache
und Literatur, i.). Carlsruhe aud Leipsic.
Philippe, E.—Principes Généraux de la Gr. Hébr. (intro-
duction by Bickell). Paris.
1884, 1885. Walther, F.—Grundziige der Hebraischen Formlehre.
Potsdam.
1885. Kihn, H. (and Shilling, D.).—Praktische Methode zur Er-
lernung der Hebraéischen Sprache. Freiburg. (1898.)
1888. Scerbo.—Gramm. della Lingua Ebraica. Florence.
1888. Senepin.—Grammaire Hébr. Elémentaire. Freiburg.
1889. Harper, W. R.—Elements of Hebrew Syntax. New York.
1891. Bissell, E. C-—A Practical Introductory Hebrew Grammar.
Hartford.
Mitchell, E. ©. (and I. Price).—-Gesenius’ Hebrew Gram-
mar (2d American ed.). Boston.
1882,
1883.
1883
PY
1883.
1884,
1893.
1893. Prill, I.—Einftihrung in die Hebriische Sprache. Bonn.
1894. Ball, C. I—An Elementary Hebrew Grammar. New
York.
1894. Davidson, A. B.—An Introductory Hebrew Grammar. 2
vols. Edinburgh.
1894, Dreher, Th.—Kleine Grammatik der Hebriischen Sprache.
Freiburg.
1894. Maggs, I. T. L._An Introduction to the Study of Hebrew.
London.
1894. Puk4nozky, Béla.—Heber Nyelotan. Pozsony.
1896. Kautzsch, Emil.—Kleine Ausgabe von Gesenius’ Hebrii-
ischerGrammatik. Leipsic.
Konig, Eduard.—Historisch-Comparative Syntax der He-
pbraischen Sprache. Leipsic.
1900. Chabot, A.—Grammaire Hébr. Elémentaire. Freiburg.
1901. Duff, A.—A Hebrew Grammar. London.
1901. Green, Samuel G.—A Handbook to the Old Test. ...
mentary Grammar of the Language. London.
1908. Steuernagel, Carl.—Hebraische Grammatik. Berlin.
A period of neglect of letters among the Jews of
Europe followed the death of Levita. It lasted for
two centuries, and manifested itself in the exclusive
study of the Talmud and the Cabala,
1897.
Ele-
Later andin theneglect of the rational study
Jewish of the Bible and consequently of the
Works. cognate grammatical studies. No
attention was paid to the ancient clas-
sics of Hebrew philology; and the very scant output
along philological lines contained not a single prom-
inent work. Among the thirty-six works which
were produced from the middle of the sixteenth cen-
tury to the middle of the eighteenth century those
of Solomon Hanau are probably the most important.
Mendelssohn’s exposition of the Bible gave a new
impulse to the study of Hebrew grammar. The
most prominent in that department was Ben-Ze’eb,
whose grammatical works rendered valuable serv-
ices to the East-European Jews during the first
half of the nineteenth century. Besides Ben-Ze’eb,
Shalom Kohn advanced the study of Hebrew gram-
mar by his grammatical work, written in German,
but printed with Hebrew letters. The new science
Grammar, Hebrew
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 78
Se pe ee eee OT ee gy wa ep re ES) Pag og eee MeN Sa | Fay ONY ee eh See geo GaN Se ge ame pemema
of Judaism inaugurated by the labors of Zunz and
Rapoport included a thorough study of the older
grammarians, but it has produced no independent
work that could be placed favorably by the side of
the presentations of Hebrew grammar by Christian
scholars. Nevertheless Samuel David Luzzatto’s
works deserve especial mention; and of more recent
writers Jacob Barth has published the most impor-
tant contributions to this science.
Up to the middle of the eighteenth century the
language of the text-books was chiefly Hebrew; but
as early as 1633—manifestly out of regard to the
Portuguese Maranos, who had returned to their old
faith—the Portuguese language came into use and
was followed by the Spanish. The first German
grammar with Hebrew characters appeared in 1710,
and was soon succeeded by others. In 1785 the first
text-book in English appeared; in 1741 the first in
Dutch; and in 1751 that in Italian. Beginning with
the Mendelssohnian period, text-books written in
languages other than Hebrew began to predominate.
The following is a chronological list of Hebrew
text-books on Hebrew grammar written by Jews
from the middle of the sixteenth to the beginning
of the twentieth century:
1554. Meir ibn Jair.—o.39 mypwn b> WDD. Sabbionetta.
(1597 : paps.)
1537, Immanuel Benevento.—jn m5. Mantua.
1597. Heilprin, Joseph b. Elhanan.—7>°n DN. Prague.
Cracow, 1598: pisps3n md.)
1602. Archevolti, Samuel.—5w137 Many. Venice. (Amsterdam,
1730.)
1605. Finzi, Jacob.— 138 wa. Venice.
1627. Isaac b. Samuel ha-Levi.—pns1 mw. Prague.
1627. Uzziel, Isaac.—yiw Tayo. Amsterdam. (1710; Groningen,
c. 1720.)
1633. Abudiente, Moses ben Gideon.—Gramm. Hebr. Part 1.,
Onde se Mastrao Todas as Regras.... Hamburg.
1655. Anonymous.—7rcN Mov. Amsterdam.
1660. Aguilar, Moses Raphael.—Epitome da Gr. Hebr. par Breve
Methodo. Leyden. (1661.)
1675, 1678. Altaras, David b. Solomon.—Gramm. Compendium
(Hebrew ; in the quarto Bible). Venice.
1676. Castillo, Martyr.—Gramm. Hebr. y Espa. Leon de Fran-
cia.
167%. Spinoza, Benedict.—Compendium Gramm. Ebr. (opera
posthuma). Amsterdam.
1683. Helman, Tobiah (Gutmann) b. Samuel.—pypan_ nb.
Amsterdam. (A supplement to meow n3?.)
1688. Oliveyra, Solomon b. David.—jwS 3. Libro de Gramm.
Hebr. (Portuguese). Amsterdam.
c. 1688. Anonymous.—pi7p 7 jsp (at the end of a:773 NaN, ed.
Mordecai b. Israel). Prague.
1692. Neumark, Judah b. David (Léb Hanau).—rs wry.
Frankfort-on-the-Main.
1692. Oppenheim, Judah b. Samuel.—m-w yrs. (Compendium of
Isaac ben Samuel ha-Levi’s work.)
1704. Duschenes, Gedaliah b. Jacob.~77I13 Mmpbv. Prague.
(17 17.)
1708. Hanau (Hena, Hene), Solomon b. Judah.—rnby p33.
Frankfort-on-the-Main. (1786.)
1710. Bochner, Hayyim b. Benjamin.—-o1n mxyin. Hamburg.
1710. Phoebus of Metz.—nnan Jon (in German with Hebrew
letters). Amsterdam.
1713. Abina, Israel b. Abraham*,—wypr yw) mnpn (in German
with Hebrew ietters). Amsterdam.
W117. Alexander (Siisskind) ben Samuel.—wpn Jos. Kothen.
1718. Auerbach, Isaac b. Isaiah.—xpyyea NDA (Hebrew and
Judseo-German). Wilmersdorf.
1718. Hanan, Solomon b. Judah.—awn ssyw. Hamburg. (1799.)
1723. Lonsano, Abraham b. Raphael.—oda aN p>. Zolkiev.
1728. Auerbach, Isaac b. Isaiah.— xpi NMIw (Judgeo-German).
Firth.
1730. Hanau, Solomon ben Judah.— 7p} 31°. Amsterdam.
(Wilna, 1808.).—1733, sana wy. Berlin. (1749, 1755,
1769, 1787, 1805, 1819.)
1734. Mordecai b. Jehiel.—ow 2 m3p (together with 8°99 ND).
Frankfort-on-the-Oder.
(1702 ;
1735, Lyons, Israel.—The Scholar's Instructor on Hebrew Gram.
mar. Cambridge. (Amsterdain, 1151; London, 1810,)
1736. Briel, Judah b. Eliezer. —pytp3n 74> Pe. Mantua. (1769,
1739, Calimani, Simon (Simhah b. Abraham).—yw" Pryps by
“33. Venice (in Bible edition). (Wilna, 1840, 1848.)
1741, Rédelsheim, Eliezer Soesmann.—Sx rv 495. Onderwysg
der Hebr. Spraak-Kunst ... (Parti., Grammar). ay,
sterdam.
Iv44. Griesshaber, Reuben Seligmann b. Aaron.—M\3N yy Ay,
Firth.
1751, Calimani, Simon.—Grammatica Ebrea Spiegata in Ling,
Ital. Venice. (Pisa, 1815.)
1759. Schak, Hayyim b. Moses.—o»n 4°. Prague. (Grodno, 1808,)
1764. Aaron (Moses) b. Zebi (of Lemberg).—nwn> n2on (to.
gether with Awannve). Zolkiev. (Firth, 1771; Lem.
berg, 1790.).—1765. Twn Sax. Zolkiev. (Salzburg, 1771,)
1765. Teikos, Gedaliah b. Abraham Menahem.—} wr qn (Ger.
man with a Hebrew preface). Amsterdam.
1766. Sofer, Jacob b. Meir.— x Ww y3N (German with Hebrew
characters). Metz.
1767. Schwab, Abraham b. Menahem.—w s497 (German with
Hebrew characters). Amsterdam.
1773. Benjamin Simon ha-Levi.—od°w3p ops. London.
L773. Satanow, Isaac.—f1)9 Naw. Berlin.
1773, Sulaiman, Jehiel.—13 Mp> (seven songs, five of which are
on grammar). Leghorn.
1783. Abigdor b. Simhah ha-Levi.—a3W "35. Prague.
1783, Levi, David.—Lingua Sacra in Three Parts (grammar and
Jexicon). London (1785, 1789, 1808).
1787. Mori, Raffaeilo.—Grammatica Ebr. ad Uso del Seminario
Florentino. Florence.
1788. Koeslin, Hayyim b. Naphtali.—bisp-. Hamburg. (Brinn,
1796; Zolkiev, 1798; Wilna, 1825, 1847, 1859.)
1790. Hechim (Héchheim), Moses b. Hayyim Cohen.—nrpy
Aas.. Furth.
1790. Wolfsohn, Aaron b. Wolf.—yr5uax, Abtalion (including
also the elements of Hebrew grammar). Berlin. (Yi-
enna, 1799; Prague, 1806; Vienna, 1814.)
1793. Judah b. Moses ha-Levi (Edel).—o.372N39 mow. Lemberg,
1794. Lowe, Joel b. Judah.—ywnr soy. Berlin. (Prague,
1803.)
1796. Jacob (Hayyim) b. Joshua Cohen.—p'n spn. Berlin.
1796. Bensew (Ben-Ze’eb), Judah Léb.— ay pws syadr. Bres-
lau. (Vienna, 1806, 1810, 1818, 1827; Sudilkov, 1836;
Wilna, 1832, 1847, 1857, 1866, 1879 [with additions by A.
B. Lebensohn]; K6énigsberg, 1860.)
1799. Lyon, Solomon.—A Compendious Hebrew Grammar.
London.
1799. Romanelli, Samuel.—Gramm. Ragionata Italiana ed Ebra-
ica. Triest.
1802. Cohen (Kohn), Shalom b. Jacob.—nnay pw nan (Ger-
man with Hebrew characters). Berlin. (Dessau, 1807-
1809; Vienna, 1816; revised by Wolf Mayer, Prague,
1816; Vienna, 1825; Prague, 1827, 1834, 1838, 1842, 1830.)
1803. Eliakim, London b. Abraham.—x 97 py. Berlin.—1803.
wown. 1). Roddelheim.
1807. Hurwitz, Hyman.—Elements of the Hebrew Language.
London. (1829, 1850.)
1808. Baruch (Bendet) b. Michael Moses Meseritz.—xp1y9" XD".
Altona. (Bresiau, 1814.)
1808. Hananiah (Elhanan Hai) Cohen (Coén).—wspn prw> nye.
Venice.
1808. Neumann, Moses Samuel.—aw> Siyn. Prague. (1816:
Vienna, 1831.)
1810. Blogg, Solomon b. Ephraim.—Abrégé de la Grammaire
Hébraique. Berlin.
1812. Polak, Meir b. Gabriel.—pwS 397) exo (German with
Hebrew characters). Amsterdam.
1813. Pergamenter, Solomon b. Shalom.—pwbn sno: (German
with Hebrew characters). Vienna.
1815. Lyon, Solomon.—A Theological Hebrew Grammar and
Lexicon. Liverpool.
1819. Wolf, Joseph (and G. Solomon).—-25r 10>. Hebraisches
Elementarbuch (Hebrew and German). Dessau.
1820. Lambert, Lion Mayer.—Abrégé de la Grammaire Hébra-
igue. Metz. (1843, 1857.)
1820. Lemans, Moses b. Treitel.—Rudimenta of Gronden def
Hebr. Taal. Amsterdam.
1820, Mulder, Samuel Israel. 348 Sy ovopnA wo MOY VW?
7297. Amsterdam.
1822. Dob-Baerusch ha-Kohen.—pwn .355. Warsaw.
1822. Popper, Mordecai.—wipn pwd nay (German with He
brew characters). Vienna.
1823. Israel b. Hayyim (of Belgrade).—o'nn 7y9IN. Vienna.
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THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Grammar, Hebrew
Sa mm mr Re a aa mm a
186],
1861,
1861,
leg
. Wolff, J. F.—A Manual of Hebrew Grammar.
. Mulder, Sam. Israel.—Rudimenta of Gronden der Hebr.
. ANODYMOUS.— PNP IW Wp.
. Levy, M, W.—Hebriische Sprachlehre.
. Rabbinowicz,
Blogg, Solomon b. Ephraim.—"7175 71>. Hanover.
” pissaur, David. — Verangenaamde Hebr. Spraak-Kunst.
Amsterdam.
garchi, Philippe (Samuel Marpurgo).—Grammaire Hébra-
ique Raisonuée et Comparée. Paris.
Stern, Mendel E.— 33 yrer> Syoon. Leitfaden der Ebra-
ischen Sprache. Vienna. (1844, 1852; Wilna, 1854.)
Buchner, Abraham.—wrpr yw ayiw (Grammar and
Lexicon). Warsaw.
Heinemann, Moses b. Meinster bha-Levi.—pw5 qa3 Ato
3; Berlin.
. Hurwitz, Hymann.—A Grammar of the Hebrew Language.
London. (1835, 1841, 1848-50.)
_ Moses (Aryeh) b. Ze’eb Wolf.—yop prypqn apo. Wilna.
"Elijah Wilna.—195x pips. Wilna. (nynayn pw wewn,
ed. Gordon, Wilna, 1874.)
_ Franck, Adolphe.—Nouvelle Méthode pour Apprendre la
Langue Hébraique. Paris.
_ Herxheimer, Solomon.—Anleitung zum Schnellen Erler-
nep des Hebriischen. Berlin. (1843, 1848, 1857, 1864.)
_ Samése, David.—27 wx (Part ci, 27.99x). Breslau.
_ Luzzatto, Samuel David.—Prolegomeni ad Una Gramm.
Ragionata della L. Hebr. Padua.
Creizenach, Michael.—-Biblisches Lehrbuch der Hebra-
ischen Sprache (ist number). Mayence.
Marcus, Leeser.—Elementarbuch zur Eriernung der He-
bpriischen Sprache. Miinster.
. Johisohn, Joseph.—Hebraische Sprachlehre fiir Schulen.
Frankfort-on-the-Main.
1841. Nordheimer, Isaac.—A Critical Grammar of the He-
brew Language. New York.
. Pressburger, L.—_Elementarbuch. Frankfort-on-the-Main.
Mannheim, M.—Leichtfassliche Hebraische Sprachlehre.
Cologne.
London.
(1848.)
Taal. Amsterdam.
. Recanati, Eman.—Gramm. Ebraica in L. Italiana. Verona.
. Scheyer, Simon B.—Die Lehre vom Tempus und Modus in
der Hebriischen Sprache. Frankfort-on-the-Main.
. Reggio, Leon di Zaccaria.—Gramm. Ragionata deila L.
Ebr. Leghorn.
. Bondi, E.—Theoretisch-Praktisches Elementarbuch der
Hebraischen Sprache. Prague.
. Klein, Solomon.—Nouvelle Grammaire Hébraique Raison-
Miilhausen.
St. Petersburg. (Wilma, 1854.)
Goldstein, H.—Schulgrammatik der Hebraischen Sprache.
Breslau.
née et Comparée.
. Schwarz, Gottlieb.—Hilfsbuch fir Lehrer der Hebriischen
Sprache. Vienna.
Hamburg.
Israel Michael.—Hebriische Grammatik.
Griinberg.
Letteris, M.—Hebraéiscbe Sprachlehre. Vienna.
Luzzatto, Sam. David.—Grammatica della Lingua Ebraica.
Padua.
. Enser, Moses Zebi.—nwy mxawn. Lemberg.
. Mayer, J.—Hebrew Grammar.
- Sultanski, M.—n1pN nnp. Goslow.
. Nagel, El. (and M. Goldmann).—Lehrbuch der Hebriaischen
Cincinnati.
Sprache. Pragte.
. Lerner, Hayyim Zebi.—pwdnr m1. Leipsic. (Jitomir,
1865, 1873.)
Hecht, Em.—Kleine Hebriaische Grammatik. Kreuznach.
. Levy, M. A.—Elementarbuch der Hebriischen Sprache.
Breslau.
- Deutsch, Heinrich.—Leitfaden zur Grindlichen Erlernung
der Hebriischen Sprache. Budapest.
. Einstein, L.—Elementarbuch der Hebriischen Sprache.
Firth.
- Reggio, Leone.—Studio Pratico della Lingua Ebraica.
Leghorn.
. Steinschneider, Moritz.—12on Mow. A Systematic He-
brew Primer for the David Sassoon Benevolent Institu-
tion of Bombay. Berlin. (1877.)
. Wilmersdorf, A.—Hebraische Sprachlehre. Emmendingen
(Baden).
ree I. Lopes.—Hebr. Spel-on Loesbockje. Amster-
am.
Klingenstein, T.—Der Unterricht im Hebraischen. Op-
penheim-on-the-Rhine.
Ziltz.—Hebriische Sprachiehre. Budapest.
1863. Kalisch, M. M.—A Hebrew Grammar. London.
1862. Rabbinowicz, Israel Michel.—Grammaire Hébraique Tra-
duite de l’Allemand par Clément Mueller. Paris.
1862. Trollen, Israel.—Praktischer Lehrgang zur Erlernung der
Heiligen Sprache. Briinn.
1863. Siebenberg, T.—cwy Syn. Warsaw.
1863. Goldmann, M.—Praktischer Unterricht in der Hebraischen
Sprache. Prague.
1864. Reicherssohn, M.—71929 ppd. Wilna. 1884; own mpbn.
Wilna.
1868, Felsenthal, B.—A Practical Grammar of the Hebrew Lan-
guage. New York.
1868. Mappo, Abraham.—31)75 yytN. K6nigsberg.
1868. Kobak, Joseph.—Praktischer Lehrgang der Hebraischen
Sprache. Bamberg.
1869, Kassas, I.—o:sb.n Sinb. Hebrew Grammar, with expla-
nations in Tatar. Odessa.
1870. Goldberger, I.—n7350 pwd. Gyakorlati Héber Nyelotan.
Budapest.
1870. Sachs, N.—Hebraische Grammatik nach Ollendorfs Me-
thode. Frankfort.
1871. Goldschmidt. _Kurzgefasste Hebraische Grammatik. Ber-
lin.
1872. Arnheim, H.—Grammatik der Hebraischen Sprache, Her-
ausgegeben von D. Cassel. Berlin.
1874. Papirna, Abraham.—pw>s ray mew pips 545 sss
spin (Russian). Warsaw.
1875. Bak, Isr.—Magyar-Héber Nyelotan. Budapest.
1876. Deutsch, Solomon.—Hebrew Grammar. New York.
1879. Goldberger, I.—iny yw53 42700. Cracow.
1884.—Steinberg, 1.— 3) Jw? wd7yR.
1889. Cassel, David.—Kurzgefasste Hebriische Grammatik.
Breslau.
1889. Manassewitsch, B.—Die Kunst die Hebréische Sprache
Durch Selbstunterricht zu Erlernen. Vienna.
1889. Stern, Abraham.—Héber Nyelotan. Budapest.
1892. Kahana, Z. A.—Own miaon. Wilna.
1893. Margolis, Max L.—An Elementary Text-Book of Hebrew
Accidence. Cincinnati.
1894. Unna, Simon.—Kurzgefasste Grammatik der Hebraischen
Sprache. Frankfort-on-the-Main. (1901.)
1897.—Levi, I.—Grammatica ed Eserciti Prat. di Lingua Ebra-
ica. Milan.
1897. Wijnkoop, I. D.—Manual of Hebrew Syntax. London.—
1897. Manual of Hebrew Grammar. London.
Rosenberg, J.—Hebraische Conversationsgrammatik. Vi-
enna.
Adler, Michael.—Students’ Hebrew Grammar. London.
Fischmann, P. L. (and M. Liebermann).—7°n now. Riga.
Kahana, A.—m° 43) ned Pres (after Luzzatto). Warsaw.
Rosenfeld, Henr.—Rendszeres Héber Nyelotan. Paks.
1898.
1900.
1900.
1900.
1900.
1901. Szenhok, Samuel.—Gramatyka Jezyka Hebrajskiego.
Warsaw.
1903. Lucas, Alice, and Abrahams, Israel.—Hebrew Lesson
Book. London.
The grammar of Neo-Hebrew, as found in the
Mishnah and cognate works, has been
Neo- treated by the Jewish scholars Dukes,
Hebraic Geiger, and J. H. Weiss. The text-
and book of Siegfried has been mentioned
Aramaic above in the first list.
Grammars. The Aramaic of the books of Daniel
and Ezra was not grammatically treat-
ed during the exclusively Jewish period of Hebrew
philology. Some Christian grammarians at an early
period treated this so-called Chaldee in connection
with the Hebrew. Amoug the Aramaic works of
more recent times are the following:
Wiener, G. B.—Grammatik des Biblischen und Targumischen
Chaldaismus. (2d ed., Leipsic, 1842; 3d ed., 1882.)
Petermann.—Porta Chaldaica. (2d ed., 1872.)
Kautzsch, E.—Grammatik des Biblisch-Aramiischen. Leipsic,
1884.
Strack, H. L.—Grammatik des Biblisch-Aramf@ischen. (3d
ed., Leipsic, 1901.)
Turpie, David McCalman.—A Manual of the Chaldee Lan-
guage. London, 1879.
Brown, C. R.—An Aramaic Method. Morgan Park, IIl., 1884,
1886.
Marti, K.—Kurzgefasste Grammatik der Bibl.-Aram. Sprache.
Berlin, 1896.
Granada
Gratz
By Jewish authors:
Fiirst, Julius.—Lehrgebaiude der Aramitischen Idiome. Leip-
sic, 1835.
Bliicher, E. T.~--n38 pwd expr. Vienna, 1838,
Luzzatto, S. D.—-Elementi Grammatieali del Caldeo Biblico
e del Dialetto Talmudico Babilonese. Padua, 1865 (German
by Kriiger, Breslau, 1873; English by Goldammer, New York,
1877).
Lerner, H. Zebi.—ma9N pw prypt pd. Warsaw, 1875.
te as rere Erne nee
The above-named Aramaic grammars partly in-
clude also the Targumic dialect. A larger field of
Jewish-Aramaic literature is comprised in the work
by G. Dalman, “Grammatik des Jiidisch-Paldsti-
nensischen Aramiisch ” (Leipsic, 1894). After the
compendium of Luzzatto, the Aramaic dialect of
the Babylonian Talmud was first treated system-
atically from the point of view of grammar in C.
Levias’ “A Grammar of the Aramaic Idiom Con-
tained in the Babylonian Talmud” (in “Am. Jour.
Semit. Lang.” xiii., xiv.; reprinted separately,
Chicago, 1899). See Aramaic Lanauack AMONG
THE JEWS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Bacher, Die Anfdinge der Hebriischen
Grammatik, Leipsic, 1895; idem, Die Hebritische Sprach-
wissenschaft vom 10, bis zum 16. Jahrhundert, Treves, 1892 ;
Gesenius, Geschichte der Hebrdischen Sprache und Schrift,
Leipsic, 1815; Diestel, Geschichte des Alten Testamentes in
der Christlichen. Kirche, Jena, 1869; Ludwig Geiger, Das
Studium der Hebréischen Sprache in Deutschland,
Breslau, 1870; Luzzatto, Prolegoment ad una Grammatica
Ragionata della Lingua Ehbraica, Padua, 1886: Stein-
schneider, Bibliographisches Handbuch, Leipsic, 1859, with
the additions and corrections thereto cited above.
G. W. B.
GRANADA (703873, AID; also p19 or D5
39D): Capital of the Spanish province of the same
name. It is said to have been inhabited by Jews
from the earliest times; hence it was also called “ Villa
de Judios” (City of Jews), and, like Cordova, it was
entrusted by the Arabian conquerors to the Jews for
guardianship. Granada, which was chosen for the
capital of the ancient kingdom of the same name
(1013), instead of the neighboring Eivrra, reached
the height of its glory under the calif Habus, who
raised Samuel ibn Nagdela to the position of vizier
or minister of state. As in all Mohammedan coun-
tries, the Jews lived in Granada in perfect freedom;
and several of them—Joseph ibn Migash (who was
sent on diplomatic missions), Isaac ben Leon, and
Nehemiah Ashcafa, for example—occupied influen-
tial positions. Since the Jews of Granada were rich
and powerful, they interfered at times in the dynas-
tic quarrels. “Who did not see the splendor of the
Jews in Granada, their good fortune, and their
glory,” says a Jewish chronicler, “never saw true
glory; for they were great through wisdom and
piety ” (““Shebet Yehudah,” p. 3),
With the downfall and murder of Joseph ibn
Nagdela, who had succeeded his father as vizier,
an outbreak against the Jews occurred: their houses
were plundered; and all of the Jews, except a few
who escaped by flight, were killed. More than 1,500
Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in
one day, Tebet 9 (= Dec. 30), 1066. This was the
first persecution of the Jews since the dominion
of Islam in the Pyreneav peninsula. The Jews
throughout the kingdom were forced to sell their
houses and lands and to leave the country; but they
soon returned.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 80
So
The Jews in Granada suffered severely. also, from
the persecutions of the Almohades; and only op
pretending to accept Islam were they
Under the allowed to remain in the city, [y
Al- order to shake off the hard yoke ang
mohades. to overthrow the dominion of the
fanatical Almohades the Jews formeg
a conspiracy with the Christians, who were likewige
persecuted. Ona certain day the revolutionists aq.
vanced with a considerable following before Gra.
nada, and the Jews of that place, under the leader.
ship of a champion of freedom named Aben Ruiz
aben Dahri, helped them to capture this important
stronghold. Their joy was, however, of short durg.-
tion: the Almohades reentered the city, and the
Jews were severely punished. They were more
successful a few years later. The brother of the
emir Al-Ma’mun, Ya‘kub al-Mansur, advanced with
an armed force, and, with the aid of the Jews, drove
the Almohades out of Granada and back to Africa
(1282).
The situation of the Jews in Granada, the only
Spanish kingdom that remained independent under
the califs for some centuries longer, took on its
former aspect. Of their political status very little
is known. In 1806 the calif Mohammed built hig
bath out of the income from Jews and Christians in
Granada; and in 1812 his successor levied a new tax
on their houses and baths. It is difficult to believe
what the Arabian chroniclers state, that Isma’il
Abu al-Walid ibn Abu-Zaid Faraj (1815-26) com.
manded tne Jews to wear a badge distinguishing
them from Mohammedans. In the great persecution
of the Jews in 1391 many refugees found shelter
and protection in Granada.
After a long struggle Granada was forced to suc-
cumb to Castilian power (Jan. 2, 1492). The Jews
also had a part in the victory. According toa com-
pact entered into Nov. 25, 1491, by the contending
rulers, all Jews in the city and suburbs of Granada,
as well as all living in other cities and towns in the
kingdom, were allowed to depart like the Moors.
Those Jews who had accepted Christianity were
granted a month for withdrawal. It was in Gra-
nada, at the Alhambra, that Ferdinand and Isabella
signed the edict (March 31, 1492) expelling the
Jews from Spain.
Granada was for some time a seat of Jewish learn-
ing. Samuel ibn Nagdela, who himself bad written
grammatical, exegetical, and poetical
Jewish works, and who, like his son, sup-
Scholars of ported Jewish scholars, gathered
Granada. about him a large circle of Jewish
grammarians and poets. Granada was
the birthplace of the synagogal poet Moses ben Ezra,
of Judah ibn Tibbon, of Saadia ben Maimon ibn
Danan, of Solomon ben Joseph ibn Ayyub, and of
other famous authors. It was the home, too, of
Isaac Hamon, of Abraham ben Isaac, author of 4
cabalistic work, and of the Gavison family.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Shebet Yehudah, passim; Sefer ha-Kab-
balah, ed. Neubauer, p. 72; Munk, Notice sur About
Walid Merwan tbn Dijana’, p. 93; Alfasi, Responsa. No.
131; Dozy, Gesch. der Mauren in Spanien, ii, 303; Ersch a2
Gruber, Encyc. section ii., part 27, p. 208; Rios, Hist. 1.
317; ii. 198: iii. 302: Gratz, Gesch. vi. 59, 190; Schechter. 12
J. Q. R&R. xii. 118.
xii M. K.
+ Sree erp
81
— ;
GRANTOR AND GRANTEE. See Girts.
GRAPE: The fruit of the grape-vine. The gen-
eral Hebrew term for ripe grapes when not in clus-
ters is Day (Gen. x]. 10-11), and of grapes in clus-
ters, biown (Num. xili. 23). There are other terms
for different kinds of grapesand for grapesin differ-
ent stages of development ; as "D3 for unripe or
sour grapes (Isa. xviii. 5); D'wiea for wild grapes
(Isa. V: 2,4); wb for grapes that fall off when ripe
Lev xix. 10); midby for gleaned grapes (Judges
viii. 2); DYpYOS for dried grapes or raisins (I Sam.
xxv. 18; If Sam. xvi. 1). According to R. Judah,
soy and 3 (Num. vi. 4) respectively represent
the skin and the seed of the grape; but according to
R. Jose, whose interpretation has been accepted by
later commentators, 3} is the skin, p°9y4Mm the seed
(Naz. 34b). A word which has given rise to discus-
sion is WDD (Cant. ii. 138, 15; vii. 12). According
to Gesenius (“Th.”), who is followed by other com-
mentators, it means “grape-blossom,” while Ibn
Janah and David Kimhi thought it meant the
young grape which appears immediately after the
opening of the blossom (see Rubens Duval in “R.
E. J.” xiv. 277 e¢ seg.). KR. Jose, prohibiting the
“semadar” in the first three years, likewise consid-
ered it as a fruit (‘Orlah i. 7).
Grapes are referred to in the Bible and Talmud in
symbolical senses. As grapes can not be found after
vintage, neither can the good and upright man be
discovered by diligent searching in Israel (Micah vii.
1,2). “The fathers have eaten sour grapes and the
children’s teeth are set on edge” (Kzek. xviii. 2);
“When the vintagers come to thee they will not
leave even the grape-gleanings” (Jer. xlix. 9, Hebr.);
that is, when the enemy comes he will carry off every -
thing. Aman who marries his daughter toa scholar
(‘talmid hakam”) igs like one who mingles vine
grapes with vine grapes, but he who marries his
daughter to an ignorant man (“‘am ha-arez ”) is like
one who mingles vine grapes with the berries of the
thorn-bush (Pes. 49a). According to R. Aibu, the
forbidden fruit which Eve ate was that of the vine
(Gen. R. xix. 8).
J. M. SEt.
GRASSHOPPER. See Locust.
GRATZ: Town in the province of Posen, Prus-
sia, with a population of 3,784, of whom 3819 are
Jews (1903). The Jewish community there is one
of the oldest in the province. Jews are mentioned
in the city charter of April 9, 1594. In 1684 the
lailors’ gild of Gritz permitted two Jews of Posen
to settle in the city and to open a tailor-shop. The
Chmielnicki rebellion brought disaster upon the
Jews of Gritz. On May 14, 1668, the overlord of
the city issued a “Jews’ privilege,” regulating the
affairs of the Jews. During the “northern war”
(1700-21) the community was almost entirely des-
troyed, and its rabbi, Judah Lob, who had been
called in 1701, was obliged to flee to Frankfort-on-
the-Oder. The great conflagration of 1711 was also
a heavy affliction to the community, which had to
‘pply for aid to coreligionists at Posen, who afforded
relief to the best of their ability, although them-
‘elves impoverished and in debt through a succes-
‘lon of misfortunes,
VIL.—6
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Granada
Gratz
— — ae SAA a,
In 1797 it was decided that the officials of the
community should consist of the following: one
chief rabbi, one assistant rabbi (dayyan), three elders,
one “schulklopfer,” one synagogue attendant, two
undertakers, three hospital nurses, two cantors,
three school-teachers, and one bathhouse superin-
tendent. The debts of the community in that year
amounted to 10,151 thalers, repayable in yearly sums
of 441 thalers. For that year, also, the rabbi re-
ceived a salary of 88 thalers, while 666 thalers were
paid to the overlord. Ih 1798 a Jew was permitted
to live in the house of a Christian. At the end of
the eighteenth century there were 1,185 Jews, nearly
half of the whole number of inhabitants; the num-
ber had risen from 1,499 in 1816 to 1,634 in 1820, the
largest in the history of the city; by 1840 and 1850
the number had decreased to 1,548 and 1,532 re-
spectively. The Polish uprising of 1848, during
which the Jews on the whole remained neutral or
sided with the Germans, destroyed much property
in the city.
The following were rabbis in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries: Simon b. Israel Ashkenazi
(ec. 1677); Benjamin Wolf b. Joseph Joske (ce.
1689); Judah Léb b. Solomon, previously dar-
shan at Prague, and subsequently rabbi at Schneide-
mtihl (¢. 1699); Phinehas Selig b. Moses (dayyan
of the German community at Amsterdam in 1708);
Sanvel Spira of Lemberg; Gershon b. Jehiel
of Landsberg, who at Friedberg in 1742 called
himself ex-rabbi of Gritz; Jacob b. Zebi Hirsch
(1748); Marcus Baruch Auerbach. Among those
of the nineteenth century were: Benjamin Schrei-
ber (d. 1889); Elijah Guttmacher of Borek, for-
merly at Pleschen, the “Gritzer Rav,” whose
counsel and aid were sought by thousands from far
and near (d. 1874); Dr. B. Friedmann, subse-
quently at Berlin (d. 1902); Dr. Silberberg, subse-
quently at Kénigsberg; and the present (1903) in-
cumbent, Dr. J. Friedmann.
In the first half of the nineteenth century there
was a famous Talmudic school at Gritz. The liter-
ary and philanthropic societies include: sukkat
shalom, hebra kaddisha, and bikkur holim—united
in 1901; in 1898 a society for the study of Jewish
history and literature was founded; and there are
also a Women’s society, and funds for the poor, in-
cluding one especially for poor travelers. The large
city hospital, built by the heirs of Dr. M. Mosse,
receives patients regardless of creed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wuttke, Stdidtebuch des Landes Posen, 1864;
Warschauer, Die Stddtischen Archive der Provinz Posen,
1900; Perles, Gesch. der Juden in Posen, 1864-65.
D. J. FRI,
GRATZ: American family prominent in the af-
fairs of the city of Philadelphia and of the state of
Pennsylvania. According to some authorities, the
name “Gratz” is derived from a town in Styria,
Austria; according to others, from a city in Posen,
Prussian Poland. Both suppositions, however, are
probably wrong. The true place of origin is most
likely the town of Gratz in Austrian Silesia, whence
the family or some of its members removed to Lang-
endorf (since 1745 in Prussian Silesia), which town
was known then and later by its old Slavonic name.
The name of the family was then “Gratza,” that
Gratz
Gratzer
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 89
See a ee a eT ey ep ag eae ee ge tae ae fem Tang Se iy Poe Et Sam Ra oro ee en ce
is, “of Gratz.” The origine | members of this family
in the United States were Barnard Gratz and
his brother Michael Gratz; the former had two
children: Rachel Gratz, who married Solomon
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phia, 1894. |
J. E. N. 8.
Etting of Baltimore; and Fanny Gratz, who died
atanearly age. Michael Gratz, who married Miriam
Simon, daughter of Joseph Simon of Lancaster, had
twelve children, of whom the following May Lye
mentioned: Frances (“Fanny ”), wife of Reubep
Etting; Simon; Richea, wife of Samuel Hays.
Hyman, Sarah, and Rebecca, all unmarried’
Rachel, the wife of Solomon Moses; Benjamiy’
who removed to Lexington, Ky.
Barnard Gratz: American merchant; bory at
Langendorf, Upper Silesia, Germany, 1738; died a
Baltimore, Md., April 20, 1801. When about seyep.
teen years of age he emigrated to the United States
arriving in Philadelphia in 1754. Fora time he Wag
engaged in the counting-house of David Franks
but subsequently he entered into partnership with
his brother Michael, trading with the Indians ang
supplying the government with Indian goods. Qp
Oct. 11, 1768, he became a naturalized British sup.
ject. He was one of the merchants who signed the
Non-Importation Resolutions adopted Oct. 25, 1765,
After the outbreak of the Revolutionary war he
took the oath of allegiance to the commonwealth
of Pennsylvania (Nov. 6, 1777). Gratz was also one
of the signers of a petition presented to the govern.
ment in 1783 for the abolition of an objectionable
oath of office. About the time of the outbreak of
the American Revolution he was appointed parnag
of an unorganized congregation of Philadelphia
Jews, which was ultimately known as the Congre.
gation Mickveh Israel, on whose board of trustees he
later served.
Benjamin Gratz: American soldier and lawyer,
born in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 4, 1792; died at
Lexington, Ky., March 17, 1884; educated at the
University of Pennsylvania, graduating (M.A.) in
1815. At the outbreak of the War of 1812 Gratz
enlisted under Gen. Thomas Cadwalader, and in 1818
joined Capt. John Smith’scompany of Pennsy!vania
Volunteers as second lieutenant. Soon after the
close of the war he was admitted to the bar of Penn-
sylvania (1817). He subsequently removed to Ken-
tucky, and was elected trustee of the Transylvania
University, Ky.
Hyman Gratz: American merchant and philan-
thropist; born in Philadelphia Sept. 23, 1776; died
Jan. 27, 1857; educated in the public schools of his
native city. In 1798 he joined his brother Simon in
partnership as wholesale grocer, and later turned his
attention to life-insurance. In 1818 he was elected
director of the Pennsylvania Company for Insur-
ance on Lives and Granting Annuities, and twenty
years later was elected president of the company.
On the founding of the Pennsylvania Academy for
Fine Arts, in which his brother Simon Gratz took
some part, he served on the directorate of the insti-
tution (1836 to 1837), and held the office of treas-
urer from 1841 to 1857. On the retirement of
Hyman Marks as treasurer of the Congregation
Mickveh Israel of Philadelphia Sept. 19, 1824, Gratz
succeeded him, and was reelected annually until
1856. When thetirst Jewish Publication Society of
America was projected in Philadelphia (1845) he was
one of its managers. On the receipt in the United
States of the news of the persecution of Jews 2
Damascus, Gratz was elected chairman of the meet
ing of the Congregation Mickveh Israel, called AUé-
27, 1840, to protest against that persecution.
By a deed dated Dec. 18, 1856, Gratz set aside
33 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gratz
Gratzer
ji eeeeneE EEE EERE GEER
stocks, bonds, and other property for the purpose
of establishing “a college for the education of Jews
residing in the city and county of Philadelphia ” (see
GRATZ COLLEGE).
Jacob Gratz: American merchant; born in Phil-
adelphia Dec. 20, 1788; died there Feb. 3, 1836;
educated in the University of Pennsylvania (M.A.
js11). He was president of the Union Canal Com-
any, and a director of the Institution for the In.-
struction of the Deaf and Dumb (1820). He became
a member of the Pennsylvania legislature and en-
rered the state senate in 1839. Jacob was also one
of the officers of the Congregation Mickveh Israel.
of Joseph Gratz little is known except that he
was secretary of the Congregation Mickveh Israel
for a long period and a director of the Institution
for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb.
Michael Gratz: American trader and merchant;
porn in Langendorf, Upper Silesia, Germany, 1740;
emigrated to London, England, and thence to the
United States (1759), where he resided in Philadel-
phia and in Lancaster, Pa. With his brother Bar-
pard he engaged in trade with the Indians, supply-
ing the United States government with Indian
goods.
Resolutions adopted Oct. 25, 1765. He was also one
of the signers of the memorial of the Jewish Con-
gregation of Philadelphia to the President of the
United States, dated Sept. 12, 1782, announcing that
the Congregation Mickveh Israel had erected “a
place of public worship which they intend to con-
secrate,” asking “the Protection and Countenance
of the Chief Magistrates in this State to give sanc-
tion to their design,” and stating that the petitioners
“will deem themselves highly Honoured by their
Presence in the Synagogue whenever they judge
proper to favour them.” He succeeded his brother
Barnard in the counting-house of David Franks.
Rebecca Gratz: American educator and philan-
thropist; born in Philadelphia March 4, 1781; died
4 ‘ Aug. 27, 1869. She
consecrated her life and
labors to the well-being
of her kind, and was
the promoter of relig-
ious, educational, and
charitable institutions
for their benefit.
Elected (1801) secretary
of the Female Associa-
tion for the Relief of
Women and Children
in Reduced Circum-
stances, Rebecca Gratz
soon saw the need
of an institution for
orphans in Philadel-
phia, and she was among those instrumental
in founding the Philadelphia Orphan Asylum in
1815. Four years later she was elected secretary of
ts board of managers, which office she continued to
hold for forty years. Under her auspices were
Started a Hebrew Sunday-school (of which she sub-
nea became superintendent and president,
Signing in 1864) and a Female Hebrew Benevolent
Oclety (about Nov., 1819). In 1850 she advocated
ae a: t, x
SS
Rebecca Gratz.
(By permission uf D, Appleton & Co.)
Gratz was a signer of the Non-Importation
in “The Occident,” over the signature “ A Daughter
of Israel,” the foundation of a Jewish Foster Home;
and her advocacy was largely instrumental in the
establishment of sucha home in 1855. Other organ-
izations due to her efforts were the Fuel Society and
the Sewing Society.
Rebecca Gratz is said to have been the model of
Rebecea, the heroine of the novel “Ivanhoe” by Sir
Walter Scott, whose attention had been drawn to
her character by Washington Irving, with whom
she wasacquainted. The claim has been disputed,
but it has also been well sustained in an article en-
titled “The Original of Rebecca in Ivanhoe,” which
appeared in “The Century Magazine,” 1882, pp.
679-682,
Of Simon Gratz little is known beyond the fact
that he was one of the founders of the Pennsylvania
Academy of Fine Arts, and acted as treasurer of the
Congregation Mickveh Israel about 1820 and trustee
of the same congregation in 1828.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Morais, The Jews of Philadelphia; Journals
of the Continental Congress, vols. ii., v.; Pennsylvania Ar-
chives, Ist series, x. 7381; Proceedings Am. Jew. Hist. Soc.
passim.
A, F. H. V.
GRATZ COLLEGE (Philadelphia): Jewish
institution of higher learning, founded under a deed
of trustexecuted by Hyman Gratz, dated December,
1856, which, under certain contingencies that after-
ward arose, became vested in the Congregation
Mickveh Israel of Philadelphia. This trust became
operative in 1893, and the congregation appointed a
board of trustees for its management. In accord-
ance with the terms of the deed requiring the estab-
lishment of a “college for the education of Jews
residing in the city and county of Philadelphia,” it
was decided that the college should be devoted to
the dissemination of the knowledge of Jewish his-
tory, the Hebrew language, Jewish literature, and
the Jewish religion, with the understanding that the
curriculum should be especially designed for teach-
ers, thus creating it a Jewish teachers’ college.
Pending the beginning of actual instruction, three
courses of lectures were given: the first in 1895 by
Prof. 8, Schechter, then of Cambridge, England, on
“ Rabbinic Theology” ; the second, a general course of
lectures by American scholars; and the third, a course
on the “Philosophy of Jewish History,” by Joseph
Jacobs, then of London, England. Regular instruc-
tion began in 1898, the teaching staff consisting
of Rabbi Henry M. Speaker, Arthur A. Dembitz,
A.B., and Isaac Husik, Ph.D. There have been
in attendance 27 pupils, and nine graduates have
received teachers’ certificates. Gratz College also
has a course preparatory to the Jewish Theological
Seminary of America. Moses A. Dropsie has been
the president of the board of trustees since the
foundation of the trust.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Publications of the Gratz College, No. 1,
euiadelDns, 1897; American Jewish Year Book, 5660 and
A.
GRATZER, JONAS: German physician; born
at Tost, Upper Silesia, Oct. 19, 1806; died at Bres-
lau Nov. 25, 1889. He graduated (M.D.) from the
University of Breslau in 18382. The following year
he settled as a physician in Breslau, where he prac-
tised until his death.
Gravestones
Greek Language
He wrote: “ Die Krankheiten des Foetus,” Breslau,
1837; “Gesch. der Israelitischen Krankenverpfle-
gungsanstalt,” 7d, 1841 ; “ Ueber die Organisation der
Armen-Krankenpflege in Grésseren Stidten,” 7.
1851; “Gedanken iiber die Zukunft der Armen-
Krankenpflege,” 7. 1852; “Edmund Halley und
Caspar Neumann: Zur Gesch. der Bevélkerungssta-
tistik,” 2b. 1888; “ Daniel Gohl und Christian Kund-
mann: Zur Gesch. der Medicinalstatistik,” 7b. 1884;
“Qebensbilder Hervorragender Schlesischer Aerzte
aus den Letzten Vier Jahrhunderten,” 7b. 1889.
8 F. T. H.
GRAU, MAURICE: American impresario; born
at Brunn, Austria, in 1849; died at Croisy, France,
March 14, 1907. Grau was the first to make a finan-
cial success of operatic productions in New York,
and was sole lessee and manager of the Metropolitan
Opera House there until forced to retire by ill-health
in Feb., 1903. F. H. V.
GRAVESTONES. See TomBsToneEs.
GRAZIANI, AUGUSTO: Italian economist;
born at Modena, Jan. 6, 1865. He obtained his edu-
cation at the university of his native town, devoting
himself especially to economic studies, and gradu-
ating as doctor of lawsin 1886. He became professor
of financial science at the University of Sienna (1894)
and professor of political economy at the University
of Naples (1899).
Graziani wrote: “Di Alcune Questioni Intorno
alle Imposte ed Egli Effetti Economici” (1889);
“Sulla Teoria Generale del Profitto” (1887) ; “Storia
Critica della Teoria del Valore in Italia” (1890);
“Sulle Operationi di Borsa” (1890); “Istituoni de
Scienza della Finanze” (1897); “Studi sull Teoria
del!’ Interese ” (1898) ; “Tratto di Economica Poli-
tica ” (1904). 5.
GRAZIANO, ABRAHAM JOSEPH SOLO-
MON BEN MORDECAT: Italian rabbi; died at
Modena in 1685; cousin of Nathanael b. Benjamin
Trabot. He probably belonged to the Gallico family,
the name “Graziano” being the Italian equivalent of
“Johanan.” Graziano, who was rabbi of Modena,
was the author of the following works: “Sha‘are
Efrayim,” explaining all the passages in which the
particles NN aud D3 are found in the Pentateuch;
“ Haggahot we-Hiddushim,” annotations and novelle
on the Shulhan ‘Aruk, cited by Ishmael Coen in
“ Zera‘ Emet ”; “ Likkute Dinim,” various halakic de-
cisions; and a collection of poems. Of his works
only two elegies on the death of Rabbi Aaron Benoit
Modena, inserted in the “Ma‘abar Yabbok,” and
some responsa included in the “‘ Afar Ya‘akob” of
Nathanael ben Aaron Jacob Segre were published.
Graziano was very broad-minded, and the ultra-
orthodox rabbis disapproved of some of his halakic
decisions. He permitted the use of an organ in the
synagogue (“ Haggahot we-Hiddushim” on Shuthan
‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 560, § 3). As a poet he was
highly appreciated, his style being both easy and
elegant. Graziano signed his works 4'§ vx, the
initials of his name and that of his father.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 3:
Mortara, Indice, p. 28; S. Jona, in Rev. Et. Juives, iv. 179;
Kaufmann, in Monatsschrift, xxxix. 350.
G. I. Br.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 84
GREAT SYNAGOGUE,
GREAT.
GREECE: Country of southeastern Europe
The number of its Jews is not more than 9,099
distributed as follows: Corfu, 3,500; Zante, 175.
Chaicis, on the island of Eubcea or Négropont, 29.
Volo, 1,100; Larissa, 2,500; Trikala, 1,000; Arta
300; Athens, 300. Besides these Jews of Greece
proper—who form the subject of this article—there
is also a Jewish population of about 4,000 in Janing
and Prevesa in Epirus; these people are Teally
Greeks, for they have lived in the country since q
very remote period, and speak only the Greek lan.
guage. Theterm “Greek Jews” might also be made
to include the Jews of the island of Crete and thoge
of Chios, off Smyrna.
Jews settled in Greek territories in early days, ag
is proved by numerous anecdotes in the rahbin.
ical literature (see Levy, “Neuhebr. Worterb.” 99
syne). In the Acts of the Apostles it is said that
Jews had synagogues at Corinth and Athens, where
they lived peaceably and enjoyed social influence,
The Greeks seem to have taken great interest in the
new religion, brought from Judea, that had made
proselytes even on the ancient Areopagus.
The Jews, on their side, held Greek culture in
high esteem, and during the pre-Christian time
many of their number, including Josephus, Philo,
Aristobulus, and Ezekiel the tragedian, enriched
classical literature with their works. But there
was more than mere social and intellectual inter.
course between the two peoples; for, according to
Josephus, King Arius of Sparta made an alliance
with the high priest Jonathan (“ Ant.” xiii. 5, § 8;
comp. Schitrer, “Gesch.” 8d ed., i. 236). Alexander
the Great, who through his education had_thor-
oughly imbibed the Greek spirit, treated the Jews
with great kindness. Under the Roman emperors,
too, the Greek Jews enjoyed the same privileges as
the other citizens. But their position was not so
pleasant under the Byzantine emperors: at first they
were even forbidden the free exercise of their relig-
ion (723). Many were converted to Christianity,
while others left the country. Gritz (“Gesch.” v.
228) thinks that the permission for the free exercise
of their religion was probably granted to them by the
empress Irene (780-797). In 840 the Jews of Greece
were very prosperous, and were engaged in rearing
siikworms, planting mulberry-trees, and in silk-
weaving.
With the exception of their enjoyment of religious
liberty, the Greek Jews were always subjected to
the same political restrictions as under the first em-
perors, and were not allowed to hold any positions
under the state. Pethahiah of Regensburg, wlio
visited Greece in the twelfth century, relates that
there were almost as many Jews there as Palestine
could have held. Benjamin of Tudela, on visitivg
Greece about the same time, also found many Jews
there, especially in Arta, Patras, Corinth, Criss
(where they were engaged in farming), and Thebes,
whose 2,000 Jews included the best dyers and silk-
manufacturers of Greece. The silk industry must
have been of great importance, and the Jews
gaged in it were very rich; for, according to the
Greek historian Nicetas, even the Byzantine ¢?*
See SyNAGOguR
U
85
jerors had to buy their costly goods in Athens,
Thebes, and Corinth. The downfall of the commu-
nity at Thebes was due chiefly to King Roger of
sicily, who, after capturing the city (1147), led the
pest silk-weavers as prisoners to Palermo and prob-
ably to the island of Corfu (which he had also con-
ered), Where they taught their art to the Normans.
The Jews of Greece proper, who seem to have
enjoyed great tranquillity at all times, cultivated
Hebrew study so thoroughly that even before the
Spanish emigration several renowned rabbis were
designated as Greeks. Among these were: Baruch
ha- Yewani (“the Greek ”), in the fourteenth century ;
qechariah ha-Yewani, author of the “Sefer ha-
Yashar ” (1840); Dossa ben Rabbi Moses ha-Yewani,
in the fifteenth century, author of “Perushe we-
Tosafot.” Franco, in his “Essai sur |’ Histoire des
Israélites de l’Empire Ottoman,” p. 41, Paris, 1897,
says that during the same period the Jews of Thebes
were renowned for their Talmudical learning; and
he mentions David ben Hayyim ha-Kohen, grand
rabbi of Patras—originally from Corfu—whose in-
fluence extended to Italy and throughout the Orient.
Moses Capsali was grand rabbi of Constantinople at
the time of the Ottoman conquest (1453); another
rabbi of the same period was Eliezer Capsali.
Theodore Reinach, in his “ Histoire des Israélites,”
pp. 225, 226, relates that, beginning with the fifteenth
century, there was a revival of Talmudical studies
in Turkey, caused by a twofold current coming
from Spain and Greece, the communities of which
—especially those of the Morea—took on a sudden
growth after the conquest of the Morea by the Vene-
tiang in 1516. Isaac Abravanel, who visited Corfu
toward the end of the fifteenth century, remained
there some time in order to complete his commentary
on Deuteronomy (see his preface thercto), which
proves that he must have found a library and Jearned
men there. Considering, however, that there are
now only 5,000 Greek Jews who speak Greek—i.e.,
those of Janina, Prevesa, Zante, Arta and Chalcis—
the question arises what has become of the pre-
Spanish Greco-Jewish population. It has evidently
been absorbed by the Spanish, which was far more
numerous in Thessaly and the Turkish territories,
while the Judeeo-Greek population of Corfu has
been absorbed by the Apulians. ‘Traces of the an-
cient Greek origin of the Judxo-Greek population
still exist. Thus there are Greek synagogues
(“kehal Gregos” or “de los Javanim”) in Corfu,
Constantinople, Salonica, and Adrianople; and
many Greek words are found in the Spanish lan-
guage of the Oriental Jews and in the Apulian
of the Corfiotes. Many Greek feminine proper
hames are also used, such as KaAopoipa (“ Calomira ”
= “good luck”) and Kvpé (“Kyra” = “ princess”);
and there are family names of similar origin, as
Politi, Roditi, Mustachi, and Maurogonato. Fur-
ther, there are still to be found in Corfu songs and
elegies in the Qreek language which were recited
in the synagogue until about thirty years ago.
P to the time of the Greek insurrection (1821) there
Were several Jewish con sregations in Greece proper,
oe in Vrachori (Agrinion), Patras, Tripolitza,
“stra, Thebes, and Livadia; but most of their mem-
"rs Were killed by the insurgents, who thus vented
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gravestones
Greek Language
upon these peaceful citizens their inveterate hatred
of the tyrant of their fatherland. A few of those
who escaped went to Corfu; others to Chalcis, which
remained under Turkish dominion until 1882.
Very little is known to-day of these congregations
that have disappeared, but there are still some He-
brew epitaphs, which have not yet been collected.
Of all these communities Thebes was undoubtedly
the most celebrated, owing to its distinguished Tal-
mudic scholars and its extensive silk-manufactories.
Dubois, a Frenchman who visited the city in the
seventeenth century, praises in 4 letter to the famous
Ménage the beauty of the Jewish women of Thebes
(Pougueriche, “ Voyage en Gréce,” vol. iv., book xi.,
ch. iii.).
To the history of the Jews of Greece belongs also
Don Joseph Nasi (Juan Miques), who was created
Duke of Naxos and of the twelve most important
Cyclades by Selim II. (1574). It was probably due —
to his having noted the great success attending the
manufacture of silk in Greece, that Nasi, who al-
ways had the welfare of his coreligionists at heart,
introduced the trade into the city of Tiberias, which
had been granted to him and which he raised from
its ruins.
The existing Jewish communities of Greece may
be divided into five groups: (1) Arta (Epirus); (2)
Chalcis (Euboea); (8) Athens (Attica); (4) Volo,
Larissa, and Trikala (Thessaly) ; (5) Corfu and Zante
(Ionian Islands).
The community of Arta is the oldest in Greece.
It has a small elementary school and a benevolent
society. Children desiring an education attend the
Greek higher schools. There are also two syna-
gogues, the older of which is called the Grecian; and
avery ancient cemetery, no longer used, called the
cemetery of “Rabbané Arta.” See ARTA; ATHENS;
CHaALCIS; CORFU.
D. M. C.
GREEK LANGUAGE AND THE JEWS:
This article will be confined to the Greek material
found in rabbinical works, since the language of the
Septuagint and the New Testament requires sep-
arate discussion, and does not belong here. Latin
was made accessible to the Jews in Talmudic times
by means of Greek, and will be treated here in this
relation. For general cultural conditions see AL-
EXANDRIAN PHILOSOPHY ; BYZANTINE EMPIRE; HEL-
LENISM.
In the Talmud, Midrash, and Targum the Greek
and Latin letters are transcribed according to purely
phonetic principles; this transcription may there-
fore assist in some measure the work of solving
the probable original pronunciation of Greek, still a
matter of dispute. While the Greek elements found
in rabbinical works must be classed for the greater
part with the vernacular, they are for that reason
most instructive from a phonetic point of view.
The pronunciation of the Greek sounds has in
general been faithfully preserved; and only in a few
points—including, however, the im-
Surds and portant one of iotacism—does the pro-
Sonants. nunciation represent that stage which
is generally designated as modern
Greek, but which, nevertheless, may have been the
original one. Surds and sonants are always distin-
Greek Language
guished; e.g., 7 was written and pronounced 0, aud
6, “3, not vice versa, a practise that must be espe-
cially noted in view of the fact that sonants and
surds are confounded in Egyptian Greek (Blass,
“Aussprache des Griechischen,” 3d ed., 1895), in
demotic papyri, and in Gnostic manuscripts (Thumb,
in “Indogerm. Forschungen,” viii. 189), as well as
in the Coptic; in Syriac the same accuracy has been
observed. On the other hand, as in the Egyptian
Koh (é.g., KaAKxov = yasxov), surds and aspirates are
frequently confounded; thus yaZ7xarvvo¢e always ap-
pears as pinapdp; Véazpov is represented by JITDON'D.
though the form with f also occurs. This is all the
more striking as surds and aspirates represent the
same sounds in both languages, and this leads to
the important conclusion that in Hebrew 3 and p,
® and 7m, were similar in sound. The aspirate 4,
which oceurs not only as © but also as 3 and even 4),
had already become a fricative sound, and hence had
reached in Hebrew mouths the modern Greek stage.
The same is not true in the case of 6, however, but
fricative pronunciation appears in the sonants £, y,
J; since, forexample, 337} occurs for ouapaydog side
by side with faq}, the modern Greek pronunciation
of d as a voiced spirant, corresponding to the Eng-
lish “th” in “these,” “bathe,” must be assumed.
As regards the nasals, the exact pronunciation of
the sounds yy, yx, yv is reproduced in @ manner en-
tirely analogous to the Latin, Syriac,
Nasals and Arabic, Romanic, etc., as can be seen
Sibilants. in * door (dyyeAoc), 3D3IN (avayxy),
3351p (Koy), etc. Otherwise, the
nasals were treated with considerable license, and
were frequently suppressed by assimilation and re-
duction, as in modern Greek. For example, just as
réxvoc is used for réurroc, so the Jews said DDD in-
stead of Méudic, NINT9DP for compendiaria, etc.
From transcriptions such as * by for * oraddy-
pov and pygmy for * capdoviyeov there must be as-
sumed for the letter o (which is in other cases tran-
scribed by D, }, and ¥) the pronunciation “sh,” a
sound the existence of which in Greek philologists
have denied. Further proof in this regard is fur-
nished by the transcription of NMwy as Meooiac
(comp. Schtirer. “Gesch.” 3d ed., ii. 526, note).
lotacism of the vowels ¢, ¢, 7, and the diphthongs ez,
oc is found in almost all cases, except before 7; hence,
v3, Népor, must be pronounced “ Neron,” and not
“Niron.” But az, av, evhad very nearly reached the
modern Greek stage. In contrast with
Iotacism _ tliis is the scrupulous retention of both
and As-_ the spiritus lenis and the spiritus asper ;
piration. and the aspirated (is also clearly in-
dicated by means of preaspiration;
while even internal aspiration occurs, as, for ex-
ample, in the frequently repeated word } 79D,
ovvédpiov, There are even some almost certain ex-
amples of the digamma, a sound peculiar to archaic
Greek and to some dialects.
The vowels are not always kept intact, but are
often interchanged without regard to rule. The
Jewish idiom shares vowel-resolution (¢.9., MYDD yt
instead of dyudora, where 7 has been resolved into 77)
with Syriac (¢.g., DYDD. ort2oc, in Bar-Bahlul) and
Armenian (“Tiuros” = Trpoc). As generally in ver-
nacular idioms, hiatus does not occur.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 86
See a ge
The omission of the hiatus, together with th,
frequently occurring elision of syllables by APOCOpe,
apheresis, and especially syncope, gives to the for.
eign word-forms a certain Semitic coloring ; Dindyy
for Pot? moc is more in agreement with Seine
phonetics than is the Syriac pina: NON for
Bipvz7o¢ is more acceptable than, for instance,
* odin would be. The other consonantal changes
to which the Greek words have been subjected are
such as may occur also in Greek, as, for instance,
adequation, assimilation, dissimilation, metathesis,
elision, prothesis, etc. In order to Semitize Greek
words, new forms, analogous forms, and popular
etymologies were resorted to. Espe.
Semitiza- cially frequent is the Hebrew ending
tion fs €.g., POMS, Nexddnuwoe; BMP, cam.
of Greek pus; but compare the Greek kdotpoy
Words. for «dorpa; and in Egypt jutov jg
found for jucov, as well as nby (t.¢,,
aAvov) for ad440. Compare with this, furthermore,
the frequent occurrence of diminutives in -vov, ex.
amples of which are found in the Jewish idiom that
have not been preserved elsewhere.
Next in popularity among new formations was p),
hence pew, XM, occurs side by side with
MIMD), matrona ; mond was used for Aévriov = lin-
teum, etc. By the employment of such forms a
certain Semitic coloring was given to the words,
Other peculiarities of Semitic speech—e.g., the He-
brew and Aramaic conjugation of verbs formed from
Greek noun-stems, the employment of status em-
phaticus and status constructus, the addition of He-
brew and Aramaic affixes and suffixes, the plural
formations, the determination of grammatical gender
(though seldom according to the regular laws of the
language)—all these the borrowing language had to
employ in so faras it had in view the needs of actual
intercourse and not academic usage. As the Jew-
ish idiom of the Talmudic period made use of
Greek words only in case of need, its laws held good
for the borrowed forms, at least as far as the con-
struction of sentences was concerned.
In addition to the forms of the words borrowed
from the Greek, it is also important to determine
their meanings; for some of these borrowed terms
acquired in the mouth of the Jewsa deeper religious
and moral sense; ¢.9., yewuerpia, a certain norm for
the interpretation of Scripture (but compare GEMA-
TRIA); PyjAov, Latin velum, “heaven”; cyodaorexde,
“teacher of the Law”; orparnyéc, “soldier” in gen-
eral; obu3o20v, “covenant” and “ wedding present”;
rouoc, “book of the Law.” The Jewish usage is
sometimes supported by the Septuagint and by the
New petameny: e.g., Karhyop, “Satan”; ravdoxae,
“whore”; BAacdnuia, “ blasphemy.” These semasi-
ological differences justify one in speaking of 4
rabbinic Greek.
Other prominent characteristics that are also found
in all the popular Greck dialects are: the frequent
occurrence of diminutives of material nouns in -46s;
the ending in -:«év; combinations with
dAo- (62.6xpveos, bAaanpiKee, etc.); and the
ending -o¢ instead of -ov, The Greek
spoken by the Jews of Palestine
was the Hellenic xov#; although it contains also
elements that are not Attic, these had become Hel-
The Vo-
cabulary.
a7
jenized at the time of their adoption. Some words
found in rabbinical works occur elsewhere only in
modern Greek.
The Greek words found in the idiom of the Tal-
mud and the Midrash refer to all conditions of life,
although, of course, there is a preponderance of po-
tical concepts that came into Palestine only with the
gdvent of the Greeks and the Romans, and of names
of foreign products introduced into the country
through commerce. Some of the borrowed words
refer to cosmography and geography; ¢.g., dp =
air,” introduced at an early date; others refer to
minerals, plants, and animals; e.g., ytwor = “ gyp-
sum”; todtee =a plant used for dyeing; rdpdadi =
* panther.” Many refer to public life; ¢.9., 6xA0¢ =
“mob”; KoAwvia = colonia, “colony”; maAdrioy =
palatium, “palace”; Anyarov = legatum, “legate”;
xjvoog == census, “census”; ojueiov = “sign” or
“standard.” Others again refer to the house and
thecourt; €.g., Paotdinh = “basilica”; orda = “stoa,”
“ceolonuade”; others to commerce and intercourse,
coins and weights; ¢.g., tpayzateia = “commerce ”;
carrum, “Wagon”; dyvapiov = “denarius”; pdévyra
- moneta, “coin.” There are also names of weap-
ons, tools, vessels, raw material, furniture, food,
ornaments, and jewelry. <A large contingent of
words refers to general culture, including literature
and writing, physicians and medicines, religion and
folk-lore, calendars and texts, music and the plastic
arts; and, finally, there isa mass of proper names.
It is estimated that more than 8,000 words borrowed
from the Greek and Latin are found in the rabbinical
works.
After the completion of the chief works of the
Midrashic and Targumic Jiterature no new Greek
words were adopted; but the words already assim-
ilated continued to be used—of course
less intelligently than formerly, thus
giving rise to frequent incorrect copy-
ings and false etymologies. The Jews
preserved the knowledge of the Greek language only
in those countries where Greek was spoken. Jus-
tinian’s law of the year 553 (“ Novelle,” No. 146,
Ilepi ‘ESpaiwv) refers to the use of Greek in the Jit-
urgy. As late as the end of the Byzantine period
the Book of Jonah was read in Greek at the after-
noon haftarah of the Day of Atonement in Candia
(Elijah Capsali, ed. Lattes, p. 22); the Bologna
and Oxford libraries have copies of this transla-
tion, which, according to Neubauer, was made in
the twelfth century for the Jews of Corfu; so
far as is known, it is the oldest complete text in
modern Greek. There is alsoa Greek translation of
the Pentateuch, of which there still exist copies of
the edition made by Eliezer Soncino of Constanti-
nople in 1547, and republished by D. C. Hesseling,
Leyden, 1897. This translation, in Hebrew charac-
ters, forms part of a polyglot Pentateuch, which
Contains a Hebrew text with a Spanish transiation.
The only important Midrash or commentary to the
Pentateuch that is extant from the Byzantine coua-
tries, the “Lekah Tob” by R. Tobias b. Eliezer of
astoria (ed. 8. Buber), contains many Greek words
See J. Perles in “Byzantinische Zeitschrift,” ii.
970-584). The Jews of southern Italy are known to
have been familiar with Greek (Gritz, “Gesch.” 3d
In Later
Times.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Greek Language
ed., vi. 288); the Sylvester disputation presupposes
a knowledge of Greek as well as of Latin among
the Roman Jews (Vogelstein and Rieger, “Gesch.
der Juden in Rom,” i. 150, note 8).
In Sicily the Jews curiously changed the meaning
of éroruacia (“timisia”) to designate a chest for the
Torah (Zunz, “G. V.” 2d ed., p. 247; idem, “Z. G.”
p. 522); they had officials called “sufi” (codoz) and
“proti” (Giidemann, “Erziehungswesen ... der
Juden in Italien,” p. 281). Liturgical poems were
generally designated by the Byzantine terms “ piz-
mon” and “darmosh” (Zunz, “S. P.” pp. 5, 69b).
Other Greek words used were “latreg,” “alphabeta-
rion” (“Byz. Zeit.” .c.), “sandek,” ete. Similarly,
there were Christian designations, such as “api-
phyor” for “pope,” and “hegmon” for “bishop”
(“R. E. J.” xxxiv. 218-238; compare “patriarch ” in
Benjamin of Tudela and in “ Milhemet Hobah,” p.
4, Constantinople, 1710).
Shabbethai Donnolo had a Greek education, and
so to a certain extent had Nathan of Rome; the au-
thor of the Ahimaaz Chronicle often refers to the
Greek-speaking Jews of southern Italy. Joseph,
“the Greek,” translated Greek works into Arabic
(Steinschueider, “ Polemische und A pologetische Lit.”
pp. 39, 314), as did also Kilti, or Kelti (é@em, “ Hebr.
Uebers.” p. 499; “J. Q. R.” xi. 605). It is expressly
said of Jacob ha-Levi that he was conversant with
the Greek language (Neubauer, “The Fifty-third
Chapter of Isaiah,” p. xii., note 5). Greek words
are found in the works of Jacob b. Reuben (2d. pp. 59,
60), Judah Mosconi, and Meyuhas b. Elijah (“ Orien-
talistische Literaturzeitung,” 1900, p. 429; “R. E. J.”
xli. 303); and a knowledge of Greek in general must
be assumed in the case of the Jewish authors living
in Greece. The I[araites also knew classical Greek
—e.g., Judah Hadassi (Fiust, “Gesch. des Karier-
thums,” i. 212)—-and modern Greek, as, for example,
Caleb Afendopolo in the fifteenth century. “ Wise
men from Greece” and single scholars with the sur-
name “Greek” are not unfrequently mentioned by
Western Jewish authors.
The Oriental and the Western Jews, on the other
hand, were mostly ignorant of Greek. A gaon ad-
mitted, in regard to a Greek expression in the
Talmud, that he did not know Greek (Harkavy,
“Teshubot ha-Geonim,” No. 47, p. 23); and “aspar-
gon” was explained as a Persian word (20. p. 374).
Scholars from Greece could, however, be consulted
(tb, No. 225, p. 105), as was done by Moses Nah-
mani (B. B. 8a). Eliezer b. Elijah, who knew twelve
languages, had only a smattering of Greek (Jost,
“Jahrb.” ii. 80). The Samaritan Abu al-Fath, in
the fourteenth century, also admitted that he did not
know Greek (“ Annales,” ed. E. Vilmar, p. xc., Gotha,
1865). The statement in the Chronicle of Jerahmeel
(ed. Gaster, p. 200) that Judah and half of Simeon
spoke Hebrew and Greek among themselves, must
either be a fable or be based on a misunderstanding.
Greek etymologies, generally false ones, are noted
by Rashi, Abraham ibn Ezra, Simeon b. Zemah
Duran, Elijah Levita (in “ Tishbi,” s.¢. O°>wr:; comp.
Griinbaum, “Jiid.-Deut. Chrestomathie,” p. 494),
and Abraham Zacuto, as well as by other medieval
authors. R. Isaac of Siponte was more successful
in explaining several expressions in the Mishnah
Greek Law
Greeting
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 83
Pe ae Se ee ee ee ee Se ee ee
in Greek; e.g., Ma‘as. v. 8. There were no Greek
works by Jews in the Middle Ages, aside from the
new translations of the Bible. But
Greek Ety- Jews read Greek authors in the original
mologies. at Byzantium; e.g., Asaph, who ren-
ders botanical names in Greek, and
Judah Hadassi the Karaite, who quotes entire sen-
tences from the philosophical works of the Greeks
(P. Frankl, in “ Monatsschrift,” 1884, xxxili. 449,
513 et seg.). In regard to some translations from the
Middle Ages it is still doubtful whether they were
made directly from the Greek text. It has by no
means been proved that terms occurring in Jewish
philosophical works have been borrowed from the
Greek, as Steinschneider asserts (“ Hebr. Uebers.”
p. 420, Berlin, 1898); ¢.g., novSw for oréoyore, found in
Samuel ibn Tibbon, is merely a translation of the
corresponding Latin or Arabic word. Although
Joseph b. Abraham (Steinschneider, J.c. p. 453,
§ 267) uses Greek words, it must be assumed that he
lived in the vicinity of Greece; for only Jews so
situated could have been familiar with that language.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 8S. Krauss, Lehnworter, Berlin, 1898-90; A.
Thumb, Die Griechische Sprache im Zeitalter des Hellenis-
Wie passim, Strasburg, 1901; Perles, in Byz. Zeit. ti. 570-
a. S. Kr.
GREEK LAW, INFLUENCE OF THE.
See Law, CIVIL.
GREEN, AARON LEVY: English rabbi;
born in London Aug., 1821; died March 11, 1888.
A precocious student, at the age of fourteen he was
successful as candidate for the post of reader in the
Great Synagogue, and at seventeen was appointed
minister of the Bristol congregation. One of his
first compositions, entitled “ Dr. Croly, LL.D., versus
Civil and Religious Liberty,” 1850, was an attack
on Dr. Croly, who had opposed the admission of Jews
to Parliament. In March, 1851, Green was elected
second reader of the Great Synagogue, London; and
when in 1855 the Old Portland Street branch syna-
gogue was opened, Green was elected its first reader
and preacher. In that capacity he made many im-
provements in the service of the synagogue, and for
nearly thirty years cooperated in all the new move-
ments that helped to organize the London Jewish
community.
Green was a member of the council and of the edu-
cation committee of the Anglo-Jewish Association,
and assumed a leading part in the foundation of Jews’
College, acting as honorary secretary from 1852, and
for some years as chairman of the education com-
mittee. He was one of the first to arouse public
interest in the Russian atrocities of 1881, and was
a meniber of the Rumanian Mansion House and
Russo-Turkish relief committees.
In religion Green was extremely liberal-minded.
In 1868 he delivered a series of sermons which
evoked many remonstrances; and ten years later an-
other series by him, on “ Miracles,” so agitated cer-
tain circles that a movement was set on foot to de-
nounce the preacher at public indignation meetings.
He was a regular correspondent of the Jewish news-
papers, and, under the pseudonym “ Nemo,” wrote
for the “Jewish Chronicle” many severe criticisms
of contemporary movements which attracted con-
siderable attention. He collected a large and valy.
able library of Judaica and Hebraica, which is now
in Jews’ College, London.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jew. Chron, and Jew. World, March 16, ggg.
J. G. I.
GREENBAUM, SAMUEL: American lawyoy
and jurist; born Jan. 23, 1854, in London; went to
the United States with his parents in his infancy.
educated at the New York public schools and the
College of the City of New York, graduating jy
1872. Thereafter he studied law at the Columbia
College Law School until 1875, and from 1872 to
1877 was a teacher in Grammar School No. 59, New
York. Then he commenced to practise law, which
he did alone until 1894, when he entered into part.
nership with Daniel P. Hays. In May, 1901, he re.
sumed separate practise, which he continued until
he was elected judge of the Supreme Court of the
State of New York Jan. 1, 1902.
Greenbaum is a member of the New York State
Bar Association; the Society of Medical Jurispru.
dence; the Jewish Historical Society, etc. He was
president of the Aguilar Free Library Association,
and is first vice-president of the Educational Alli.
ance, and trustee of the New York Public Library
and of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America.
J F. HV.
GREENHUT, JOSEPH B.: American soldier;
born in Germany. He enlisted as a private in the
12th Illinois Infantry at Chicago April, 1861. He
served with this regiment throughout Grant’s cam-
paigns in Kentucky and Tennessee. At Fort Donel-
son, Greenhut was badly wounded in the right arm
and had toretire. In Aug., 1862, he was appointed
captain of Company K, 82d Dlinois Infantry. He
then fought in the Virginia campaigns under Burn-
side, Hooker, and Meade, and was at Gettysburg.
He was transferred to Hecker’s staff as adjutant-
general, and with this command he took part. in
some very severe battles, notably that of Lookout
Mountain. Greenhut resigned his commission on
Feb. 24, 1864, and entered mercantile life. He was
one of the three Illinois commissioners for monu-
ments on the battle-field of Gettysburg.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Publications Amer. Jew. Hist. Soc. iii. 3:
Wolf, The American Jew as Patriot, Soldier, and Citizen,
p. 143, Philadelphia, 1895.
A A. M. F.
GREETING, FORMS OF: Fixed modes of
address on meeting acquaintances. With the an-
cient Hebrews the form of greeting depended upon
the relationship of the persons. It expressed in-
terest and sympathy, love and affection, or rever-
ence and honor. It included any or all of the fol-
lowing: inquiry regarding health; embracing and
kissing; blessing; bowing; kneeling; prostration.
——Biblical Data: Joseph asked his brothers
about their welfare (Gen. xlili. 27) when they sup-
posed him to bea stranger. David sent a message
of greeting to Nabal: “Peace be both to thee, and
peace be to thine house, and peace be unto all that
thou hast” (I Sam. xxv. 6). Elisha sent Gehazi
when meeting the Shunammite to inquire: “Is it
well with thee? is it well with thy husband? is it
well with the child?” When hastening Gehazi 60
revive the child, Elisha told him; “Go thy way: if
89
thou meet any man, salute him not; and if any
salute thee, answer him not” (II Kings iv, 26, 29).
Xo time could be lost in so urgent a matter.
“4 more intimate form of welcome was to embrace
and kiss, as Laban did Jacob (Gen, xxix. 13). David
and Jopathan exchanged kisses (I Sam. xx.41). A
more passionate form was to fall on the neck and cry
for joy (Gen. Xxxili. 4). Kissing a female in public
was apparently against the prevailing custom (Cant.
viii. 1; but comp. Gen. xxix. 11), The kissing of
the hand is mentioned in Job xxxi. 27 (see K1ssine).
A specially reverential form of greeting was to
pow toward the ground (Gen. xviii. 2). Jacob ren-
dered homage to his brother by bowing seven times
as he approached (Gen. xxxiii. 3). On meeting a
prince or a king the custom was to bless him, as
Welchizedek blessed Abraham, and Jacob blessed
Pharaoh (Gen. xiv. 19, xIvii. 7). The angel greeted
Gideon with the words: “The Lord is with thee,
thou mighty man of valor” (Judges vi. 12). Boaz
creeted his field-workers with: “The Lord be with
vou,” and they answered him, “The Lord bless
thee” (Ruth ii. 4; see Ber. ix. 1).
__-In Rabbinical Literature: In the ethics of
the Fathers it is said: “ Be beforehand in the saluta-
tion of peace to all men” (Abot iv, 20), Greeting to
Gentiles is the road leading to peace (Git. v. 9).
Johanan b. Zakkai anticipated in salutation those
whom he met, even Gentiles on the street (Ber. 17a).
R. Judah greeted the Gentiles at work by saying
“Ahaziku” (strength to you). R. Sheshet greeted
them with “Asharta ” (success). R. Kahanah said
“Peace, sir” (Git. 62a). The dignity of a teacher
must not be lowered by greeting him or by answer-
ing his greeting in the ordinary manner. A teacher
should be greeted with, “ Peace to thee, my master!”
His greeting should be answered by, “ Peace be with
thee, my master and teacher” (Ber. 27b and Rashi
ad loc.; 76. 8a; comp. Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah,
242, 16). R. Joshua b. Levi gives an object-lesson
by relating this legend: “When Moses ascended
to heaven he found the Almighty en-
Moses’ gaged in crowning the letters of the
Greeting. Law. Moses was silent, and God said
to him: ‘ Bringest thou no peace from
thy town?’ Moses replied, ‘May aservant greet his
lord?’ to which God rejoined, ‘Even so, it was
proper to wish Mesuccess.’ Then Moses said: ‘And
now, I beseech Thee, let the power of my Lord be
Sreat, according as Thou hast spoken’” (Shab. 89a;
see Num. xiv. 17).
_ The Babylonian rabbis held, contrary to the opin-
lon of the Palestinians, that it is improper for one
person to greet another more prominent than him-
self before being recognized by him (Yer. Shek. ii. 7).
Other rules are: “One must not send a message of
steeting to a woman, unless through her husband ”
(B. M. 87a). One must not greet a person at night
If the speaker can not be recognized (Meg. 3a). One
must not greet a person in a bath-house or in a
lavatory (Shab. 10b). One engaged in his work need
hot greet nor answer greetings. Abba Hilkiah, the
standson of Honi ha-Me‘aggel, being a very pious
nan, the rabbis sent two of their representatives to
au him to pray for rain. They found him
plowing in the field and greeted him, but he did
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Greek Law
Greeting
not turn hisface toward them. Afterward he apolo-
gized by explaining that being a laborer for hire he
did not wish to waste his master’s time (Ta‘an.
28a, b).
Greeting by kissing on the mouth or cheek was
not approved by the rabbis. They usually kissed
on the forehead. KR. Akiba said he
Methods. favored thecustom of the Medians, who
kissed only the back of the hand (Ber.
8b). ‘Ula, on his return home from the rabbinical
academy, kissed his sisters on the chest or bosom:
according to another statement, ou the hand (Shab.
18a). The wife of R. Akiba, meeting him after a
prolonged absence, kissed him on the knee, as did his
father-in-law Kalba Shabua‘ (Ket. 68a).
Prostration was deemed the most reverential form
of greeting. It is related of R. Simcon b. Gamaliel
that he prostrated himself in the following manncr:
He stuck his big toes in the ground and, bowing
straight downward, kissed the earth. There was no
one who could imitate this “kidah”; R. Levi, an
athlete, who attempted to do so before Rabbi ha-
Nasi, became a cripple (Suk. 58a), On taking leave
of a dignitary it was the custom to take three steps
backward, and to bow with each step, to right, left,
and center respectively. This form is observed at
the end of the “Shemoneh ‘Hsreh ” prayer, as though
the worshiper were taking leave of the Almighty
King (Yoma 53b).
At the consecration of the New Moon, after re-
citing the outdoor benediction, the members of the
congregation greet each other with “Shalom ‘ale-
kem,” and answer “‘Alekem shalom,” which is the
form of greeting used on returning from a journey,
or when meeting a stranger. When
Formulas. meeting on New-Year’s eve the usual
grecting is: “A good year,” or, “May
thou be inscribed [in the Book of Life] for a good
year.” Late in the nineteenth century it became
the custom to send to acquaintances New-Year’s
greeting-cards of various designs, colors, and in-
scriptions.
The ordinary daily greetings are: “Good morn-
ing”; “Good day ” (not “Good evening,” as night is
ominous); “Good Shabbat”; on the eve following
Sabbath, “Good week”; “Good hodesh” (new
moon); “Good yom-tob” (holiday). In Jerusalem
and the Orient the Sephardic custom is for men to
greet each other before prayers with, “Good morn-
ing, sir,” and, after prayers, with “Peace” (“Sha-
lom”), answered by “ Peace, blessing, and good ”
(“Shalom berakah we-tobah”). At night the form
at parting is, “Sleep well, sir”; it is answered by,
“Awake, sir, with His help and grace”; on Sab-
bath, “A peaceful and blessed Shabbat”; on Sab-
bath night, “A good and blessed week,” answered
by, “On youand ourselves ”; on holidays, “ Time of
gladness,” answered by, “ Festivals and seasons of
joy ”; on intermediate holidays (“hol ha-mo‘ed ”),
“Many good and sweet years,” answered by, “ Long
life and happiness.” The greetings to bride and
groom and at births and on other joyful occasions
is, “ Mazzal tob” (good star, or Juck), answered by,
“ May God let thee jive to enjoy the same at thy off-
spring’s wedding.” One who has finished reading
the portion of the Torah assigned to him in the syna-
Grégoire
Grenoble
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 90
ea ea a ae ee ee gre ee ee eG aT Fa why Se ee WG Ee ge Ser TP eee ea 6 rpg ee pu Sew ems emcee
gogue, or who has delivered a lecture, is greeted
with, “Strength and blessings,” answered by, “Be
strong and mighty ” (Luncz, “Jerusalem,” i. 10).
On entering a house one is greeted with, “ Blessed
be he that cometh.” If he find the host at table he
says: “Blessed be he who sits [at the table].” It
will be noticed that the answer invariably differs
from the greeting. This is to distinguish the saluter
from the one saluted, so that one may run no risk of
being considered ill-bred through leaving a greeting
unanswered. See ETIQUETTE; PRECEDENCE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wunderbar, in Orient, Lit. 1846, pp. 215-247,
E. C. J. D. E.
GREGOIRE, HENRI: Jesuit priest, politi-
cian, and advocate of the Jews; born at Veho, near
Lunéville, Dec. 4, 1750; died at Paris May 28, 1881.
Grégoire was a typical representative of the human-
itarian ideas of the eighteenth century. Notwith-
standing his Jesuit training and associations he
stood consistently throughout his life for the inde-
pendence of the Gallican Church, and for equal
rights for all men regardless of creed and national-
ity. When in 1788 the Royal Society for Arts and
Sciences in Metz offered a prize for the best essay on
the improvement of the condition of the Jews, Gré-
goire wrote his famous “Sur la Régencration Phy-
sique, Morale, et Politique des Juifs” (Metz, 1789).
A year later he was elected a member of the States
General, and was among those who agitated for the
formation of the National Assembly, although he had
been one of the clerical delegates. In the assembly
he put the motion for the emancipation of the Jews
(“ Motion en Faveur des Juifs, par M. Grégoire, curé
d’Emberménil, deputé de Nancy, precédée d’une
notice historique sur les persécutions qu’ils viennent
d’essuyer en divers licux,” etc.; Paris, 1789). Inhis
somewhat theatrical style he exclaimed (Oct. 1,
1789), when a special day was given to the deliber-
ation of the bill concerning the Jews: “Fifty thou-
sand Frenchmen arose this morning as slaves; it de-
pends on you whether they shall go to bed as free
people.”
The arguments advanced in his book in favor of
the Jews are in no way original; they repeat the
often-advanced statements that the Jews are not
worse than the average, and that the injustice of
medieval legislation was largely responsible for
whatever faults are peculiar tothe Jews. He there-
fore demanded for them full enfranchisement, in-
cluding political rights. What gave special weight
to Grégoire’s pamphlets was the fact that he spoke
asa professing Catholic and as a Catholic priest who
advocated the enfranchisement of the Jews from the
point of view of canonical law, and desired to prove
that the Church had always been favorable to the
Jews.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: La Grande Encyclopédie ; Gritz, Gesch. x1.
197; Kahn. Les Juifs d Paris, pp. 61 et seq., Paris, 1889: R.
E. J. iii. 308. is
GREGORY I., THE GREAT: Pope from 590
to 604: born about 540; died 604. Descended from
an old Roman senatorial family, he had held various
high official positions when he suddenly retired to
one of the cloisters which he had founded. Sent as
ambassador to Constantinople by Pelagius II., on
his return became an abbot, and soon afterwarg
when Pelagius died from the plague, he was elected
pope. He materially strengthened the authority of
the papal see both by his personal influence and p
his adroit policy; and in many respects he deter.
mined the standards of the Catholic Church for the
following centuries.
Gregory had a deep-seated aversion to Judaign
which to him was Jewish superstition (“ superstitig ny
depravity (“ perditio”), and faithlessness (“ perfidia”,
He discarded the literal interpretation of the Bib},
which prevailed among the Jews, and designateg
their attacks upon Christianity as idle prattle. Ho
forbade the literal observance of the Sabbath law
wide-spread among the Christians, on the ground
that it was Jewish; and his decpest grievance againgt
the Nestorians was that they were like the Jews.
He extolled the Visigothic king Reccared for hig
severe measures against the Jews and for his firm.
ness against their attempts at bribery.
Gregory was very zealous in his efforts to cop.
vert the Jews, and tried to influence them by prom.
ising a partial repeal of taxes and by offering other
material support to converts. He was very em.
phatic against enforced baptism, however, prefer.
ring conversions brought about by gentleness and
kindness. He protected the rights of the Jews, and
assured to them the unhindered celebration of their
feasts and the undisturbed possession of their syna-
gogues. On the other hand, he repeatedly opposed
the possession by Jews of Christian slaves. Chris.
tian slaves and those who wished to accept Chris.
tianity were to be taken away from their Jewish
masters. Indeed, he earnestly begged the Frankish
kings to issue a decree forbidding Jews to hold
Christian slaves. He was obliged, however, to mit-
igate the strictness of some of his measures.
The principle of Gregory’s policy in regard to the
Jews is expressed in the following sentence, which
was adopted by later popes as a fixed introductory
formula to bulls in favor of the Jews: “Just as no
freedom may be granted to the Jews in their com-
munities to exceed the limits legally set for them,
so they should in no way suffer through a violation of
their rights” (“ Epistole,” vii. 25, “Sicut Judeis,”
etc.). Oenturies later his policy toward the Jews
was still designated as the standard (Jaffé, “ Biblio-
theca Rerum Germanarum,” p. 338).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gregorii I. Pape Registrum Epistolarum,
ed. Ewald and Hartmann (Monumenta Germ. Histor.:
Epistolw, i. ii.); Gregory’s works in Migne, Patrologie
Cursus Completus, Latin Series, Ixxv.-lxxix.: Wiggers, De
Greqgoria. Magno, 1838-40; Lau, Gregor I. 1845; Pfahler,
Gregor der Grosse und Seine Zeit, 1852; Baxmann,
Politik der Ptipste, 1868, vol. i.; Pingaud, La Politique de
St. Grégoire le Grand, 1872; Clausier, St. Grégoire le Grand,
1887; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Romi.
133; Grisar, Gesch. Roms und des Papsttums, 1901, vol. i.
a. H. V.
GREGORY XIII. (UGO BUONCOM-
PAGNI): Pope from 1572 to 1585; born at Bo-
logna Feb. 7, 1502; died at Rome April 10, 1589.
His attitude toward the Jews was that of a man
possessed of natural goodness warped by strong
feelings of intolerance and fanaticism. Soon after
his election Gregory, in spite of ecclesiastical opp
sition, allowed the Jews to return to Venaissin, from
which they had been banished by a decree issué
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
91
eb. 26, 1569. Like Paul Ill., Gregory granted
1581) gafe-conduct to Jews traveling through Italy ;
he also repealed the prohibition against interest. By
g writ jssued Jan. 10, 1577, he confirmed the regula-
tions of Clement VII. which organized the commu-
nity under a council of sixty, and he sanctioned a
gystem Of communal taxation by which each mem-
her Was assessed according to the degree of his
rosperity.
Gregory, however, was the author of a series of
pulls and ordinances of the most hostile character.
He compelled (Sept. 4, 1578) the Jews of Rome to
contribute 1,100 scudi toward the maintenance of
the Casa dei Catecumeni (Home for Converts to
Christianity) ; renewed (1581) the prohibition against
the attendance of Jewish physicians upon Chris-
tian patients; ordered (1581) the surrender to the in-
uisitors of all copies of the Talmud; and com-
manded (1584) all Jews to listen every Saturday in
their synagogues to the sermons of missionaries.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Stern, Urkundliche Bettrdgezur Stellung der
Papste, ete., p. 153; Gratz, Gesch. ix. 465; Berliner, Gesch.
der Juden in Rom, ti. 17; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der
Juden in Rom, ii. 169,
D. I. Br.
GREGORY BAR HEBRZZDUS (“son of a He-
brew”), ABU AL-FARAJ IBN HARUN: Jaco-
bite Syrian historian, physician, philosopher, and the-
ologian ; bornat Malatia, Asiatic Turkey, 1226; died
at Maragha, Persia, 1286. Gregory first studied med-
icine under his father, Aaron, a Jewish physician
who embraced Christianity; he then devoted himself
to theology and philosophy, at the same time study-
ing other sciences. He was successively Bishop of
Guba (1246), of Lakaba (1247), and of Aleppo (1258).
In 1264 he was named “ mafriana,” or “ primate,” of
the eastern Jacobites, with his seat at Tekrit on
the Tigris. It does not appear that, beyond his
surname, Gregory showed any traces of his Jewish
origin; even his works (thirty-one) give no proof that,
though master of Syriac, Arabic, and perhaps of
Greek, he had ever studied Hebrew. On the con-
trary, in the beginning of his chronicle he ascribes
to such Biblical names as Noah, Jacob, etc., aSyriac
origin. Nor is there anything to show that his
studies were pursued under Jewish influence, though
he did not entirely ignore Jewish doctrines,
Gregory was a prolific writer on theology, phi-
losophy, ethics, history, grammar, medicine, mathe-
matics,and astronomy. He wasalsoa poet. Some
of his works were written in Arabic, but most of them
In Syriac. He was the last great Syriac writer,
though he is important rather as a collector than as
an independent writer. He is best known for his
yriac grammar (“ Ketaba de Semhe ”); his “ Chroni-
cle,” in two parts, ecclesiastical and political; his
Menarat Kudshe,” a compendium of theology,
Philosophy, medicine, physics, and metaphysics;
and his scholia on the Old and the New Testa-
Ment (“Auzar Raze”). In the last-named he occa-
Sionally cites readings from the Samaritan text; it is
Mteresting to note that in a scholium to II Kings
Wil. 28 he says: “The law [7.e., text of the Penta-
leuch] of the Samaritans does not agree with that of
ath Jews, but with the Septuagint.” He occasion-
Y cites opinions of Jews, but probably only at
Grégoire
Grenoble
second hand (e.g., to Ps. viii, 2, on the “Shem ha-
Meforash”; comp. “Z. D. M. G.” xxxii. 465). In
the introduction to his commentary on Job he men-
tions as a writer the priest Asaph (brother of Ezra
the Scribe), who identifies Job with Jobab. In speak-
ing of the apocryphal account of the death of Isaiah,
he cites “one of the Hebrew books” as authority
(Nestle, “Marginalien,” ii. 48).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Assemani, Bibliotheca Orientalis, ii, 244-
320; Eug. Bore, in Journal Asiatique, 2d series, vol. xiv.,
pp. 481-508: R. Gottheil, in Hebraica, iii, 249-254: Nodldeke,
Orientalische Skizzen, pp. 250 et seq., Berlin. 1892; J. Godtts-
berger, Barhebraus und Seine Scholien, Freiburg-im-Breis-
gau, 1900; and the literature cited in Duval, Littérature
Syriaque, p. 409 and passim, Paris, 1899
M. Se..—G.
GRENOBLE (xb21993): Capital of the depart-
ment of [sére, France. It possessed a Jewish com-
munity from the end of the thirteenth century.
Jacob ben Solomon, a Grenoble Jew (Zunz, “Z. G.”
p. 208, erroneously calls him “Tsaac”), died a mar-
tyr to his faith in 1296.
When the Jews were driven out of France (1306)
by Philippe le Bel, a certain number of them fled
to Grenoble, where they were hospitably received by
the dauphin Humbert J., who allowed them to es-
tablish banking-houses there. Two of them espe-
cially, Amyal of Tours and Morel of Amboise, ob-
tained important privileges on paying an annual tax
of 10 livres. In 1388, in consequence of numerous
accusations against the Jewish bankers of the region
addressed to the governor of the Dauphiné, all the
Jews of the province were called together at Greno-
ble, and on their refusal to comply with this sum-
mons the dauphin condemned each of them to pay a
silver mark annually. Further, he imposed a fine
of 10,000 francs on all the Jews, for the payment of
which the “maistre de la loy,” Rabbi Samuel, ad-
dressed an urgent appeal to all the Jewish bankers
of the Dauphiné. Among the most important of
these were Moses Aaron and Samson of Yenne, resi-
dents of Grenoble. In 1896, during the dauphinal
council at Grenoble, a criminal suit was instituted
against three youths, Samson of Jerusalem, Crescent
of Voiron, and Perret Levi, who were accused of
having committed a crime against a Christian and of
having blasphemed Jesus. They were condemned
to pay a fine of 200 francs in gold.
On March 4, 1413, at the request of the states
general of the province, the council decided that
Jews should be obliged to keep their places of wor-
ship, their ovens, their wells, and their markets
separate from those of the Christians. In addition,
the men were required to wear as a badge a round
piece of variegated cloth, placed upon the outer gar-
ment at the chest, and the women to put a dis-
tinctive token in their head-dress. It was forbid-
den for either men or women to appear in public
or to keep their doors and windows open on Pas-
sion Sunday or during Holy Week; and they were
not allowed to employ Christian servants.
During the reign of Charles VII. the Jews of
Grenoble and its environs were accused of having
associated with the enemies of the dauphin during
his exile and of having used disrespectful language
concerning him. They were therefore condemned
by him to pay a fine of 1,500 crowns in gold. lt was
Grieshaber
Grodno
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 99
SS ae eg ee Soe ee
at this period that the Jews left Grenoble defini-
tively. Only a few Israelite families now reside
there (1908).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Valbonais, Histoire du Dauphiné, i., ii.;
Preuves, No. 181; Ordonnances des Rois de France,
xi.: Prudhomme, Les Juifs en Dauphiné, pp. 12, 51, 54, 58;
Depping, Les Juifs dans le Moyen Age, pp. 162 and 196;
R. E. J. ix. 239, 254, 256, 260, 261; Gross, Gallia Judaica,
p. 143.
G.
S. K.
GRIESHABER (KRIEGSHABER), ISAAC:
Polish-Hungarian rabbi at Paks, Hungary; born at
Cracow. He was the author of “Makkel No‘am”
(Vienna, 1799), in which he sharply criticized Aaron
Cuorin for declaring the sturgeon permissible food.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liw, Gesammelte Schriften, ti. 263-267 5
Schreiber, Reformed Judaism, pp. 68-70; First, Bibl. Jud.
1. 348; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 57,
D. S. Man.
GRILICHES, ABRAHAM AVENIRO-
VICH: Russian engraver; born at Wilna 1852;
educated at the Wilna rabbinical school; gradu-
ated from the Wilna School of Designs in 1869, and
from the St. Petersburg Academy of Fine Arts in
1876, when he was appointed engraver to the Impe-
rial Mint. He became a noted medalist. Among the
medals he engraved may be mentioned those in com-
memoration of the deaths of Alexandra Feodorovna
and Emperor Alexander II., the jubilee of Duke
Nicholas Leuchtenberg, the catastrophe at the rail-
road station of Borki, Oct. 17, 1888, and the 200th
anniversary of the 65th Infantry Regiment of Mos-
cow.
Griliches produced on onyx portraits of Baron
Horace Giinzburg, the Grand Duke Vladimir, the
Grand Duchess Alexandra Georgievna, the Emperor
Nicholas [I., Queen Louise of Denmark, Empress
Alexandra Feodorovna, and Emperor Alexander II.
His exhibits were awarded a gold medal at the Paris
Exposition of 1900. He now (1903) holds the posi-
tion of senior engraver to the Imperial Mint with the
rank of aulic councilor. H. R.
GRILICHES, AVENIR GIRSCHEVICH:
Russian engraver; father of Abraham Avenirovich
Griliches; born at Wilna April, 1822. Untilthe age
of sixteen he studied the Talmud, and later, without
the aid of a teacher, becamean engraver. In 1871 he
was employed as an engraver by the Imperial Mint
of St. Petersburg; three years later his portrait of
Levensohn, engraved on rock-crystal, won him a
nomination to the St. Petersburg Academy of Fine
Arts; in the same year he was appointed engraver to
the Imperial Mint. He soon gained a wide reputa-
tion, and is now considered one of the best engravers
in Russia. Among his engravings may be mentioned
the state seals of the emperors Alexander III. and
Nicholas IT,
Avenir holds the rank of court councilor, and was
decorated with the Order of St. Stanislas, second
class. H. R.
GRODNO: Russian city; capital of the govern-
ment of the same name; formerly one of the chief
cities of Lithuania and, later, of Poland. It hada Jew-
ish community about the middle of the fourteenth
century, for in the “ Privilege” granted to the Jews
of Grodno by Grand Duke Vitold of Lithuania, dated
Lutsk, June 18, 1889 (document No. 2 in Bershaq.
ski's “Russko-Yevreiski Arkhiv ”), it is seen that
the Jews occupied at that time a considerable ates
in the city, that they owned land and houses, ang
had a synagogue and a cemetery. This important
document, which was later confirmed by Sigismung
August (1547), by John Casimir (1655), and by Stgp.
islas August Poniatowski (1785), is, with one eXcep.
tion, the oldest one extant relating to the history of
the Jews in Lithuania. It confirms the Jews in ay
their possessionsand rights; permits them toengage
in all business pursuits and occupations; eXemptg
the synagogue and the cemetery from taxation; ang
ends by conferring on the Jews “all rights, liberties
and privileges given to our Jews of Brest ” in the pre.
ceding year. The Jews, who were thus practical]
enjoying equal rights with the other inhabitants,
apparently lived undisturbed, even after Casimir
Jagellon in 1444 granted the city its independence
in the form of the “Magdeburg Law.” Jews
continued to farm the taxes and to own real estate
until their unexpected expulsion by Alexander Ja.
gellon in 1495.
The estates and houses owned by Jews were then
given by the grand duke to his favorites, but they
were soon reclaimed. The decree issued by Alexan-
der Jagellon when he became King of Poland, per.
mitting the Jews to return to Lithuania, is dated
March 22, 1503. It is issued to two
Expulsion Jews from Grodno, Lazar Moisheye.
and vich (styled “our factor”) and Isaac
Return. Faishevich, and permits all Jews who
had been expelled to return to Grodno
and once again enter into possession of their estates
(2b. No. 89). A decree by Alexander, dated April,
1508, in which the Jews of Grodno are especially
mentioned, again orders that everything formerly
belonging to Jews which had been sequestrated for
gifts must be returned to them, and that all the
debts owing to them must be paid; and four years
later (Nov. 3, 1507; 7b. No. 50) an edict again decrees
that whatever belonged to the Jews of Grodno be-
fore their expulsion must be returned to them. In
1525 the king confirmed the right of Judah Bogdano-
vich to land in the district of Grodno which his
father Bogdan had acquired before the expulsion.
The same subject is referred to in another document
(2b. Nos. 94, 100).
In a decision rendered by Queen Bona (Sforza),
dated May 22, 1549, the following regulations, modi-
fying and defining the rights of the Jewish commu-
nity of Grodno, are introduced: (1) Jews are to pay
17 per cent of the taxes the government assessed
against the city; (2) they are freed from some spe
cial taxes paid in kind; (8) houses and lands for-
merly bought by Jews from citizens are freed from
citizens’ taxes; those bought by citizens from Jews
are freed from Jewish taxes. But thenceforth n0
Jew may buy a house from a citizen without spe
cial royal permission (7). No. 352).
The first rabbi and the first quarrel in the com-
munity of Grodno date from the year 1549. It
seems that the influential Judich family had forced
ou the community as rabbi a relative of the name
of Mordecai. Queen Bona, on Oct. 28 of that yea!
ordered her governor Kimbar to assemble the Jews
93 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Grieshaber
Grodno
peer eee te ge a a ee ee
of Grodno to elect a rabbi who was no relative to
the Judichs, and decreed that in case this could not.
be donc without opposition, the op-
ponents of the Judichs were to elect
a separate rabbi with the same rights
and privileges as enjoyed by the one
chosen by that family. Another decree, dated Nov.
g of that year, deals with the trouble caused because
the Jews would not permit Rabbi Mordecai to offici-
ate in the synagogue (7. Nos. 353-354). The name
of Rabbi Moses b. Aaron, Mordecai’s rival, has also
peen preserved.
After the Union of Lublin (1569), when Lithuania
became part of Poland, Grodno shared the general de-
cline of that unhappy kingdom. It flourished again
under King Stephen Bathori (1576-86), who was the
friend of the Jews who resided there; and the great
synagogue, which was destroyed by fire Aug. 3,
1599, was erected at that period. The arrival of
the Jesuits in 1616 marks the beginning of oppress-
ive measures and exactions, and frequent recur-
rences of blood accusations. Grodno was saved from
the devastation and massacres of the first Cossack
war in 1648-49, but suffered terribly in 1655, when
it was taken by the Russians and held two years;
and its lot was not improved during the four years
following, when it was held by the Swedes. The
community was impoverished and sunk heavily in
debt, from which it has not been freed even to this
day. From 1703 to1708 Grodno was held by Charles
XII. of Sweden, and the Jews suffered as they al-
ways suffered in times of war and disorder. Jews
did not share in the benefit Grodno derived from the
administration of the starost Anton Tiesenhaus
(1762-85), who made an effort to revive the commerce
and industry of the decaying city. He was hostile
to the Jews, and when he became bankrupt his in-
debtedness to the Jewish community, representing
only a part of the money which he had extorted
from it, was declared by a court to be over 34,000
rubles. Two of his estates in the district of Pinsk
were given to the “kahal” of Grodno in lieu of the
debt, but they were confiscated on a technicality by
the Russian government in 1795.
The last tragedy in Grodno of which there is
record occurred on the second day of Pentecost,
May 20, 1790, when Eleazar b. Solomon of Wirballen
was quartered for the alleged murder of a Christian
The First
Rabbi.
girl, The king refused to sign the death-warrant,
being convinced of the man’s inno-
Murder cence, but could not prevent the ex-
Ac- ecution. A ritual murder trial is also
cusations. known to have occurred there in 1820,
but the details have not been pre-
Served, Grodno came under the dominion of Rus-
sia in 1795. The most important event in its recent
history is the disastrous conflagration of 1885, when
about half of the city was destroyed.
A complete list of the Jewish inhabitants of
Grodno in 1560 is reproduced in the above-mentioned
Arkhiv ” (ii.). It includes the names of about sixty
Jews, who lived mostly in the “Jewish street” and
In the “ Jewish School street.” It also gives the loca-
tion of the Jewish hospital, which was then on “ Ple-
banski street.” The total number of houses in
rodno at that time was 548; if figured at one fam-
ily for cach house, this would make the Jewish pop-
ulation about 10 per cent of the inhabitants. The
“Russian Encyclopedia” (s.v.), which gives for the
second half of the sixteenth century 56 Jewish
houses out of a total of 712, makes the proportion
still smaller. But the Jewish population increased
in the following two centuries much faster than the
Christian, and of the 4,000 inhabitants in 1793 a
majority were Jews. The increase went on under
Russian rule, and in 1816 the city had 8,422 Jewish,
and only 1,451 non-Jewish, inhabitants. In 1890
there were 29,779 Jews in a total population of 49,-
952, and in 1897 about 25,000 Jews in a total pop-
ulation of 46,871.
The rabbinate of Grodno was next in importance to that of
Brest-Litovsk, and in the records of the council of Lithuania
the rabbi of Brest-Litovsk always signed first and the rabbi
of Grodno second. Rabbis Mordecai and
Moses ben Aaron, who are known only
through records of litigation, were followed
by an eminent rabbinical authority, Nathan Spira Ash-
kenazi (d. 1577), author of **Mebo She‘arim.’’ He was suc-
ceeded by Mordecai Jaffe, author of the ‘** Lebushim,” who
is known to have been in Grodno during the reign of Stephen
Bathori. When he left Grodno is not Known, and the date of
the rabbinate of his successor, Judah, who is known only
from the mention made of him in contemporary responsa, is also
somewhat uncertain. The next rabbi was Ephraim Solo-
mon Shor, author of “ Tebu’ot Shor” (d. 1614). He was suc-
ceeded by Abraham b. Meir ha-Levi Epstein, who left
Grodno in 1634 to become rabbi of Brest-Litovsk. Isaac b.
Abraham is known to have been rabbi of Grodno in 1634-44,
but part of that time Joshua b. Joseph, author of “ Maginne
Shelomoh,”’ later of Lemberg and Cracow, was also in Grodno,
before he went to Tikotzyn. Jonah b. Isaiah Teomim,
author of “Kikayon de-Yonah,” was rabbi in 1644-55, when
he left Poland, dying in Metz in 1669, aged 73. Moses Spira,
son of R. Nathan, author of ** Megalleh ‘Amukot,”’ ard great-
grandson of the above-named Nathan Spira, was rabpi after
1655, and Judah b. Benjamin Wolf of Troppau held
that position about 1664. Haika b. Samuel Hurwitz was
rabbi from 1667 to 1673, and was followed by Moses Zebi,
author of * Tif’eret le-Moshebh,” who died in 1681. His suc-
cessor, Mordecai Stisskind Rothenberg, remained in
Grodno until 1691, when he went to Lublin. Simhah b.
Nabman Rapoport, formerly of Dubno, who succeeded
Mordecal, held the position for nearly a quarter of a century
until he too became rabbi of Lublin (about 1714). Baruch
Kahana Rapoport was called from Fiirth to assume the
rabbinate of Grodno, but he preferred the ‘‘ small rabbinate “’
of the German town and soon returned there. Aryeh Lob
b. Nathan Nata of Slutsk (d. 1729) became rabbi of
Grodno in 1720, and was succeeded by his son Zechariah
Mendel (d. 1746, aged 39). Jehiel Margaliot (d. 1751),
a disciple of Israel Ba‘al Shem, became rabbi. He was followed
by Moses Joshua Hurwitz. The latter’s successor, Ben-
jamin Braudo (Broda) (d. 1818, aged 73), was the last
rabbi of Grodno, the office being then abolished, as was the
case in Wilna, as the result of quarrels between two factions of
the community.
Among the rabbinical scholars and other eminent
Jews of Grodno were: Elhanan Berliner, who corre-
sponded with Zebi Ashkenazi early in the eighteenth
century; Elisha b. Abraham, author of “Kab we-
Naki,” on the Mishnah, and of “Pi Shenayim,” on
Zera‘im, who died at an advanced age in 1749;
Alexander Siisskind, the author of “ Yesod we-Sho-
resh ha-‘Abodah”; Daniel b. Jacob, who was a day-
yan or “moreh zedek ” for forty years, and died in
1807; Joseph Jozel Rubinovich, phy-
sician and favorite of King Poniatow-
ski, died 1810; Simhah b. Mordecai,
who was head of a yeshibah and died
in 1813: his son Hillel, who was a son-in-law of R.
Hayyim of Volozhin and died in 1833; Tanhum, the
son of Rabbi Eliezer of Urle, who was a candidate
Rabbis.
Scholars,
etc.
Grodno
Grossman
for the rabbinate, was “rosh bet-din.” and became
the rival to some extent of R. Benjamin Braudo,
mentioned above; his name is signed first on the
record of the convention held in Wilna in 1818 for
the purpose of selecting delegates to St. Petersburg ;
Sundel Sonenberg, head of the delegation referred to
above, died 1858; Jacob b. Moses Frumkin, died in
Grodno 1872. Eliezer Bregman and his son Shab-
bethai are among the prominent citizens of Grodno,
as are the Epsteins, the Neches, and the Ratners.
The best-known Hebrew writers in the city of
Grodno were: Meir Ostrinski, Menahem Bendetson,
Israel David Miller, Abraham Shalom Friedberg,
the poet Issachar Baer Hurwitz, Samuel Yevnin,
Isaac Andres, Simon Friedenstein (the historian of
the Grodno community), and Hirsch Ratner. Hur-
witz, the translator of the Siddur into Russian, was
the city’s “ government rabbi” in the seventies. He
was succeeded by Moses Kotkind, who in his turn
was followed by Shemariah Lewin. Among the five
“more hora’ah,” R. Eliakim Shapira, and R. Wolf,
a son-in-law of R. Nahum, are the best known.
The Jewish community of Grodno is one of the
poorest in Russia. There is little industry, and a
large percentage of the business establishments is
conducted by women. It has the usual number of
educational and charitable institutions, two Tal-
mud Torahs (the older one having a trade-school as
an adjunct), a gemilut hasadim, a “ Volksktiche” for
the poor, and a similar institution to provide kasher
food for Jewish soldiers. There is also an older
trade-school founded by Samuel Lapin. Inaddition
to the government school there are (1903) an excel-
lent private school, conducted by B. Shapira, and a
modern heder founded by the Zionists, who have re-
cently developed great activity in communal work.
—~—Typography: Baruch b. Menahem, a book-
dealer, established a Hebrew printing-press in
Grodno, the first in Lithuania, in 1789, Ten years
later he removed to Wilna, where he died in 1803.
The establishment was inherited by his son Mena-
hem Man Romm, who in 1885 commenced, in part-
nership with Simhah Zimmel of Grodno, to publish
anew edition of the Talmud. The first few volumes
bear the imprint of Wilna-Grodno, but in 1837 the
business was removed to Wilna, and, under the man-
agement of the Romm family, became one of the
largest of its kind in the world. P. WL.
The following isa list of the Jewish agricultural
colonies in the government of Grodno, from “ Selsko-
Khazaistvenny Kalendar Dlya Yevreyev Kolonis-
tov” (ii. 281, Wilna, 1902):
. e wm
0) at So) a =a
P Name of 5 SZ} Pola §
SSDP Settlement. a |S8|S2] 88
st Aa®o] So
as Fx Aa jf g
Brest-Litovsk ..| Abramove......../Rented.| 25 179 | 264
ty ne ..| Sarovskaya....... ss 12 64 | 366
Volkovysk...... Galileiskaya...... $3 29 1 214 | 37
eon tT Izrailskaya ....... sa 9 61 146
Kobrin......... Yakovlevo....... 4 31 202 |} 270
Pruzhany ......|SosnovkKa......... Owned. 6 60 &5
Sokolka ........(Odolsk .......006. Rented.| 29 | 221 452
SION 3.553.452% PAVIOVO. ceo ca ¥s i 51 | 3382 | 623
at age aces Konstantinovka.. de 25 76 | 563
Fm ee eb area Sinaiskaya........ - 25 | 183 } 195
M. R
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 94
eA a ae hg ES
PoPULATION By DISTRICTS OF THE GOVERNMEy?
oF GRroDNO (CENStS 1897),
———.
| Total | Jewish
—_————_._-—
District. | saad ae aes ercentage,
GTOUNG sa5.0r2ccseheesdees 204,778 41,181 20.11
Brest-Litovsk ............ 218,366 45,902 21.02
BYCIOSUOR o04 oh acbewednees 207,258 59,643 28.97
BYGISE ic ci cccrovwscravers 165,238 23.444 14,19
VOIKOVISK iecieccceccssaces 148,159 17,802 12,02
BOUTIN Gis cane eee ah ek 183,515 23,080 12.58
Pruzoany .cssa send ees 138.807 17,67 12.74
SHOWIN 6. icasaveranescace Po, Lok 34,776 15.38
SOKO RA. causa seovecemuen 110,406 13,377 12,12
MGtalsss ies dua caseacese 1,602,681 | 276,883 7
B ad
VaR
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bershadski, Russko-Yevreiskht Arkhiv, st.
Petersburg, 1882; Entziklopedicheski Slovar; Friedenstejn,
‘Ir Gibborim, Wilna, 1880; idem, in Keneset ha-Gedolah, jj.
125-127, iii. 66-69 ; Hurwitz, Rehobot ‘Ir (criticism of Frieden.
stein, based on review in Briill’s Jahrb. vii. 182-183), Wilna,
90; Ha-Shahar, No. 5, pp. 268 et seq.; Ha-Meliz, 1879, No,
42; Ha-Zefirah, 1899, Nos. 166, 167; 1900, No. 143.
Hi. R. P. Wy,
GRONEMANN, SELIG: German rabbi; born
at Flétenstein, West Prussia, Dec. 7, 1848; attended
the gymnasium at Konitz and the seminary and
university at Breslau; became rabbi at Strasburg
(1872) and at Danzig (1878), and district rabbi of Han-
over (1884). His works include: “De Profiatii
Durani (Ephodei) Vita et Studiis,” inaugural dis.
sertation (Breslau, 1869); “Die Jonathan’sche Pen-
tateuchiibersetzung in Ihrem Verhiltnisse zur Ha-
lacha” (Leipsic, 1879); “Zibhe Shelamin: Die
Vorschriften titber das Schichten und die Untersuch-
ung der Lunge von R. Jakob Beck, Neu Heraus-
gegeben, Durch Zusitze Erginzt und mit einer
Deutschen Bearbeitung Versehen” (Frankfort-on-
the-Main, 1899). He also contributed to Frankel’s
“Monatsschrift ” and Rahmer’s “ Familienblatt,” and
published some sermons in the latter’s “ Predigt-
Magazin.” Gronemann is (1903) a member of the Cen-
tral Committee of the German Zionist organization.
G. M. K.
GROSS, CHARLES: American author; born
at Troy, N. Y., Feb. 10, 1857; educated at the Troy
High School; at Williams College, from which he
received the degree of M.A.; and at the universities
of Paris, Berlin, and Gottingen, receiving from the
last-named the Ph.D. degree for his study on the
‘Gilda Mercatoria.” He was also an honorary M.A.
of Harvard, in which university he held a pro-
fessorship of history 1888-1909. Gross displayed
great originality and industry as an investigator
in medieval and English history, in which field he
wrote the following: ‘Gild Merchant,” 2 vols.,
1890; “Select Cases from the Coroners’ Rolls,” 1896
(for the Selden Society); “Bibliography of British
Municipal History,” 1897; “Sources and Literature
of English History,” 1900; “The Early History of
the Ballot in England,” in “ Political Science Quar-
terly,” 1898; “ Modes of Trial in the Medieval Bot-
oughs of England ” (Harvard Law Series, May, 1902).
Gross lectured at the Anglo-Jewish Exhibition of
1887 on “Exchequer of the Jews in England in the
Middle Ages,” this lecture being a valuable cont!
bution both to English and to Jewish history. He
translated into English Kayserling’s “Christophe!
A A erat RT PT RETIN GET a
95
ae a
columbus,” New York, 1893. He was a vice-prest-
dent of the American Jewish Historical Society, and
, committee member of the Jewish Publication
society of America. He died December 3, 1909.
pLIOGRAPHY: Harvard Graduates’ Magazine, x. 169;
B Who's Who in America, 8.v. A
GROSS, FERDINAND: Austrian writer; born
in Vienna April 8, 1849; died at Kaltenleutgeben,
near Vienna, Dec. 21, 1900. His ancestors lived
in Italy; hisfather emigrated from Padua to Hun-
gary, and went from there to Vienna. Ferdinand
pegan his literary activity when a boy of fifteen. He
joined the editorial staff of the “ Extrablatt ” in 1872,
and in 1877 won the first prize of the Berliner Lite-
yarisches Centralbureau for his feuilleton “ Litte-
rarische Zukunftsmusik.” In1879 he went to Frank-
fort-on-the-Main to become feuilleton editor of the
“Frankfurter Zeitung.” In 1881 Gross returned to
Vienna and joined the editorial staff of the “ Wiener
Allgemeine Zeitung.” For a time he was the feuil-
letonist of the “Neue Wiener Tageblatt,” and ed-
itor of the “ Extra-Post.” He was president of the
Concordia, an association of Vienna journalists, from
1898 until 1900. Among his works are the follow-
ing: “Geheimnisse,” one-act comedietta, Vienna,
1877; “Kleine Miinze,” sketches, Breslau, 1878;
“Oberammergauer Passionsbriefe,” 7b. 1880, new ed.
1900; “Nichtig und Flichtig,” sketches, Leipsic,
1880; “Die Neuen Journalisten,” comedy, with Max
Nordau, Leipsic, 1880; “ Mit dem Bleistift,” sketches,
Breslau,1881; “Der Erste Brief,” comedy, Vienna,
1888; “ Heut und Gestern ” ana “ Aus der Bicherei,”
Vienna, 1883; “ Blatter im Winde,” Vienna, 1884 (2d
ed., 1888); “ Aus Meinem Wiener Winkel,” Leipsic,
1885; “ Lieder aus dem Gebirge,” Vienna, 1885; “ Lit-
terarische Modelle,” Berlin, 1887 ; “ Gedichte,” 1887;
“Goethe’s Werther in Frankreich”; “ Was die Biich-
erei Erzahlt,” Leipsic, 1889; “Zum Nachtisch,” Leip-
sic, 1889. In 1891 Gross began his editorial connection
with the “ Wiener Fremdenblatt,” and on Dec. 21 of
the same year his adaptation of Daudet’s “ L’Obsta-
cle” was produced at the Hofburg Theater. In
1892 another collection of stories and sketches, “Im
Vorbeigehen,” was published at Leipsic, and his
drama, “Um Drei Uhr,” was produced. His later
works are: “Augenblicksbilder” and “Ungebun-
den,” Vienna, 1895; “Blatter im Walde,” Leipsic,
1896; “Wer Ist Frei von Schuld?” (one-act sketch),
1896; “In Lachen und Liacheln,” Stuttgart, 1898;
“Von den Leichten Seiten,” Leipsic, 1900.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Eisenberg, Das Geistige Wien, s.v.; Meyers
onversations-Lexikon.
8. M. Co.
GROSS, HEINRICH: German rabbi; born at
Szenicz, Hungary, Nov. 6, 1835; pupil in rabbin-
cal literature of Judah Aszod. After graduating
from the Breslau seminary and from the University
of Halle (Ph.D. 1866; his thesis on Leibnitz obtain-
ng the university prize), he was engaged as private
teacher by Baron Horace Gtinzburg at Paris. Dur-
ing a residence of two years in that city Gross col-
écted in the Bibliothéque Nationale the material for
'S great work “Gallia Judaica.” In 1869 he went to
erlin, where he associated much with Zunz, whose
Methods of research he admired and adopted. In
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Grodno
Grossman
1870 he was called tothe rabbinate of Gross-Strelitz,
Silesia; aud since 1875 he has occupied the rabbinate
of Augsburg.
Gross’s activity in the domain of literary history,
especially of that of the French Jews of the Middle
Ages, has been very extensive. His “Gallia Ju-
daica” (Paris, 1897), which deals with the medieval
geography and literary history of the Jews of
France, has become a standard work. Gross has
also enriched the Jewish scientific periodicals with
many valuable contributions, which of themselves
constituteimportant works. Of these the most note-
worthy are: “Abraham ben David aus Posqui¢res,
ein Literarhistorischer Versuch,” in “ Monatsschrift,”
1873-74; “Zur Gesch. der Juden in Arles,” 73. 1878,
1879, 1880; “Eliezer ben Joel ha-Levi, ein Literar-
historischer Versuch,” 2d. 1885, 1886; “Jehudah Sir
Leon aus Paris: Analekten,” in “ Magazin,” 1877,
1878, iv. 174, v. 179; “Etude sur Simson ben Abra-
ham de Sens,” in “R. E. J.” 1888.
Gross is also the author of “ Lehrbuch der Israe-
litischen Religion fiir die Oberen Klassen der Mittel-
schulen.”
s, I. Br.
GROSS, JENNY: Austrian actress; born at
Szanto, Hungary. Educated for the stage by Cesa-
rina Kupfer, she made her début in 1878 at the Carl-
theater at Vienna; in 1880 she appeared at the
Stadttheater, and in 1885 at the Berlin court theater,
from which she went in 1889 to the Lessings Thea-
ter, where she is at present (1903) engaged. Her
rolesinciude: Mudame Sans Géne, Komtesse Guckerl,
Niobe, Josephine, Sonja in “ Raskolnikow,” Wolfgang
in “Konigsleutnant,” Jeanne in “Die Welt in der
Man sich Langweilt,” Marianne in “Die Geschwis-
ter,” mire in “Tartiffe,” and the well-known
women in Shakespeare.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Eisenberg, Biog. Lex.
s, F. T. H.
GROSS-KANIZSA. Sec Nacy-KaAnizsa.
GROSSER, JULIUS: German physician; born
at Freistadt, Prussian Silesia, Oct. 25, 1835: died at
Prenzlau, Prussia, Oct. 25,1901. He studied at the
University of Berlin, where he graduated in 1859 as
doctor of medicine. In 1861 he established a prac-
tise in Prenzlau. He served through the Franco-
Prussian war in the capacity of surgeon, and was
decorated with the Iron Cross. In 1880 he founded
the “ Deutsche Medizinal-Zeitung,” which he edited
until his death, contributing many articles to this
and other medical journals.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lex. s.v., Vienna, 1901.
8 F. T. H.
GROSSMAN, RUDOLPH: American rabbi;
born at Vienna, Austria, July 24, 1867; B.L., Uni-
versity of Cincinnati, Ohio, and Rabbi and D.D., He-
brew Union College, Cincinnati. Grossman was as-
sociate rabbi of Temple Beth-El, New York, from
1889 to 1896, and since the latter year he has been
rabbi of Temple Rodef Sholom, in the same city.
He was corresponding secretary of the Central Con-
ference of American Rabbis (1902), and has written
a number of essays for Jewish and other magazines.
He was grand chaplain of the grand lodge of the
Masonic Order, New York (1898-1900). A.
Grossmann
Groves
GROSSMANN, IGNACZ: Hungarian physi-
cist; born in Génez-Ruszka, Abauj county, Feb. 16,
1823; died in Budapest May 21, 1866. He attended
the University of Prague, devoting himself espe-
cially to mathematics and pedagogics. From 1847
to 1851 he was a teacher in Gyér-Sziget; for the two
following years he attended the Josef technical
school in Budapest, and in 1854 he was appointed
principal of the girls’ school of the Pester Israelitische
Religionsgemeinde.
In 1857 Grossmann was called to a professorship
in the commercial school, where he remained until
1862, when he was made engineer of the Pest-Losoncz-
Zélyom Railroad Company. Grossmann was the
actual inventor of the mercurial pneumatic pump.
In 1854 he discovered a new method of gasometer
construction. He wrote “Fiihrer in der Geometri-
schen Analyse der Krystallographie,” Leipsic, 18957.
8. M. W.
GROSSMANN, IGNAZ: American rabbi;
born at Trencsen, Hungary, July 30, 1825; died
March 18, 1897,in New York city. He received his
education at the yeshibah of Presburg, and in 1863
was called as rabbi to Koritschan, Moravia, which
position he in 1866 changed for that at Warasdin,
Croatia. In 1873 he was called to Brooklyn, N. Y.,
where he officiated in the Congregation Beth Elo-
him, and later in the Congregation B’nai Abraham.
He wrote: “ Drei Predigten,” Warasdin, 1868; “Die
Sprache der Wahrheit,” 2b. 1870; “Mikraot Ketan-
not,” Cincinnati, 1892, The last work is a presenta-
tion of the 618 commandments with their Biblical
bases, their rabbinical definitions, and their moral
lessons. He also contributed very frequently to
“Deborah.” Of his sons, Louis Grossmann, in Cin-
cinnati, Ohio; Rudolph Grossman, in New York
city ; and Julius Grossmann, in Ipolysagh, Hungary,
are rabbis.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Deborah, April 1, 1897. D
8. :
GROSSMANN, LOUIS: American rabbi and
author; born at Vienna, Austria, Feb. 24, 1868; edu-
cated at the University of Cincinnati (B.A.) and at
the Hebrew Union College (D.D.). Grossmann is
descended from a family of rabbis. In 1884 he be-
came rabbi of the Temple Beth El at Detroit, Mich-
igan, retaining this office until 1898, He then suc-
ceeded Isaac M. Wise as rabbi of the Congregation .
B’nai Yeshurun at Cincinnati, and also as professor
of theology at the Hebrew Union College. Gross-
mann is the author of the following: “Judaism and
the Science of Religion,” New York and London,
1889; “ Maimonides,” New York and London, 1890;
“Hymns, Prayers, and Responses,” Detroit, 1892;
“The Jewish Pulpit,” Detroit, 1894; “Isaac M.
Wise, His Life and Writings,” Cincinnati, 1900. He
has also contributed to Jewish periodicals. A.
GROSSMANN, LUDWIG: Austrian mathe-
matician and political economist; born at Leito-
mischl, Bohemia, March 14, 1854. As a boy he
showed unusual aptitude for physics and mathemat-
ics; and he continued his studies in these branches
at the University of Vienna, graduating as doctor of
philosophy in 1878. In the same year he founded and
edited the “ Mathematisch-Physikalische Zeitschrift ”
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 96
at Vienna. He is the discoverer of the mathematica)
analytical curve of the probable length of the
of man. Grossmann has devoted himself large] to
literary work, and is an aclive opponent of any.
Semitism. He is now (1903) a resident of Vienna
and editor of the “Controlle,” a journal devoted t,
political economy.
Of Grossmann’s works may be mentioned: « Die
Mathematik im Dienste der Nationalékonomie,” yj.
enna, 1886-1900; “Allgemeine Integration der Line.
aren Differentialgleichungen Hoherer Ordnung »
Leipsic, 1889-91; “Compendium der Praktischep
Volkswirthschaft und Threr Mathematischen Digg.
plinen,” Vienna, 1892-1903.
8. F. T.
GROSSWARDEIN (NAGY-VARAD): Hu.
garian city, with a population of 51,000, about one.
fourth of whom are Jews. The hebra Kaddisha wag
founded in 1735, the first synagogue in 1808, and the
first communal school in 1889. The old Jewish
quarter, known as the “Katona Varos,” is in the
neighborhood of the fort. It still bears its ancient
aspect and is still occupied mainly by Jews. The
old synagogue remains, though no longer used for
worship. The Jewish hospital also stands there.
Not until the beginning of the nineteenth century
were Jews permitted todo business in any other part
of the city, aud even then they were required to
withdraw at nightfall totheirown quarter. In 1835
permission to live at will in any part of the city was
granted them.
The Jewish community of Grosswardein is divided
into an Orthodox and a Reform congregation. While
the members of the Reform congregation still retain
their membership in the hebra kaddisha, they have
used a cemetery of their own since 1899. The Jews
of Grosswardein have won prominence in the public
life of the city; there are Jewish manufacturers,
merchants, lawyers, physicians, and farmers; the
present chief of police (1902) is a Jew; and in the
municipal council the Jewish element is proportion-
ately represented. The community possesses, in ad-
dition to the hospital and hebra kaddisha already
mentioned, a Jewish women’s association, a gram-
mar-school, an industrial school for boys and girls,
a yeshibah, a soup-kitchen, etc.
The following are among those who have held the
rabbinate of Grosswardein: Joseph Rosenfeld
(Orthodox); David Joseph Wahrmann (Ortho-
dox); Aaron Landesberg (Orthodox); Moricz
Fuchs (Orthodox: still officiating, 1903); Alexan-
der Rosenberg (Reform: removed to Arad); Al-
exander Kohut (Reform: removed to New York,
1885; died, 1894); Leopold Kecskeméty (Reform:
still officiating, 1903).
D. G. KE.
GROTIUS, HUGO (HUIG VAN GROOT):
Dutch Christian diplomat, theologian, and scholar;
born at Delft, Holland, April 10, 1588; died at Ros-
tock, Germany, Aug. 28, 1645. In the religious
combat between the Gomarists and Arminians GT
tius was a follower of Arminius. When in 1619 the
Arminians were thrown into prison, he was Sel
tenced to imprisonment for life, and escaped 1?
1621 only through a stratagem of his wife. He be:
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
97
jeved all his life in the doctrines of Arminius, and
xpounded his master’s views in his religious
qritings, which were collected after his death in
i, “ Opera Omnia Theologica,” Amsterdam, 1679.
In 1644 appeared in Paris in three volumes his
« Annotationes in Yetus Testamentum,” including
the Apocrypha (ed. Déderlein, Halle, 1775-76).
This great work was at first read by the Arminians
only; but it soon became well known through its
philological-historical character.
In the course of his religious researches Grotius,
through Isaac Vossius, became acquainted with
Manassch ben Israel. He corresponded with Manas-
seh, aSking many questions concerning the Hebrew
language, literature, and interpretation of the Old
Testament. Manasseh auswered his inquiries, and
the two exchanged many letters.
Not being a theologian proper, Grotius was not
pound by any dogimatic views; and his explanations
of sentences and phrases are consequently based en-
tirely upon the original text itself. The Jewish
exegetes became known to Grotins through Manas-
seh ben Israel; and be frequently cites and follows
them in his annotations. He often mentions that
the Hebrew scholars explain a sentence as he does;
and even where he differs from them he gives their
views. It was a favorite accusation against Gro-
tius’ commentary that he Judaized, or followed Jew-
ish rather than Christian methods of exegesis. It is
possible that Grotius knew of Manasseh’s plan to
induce Queen Christina of Sweden to open north
Scandinavia to the Jews, as he was Swedish am-
bassador at Paris from 1635 to 1645,
Grotius highly esteemed Manasseh, whom he
compares with Ibn Ezra, Maimonides, and Abra-
vanel. He studied his works, and was much im-
pressed by them. Especially was Manasseh’s
“Conciliador ” (Amsterdam, 1641) admired by Gro-
tius. In a letter to Manasseh he says: “I implore
you to spend all your spare time in explaining the
Law. You will do a great favor to ail scholars”
(“Grotii Epistole,” No. 564, Amsterdam, 1687).
Again, in a letter to Vossius under date of Oct. 30,
1688: “Manasseh, whom I wish well, is a man of
great usefulness to the state and toscience” (23. No.
476). Writing from Paris, he says: “His books,
which I know, are much read and highly thought of
here.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Encye. Brit. s.v.; Schaff-Herzog, Encyc. 8.v.;
Graetz, History of the Jews (Am. transl.), v. 21, 22, Phila-
delphia, 1895: Adler, 4 Homage to Manasseh ben Israel, in
Trans. Jew. Hist. Soc. Engl. 1893-91, i., London, 1895; Kay-
serling, Menasse ben Israel, in Jahrbuch ftir die Gesch.
der Juden, ii., Leipsic, 1861; Grotii Epistolee, Nos. 390, 423,
452, 454, 476, 564, 570, Amsterdam, 1687; Grotii Epistole
Ineditce (supplement to the foregoing), Leyden, 1809.
KE. C. (Ey a.
GROVES AND SACRED TREES: By many
Oriental as well as Occidental peoples, whether of
Semitic or non-Semitic stock, groves and single trees
(oaks, terebinths, tamarisks, palms, etc.) were re-
garded and revered as favorite abodes of the gods,
and were therefore set aside for worship and marked
by the erection of altars in, under, or near them.
ehind this conception was the belief, wide-spread
among primitive races, that trees were animated
(See Mannhardt, “Die Wald- und Feldkulte”).
i odified, this idea reappears in the form in which
Vi—i
Grossmann
Groves
—_—
the trees are held to be the dwellings, and groves
the haunts, of benevolent or malevolent spirits and
deities. Moreover, trees were suggestive of fertil-
ity, of life, and (in winter) of death. This induced
their worship as visible manifestations of the secret
powers of nature controlling generation and decay.
Among the Hebrews, also, this notion seems to
have prevailed in remote times. At all events,
groves and trees are found connected with the-
ophanies (Gen. xn. 6 [A. V. 7]), and with the giving
of judgment—that is, the oracular consultation of the
deity (Judges iv. 5; [ Sam. xxii. 6).
The Hebrew “elon” and “ eshel,” denoting the oak
and tamarisk respectively, are mentioned as groves,
or perhaps in stricter accuracy as sin-
Trysting- gle trees, where Yawn revealed Him-
Trees. self (Gen. xii. 6 [A. V. 7], xxi. 38);
more definitely described as “elon mo-
reh” (= “oak of the revealing oracle”; “moreh”
from the root 7°, whence also “Torah”; but see
Barth, “ Etymologische Studien,” pp. 13-14); some-
times in the plural “elone moreh” (Deut. xi. 30);
also “elone mamre” (Gen. xiii. 18, xiv. 18, xviii. 1).
“Elah ” (Isa. i. 80), “allah ” (Josh. xxiv. 26), “allon”
(Gen. xxxv. 8), “tomer” (Judges iv. 5), and “rim-
mon” (I Sam. xiv. 2) occur in connections indicating
that trees which were regarded as sacred, eitber in
groves or singly, are meant. Under such sacred
trees treaties were solemnly confirmed (Judges ix.
6), sacrifices were offered (7b. vi. 11), and, as stated
above, judgments were rendered (zd. iv. 5). The
sound made by the trees is mentioned as an auspi-
cious omen (JI Sam. v. 24; comp. Gen. xii. 6;
Judges ix. 37). Yuwu is described as dwelling in
the (burning) bush (Deut. xxxiti. 16; comp. Ex. iii.
1-6). Joshua erectsa memorial stone underneath an
oak “that was by the sanctuary of Yawu” (Josh.
xxiv. 26). Among the Patriarchs, Abraham is more
especially brought into relations with such groves
or sacred trees (Gen. xiii. 18, xviii. 1, xxi. 58).
The opposition evinced by the Later Prophets
to such groves and trees confirms the theory that
originally they were connected with the cult of
the deities presiding over the generative processes
of nature. These deities and their worship (see
Baaum and comp. Deut. xii. 2) were dominant
factors in the Canaanitish religion, the “high hills”
and “green trees” being characteristically identified
with the corrupt practises of the Israelites’ neigh-
bors and symbolic of their pernicious influence upon
the people of Yuwu (I Kings xiv. 23; II Kings xvi.
4, xvii. 10; II Chron. xxvii. 4; Isa. lvii. 5; Jer. ii.
20; iii.6,138; xvii. 2; Ezek. vi. 18, xx. 28; Hosea iv.
13). The “ gardens,” which are also mentioned with
disapproval, served similar purposes and for the
same reasons (Isa. i. 29, Ixv. 3, Ixvi. 17).
The ASHFRAH—usnally (following LXX. and the Vulgate) ren-
dered “ grove’ or, when in the plural, “groves” (“asherim”’;
I Kings xiv. 23; II Kings xvii. 10; Jer. xvii. 2), as even the con-
text might have suggested, it not being likely that a “grove”
would be “under every green tree’’—modern scholars ac-
knowledge to have been pillars or stakes, imitations of trees,
probably trunks of trees ‘ planted,” i.c., fixed into the ground.
near the altars, and thus symbols of the deity, Baal or Asherah ;
perhaps even in their form suggestive of the obscene lasciv-
iousness of the Canaanitish cult (Deut. vii. 5, xvi. 21; Judges
vi. 28, 30: I Kings xv. 13; II Kings xvii. 10, xxiii. 14; Micah v-
32: Hosea fii. 4). The goAdess Asherah was not identical with
Growth
Griinebaum
Astarte, as Stade (‘*Gesech. des Volkes Israel,” i. £60) contends,
but was originally a tree-coddess, while Astarte was a sidereal
deity. They had many traits in common, however.
The Asherah tree or pillar had many forms, ranging froma
real tree through various imitations of parts of the tree to an-
thropomorphie suggestions (see Max Ohnefalsch-Richter, “* Ky-
pros, die Bibel und Homer,” 1898, plates lxix.; Ixxv.. Nos. 1, 3,5,
IxXxxXiii., No. 20a, b). Compare ASHERAH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Schrader, in Zeiischrift fiir _Assyriologie und
Verwandte Gebiete, iii. 353-3864; Eduard Meyer, in Roscher’s
Lexicon, i. 646, 647, 654; Riehm, Handworterb. des Bibli-
schen Altertums, i. s.v. Hain; Mannhardt, Wald- und
Feldkulte, 2 vols., 1875, 1877; Frazer, The Golden Bough, 2d
ed., 1900, vol. i. On Semitic tree-eults see Baudissin, Studien
zur Semitischen Religionsgesch. ii. 184-222: Movers, Die
Phinizier, vol. i: Osiander, Studien tiher die Vorislamische
Religion der Araber, in Z. D. M. G. vol. vii.; Wellhausen,
Reste Arah. Heidentums, p. 10L; The Sacred Trees of the
Assyrian Monuments, in the Babyl. and Oriental Record,
vols. iii., iv.; Tylor, The Winged Figures of the Assyrian
and Other Ancient Monuments, in Proceedings Soc. Bibl.
Arch. vol. xii.; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and As-
syria, p. 662. For the Hebrews specially: Scholz, Gdtzen-
dienst und Zauherwesen bei den Alten Hebriiern, p. 292;
Baudissin, l.c. pp. 228-230. The best comparative study of
Hebrew tree-worship is that of W. Robertson Smith, Ret. of
Sem. 2d ed., 1894, s.v. Trees.
E. G. H.
GROWTH OF THE BODY: From thestudies
of Majer for Galicia, Weissenberg for South Rus-
sia, Sack for Moscow, and Yashchinsky for Poland,
which give uniform results, it is found that Jewish
children grow very rapidly up to the age of six,
whereas usually development slackens at four; from
six to eleven growth is slower; from eleven to six-
teen the body again increases rapidly, when growth
again becomes slower, but still continues up to the
age of thirty. At this age the maximum height is
attained, whereas with Germans this height is
reached at the age of twenty-three (Gould). At
forty the body begins to decline and grow shorter.
This is seen from the figures in the table, and in
the diagram representing graphically the process of
growth of Jewish children in South Russia and in
Moscow, given by Weissenberg (“ Die Siidrussischen
Juden,” p. 17).
GROWTH OF THE Bopy.
Jews of South|| Jews of Cen- Jews of
Russia (Weis-|| tral Russia Poland
senberg). (Sack). (Elkind).
Age. . 3 ‘ re . re]
o> a v aa o> a
So) &e | 85 22] 85 | 8
R=] < 3 wy S < a wn & < =
ht — ome |
BO icoeakearakeuas 1,016
Dale Soe te) aden 1,086 70
Chivas caas cues «| 1.4121 35
NaOsiee esac eeseel 1,156 35
Bis a eeeb hea eine 1,202 46
9-10...... ee ee 1,247 45 1,278
1U-11...... evSsakies 1,280 33 1,300 | 27
5 Fy Ds b-peeeeer remne e pareer 1,345 65 1,340 40
LPNS siheed ceases 1,377 32 1,378 38
iC eer 1,448 71 1,454 76
jC) Gs eee 1,482 34 1,516 92
WGHNG oes acctswee he 1,558 7 1,585 39
16-17....... eenida ts 1,601 4° 1,622 37
LSI ee reat saccsae 1.611 10 1,643 21
SHOE ica en eetteers 1,641 30 1,648 5
1D 0 iain a eats 1,640 | ~1 1,638 | —10
SR eD iss be to: Beate es 1,648 8 1,606
BOBO ig sieves ache ab 4,659 il 1,606 | —-
5) | | 1,643 | —16 1,612 6
41-50... . eee 1,642 | ~1 1,617 5
51 and over........} 1,686 | —6 1,606 | —11
Sack compared the stature of Jewish school-chil-
dren in Moscow with that of non-Jewish children
attending thesameschools. He found that the Jew-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 98
ish children were shorter. But Yashchinsky, Who
took measurements of Jewish and non-Jewish Schoo}.
children in Warsaw, Poland, found the contray.
According to his investigations the Jews are taller
than the Poles between the ages of twelve and soy.
enteen notwithstanding the known fact that adult
Poles are taller than aduit Jews. |
In so far as Bavaria is concerned Ranke (“Kg
pergrésse in Bayern: Beitriige zur Anthropologi.
Bayerns,” iv.) has shown that the stature is lowest
in those parts of the kingdom in which the infantile
mortality is highest.
From measurements taken by Fishberg from Jew.
ish school-children in New York city, it appears
that those born in the United States grow faste;
and at maturity attain a greater stature, than those
born in Europe. There are two reasons for this
phenomenon. First, the Jewish child in America jg
brought up amid better sanitary and hygienic gyp.
roundings; it is better nurtured, and the unhealthy
heder is replaced by modern hy gienic public schools,
The second and more important reason is that there
is a process of selection at work. The stature of the
Jewish immigrant to America is greater than the
average of those left at home. This is a fact ob.
served also among the immigrants of other races,
It is the strongest physically who venture to change
their place of abode. These taller Jews transmit
their superior stature to their descendants.
The body grows not only in height but also in
GIRTH, which is best measured by the chest. From
the investigations of Sack and Weissenberg it has
been found that the growth of the body in stature
does not go hand in hand among Jews with its in-
crease in breadth, but that they progress alternately.
Up to maturity the height increases at the expense
of the girth of the chest. After this period the
body begins to broaden. The maximum girth of
the chest is attained only between forty and fifty
years ofage. After this there is a recession.
The growth of the limbs has been shown to pro-
gress rapidly up to sixteen years of age. It then
proceeds slowly up to the age of thirty, when the
maximum is attained. After this time there is a
recession.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Majer, Roezny Przyrost Ciala wu Zydow
Galicyjskich, Zbior Wiadomosci do Antropol. Krajowe),
tom iv., dzial ii., Cracow, 1880; N. B. Sack, Fizicheskoye Raz-
vitye Dyetei, Moscow, 1892: 8. Yashchinsky, A ntropomel-
ritcheskia Materialy k Izycheniu Razvitiya Rosta Vyesd,
etc., s Polyakov i Yevreyev, Warsaw, 1889; S. Weissenberg,
Die Stidrussischen Juden,in Archiv fiir Anthropologié,
xxxiii. 3,4: A. D. Elkind, Yevret, Trudy Antropotogiches-
kao Otdyela, xxi., Moscow, 1903.
J M. Ft.
GROZOVSKI, JUDAH LOB BEN ISAIAH
REUBEN: Russian Hebraist; born at Pogostt,
government of Minsk, in 1861. After having at-
tended the yeshibah of Volozhin, Grozovski studied
pedagogics in the Institute for Hebrew Teachers at
Wilna. When twenty-seven years of age, he went
to Palestine, teaching Hebrew in various places:
in 1896 he received an appointment as teacher ©
Hebrew in the agricultural school of Jaffa. Three
years later he removed to the Mikweh Yisrael col-
ony, and filled the same office there. Grozovsk)
published a series of text-books, among which are:
“Bet ha-Sefer li-Bene Yisrael,” Jerusalem, 1891;
99
» Sha‘ashu‘im,” 2. 1891: “Bet Sefer ‘Ibri,” three
eraded courses in Hebrew, 1895-97; and “ Millon,”
Hebrew-Russian-German dictionary, Warsaw, 1900.
g. M. Fr.
GRUBER, JOSEPH: Austrian physician; born
at Kosolup, Bohemia, Aug. 4, 1827; died at Vienna
yarch 31, 1900. He graduated (M.D.) from the
rniversity of Vienna in 1855. In 1860 he settled in
Vienna as & specialist in aural diseases, and became
rivat-docent in 1863. In the succeeding year he
pecame Chief surgeon of the aural depart:rent at the
jligemeines Krankenhaus. In 1870 he was ap-
ointed assistant professor, and in 1873 became
chief surgeon of the newly founded aural clinic of
the university. In 1893 he was elected professor,
which position he resigned in 1898.
Gruber was the author of many essays and works
(numbering in all nearly 200), and was for many
ears one of the editors of the “Monatsschrift fiir
Ohrenheilkunde Sowie ftir Kehlkopf-, Nasen- und
Rachenkrankheiten.” Among his writings may be
mentioned: “Zur Pathologie der Himatocele,” Vi-
enna, 1859; “Zur Pathologie und Therapie der Otitis
Interna,” 2d. 1860; “ Anatomisch-Physiologische Stu-
dien tiber das Trommetfell und die Gehérknéchel-
chen,” 2b. 1867; “Lehrbuch der Ohrenheilkunde,”
ib. 1870, 2d ed. 1888.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lexikon, Vienna, 1901, s.v.
8. F. T. H.
GRUBY, DAVID: French physician; born at
Neusatz (Ujvidék), Hungary, Oct. 10, 1810; died in
Paris Nov. 16, 1898. He studied medicine at the
University of Vienna, and graduated in 1884. Al-
though at that time a Jew was rarely permitted to
hold a position in the university hospital, Gruby was
appointed assistant surgeon upon the recommenda-
tion of the well-known physician Wattmann. Soon
after, he went to London, and in 1839 to Paris, where
he engaged in private practise.
Gruby was one of the leaders in microscopical re-
search, and gave free public lectures, which were
largely attended, on microscopy, experimental phys-
iology, and pathology. The results of his experi-
ments are embodied in: “Observationes Microsco-
pice ad Morphologiam Pathologicam Spectantes,”
Vienna, 1839; and “ Morphologia Fluidorum Patho-
logicorum,” 7b. 1840.
As a practitioner Gruby was very successful. He
was physician to the younger Dumas and to Hein-
tich Heine.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Hirsch, Biog. Lez. s.v.: Pagel, Biog. Lez. s.v.
8. F. T. H.
GRUN, MAURICE: Russian painter; born at
Reval, Russia, in 1870. He studied art at Munich
and Geneva, and in 1890 went to Paris. There he
became a pupil of Jules Lefébre and Benjamin Con-
stant, receiving the Academy medal and several
honorable mentions. When but twenty-four years
of age Grin was appointed principal of the School
of Arts at Bahia, Brazi}. In 1896 he returned to
Urope and again settled in Paris, but removed in
1898 to London, where he has since resided. Among
In many paintings may be mentioned: “Brittany
nterior,” “Peaceful Moments,” “For Queen and
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Growth
Griinebaum
Empire,” “Overhauling the Nets,” “Oh, Bother!”
“Idle Moments,” “The Unexpected Return,” “ First
Start in Life.” He is also well known as a portrait-
painter.
H. R. HE: A.
GRUNBAUM, MAX (MAIER): German Ori-
entalist; born in Seligenstadt, Hesse, July 15, 1817;
died in Munich Dec. 11, 1898. Griinbaum studied
philology and philosophy at Giessen and Bonn. In
1858 he became superintendent of the Hebrew Or-
phan Asylum in New York city. He returned to
Europe in 1870, and spent the remainder of his days
in Munich. After 1862 nearly all his papers on
Oriental philology and folk-lore appeared in the
“ Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlindischen Gesell-
schaft”; and after his death they were reedited by
Felix Peries under the title “Gesammelte Aufsitze
zur Sprach- und Sagenkunde,” Berlin, 1901. The
following are among his larger works: “ Jiidisch-
Deutsche Chrestomathie,” 1882; “ Mischsprachen
und Sprachmischungen,” 1885; “ Neue Beitriige zur
Semitischen Sagenkunde,” 1893; “Die Jiidisch-
Deutsche Litteratur in Deutschland, Polen, und
Amerika,” 1894; “Jiidisch-Spanische Chrestoma-
thie,” Frankfort, 1896. He had nearly completed
the recataloguing of the works in the Hebrew depart-
ment of the Munich State Library when he died.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bettelheim, Biographisches Jahrbuch, 1899,
pp. 235-236; Allgemeine Zeitung, Munich, 1898, Beilage No.
285, pp. 5-6; Miinchener Neueste Nachrichten, 1898, No.
591, p. 4; Perles, in Gesammelte Aufsdtze, Preface.
8. N. D.
GRUNEBAUM, ELIAS: German rabbi; born
in the Palatinate Sept. 10, 1807; died in Landau
Sept. 25, 1893. In 1823 he went to Mayence, where
he became a pupil of the Talmudist Lob Ellinger,
and in 1826 continued his Talmudic studies at Mann-
heim; in 1827 he went to Frankfort-on-the-Main,
where he attended the rabbinical lectures of Solomon
Trier, Aaron Fuld, and Bir Adler, and prepared
himself for the university. In 1831 he entered the
University of Bonn, where he became intimately
acquainted with Abraham Geiger. In 1832 he went
to Munich to continue his studies. In 1885 he was
appointed to the rabbinate of Birkenfeld, and the
next year became rabbi of the Landau district, a
position which he held till his death. Griinebaum
was one of the most zealous and determined repre-
sentatives of Reform Judaism. It is due to his ef-
forts that the so-called “ Jews’ oath” was abolished
in Bavaria (1862). In appreciation of his work for
the improvement of the Jewish school-system, Lud-
wig IT. of Bavaria bestowed upon him the Order of St.
Michael. Besides contributing to Geiger’s various
magazinesand to the “ Allgemeine Zeitung desJuden--
tums,” Jost’s “Annalen,” and Stein’s “ Volkslehrer, ”
Griinebaum published: “ Die Sittenlehre des Juden-
thums Anderen Bekenntnissen Gegentiber Nebst dem
Geschichtlichen Nachweise tiber Entstehung des
Pharisdismus und Dessen Verhiltnis zum Stifter
der Christlichen Religion,” Mannheim, 1867; “Zu-
stinde und Kimpfe der Juden, mit Besonderer Be-
zichung auf die Rheinpfaiz,” 2. 1843; “ Gottesdienst-
liche Vortrige,” Carlsruhe, 1844; “Israelitische
Gemeinde, Synagoge und Schule,” Landau, 1861;
Griinfeld
Guadalajara
“Reden ” (delivered on various occasions). Many of
his sermons were published in Kayserling’s “ Biblio-
thek Jiid. Kanzelredner.”
8. M. K.
GRUNFELD, ALFRED: Austrian pianist;
born at Prague July 4, 1852; studied under Hoger,
under Krejci at the Prague Conservatorium, and
under Kullak at the Neue Akademie der Tonkunst,
Berlin. In 1878 he settled at Vienna, where he re-
ceived the title of “Kammervirtuos.” He has made
tours through Europe and the United States.
During a visit to Germany Griinfeld was ap-
pointed court pianist to Emperor William I. Since
1897 he has been professor at the Vienna Conserva-
torium. Of his compositions may be mentioned the
following works for the pianoforte: Octave-study,
op. 15; Minuet, op. 31; and Spanish Serenade, op. 37.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Musikalisches Wochenblatt, xiv. 343; Ehr-
pO woe Pianists of the Past and Present, pp.
+
8. J. So.
GRUNFELD, HEINRICH: Austrian violon-
cellist; born at Prague April 21, 1855; a brother of
Alfred Griinfeld. Educated at the Prague Conserva-
torium, he went to Berlin in 1876, and for eight years
taught at the Neue Akademie der Tonkunst in that
city. In conjunction with Xaver Scharwenka and
Gustav Hollander (later with Sauret, M. Pauer, and
F. Zajic), he arranged trio soirées which became very
popular. In 1866 Griinfeld was appointed court
violoncellist to King William of Prussia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Riemann, Musik-Lexikon; Baker, Biog.
Diet. of AMuste and Musicians.
8. J. So.
GRUNFELD, JOSEF: Austrian physician and
writer; born at Gyénk, Hungary, Nov. 19, 1840.
After graduating from the gymnasium at Kaschau,
he went successively to the universities of Budapest
(1861) and Vienna (1863), graduating (M.D.) from
the latter in 1867. He became privat-docent at Vi-
enna in 1881, and chief of division at the Poliklinik
of Vieunain 1885. He published a ‘‘ Compendium
der Augenheilkunde” that has gone through four
editions, and (in ‘* Deutsche Chirurgie ’’) “ Die En-
doskopie der Harnréhre und Blase.’”’ He was the first
to use the endoscope. He was known for his many
surgical innovations as wellas through numerous
monographs in his special department. Professional]
activities did not hinder Griinfeld from interesting
himself in the affairs of the Jewish community. Le
was one of the founders, and for more than eight
years president, of the Oesterreichisch-Israelitische
Union. He died May 14, 1910, 8.
GRUNHUT, DAVID: German rabbi of the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; born at Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, where his father was secretary of
the congregation, and his maternal grandfather,
Simon Ginzburg, was a member of the rabbinate.
In 1682 he edited Hayyim Vital’s book on transmi-
gration, “Gilgulim.” This brought upon him the
censure of the rabbinate, which was opposed to Shab-
bethai Zebi and, therefore, to the Cabala. He never-
theless reprinted this work in 1684. He also pub-
lished “ Tob Ro’i,” rules on shehitah in the form of a
catechism, together with “ Migdal Dawid,” homilies
on the Pentateuch, and notes on some Talmudic trea-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
tises (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1712), and a commen
tary on Abraham ibn Ezra’s grammatical puzz}e in
the 1712 (Frankfort) edition of the “Sefer Hasidin, »
which commentary was reprinted in the 1713 (ib
edition of Samuel Uccda’s commentary on Abot én:
titled “Midrash Shemuel.” He was rabbi in Au
Hesse-Nassau, and perhaps also in Heimerdinge,
He was on good terms with the anti-Jewish writ,
J. J. Schudt and Johann A. Lisenmenger, g
wrote a preface to the latter’s edition of the Bible.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Horowitz, Frankfurter Rabbiner, ii, 54
seq.; Maggid, Zur Gesch. und Genealogie der Gtinzbyr<
p. 15 and Index, St. Petersburg, 1899. Ue,
D
GRUNHUT, KARL SAMUEL: Austrian jy.
rist; born at Bur-St. Georgen, Hungary, Ang. 9
1844. He became associate professor in the jurid.
ical faculty of the University of Vieuna in 1872
after having published “Die Lehre von der Weg}. |
selbegebung nach Verfall,” Vienna, 1871. In 1879
“Das Enteignungsrecht ” appeared, and he founded
the “Zeitschrift fiir das Privat- und Oeffentliche
Recht der Gegenwart,” a quarterly. In 1874 he wag
promoted to the professorship of commercial law.
“Das Recht des Kommissioushandels” was pub.
lished at Vienna in 1879, since which date his liter.
ary activity has been devoted chiefly to the subjects
of notes and bills, to the literature of which he hag
contributed “ Wechselrecht,” 2 vols., Leipsic, 1897,
constituting part of the “Systematisches Handbuch
der Deutschen Rechtswissenschaft,” edited by Karl
Binding; in addition, he has published a short
“Grundriss des Wechselrechts,” 2. 1899, which simi.
larly forms part of the “Grundriss des Oesterreich-
ischen Rechts in Systematischer Bearbeitung,” ed-
ited by Finger, Frankl, and Ullman; and, for
practical purposes, “Lehrbuch des Wecliselrechts,”
ab. 1900. Griinhut has the title of “ Kaiserlicher
Hofrath,” and has been since 1897 a life-member of
the Austrian House of Lords (Herrenhaus). He has
been decorated with the star of the Order of Francis
Jaseph (1902).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 8.v.; Kohut,
Bertihmte Israelitische Miinner und Frauen, part 16, p.
8, M. Co.
GRUNHUT, LAZAR: Hungarian rabbi and
writer; born at Gerenda, Hungary, in 1850. Re-
ceiving his diploma asrabbi while a mere youth, be
went to Berlin, where he attended the lectures of
Dr. Israel] Hildesheimer at the rabbinical seminary, a
well as those at the university. He graduated (Ph.D.)
from the University of Bern. For eleven years he
officiated as rabbi at Temesvar, Hungary. In 18%
he was appointed director of the Jewish orphan asy-
lum at Jerusalem. Griinhut’s works include: “Kr
tische Untersuchung des Midrasch Kohelet Rabbah”
(Berlin, 1892); “Das Verbot des Genusses von Ge
siiuertem am Riisttage des Pessachfestes,” in “Zell.
fiir Evangelische Theologie,” 1894-98; “ Midrash
Shir ha-Shirim” (Jerusalem, 1897); “Sefer ha-Lik-
kutim,” i.-vi. (Jerusalem, 1898-1908); “Ezra ud
Nehemia, Kritisch Erliutert,” part 1 (2. 1899);
“Saadia Gaon und Sein Commentar zum Buche
Daniel” (St. Petersburg, 1899); “Saadia Gaon und
Sein Commentar zu (Daniecl,) Ezra und Nebems
(ib. 1902); “Yalkut ha-Machiri zu den Sprtiche?
‘Y
109
101
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Grunfeld
Guadalajara
galomos » (Jerusalem, 1902); “Die Reisebeschrei-
pungel des R. Benjamin von Tudela,” published
from manuscripts, with translations and introduc-
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Das Rabbiner-Seminar zu Berlin, p. 41,
perlin, 1898. ss
GRUNWALD, MAX: German rabbi and folk-
lorist ; born at Zabrze, Prussian Silesia, Oct. 10,
g7i; educated at the gymuasium of Gleiwitz and
1889) at the university in Breslau, where he also
attended the lectures of the Jewish theological semi-
nary. In 1895 he accepted the rabbinate of the
Hamburg Neue Dammthor Synagogue, where he
remained until 1903, when he became rabbi of the
Fifteenth District of Vieuna. Since Jan., 1898, he
has been editor of the “Mittheilungen der Gesell-
schaft fiir Jiidische Volkskunde,” which society was
founded by him in 1897 and of which he is presi-
dent (1903). He was also one of the principal found-
ers of the Hamburg Jewish Museum.
In addition to a large number of essays on gen-
eral literature, folk-lore, and Jewish history, which
appeared chiefly in the “ Mitthcilungen,” Grunwald
wrote the following. “Das Verhiltnis Malebranche’s
zu Spinoza,” Breslau, 1892; “ Die Eigennamen des
Alten Testamentes in Ihrer Bedeutung ftir die Kennt-
nis des Hebriiischen Volksglaubens,” 7. 1895;
“Spinoza in Deutschland,” Berlin, 1897; “ Portugie-
sengriber auf Deutscher Erde,” Hamburg, 1902;
‘Juden als Rheder und Seefahrer,” Berlin, 1902;
“Hamburger Deutsche Juden bis zur Auflésung der
Dreigemeinden in 1811,” Hamburg, 1908; “ Die Mo-
derne Frauenbewegung und das Judenthum,”
Vienna, 1908.
GRUNWALD, MORITZ: Austrian rabbi; born
March 29, 1853, at Ungarisch Hradisch, Moravia;
died in London June 10, 1895. After a short stay
in Prague he entered (1878) the Breslau Jewish the-
ological seminary, In 1881 he was called to the rab-
binate of Belovar, Croatia; in 1884-87 he was rabbi of
Pisek, Bohemia, in 1887-93 of Jung-Bunzlau, Bohe-
mia. In the latter year he became chief rabbi of
Bulgaria, with his seat at Sofia. He was at the
same time director of the national rabbinical semi-
nary, teaching Talmud and Midrash. Griinwald was
an able linguist, and a member of several scientific
societies, including the Sociéte de Numismatique
et d’Archéologie, and was highly esteemed by Prince
Ferdinand and the Bulgarian government.
Of his numerous writings the following may be
mentioned: “Die Bibel, der Talmud und die Evan-
gelien” (1877); “Zur Gesch. der Gemeinde Dyhern-
furth” (1882); “Zur Geseh. der Jiidischen Gemeinde
In Ragusa ” (1883); “Gesch. der Juden in Bohmen ”
(Ist part, 1886); “ Ueber das Verhiltniss der Kirchen-
vater zur Talmudischen und Midraschischen Lite-
Tatur ” (1891); “Ueber den Einfluss der Psalmen auf
die Entwicklung der Christlichen Liturgie und
Hymnologie ” (1892); “Rabbi Salomo Efraim Lunt-
Schitz” (1892); “Sitten und Briiuche der Juden im
Orient” (1894).
Griinwald was the founder and editor of the “Ja-
disches Centralblatt ” (1882-85).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jew. Chron. June, 1895.
GRUNWALD -ZERKOWITZ (née Zerko-
witz), SIDONIE: Austrian authoress; bornin To-
bitschau, Moravia, Feb. 17, 1852. Her early educa-
tion she received from her father, a physician. With
her parents she removed successively to Holleschau,
Vienna, and Budapest. She is well versed in
French, Italian, Hungarian, Czech, and English, and
obtained a diploma as teacher of languages. After
teaching for a few years, she received (1874) from
Ludwig IL. of Bavaria a free scholarship at his the-
atrical school in Munich. Her studies were inter-
rupted by her marriage to Prince Theodore Koloko-
tronis of Greece. Joining the Greek Catholic Church,
she accompanied her husband to Athens, where both
she and her husband were disowned by the latter’s
family. Disappointed, she returned to Moravia, be-
came a teacher, and, after securing a divorce, mar-
ried (1877) a wealthy Vienna merchant by the name
of Griinwald. Since then she has lived in Vienna,
where for some time she edited “La Mode.” |
When only thirteen years of age she published her
first essays on literature, in German and Hungarian,
in the newspapers of Budapest. In 1874 appeared,
in Vienna, “Zwanzig Gedichte von Kalman Toth,”
translated from the Hungarian. These were fol-
lowed by “Die Lieder der Mormonin,” Dresden and
Utah, 1886, 7th ed. 1900; “ Die Mode in der Frauen-
kleidung,” Vienna, 1889; “ Das Gretchen von Heute,”
Zurich, 1890, ith ed. 1900; “Achmed’s Ehe,” 1900;
“Doppel-Ehen,” 1900; “Poetischer Hirt,” 1901;
“Schattenseiten des Frauenstudiums,” 1901. She is
also the author of songs against anti-Semitism, and
has contributed many articles to the newspapers,
among which may be mentioned those contributed
to the Berlin “Bitthne und Welt”: “ Toilettenktinst-
lerinnen auf der Bithne”; critical essays on Sarah
Bernhardt, Wolter, Dusé, Réjane, Jane Hading, etc.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Wurzbach, Biographisches Lexicon, lix. 340-
3841; Madame Kolokotronis, in Neue Freie Presse, Dec.,
1874, Nos. 3708 and 3709; Blaustrumpf und Kirsten, in Kak-
tus, 1874, No. 34.
S. ET. A.
GUADALAJARA (7752758 4815 TINTON TI):
City in Castile, Spain. When Tarik ibn Zaid con-
quered the city in 711, he found Jews there, as in
Toledo and other places, and gave the conquered
city to them to guard. In the “fuero” (charter)
which Alfonso VII. gave to the city in 1189, Jews
were placed on an equality with the knights: two-
thirds of them had to follow the king in battle,
while the other third stayed behind for defense.
Guadalajara had a considerable Jewish community
in the thirteenth century, and in 1290 paid as much
in taxes as Ciudad Real. It was very much reduced
through the persecution of 1391 and through the
enforced baptisms due to it, so that in 1476 it could
hardly pay one-third of the former taxes. The num-
ber of Maranos in the city was so large that King
Juan II. issued a command to the city to treat bap-
tized Jews like persons who were born Christians and
to give them official positions.
In 1482 a Jew established a Hebrew printing-
press in Guadalajara, at which Solomon ben Moses
Levi ibn Alkabiz was engaged as printer and cor-
rector. He brought out in that year an edition of
David Kimhi'’s commentary to the Later Prophets,
Guaranty
Guardian
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 109
-——— ee TT AM
and (c. 1482) Jacob ben Asher’s Tur Eben ha-‘Ezer.
Meir ben Solomon ben Sahulah, who carried on a
correspondence with Solomon Adret and Samuel
Motot, lived in Guadalajara, and Moses de Leon
and Isaac ben Harun Sulaiman were born there.
Many of the Jews who were driven out of Guadala-
jara in 1492 went to Algiers, where they had their
own synagogue with a special ritual.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rios, Hist. i. 194, ii. 406, iii. 121; Ersch and
Gruber, Hneyc. section ii., part 28, p. 37; Sachs, Die Religiose
Poesie der Juden in Spanien, p. 3827; Steinschneider, Cat.
Bodl., col. 869; Habler, Iconographie Iberique, a
G.
GUARANTY. See ASMAKTA.
GUARDIA, LA, THE HOLY CHILD OF:
Subject of a story invented by the Spanish Inquist-
tion shortly after its institution. A Christian boy,
whose name, age, and family vary in different ac-
counts, is said to have been crucified and killed by
six Maranos and five Jews—not to use his blood for
ritual purposes, but to employ his heart for the pur-
pose of working charms. The following persons
were accused of the crime:
The four Franco brothers, who were draymen; the wool-
comber Benito Garcia, a baptized Jew, who had traveled a
great deal; and John de Ocafia; also five Jews: Ca (Isaac)
Franco, aged 84 years, formerly resident in Tembleque and after-
ward in Quintanar; his two sons, Mose and Yuce Franco, the
latter a shoemaker in Tembleque; David de Pereyon, a poor
man in La Guardia, who appears to have had charge of the ritual
ceremonies in the little community ; and the Tembleque pbysi-
cian Maestre Yuce Tazarte.
The accused were arrested by the Inquisition in
1490, either in Segovia or Astorga, and were sum-
moned before the tribunal at Avila. The physician
Yuce Tazarte, Mose Franco, and David de Pereyon
died before the beginning of the trial, which lasted
from Dec. 17, 1490, to Nov. 16, 1491, and terminated
with the condemnation of the accused. The chief
witness was Yuce Franco, a young
Testimony man hardly twenty years old and of
of Yuce limited intellect, upon whose testi-
Franco. mony the tribunal laid especial em-
phasis—all other testimony in the case
has been lost or destroyed. Another interesting
character in the suit was Benito Garcia, who had
been baptized when he was forty, but soon repented
his apostasy and returned to Judaism. The confes-
sion of Yuce Franco, either voluntary (as was pre-
tended) or forced (through fear of martyrdom and
the application of torture), showed that the accused
had crucified a child at night in aden situated on
the street of La Guardia; that they had put acrown
of thorns on his head, opened his veins, caught his
blood in a basin, and then torn out his heart with
imprecations upon Jesus. Thereupon they were
said to have taken the dead child from the cross and
to have buried him the same night in a place which
could never be found again. Some days later the
same persons again gathered at night in the same
den to utter curses and, with the assistance of the
physician Tazarte, to practise magic by means of
the child’s heart and a consecrated host. The object
of these charms was to bring about the death of all
Inguisitors and Christians, to destroy the Christian
faith, and to make the Jewish faith prevail gener-
ally. Since the charm had no effect, the conspira-
tors met a third time, and sent Benito Garcia With
the child’s heart and a new host to Rabbi Moses
Abenamias in Zamora and to another rabbi of that
city, in the hope that they might be more succeggfyj
in their witchcraft. This was the crime laid to th,
charge of the Jews and Maranos.
The accused and the witnesses, who were hearg
separately by the Inquisitors without being brought
face to face, contradicted one another in regard to the
age of the child, the names of his parents, the place
of his birth and residence, and the place where the
crime was committed. The child wag
Dis- missed nowhere, was sought nowhere.
crepancies one person testified that he had been
in taken in Lille; another that he haq
the Story. been kidnaped in Toledo; a third that
Moses Franco had seized him in Quin.
tanar. Only one person knew that the child’s father
was called Alonzo Martin and that he resided jn
Quintanar.
Through fright the innocent Yuce Franco became
seriously ill; and the Inquisitor sent a physician,
Antonio de Avila, to attend him. Antonio under.
stood Hebrew and was probably a baptized Jew,
Franco asked that the Inquisitor send a rabbi to him,
Instead of a rabbi a priest was sent, who pretended
to be the rabbi Abraham. In Antonio’s presence
Franco is said to have confessed to this priest that
he had been arrested for the murder of an eleven-
year-old boy. He made the priest promise to en-
trust this confession to no one but Rabbi Abraham
Senior. Abraham Senior is known to have been that
business friend of Isaac Abravanel who later ac.
cepted baptism. All the further proceedings were
founded on this fabrication. The child of La
Guardia never existed, but the unjustly accused
persons were either strangled and then burned or
were burned alive (Nov. 16, 1491).
The supposed martyrdom of the child of La Guar-
dia, in which even Spanish scholars of modern and
of most recent times still believe (Rios, “ Hist.” iii,
318), has caused wide discussion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: El Nifio Inocente, hij de Toledo y Martir
dela Guardia por el Licenciado Sebastian de Nieva Calvo,
Comisario de S. Oficio de la Inquisicion y Natural de Tem-
bleque, Toledo, 1628; Antonio de Guzman, Historia del Ino
cente Trinitario, el Santo Nifio de la Guardia, Madrid,
1720; Martin Martinez Moreno, Historia del Martirio de
Santo Nifio dela Guardia, Sacada Principalmente de los
Procesos Contra los Reos, ete., Madrid, 1786; Paulino Her-
rero, Breve Resumen de la Historia del Santo Nifio Ino
cente, Cristdbal, por un Devoto Suyo, Toledo, 1853; Felipe
Gareia, El Sepulero del Santo Nitio de la Guardia, 1.
1883; Lope de Vega, Comedia Famosa del Nifio Inocente
de la Guardia; Fidel Fita, in Boletin de la Real Acad.
Hist. xi., who gives the testimony, with many references;
idem, Estudios Historicos, vii., Madrid, 1887; Isidor Loeb,
in R. E. J. xv. 203 et seq., who was the first to demonstrate
the folly of the accusation; Lea, in Hnglish Historical Re
view, iv. 239, London, 1889. The whole tragedy is represente
on glass in a painting at the entrance to the Cathedral of
Toledo.
G. M. K.
GUARDIAN AND WARD: The Biblical joN
or “nursing-father” (Isa. xlix. 23; Esth. ii. 7), is uD
known to the Mishnah; a guardian is called “apo
tropos” (the Greek éairporoc); the ward is simpl¥
“vatom” (“orphan” or “fatherless”),. The Mishnah
(Git. v. 4) says: “A guardian appointed by the father
{which seems to include any other transmitter of 1-
heritance] must swear [at the end of his trust] that
he has kept back nothing; one appointed by thé
PAGE FROM THE FIRST EDITION OF DAVID KIMHI’S COMMENTARY ON THE PROPHETS, PRINTED BY SOLOMON IBN ALKABIZ
AT GUADALAJARA, 1482,
Guardian
Guetta
court need not swear.” Abba Saul says just the
contrary, and is sustained by the Talmud (Git. 52b).
A man who has minor children, or whose wife is
pregnant, should, when nearing death,
name a guardian, which he may do
by word of mouth, He may appoint
a minor, @ woman, or a bondman (Git.
51a), or, according to later views, he may order his
estate to be turned over to his minor heirs direct.
When the father fails to act, the court, as “ father of
the fatherless,” should appoint a guardian, who
must be a free man and of full age. He should be
of good repute, trustworthy, able to assert the rights
of his wards and plead their cause, and versed in
worldly affairs. Ifa kinsman, he can not take over
real estate (Maimonides, “ Yad,” Nahalot, x. 6; Shul-
han ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 290, 2). When the
court finds that the guardian is wasting the estate
of the wards, or when, in the case of a guardian ap-
pointed by the court, he falls under suspicion by
living beyond his own means, he should be removed
(Git. 52b). Under later rulings the appointing court
takes an inventory of the ward’s estate, of which it
keeps one copy, the guardian holding the other.
The rule regarding persons of unsound mind and
deaf-mutes is the same as that regarding minors;
and an apotropos, who in Anglo-American law
would be known as a “committee,” should be ap-
pointed for them, with like powers
Committee. and duties to those of guardians proper
(Ket. 48a; Yeb. 118a). But if an or-
phan adult shows the habits of a spendthrift, the
court has no power to keep his estate from him, or
to appoint a committee for him, unless it was so or-
dered by his father (Nahalot, x. 8).
A person appointed either by the father or by the
court may resign his trust provided he has not taken
possession of the ward’s property; but after taking
possession he may not resign unless he is about to
remove from the ward’s place of residence; in which
case he should turn the property over to the court,
in order that it may appoint another guardian. The
Mishnah, in the scction above quoted, speaks of
“children who rely on the master of the house,” that
is, on some adult, man or woman, in whose family
they live. The person so chosen assumes all the du-
ties and has many of the powers of a guardian. Such
a person can recover the cost of feeding and clothing
the ward when the latter comes of age.
Generally speaking, the guardian “receives and
disburses, builds and tears down, leases or plants,
and does whatever he finds to be in the interest of
his wards; he gives them to eat and to drink, and
makes all outlays according to the estate in hand
and to their station—neither too liber-
Powers ally nor too scantily” (Hoshen Mish-
and Duties.: pat, 290, 7, following Nahalot, xi. 4).
For money left to infants a guardian is
not necessary; the court may invest it upon proper
security orin land; but itis the later opinion that for
money also a guardian should be found. Movable
property may be sold by the court after an appraise-
ment, but a guardian may sell it without the inter-
vention of a court. If a market is near at hand, he
should take the movables there and sell them, and
invest the proceeds. In cases of doubt—if, for in-
Appoint-
ment.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
164
stance, he has wine on hand which, kept, might
sour, or which, taken to a distant market, would pb,
exposed to risk of loss—the guardian should act ag
he would with his own. The guardian may ang
should sell cattle, slaves, fields, and vineyards jg
necessary to feed the ward, and should sell them in
the order here given; but he should not sell suc},
property to lay the money away, nor should he ge}
fields to buy slaves, or vice versa, or a poor field to
buy a better one, for the venture might miscarry .
but one field may be sold to get oxen with which to
till the remainder.
If the orphan is sued, the guardian should not
himself undertake the defense, for he might loge.
but if he does appear and defeats the claim, the
judgment is binding. He has no power to manumit
a slave, even on the prospect of the slave paying for
himself afterward. He should (in Palestine) tithe
and take out the “terumah ” from the ward's crops,
He provides the ward with sukkah, lulab, a scroll]
of the Law, phylacteries, etc., but does not dispense
alms or charity In any form on his behalf, not evey
for the redemption of captives. But the court ap.
pointing the committee for a lunatic or deaf-mute
may assess payments for charity out of the estate
(Git. 51a).
As shown above, only an appointee of the court
has to clear himself on oath—the “solemn oath.”
But when the ward, on coming of age, makes a dis-
tinct claim of what is due him, every
Ac- guardian must clear himself by oath,
counting. A guardian is not required to render
to the ward or to the court detailed
accounts; but religion demands that he should keep
a very accurate one for “the Father of the fatherless”
who rides the heavens, The guardian is not liable
for anything stolen or lost, but he is liable for neg-
ligence or fraud.
Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 290, covers
nearly the whole subject.
5. 8. L. N. D.
GUASTALLA, ENRICO: Italian soldier; born
at Guastalla 1828; died at Milan Sept. 28, 1908.
Though brought up to
a commercial life, he
joined the army as a
volunteer in 1848. He
took part in the de-
fense of Rome, and for
his bravery in the bat-
tle of Vascello was ap-
pointed lieutenant. He
afterward went to
Piedmont, but, sus-
pected of revolutionary
tendencies by the gov-
ernment, fled to Lon-
don, where he came in
connection with Maz-
zini. In 1859 he re-
turned to Italy and
joined Garibaldi at
Como. He was
wounded in the leg at
Volturno (Oct. 1, 1860).
he became a membcr
\
ith
ji
WY \
i \\\
ALYY
ANA LAVA
if
Enrico Guastalka.
After a month’s inaction
of Garibaldi’s staff. At
105
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Guardian
Guetta
a re ak aE me a ee ae ee Be rc en ie ae eg eee ee,
Aspromonte the whole staff was captured and im-
prisoned.
Guastalla again saw active service in 1866, and
fought under Garibaldi at Como, Brescia, Lonoto,
Salo, and Desenzano. He retired from the army
with the rank of major and the insignia of knight
commandant of the Order of St. Maurice and Bt.
Lazarus. He was member of the Italian Parliament
for Varese.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Juden als Soldaten, 1897, p. 117; Jew, Chron.
(London), May 10, 1895; L’Illustrazione, Oct., 1903.
S. J.
GUATEMALA.
AMERICA.
GUDEMANN, MORITZ: Austrian rabbi; born
at Hildesheim, Germany, Feb. 19, 18385. He was
educated at Breslau (Ph.D. 1858), and took his rab-
pinical diploma (1862) at the Jewish Theological
Seminary of that city. In the latter year he was
called to the rabbinate of
Magdeburg; in 1866 he
went to Vienna as
preacher, where he became
rabbi in 1868, and chief
rabbiin 1890. Giidemann
has especially distin-
guished himself by his in-
vestigations into the his-
tory of Jewish education
and culture. He has pub-
lished: “Die Geschichte
der Juden in Magdeburg,”
1865; “Die Neugestaltung
des Rabbinenwesens,”
1866; “Sechs Predegten,”
1867; “Jtidisches im
Christenthum des Refor-
mationszeitalters,” 1870;
“Jiidisches Unterrichts-
wesen Wihrend der Spanisch-Arabischen Periode,”
1873; “Religionsgeschichtliche Studien,” 1876;
“Gesch. des Erzichungswesens und der Kultur der
Abendlindischen Juden,” 3 vols., 1880-88; “ Nach-
stenliebe,” 1890; “Quellenschriften zur Gesch. des
Unterrichts und der Erziehung bei den Deutschen
Juden,” 1894; “Das Judenthum in Seinen Grundzii-
gen und nach Seinen Geschichtlichen Grundlagen
Dargestellt,” 1902; “Das Judenthum im Neutesta-
mentlichen Zeitalter in Christlicher Darstellung,”
1908. In his “ Nationaljudentum” (Vienna, 1897) he
Wrote against the tendencies of Zionism to lay more
stress on the national than on the religious character
of Judaism, for which he was severely attacked by the
friends of the Zionist movement. As far back as 1871,
however, he had strongly protested against the pro-
bosal of the Jewish community of Vienna to strike
from the prayer-book all passages referring to the
Teturn of the Jews to the Holy Land (compare his
Sermon “ Jerusalem, dic Apfer und die Orgel,” 1871),
and had even gone so far as to threaten to resign from
the board of trustees if his protest should remain
Unheeded.
8.
See SouTH AND CENTRAL
Moritz Gudemann.
L. B.
GUENEE, ANTOINE: French priest and
Christian apologist; born at Etampes 1717; died
1808. He wrote, besides various apologetic works,
“ Lettres de Quelques Juifs Portugais, Allemands et
Polonais, 4 M. de Voltaire,” Paris, 1769, often re-
printed and translated into English and other lan-
guages. The letters are a defense of the Bible, not
of Judaism.
PipToekauNs La Grande Encyclopédie; Gratz, Gesch. xi,
D.
GUERON, YAKIR (PRECIADO): Turkish
rabbi; born in 1813; died at Jerusalem Feb. 4, 1874.
He was the sixth rabbi of Adrianople descended from
the Gueron family. He became rabbi in 1835, and
eleven years later met Sultan ‘Abd al-Majid, whom
he induced to restore the privileges formerly con-
ceded to the non-Mussulman communities. Gueron,
with the rabbis of Smyrna and Seres, was made an
arbitrator in a rabbinical controversy at Constanti-
nople, and was chosen acting chief rabbi of the
Turkish capital in 1863. Both ‘Abd al-Majid and
his successor ‘Abd al-‘Aziz conferred decorations
upon him,
Gueron resigned his office in 1872, and proceeded
to Jerusalem, where he died two years later.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Ha-Lebanon, x., No. 30.
8. A. D.
GUERTA DE JERUSALAIM. See Perrop-
ICALS.
GUESTS. See Hospiratrry.
GUETERBOCK, KARL EDUARD: German
jurist; born at Koénigsberg, East Prussia, April 18,
1880. He studied history, later law, at the univer-
sities of Kénigsberg, Bonn, Munich, and Berlin,
graduating in 1851. He was admitted to the bar in
1859, and became a judge in his native town, where
he was appointed privat-docent in Prussian law in
1861. Two years later he was elected assistant pro-
fessor, in 1868 professor, in which year he resigned
his position as judge. He has embraced the Chris-
tian faith.
Gueterbock has written various essays for jour-
nals, professional and general, and is the author of:
“Die Englischen Aktiengesellschaftgesetze von 1856
und 1857,” Berlin, 1858; “ Weber Einige in der Praxis
Hervorgetretene Miingel des Preussischen Konkurs-
verfahrens,” 7b. 1860; “ Henricus de Bracton und
Sein Verhiltniss zum Roémischen Recht,” 2b. 1862
(English transl. by Coxe, Philadelphia, 1866); “De
Jure Maritimo quod in Prussia Seculo XVI et Or-
tum Est et in Usu Fuit,” Kénigsberg, 1866; “Die
Entstehungsgeschichte der Carolina,” Wurzburg,
1876.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon; De le Roi,
Juden-Mission, p. 282.
8. ¥. T. H.
GUETTA, ISAAC: Talmudic scholar and pro-
moter of Jewish learning, whose ancestors went to
the Orient from Huete, Spain; born June 5, 1777;
lived for several years in Triest. In his old age he
went to Safed, where, as in Tiberias, he founded
Talmudic seminaries, and died Feb. 2, 1857 (8 Shebat,
5617). The scholars of Palestine extol him for his
learning and generosity. He is the author of four
volumes of novell to the Babylonian Talmud, pub-
lished in Leghorn 1846-47 and in Vienna 1851-06,
under the title “Sedeh Yizhak.” The modern He-
Guggenheim
Guizo
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
106
FS ee gy at ee ee aes a
brew poet David Ara of Triest, author of the collec-
tion “Kol Dawid” (Venice, 1880), is his grandson.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. D. Luzzatto, Note to Joseph ha-Kohen’s
‘Emek ha-Baka, p. 1; Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yis-
rael, pp. 215 et seg.; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. pp.
276, 809; David Ara, Kol Dawid, p. 78.
G. M. K.
GUGGENHEIM, MEYER: American mer-
chant and mining magnate; born in Langenau,
Switzerland, 1828. In 1847 he went to America
with his father, who settled at Philadelphia; there
Guggenheim began business life in the humblest
way, dealing, as a traveling salesman, in such com-
modities as stove-polish and glue, which he after-
ward learned to manufacture and thus sold at a
greater profit. Next he turned his attention to em-
broideries, gaining a large fortune by importing the
Swiss products. In 1881 hetransferred his business
to New York city under the name of “M. Guggen-
heim’sSons.” About this time he became interested
in a silver-mine; in order to work it profitably he
bought up a smelting-plant in Denver, Colo., and,
with the aid of his sons, devoted himself almost ex-
clusively to smelting operations, building a smelter,
in 188%, at Pueblo, Colo. The firm then extended
its operations throughout the United States, and
even into Mexico, where it built the first complete
smelter at Monterey, and another at Aguas Calientes.
It was further found necessary to build refining-
works, which was done at Perth Amboy, N. J. By
this time the firm had become the most important
silver-smelting company in the world; it soon en-
tered into a combination of smelting firms known as
the “American Smelting and Refining Company ”
(1900), the firm of M. Guggenheim’s Sons retaining
a controlling interest. The firm became interested
in mining, and a separate firm, called the “Guggen-
heim Exploration Company,” was formed, Meyer
Guggenheim died March 15, 1905.
Of Guggenheim’s eight sons, Daniel, born in
1858, in Philadelphia, Pa., entered the embroidery
business in Switzerland, but is now chairman of the
executive committee of the American Smelting and
Refining Company. Simon, born in Philadelphia,
Dec. 80, 1867, entered the smelting business in 1889,
in Colorado, where he has since lived, being nomi-
nated for lieutenant-governor (1894), for governor
(1898). Elected to the 62d Congress (1910).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: National Cyciopedia of American Biogra-
phy; The Cosmopolitan, New York, Aug., 1903; Who's
Whoin America.
E. C. J.
GUGGENHEIMER, RANDOLPH: Ameri-
can lawyer; born at Lynchburg, Va., July 20, 1846.
His family originally settled in Virginia, where his
father was engaged in the cultivation of tobacco.
Guggenheimer removed to New York city in 1865,
and entered the law school of the New York Univer-
sity, graduating in 1869. Making a specialty of cor-
poration and real estate law, he soon built up a con-
siderable practise. In 1882 he formed a partnership
with Isaac and Samuel Untermyer; by the accession
of Louis Marshall in 1893 the firm became known
as “Guggenheimer, Untermyer & Marshall.” Gug-
genheimer in 1887 was appointed commissioner of
the common schools, an office he held for nine years,
during which he originated the evening high-school
system peculiar to New York city. The establigh.
ment of the system of free lectures is likewise dye
largely to his efforts; and he secured the retention
of the German language as 4 part of the schoo]
curriculum,
Guggenheimer was the pioneer in introducin
large office-buildings on Broadway, New York. Jp
1897 he was nominated by the democracy of Greater
New York to the office of president of the municipa}
council, and was elected. In that capacity Guggen-
heimer acted as mayor of New York city during the
absence of the incumbent. He died Sept. 12, 1907,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who's Who in America, 1901-02.
E. C. F. H. Y.
GUGLIELMO, BENJAMIN (?): Italian dan.
cing-master; flourished in the fifteenth century at
Pesaro. His master was Domenico di Ferrara, in
whose “Liber Ballorum” (1460) he is mentioned,
Guglielmo himself wrote a treatise on dancing,
“Trattato dell’ Arte del Ballare,” edited by F. Zam-
brini, Bologna, 18738; 2d ed. by Messori Boncuglia,
1885. It is one of the earliest in existence; and in
it Guglielmo refers to dances devised by himself
and by one “Giuseppe Ebreo.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Lattes, in Mose, 1879, p. 263; Steinschnei-
oO in Hebr. Bibl. xix. 75; idem, in Monatsschrift, xii,
G. J.
GUHRAUVUER, GOTTSCHALK EDUARD:
German philologist and writer; born at Bojanowo,
Prussian Poland, 1809; died at Breslau Jan. 5, 1854,
He studied philology and philosophy at Breslau and
Berlin; and in 1837 passed his examination and be-
came a teacher at the Kollinsche Gymnasium in Ber-
lin. The following two yearg he spent in Paris,
studying especially Leibnitz’s works, and then re-
turned to Germany to become librarian of the Uni-
versity of Breslau. He became privat-docent in
1842, and professor in 1843, which position he held
until his death.
Among his works may be mentioned: “Mémoire
sur le Projet de Leibnitz Relatif 4 1’Expedition
d’Egypte Proposé 4 Louis XIV, en 1672,” Paris,
1839; “Kurmainz in der Epoche von 1672,” Ham-
burg, 1839; “essings Erziehung des Menschenge-
schlechts, Kritisch und Philosophisch Erortert,” 70.
1841; “Das Heptaplomeres des Jean Bodin,” 70.
1841; “G. W. v. Leibnitz, eine Biographie,” Breslau,
1842, Supplement 1846; “Joachim Jungius und Sein
Zeitalter,” Stuttgart, 1850. He edited “ Leibnitz’s
Deutsche Schriften ” (1888-40), and “Goethe’s Brief-
wechsel mit Knebel” (Leipsic, 1851), and completed
Lessing’s biography, begun by Danzel (2 vols.,
Leipsic, 1853).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon.
8. F. T. H.
GUIDACERIUS, AGATHIUS: Italian Chris-
tian Hebraist; born at Rocca-Coragio, Calabria, in
the second half of the fifteenth century. Having
studied Hebrew under a Portuguese rabbi at Rome,
he was appointed teacher of that language at the
university. In 1580 he was appointed by Francis I.
professor at the Collége de France, where he inter-
preted both the Hebrew and Greek texts of the
Scripture. Guidacerius wrote the following: “ID-
stitutiones Grammatice Hebraice Lingue,” compile
107
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Guggenheim
Guizolfi
CT CE
from the grammar “ Petah Debarai” and the “ Mik-
lol” of Kimhi (Rome, 1514; Paris, 1529, 1539, and
1546); “Peculium Agathi,” on the Hebrew letters,
vowels, accents, and syllables (Paris, 1537); “ Versio
Latina Grammatice David Kimchi” (Paris, 1540);
commentaries to the Psalms; a commentary to Can-
ticles, with the Hebrew and Latin texts (Rome, 1524) ;
a commentary to Ecclesiastes (Paris, 1581).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Woif, Bibl. Hebr. ii. 608, iv. 289; Stein-
schneider, Bibliographisches Handbuch, p. 56; Hoefer,
Nouvelle Biographie Générale.
Dp. I. Br.
GUIDE, THE. See PERIODICALS.
GUILLAUME OF AUVERGNE: French
scholastic; bishop of Paris from 1228 to 1249. He
was one of the originators of Christian scholasticism
in the thirteenth century. In his writings he dis-
played an extensive knowledge of Hebrew litera-
ture; and, although he never cites Maimonides by
name, he was on many occasions influenced by the
“Moreh Nebukim.” Thus the anonymous Hebrew
philosopher cited by Guillaume on the superiority
of the matter of heavenly bodies (“ De Universo,” I.,
parti., ch. iii., p. 631) is none other than Maimonides
(ic. II., ch. xxvi.).
Maimonides’ work was frequently utilized by
Guillaume, especially in the first part of his “De
Legibus.” He follows Maimonides’ theories on the
symbolism of the sacrifice worship and the rational
motivation of the Biblical commandments (“De
Legibus,” xvi. 46; comp. “ Moreh Nebukim,” iii., ch.
xxxi.). Starting with Deut. iv. 6, Guillaume, like
Maimonides, concludes that, besides their exoteric
sense, the precepts have an esoteric meaning (70.).
The numerous commandments were intended to di-
vert the Israelites from certain ideas and customs
which were in vogue among the idol-
De- atrous nations, especially from the
pendence teachings of the Sabeans (/.c. i. 24;
on Mai- comp. “Moreh Nebukim,” iii. 388).
monides Guillaume combats Maimonides’ view
and that the sacrifice was to be considered
Gabirol. only as a concession to the ideas of
antiquity; but he accepts this view
with regard to some prescriptions concerning the
sacrifices (/.c. vii. 88; comp. “ Moreh Nebukimn,” iii.
365).
The Jewish philosopher whom Guillaume revered
most highly was Solomon ibn Gabiro], whose “ Fons
Vite ” he often cited under the title “Fons Sapien-
tie.” Gabirol, who was known to Guillaume by the
name “ A vicebron,” was believed by him to have been
a Christian who lived in an Islamic country. Guil-
laume was much impressed by Gabirol’s theory of
the will, which he considered to be the Christian “ Lo-
80s.” Thus, although he combated Avicenna’s the-
ory of emanation on the ground that God would not
be the immediate cause of all created beings, he did
Rot object to that of Gabirol which leads to the same
Tesult (“De Universo,” I., part i., ch. xxvi.). Even
When he deems it necessary to combat Gabirol’s
Views, he does it without mentioning his name; ¢.g.,
when he objects to the theory that there are no im-
Material substances, or that even the intellectual
substances consist of matter and form (7d, II., part
i, ch. vii., p. 850).
Guillaume’s attitude toward the Jews was far
from benevolent. During his bishopric and through
his personal influence the Talmud was burned in
Paris (1242). Nor did he spare the Jews in his wri-
tings. For him, the omission in the Bible of certain
very important dogmas, such as the creation of
angels, the immortality of the soul, etc., was due to
the narrowness of the intellectual perception of the
Jews and to their moral depravity.
Guillaume distinguishes three periods in the intel-
lectual development of the Jews: (1) the Biblical
period, when the Jewish nation contented itself with
the Bible; (2) the Talmudic and Midrashic, which
he calls “the period of the fables”; and (8) the
period of the philosophers (7d. L., part iii., ch. xxxi.,
p. 805, col. 2).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: N. Valois, Guillaume d’ Auvergne, Evéque
de Paris, Sa Vie et Ses Guvres, p. 238, note 1, Paris, 1880;
Baumgartner, Die HErkenntnisslehre des Wilhketm von
Auvergne, p. 100, Minster, 1893; J. Guttmann, Die Scholas-
tik des Dreizehnten Jahrhunderts in Ihren Beziehungen
ler Nahas und zur Jidischen Literatur, p. 13, Bres-
au, 1902.
G. I. Br.
GUILT-OFFERING. See ATONEMENT.
GUIMARAES: City of Portugal. In the four-
teenth century it had a wealthy Jewish community,
whose quarter was located on the site of the pres-
ent fish-market, “ praca do peixe,” and extended to
the Holy Ghost street. A few years previous to the
expulsion of the Jews from Portugal this commu-
nity paid a yearly tax of 25,000 reis, For centuries
Maranos were living in the city, and it was the
native place of the poet Manuel Thomas and of
Manasseh ben Israel's wife.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserling, Gesch. der Juden in Portugal,
pp. 49, 57 et seq., 280, 311.
G M. K.
GUIZOLFI (GIEXULFIS), ZACHARIAS
DE: Prince and ruler, in the fifteenth century, of the
Taman peninsula on the east coast of the Black Sea;
descendant of Simeone de Guizolfi, a Genoese Jew,
who, by marriage with Princess Bikhakhanim and
under the protection of the Genoese republic, be-
came ruler of the peninsula in 1419,
Beset by the Turks in 1482, Guizolfi and his Cir-
cassian subjects were compelled to retire from his
stronghold Matriga (Taman), and sought refuge on
the island of Matrice, whence (Aug. 12) he informed
the directors of the Bank of St. George in Genoa
of his position, and called for 1,000 ducats with
which to retain the friendship of his allies, the Goths,
who had exhausted his resources; he stated that unless
he received the support of the republic he would
remove to Wallachia, where the waywode Stefan
had offered him a, castle.
Notwithstanding the fact that the Turks had cap-
tured Tana (Azov) and most of the settlements in
Chazaria, Guizolfi continued the war from Matrice,
but with only a small measure of success. Learn-
ing that he had expressed a desire to come to Rus-
sia, and glad of an opportunity to attract the Cir-
cassians, the czar Ivan III., Vassilivich, directed
Nozdrovaty, his ambassador to the Tatar khan
Mengli Girei, to forward a message “sealed with the
gold seal” to Zacharias (Skariya) the Jew, at Kaffa.
| This message, dated March 14, 1484, and forwarded
Guizolfi
Ginzburg
by Luka and Prince Vasili, both court dignitaries,
reads as follows:
** By the grace of God the great ruler of the Russian country,
the Grand Duke Ivan Vassilivich, Czar of all the Russias, ...
to Zacharias the Hebrew.
** You have written to us through Gabriel Petrov, our guest,
that you desire to come to us. It is our wish that you do so,
When you are with us we will give you evidence of our favor-
able disposition toward you. If you wish to serve us, our desire
will be to confer distinction upon you; but should you not wish
to remain with us and prefer to return to your own country,
you shall be free to go”? (“‘Sbornik Imperatorskavo Ruskavo
Istoricheskayo Obschestva,”’ xli. 40. For a second message,
dated Oct. 18, 1487, see ib. p. 71).
From a despatch in Latin dated Conario on the Ku-
ban, June 8, 1487, and signed “ Zachariah Guigursis, ”
it is clear that Guizolfi, intending to accept the
czar’s hospitality, started for Russia, but while on
the way was robbed and tortured by Stefan, the
waywode of Moldavia, and returned home. Not-
withstanding this experience, Guizolfi and his men
declared themselves ready to join the czar provided
that guides were furnished them. Replying to this
despatch, March 18, 1488, the czar repeated his in-
vitation, and informed Guizolfi that he had notified
Dmitri Shein, his ambassador at the Crimean court,
that he had requested Mengli Girei to send to Tscher-
kassy two men to guide Guizolfi to Moscow. He
directed Shein to add to this number a Tatar from
his own suite.
Several years passed before guides were sent, but
in the spring of 1496 they reached the mouth of the
Miyusha and Taigana rivers, where Guizolfi was to
meet them four weeks after Easter. It had been
arranged that in the event of either party reaching
the rendezvous before the other, the first should
wait until Whitsuntide, and if need be until Peter
and Paul’s Day. The guides waited until St. Nich-
olas’ Day (Dec. 6), when they learned that Guizolfi
was unable to advance on account of disturbances
among his people, for “the man Zacharias is sub-
stantial, his family is great, and probably it is difii-
cult to induce them to move.” In his report to the
czar the Crimean ambassador declares that, out of
friendship for his royal master, the khan Mengli
Girei would take Guizolfi under his protection, but
fear she dare not do so, since Guizolfi has antago-
nized the Turks, who are the khan’s protectors (zd.
pp. 77-114).
From subsequent events it is evident that Guizolfi
entered the service of the khan, for further negotia-
tions were carried on, and in April, 1500, the czar,
instructing his ambassador, refers to Guizolfi as
“ Zacharias the Fryazin (7.e., “the Italian ”], who had
lived in Circassia and is now in the service of
Mengli Girei, but who never reached Russia” (2d.
p. 309).
The czar’s.repeated invitations to Guizolfi seem
to indicate that he hoped the latter’s services would
be valuable to him in extending Russian influence
on the Black Sea. Yet it is strange that during a
period of more than eighteen years Guizolfi did not
succeed in reaching Russia. Whether the fact that
Guizolfi was a Jew had anything to do with the im-
pediments put in his way, it is difficult to ascertain,
for no mention of him is to be found in Jewish wri-
tings. The different spellings of Zachariah’s name
in Italian and Russian documents — “ Guizolfi,”
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
108
“Guigursis,” and “ Guilgursis ”—may be attribute
to errors of the Russian scribes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: In addition to the works cited in the article,
Atti della Societa Ligure adi Sloria Patria, iv. 127, 128, Gen:
oa, 1866: Léwe, Die Reste der Germanen am Schwarzen
Meere, pp. 42, 86, 89, Halle, 1896; Sbornik Gosudarstven.
nykh Gramot t Dogovoror, ii. 24. IL Rk
GUMPERZ, AARON SOLOMON (also calleg
Emrich or Emmerich): German scholar and phy.
sician; born Dee. 10, 1723; died 1769. In March,
751, Gumperz graduated as M.D. from the Univer.
sity of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, his dissertation being
“Ueber die Temperamente.” He was the first Prus-
sian Jew who obtained a doctor’s degree. Gumperz
was especially known for having been Mendelssohn’s
teacher of philosophy and for having inspired him
with a love for literature. He wrote a calendar for
the year 5509 (1748-49), and “ Megalleh Sod,” a gu.
percommentary on Ibn Ezra to the Five Scrolls. Of
the latter work that part dealing with Ecclesiastes
was the only one published (Hamburg,1765; Wilna,
1836). It is followed by an essay entitled “Ma’mar
ha-Madda‘,” on religion and philosophy. Mendels.
sohn strongly recommended this work in his “ Bi’ur
Millot ha-Higgayon” (§ 14).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Gesch. 2d ed., xi. 6; Kayserling,
Moses Mendelssohn, pp. 14-20; idem, in Allg. Zeit. des
99, p. 463; Wertheimer’s Jahrb. 1856-57, pp. 181-141;
Jud. 1899,
Die Gegenwart, 1867, pp. 318-365.
G. M. SEt.
GUMPLIN: German satirical poet of unknown
date. The only poem of his that has been preserved
is a satire of seven strophes, ending with a refrain
in which he very wittily criticizes the inhabitants
of the Rhine province. Although his vocabulary
is not always pure, the versification is perfect and
betrays great ability. The name “Gumplin” is
given in acrostic. Abraham Geiger published the
poem, together with a German translation, in his
“Melo Chofnajim.”
BIRLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. p. 167; A. Geiger, Melo Chof-
najim, p. 102.
G. I. Br.
GUMPLOWICZ, LUDWIG: Christian histo-
rian and jurist; born at Cracow March 9, 1888;
studied at the universities of Cracow and Vienna,
and practised law at Cracow. In 1876 he was ap-
pointed docent, in 1882 assistant professor, and in
1893 professor, at Graz University. He is the au-
thor of a work on jurisprudence, and also of a
work entitled “Prawodawstwo Polskie Wzgle-
dem Zydow,” which treats of Polish legislation
concerning Jews. The author introduces new ma-
terial and advances original views. According to
him, the history of Poland is divided into three
periods, the Pyast, Yagellon, and Elected King
periods, in each of which the three estates, king,
clergy, and legislature, were in constant, frequently
in violent, opposition. In the first period the legis-
lative power was in the hands of the king, in the
second in the hands of the nobility, and in the third
in the hands of the Catholic clergy and of the Jesu-
its. The kings, the author is inclined to believe,
were generally favorably disposed toward the Jews,
while the nobility was not altogether unfavorably
disposed toward them. The third period is that of
the domination of the clergy and of the Jesuits.
109
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Guizolfi
Giinzburg
ee ee ee ae ee eee er ee ey ae On a pe se ee ee
The views of the clergy as regards the Jews always
remained the same, but until the third period they
Jacked the power to enforce them. On assuming
the education of the Polish youth the clergy taught
them to regard the Jews as the enemies of the
Church (see POLAND).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bershadski, Litovskiye Yevret, p. 135, St.
Petersburg, 1883.
H. R. J. G. L.
GUMURJINA: Town in European Turkey,
west of Adrianople. It has a population of 26,000,
including 1,200 Jews. The Jewish community pos-
sesses separate schools for boys and girls with a roll
of 200 children, a synagogue, and five charitable so-
cieties. A few Jewish artisans dwell in Gumurjina,
put the majority of Jews there live by commerce,
and several fill public offices. The community is ad-
ministered by a council of twelve, but is without
an appointed rabbi. Religious questions are ad-
dressed to the grand rabbinate of Adrianople.
According to local traditions, the foundation of
the Jewish community of Gumurjina goes back to
the first half of the seventeenthcentury. The earli-
est chief rabbi of the city was Rab Judah, said to
have died in 1673. In times of distress the Jews
go to his tomb to pray. A proof of the presence of
Jews in this town at that epoch is the fact that
Nathan of Gaza, the acolyte of the pseudo-Messiah
Shabbethai Zebi, fled there after the conversion of
his master to Islam. About the year 1786 an inci-
dent occurred that placed the Jews of Gumurjina
in grave peril. Motos-Agha, at the head of the brig-
ands who infested the neighboring mountains, won
possession of the fort, and when the governor, Ali
Effendi, recaptured it, he accused the Jews of
having favored the brigands, and threw the most
prominentamong them into prison. They, however,
succeeded in proving the falsity of the accusation
and were restored to liberty. In memory of this
double deliverance from siege and imprisonment the
Jews of Gumurjina observe the 22d day of Elul as
afestival under the name of the “ Brigands’ Purim.”
Up to 1865 this festival was celebrated with great
solemnity; but the arrival of new Jewish settlers
who were strangers to the tradition has caused the
custom to fall into comparative disuse, though the
older inhabitants still maintain it.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Yosef Da‘at,ed. Abraham Danon, Adrianople,
Dec. 20, 1888.
D. M. Fr.
GUNI (9939): 1. Ason of Naphtali (Gen. xlvi.
24; I Chron. vii. 18), and founder of the family of
the Gunites (Num, xxvi. 48). In Hebrew, “Guni”
is used for the individual and for the family. 2.
A descendant of Gad, and the father of Abdiel, who
was a chief in his tribe (I Chron. v. 15).
E. G. H. M. S21.
GUNSBERG, ISIDOR: English merchant and
Chess-master; born in Budapest Nov. 2, 1854.
hen nine years old he went to England, in which
Country he has since resided, competing in numer-
ous chess tournaments as an English representative.
Tn 1885 he surprised the chess world by capturing
the first prize at the Hamburg Chess-Masters’ Tour-
Rament, beating Blackburne, the English champion.
and Tarrasch. His principal subsequent tourney
successes have been:
1885. British Chess Association. First prize.
1887. British Chess Association. Tied with Burn for first prize.
1888, Bradford. First prize, beating Mackenzie and Bardeleben.
1888, London. First prize.
In matches he has beaten Bird by 5 to 1, and
Blackburne by 5 to 2; drawn with Tschigorin, 9 all;
and scored 4 to 6 against Steinitz. He is also very
successful in simultaneous play. Gunsberg is chess
editor of the “ Daily News,” London, in which city
he now (1903) resides.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cheshire, The Hastings a p. 338.
J. A. P
GUNSBURG, KARL SIEGFRIED: German
author and preacher; born Dec. 9, 1784, at Lissa; died
at Breslau Jan. 23, 1860. He studied philology and
philosophy at Berlin, and for a time he published
with Ed. Kiley “ Erbauungen, oder Gottes Werk und
Wort” (1818-14). For a few years he also preached
in the Jacobson Temple at Berlin, and in 1819 set-
tled at Breslau. He took an active interest in the
Jewish community, and presented his library (Aug.
19, 1859) to the Lehr- und Leseverein, which Abra-
ham Geiger founded in 1842. He is the author of
“Parabeln,” 2 vols., Berlin, 1820 (3 vols., Breslau,
1826); “Der Geist des Orients,” Breslau, 1880. In
conjunction with Kley he published a prayer-book,
“Die Deutsche Synagoge,” etc., in 2 parts, Berlin,
1817-18.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserling, Bibliothek Jtidischer Kanzel-
redner, i. 15 et seg.: Nowag, Sehlesisches Schriftsteller-
Lexikon, s.v.; Winter and Winsche, Die Jiidische Littera-
tur seit Abschluss des Kanons, tii. 773.
8. B. P.
GUNZBURG : Town of Bavaria, in the province
of Swabia, on the Danube. A small but flourishing
Jewish community existed there in the sixteenth
century. In 1566 the Jews of Gtinzburg petitioned
Emperor Maximilian II. to recognize as rabbi Isaac
ha-Levi, who had officiated in that capacity for
thirty years. The official recognition was sought in
consequence of family quarrels between members of
the community, which the rabbi was powerless to
settle so long as his authority was unrecognized.
Among these members was the rich and influential
Simeon Ginzburg, ancestor of the Ginzburg family.
Solomon Luria (ReSHaL; Responsa, No. 11) ex-
presses his astonishment that discord could have
found room in such a pious and learned congrega-
tion as that of Giinzburg.
The community has long since ceased to exist:
but the name of the town is familiar to the Jews
from the fact of its having been the birthplace of
the Ginzburg, Giinz, and Gaunz families.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Kohut, Gesch. der Juden in Deutschland,
p. 561; David Maggid, Zur Gesch. und Genealogie der
Gtinzburge, St. Petersburg, 1899; Keneset Yehezkel, 64b.
D. IT. Br.
GUNZBURG (also spelled GINZBURG,
GINSBERG, GINZBERG, GINSBURG,
GUNSBERG): Family which originated in the
town of Gtnzpurc. It is believed that the family
went thither from the city of Ulm, Wirttemberg,
and that for this reason the best-known progenitor
of the family and some of his immediate descendants,
as well as certain others, called themselves “ Ulma-
Gunzburg
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
11Q
SS ee ee ee a ge aR, Se Sp aay Fe eg ee Ln 9 Te ee,
Ginzburg.” The Ulm, Ulma, and Ullman families
are supposed to be branches of the Ginzburg family.
Kaufmann (“R. Jair Chajim Bacharach und Seine
Ahnen,” p. 45, Treves, 1894) proves that “Gunz”
and “Gaunz” are simply variants of “Ginzburg.”
When, early in the emancipation period, the Jews
of Russia and of Austria were ordered by their gov-
ernments to adopt family names, it was natural that
many of them should choose a name so respected
and pleasing as that of Giinzburg. There is on
record a lawsuit instituted by Baer Giinzburg of
Grodno against a Jewish family of that city who
had adopted the same name under the decree of 1804
(Maggid, “ Toledot Mishpehot Ginzburg,” p. 239, St.
Petersburg, 1899). The court sustained the right of
Jewish families to adopt any name they chose, and the
number of Ginzburg families accordingly increased.
The following isa part of the genealogical tree
constructed by Maggid in the work quoted above:
GUNZBURG, ASHER BEN LOB. See Loy
ASHER, ‘
GUNZBURG, BENJAMIN WOLF: Polis},
physician; Talmudic scholar of the eighteenth cep.
tury. Contrary to the custom of the Polish Ta).
mudists of that time, Ginzburg turned his mind tp
the study of secular sciences. He studied medicing
in the University of Gottingen, but did not negleg,
the Talmud. In 1787 he applied to Jacob Emden
to determine the question whether he was alloweg
to dissect on Saturdays the bodies of dead animals
Emden’s answer (“She’elat Ya‘abez,” No. 45) shows
that heheld Ginzburg in greatesteem. Giinzburg’s
medical work is entitled “De Medicina ex Ta).
mudicis [llustrata,” Géttingen, 1743. Hillel Noah
Maggid thinks that Benjamin Wolf Ginzburg of
Ostrog, whose novelle are to be found in Joshug
Falk’s “Goral Yehoshua‘,” may be identified with
the physician of the Gottingen University.
Jehiel of Porto
Abraham (or Eliezer)
Simeon Ulma-Ginzburg (d. 1586)
Asher Aaron
Jacob Ulina, teacher of R. Lipman Heller
Simeon (Scholtes)
Isaac of is as (1615)
Naphtali Hirz, rabbi of Simeon
Aaron ‘‘ Shtadlan”
Pinsk and Slutsk i
of Wilna
Naphtali, Isaac Léb
Saul, aes Pinsk
(1 we) author of
Asher
(R. saa aia 1687)
Asher of Vizun Isaac
{and Pinsk ?)
Kalonymus Kalman
Aryeh Lob, author of vf Pinsk
**Sha’agat Aryeh.”
Asher (d. 1791)
Aaron Judah Lib
(RIF: d. 1804)
Mordecai Klaczko Napbtali Hirz (d. 1797)
(da. 1842)
Gabriel Jacob (1793-1853)
Hayyah Zlata, |
m. Moses Rosenthal
. 1864
Elka, m. Hayyim Josef Yozel, Baron
Heschel Rosenberg 1812~78)
Leon Shemariah
Rosenthal
(1818-87)
Naphtali Hirz, Baron
Theofilia, m. Horace (b. 1833}
Sigmund
Warburg
Hannah, m.
Baron Horace
Gulnzburg
Rose, m.
Joseph yon
irs
Mathilde,
Louise, David
m. Gutmann
m. Sassoon |
Apne Joseph Yozel Sophie
GENEALOGICAL TREE OF THE GiinzBuRG FAMILY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Eisenstadt-Wiener, Da‘at Kedoshim. pp. 198-
212, St. Petersburg, 1897-98; Belinsohn, Shitlume Emune
Yisrael, Odessa, 1898; Ein Wort tiber die Familie Guenz-
burg, St. Petersburg, 1858. Thechief source is Maggid’s work,
quoted above.
P. Wt.
KE. C.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Sternberg, Geschichte der Juden in Poland,
p. 148; Maggid, Toledot Mishpehot Ginzburg, pp. 52-53.
H.R. M. SEL.
GUNZBURG, DAVID, BARON: Russiat
Orientalist and communal leader; born at Kamen
111
‘THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gunzburg
ee I ee ee a ee a a
etz-Podolsk July 5, 1857. He was educated at
nome, his teachers being Adolph Neubauer, Senior
Sachs, and Hirsch Rabinovich. At the age of
twenty he received the degree of “candidate” at St.
petersburg University, after having attended the lec-
tures of Stanislas Guyard at Paris and Baron Rosen
at St. Petersburg; later he studied Arabic poetry
under Ablwardt at Greifswald (1879-80). He edited
the “Tarshish” of Moses ibn Ezra in a fascicle
which was issued by the Mekize Nirdamim Society,
and prepared for the press the Arabic translation of
the same work, with acommentary. He published
also “Ibn Guzman” (Berlin), and wrote a series of
articles on “ Metrics,” published in the memoirs of the
Oriental Department of the Russian Archeological
Society (1893) and of the Neo-Philological Society
(1892), in the “ Journal” of the Ministry of Public
Jnstruction of Russia, and elsewhere.
Ginzburg was an enthusiastic patron of Jewish
art, and published, with Stassov, ‘“‘ L’Ornement Heé-
preu” (Berlin, 1903). In this book he gave exam-
ples of Jewish ornamentation from various manu-
scripts from Syria, Africa and Yemen. He edited
a catalogue of the manuscripts in the Institute for
Oriental Languages. Besides, he contributed largely
to the ‘“‘ Revue des Etudes Juives,” to the “ Revue
Critique,” to “‘ Voskhod,”’ to ‘‘ Ha -Yom,”’ and to the
collections of articles in honor of Zunz, Steinschnei-
der, Baron Rosen, etc.
Giinzburg’s library was one of the largest private
libraries in Europe, containing many rare books and
manuscripts. He was one of the trustees of the
St. Petersburg community, a member of the Commit-
tee for the Promotion of Culture Among the Jews of
Russia, the central committee of the Jewish Coloniza-
tion Association, the Society for Oriental Studies, the
Scientific Committee of the Russian Department of
Public Instruction, and a life-member of the Arche-
ological Society of St. Petersburg and of the Société
Asiatique of Paris. He died December 22, 1910.
H. R. S. J.
GUNZBURG, GABRIEL JACOB BEN
NAPHTALI HIRZ: Lithuanian financier and phi-
Jantbropist; born at Wilna about 1793; died at Sim-
feropol, Crimea, May 2, 1853. After Ginzburg had
been married at Vitebsk, he settled at Kamenetz-
Podolsk. But his business was distributed over
many other places, and he lived for a certain time
at St. Petersburg. Ginzburg applied his philan-
thropy to four towns, Wilna, Vitebsk, Kamenetz-
Podolsk, and Simferopol; in the last-named town he
built a hospital. On the proposition of the Russian
Minister of finances, Nicholas I. conferred on Giinz-
burg the title of “honorary and hereditary citizen ”
(Oct. 22, 1848).
BIBLIOGRAPHY Fuenn, Kiryah Ne’emanah, p. 283; Magegid,
Toledot Mishpehot Gingburg. pp. 78-8], 145-147. sia
H. R. M. SEL.
GUNZBURG, HORACE, BARON: Russian
Philanthropist; born Feb. 8, 1833, in Zvenigorodka,
government of Kiev, Russia, where he received his
education. After the Crimean war his father, Jo-
Seph Ginzburg, then a wealthy merchant and army
Contractor, settled with his family in St. Petersburg.
orace first came before the public in 1863 as one
of the founders of the Society for the Promotion of
Culture Among the Jews of Russia, the only society
of the kind in Russia. He was one of the charter
members of the society, and after the death of his
father in 1878 succeeded him in the presidency,
which office he still holds. He was the largest con-
tributor to its support
and one of its most
energetic workers.
The work which
made him so widely
popular among the
Jews was his unre-
mitting effort, in
which frequent ap-
peals to the Russian
government were in-
volved, toward the
improvement of the
legal status of his i i NAR ee
coreligionists, and for _{|//Kgi ait
LATE DAT
the securing by legis- Bh HN ANS
|
lation, as well as by ‘' *¢ Nt Hiietiess
other means, of their Ni NG
economic and moral NWA Y
welfare. \\ IVA
In the year 1870 he
was summoned as an
expert before the commission on the “ Jewish ques-
tion,” which met under the auspices of the Ministry
of the Interior.
He was chairman of the Jewish congress which,
by permission of the government, assembled in St.
Petersburg in 1882. In 1887 he was invited to par-
ticipate in the discussions of the high commission
on the Jewish question, under the presidency of
Count Pahlen. In 1880 he became a member of the
board of governors of the temporary commission
for the organization of a society for the purpose
of encouraging Russian Jews to engage in agricul-
ture and trades. Since 1893 he has been chairman
of the central committee of the Jewish Agricultural
Society. One of the colonies in Argentine is named
in honor of Baron Giinzburg. Jn 1890 he was elected
president of the Hygienic and Low-House-Rent So-
ciety of St. Petersburg. In 1901 he became presi-
dent of the board of directors of the Jewish Agricul-
tural Farms in Minsk, and director of the Jewish
Agricultural School in Novo-Poltavka.
The Jewish community of St. Petersburg is also
under obligation to Baron Ginzburg for its syna-
gogue, of which he is president. Heisalso the head
of the new school erected in honor of the wedding
of Czar Nicholas II. This institution is non-sec-
tarian.
Baron Giinzburg is also closely identified with
other institutions of a non-sectarian character. He
has been an honorary member of the committee of
the Prince Oldenburg Infant Asylum since 1863, and
honorary member of the Society for Improving the
Condition of Poor Children of St. Petersburg since
1876. Between 1868 and 1872 he was consul-general
of Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1871 the title “baron” was
bestowed upon him by the Grand Duke of Hesse-
Darmstadt, permission being given by the czar to
accept that title of nobility. In 1880, 1884, and
1888 he received successively the titles of “counsel
S
5
'
y
Horace Glnzburg.
Ginzburg
Gurland
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
119
i eg Ge ee eee eg Pe peg a geiic Pra ne ee ee, Seg Pd eg MEE we BG ep ee een ty
’
of commerce,” “secretary of state,” and “member
of the council of commerce of the Treasury Depart-
ment.” For many years he was an alderman of St.
Petersburg, but, upon the passage of a statute pro-
hibiting the election of Jewish aldermen, vacated
that office. Baron Giinzburg was repeatedly elected
trustee of the charitable affairs of the Stock Ex-
change of St. Petersburg and member of the
council of the Stock Exchange Hospital, He con-
tributed heavily to the erection of the latter institu-
tion. In 1898 he was elected member of the com-
mittee of the Society for the Dissemination of
Commercial Knowledge, and in the same year be-
came chairman of the house committee of the
Women’s Sewing-School of the Czarina Maria Alex-
androvna. In 1899 he was made trustee of the
School of Commerce of Czar Nicholas I]. In 1900
he was chosen a member of the committee of
the Russian Society for the Protection of Women.
He is (1903) a member of the board of the Treasury
Department of the Stock Exchange, and a member
of the executive board of the St. Petersburg Arche-
ological Institute. Even at his present advanced
age he is often invited by the government to sit on
commissions for the revision of general legislation.
Very recently (1895, 1900-01) he has been associated
with such imperial comiissions for theamendment of
the laws governing the Stock Exchange, stock com-
panies, corporations, and mining companies. The
seventieth birthday of Baron Ginzburg, which was
coincident with the fortieth anniversary of his entry
upon an educational career, was celebrated all over
Europe and also in New York and many other cities
of the United States. On this occasion the Russian
government conferred on the baron the medal of
St. Anne (ist class). In New York a Baron de Giinz-
burg Fund has been started, the interest. of which
will be given periodically as a premium for the best
work on Jewish history and literature.
H. R. M. R.
GUNZBURG, ILYA YAKOVLEVICH: Rus-
sian sculptor ; son of Meyer Jacob; born at Grodno
May, 1859. The seulptor Antokolski, on his way
through Wilna in 1870, happened to notice one of
young Giinzburg’s attempts at sculpture. Struck
by the evidence of ability, he took the boy with him
to St. Petersburg. Ginzburg was then but ten
years of uge. He studied for a time with Anto-
kolski, Ryepip, and Semiradski, and later accom-
panied his patron to Italy. On his return to St.
Petersburg he entered the high school, and gradu-
ated in 1878.
In 1886 he was graduated from the St. Petersburg
Academy of Arts, winning the small gold medal.
In 1889 he was awarded a prize for his exhibits at
the Paris Exhibition. Since then his work has ap-
peared regularly among the annual exhibits of the
St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, and also at other
Kuropean exhibitions. He has executed about
twenty studies in child life, besides a number of
portraits and statuettes of famous Russians, such as
Tolstoi, Rubinstein, Tchaikovski, D, P. Mendeleyev,
and others, as well as a number of busts. He ex-
hibited twelve studies at the Paris Exposition of
1900, and was awarded a gold medal.
His elder brother, Boris Yakovlevich Giinz-
burg, isa railway engineer and constructor in the
service of the Russian government.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Mir Bozhi, May and June, 1902 (an aunty.
biographical sketch).
H. BR. D. G.
GUNZBURG, JOSEPH BEN MORDEcay.
Russian Talmudist; lived at Brest-Litovsk jn the
second half of the seventeenth century and at the pe.
ginning of the eighteenth. His father officiated ag
rabbi of Brest from 1664 until 1685, and Joseph o¢.
cupied for many years the position of commung]
leader. He was the author of “ Leket Yosef,” a Jex;.
con for preachers, giving in alphabetical order aj]
the haggadot and the moral sentences found in rap.
binical literature, published first in 1688 (Ham.
burg ?). He wrote also novelle on the Pentateuch,
“Hiddushe Torah,” which were published togethe;
with those of Isaac Benjamin Wolf, author of “Na.
halat Binyamin,” under the title “Leket Yoset,»
Offenbach, 1716.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1471; First
ae Jud. i. 848; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p.
G. I. Br,
GUNZBURG, JOSEPH YOZEL BEN GA.
BRIEL JACOB: Russian financier and _ philan-
thropist; born 1812; died at Paris Jan. 12, 1878.
Having acquired great wealth during the Crimean
war, Ginzburg established a banking firm at St.
Petersburg. There he began to labor on behalf of
the welfare of the Jewish community. In Noy.,
1861, he was appointed by the Russian government
member of the rabbinical commission, the meetings
of which Jasted five months. Heexerted himself to
raise the standard of the education of the Jews, and
to this effect he founded in 1863 with the permission
of the Russian government the Society for the Pro-
motion of Culture Among the Jews, of which he
filled the office of president till his death. Owing
to Giinzburg’s efforts, the regulations concerning
the military service of the Jews were in 1874 made
identical with those of the peoples of other creeds.
He also instituted a fund for the Talmud Torah of
Wilna, his father’s native town. Ginzburg was
ennobled by the Grand Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt
Nov. 9, 1870, and created baron Aug. 2, 1874.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisracl, p. 460; Archives
Israélites, 1878, p. 89.
H. R. M. SEt.
GUNZBURG, MORDECAI AARON BEN
JUDAH ASHER: Russian Hebrew writer; born
at Salanty, government of Kovno, Dec. 8, 1795; died
at Wilna Nov. 5, 1846. Having studied Hebrew
and Talmud under his father, he continued theif
study at Shavly, until 1816, under his father-in-law.
Thence he went to Polangen and Mitau, Courland,
where he taught Hebrew and translated lega}) paper
into German. His conscientious and exact teaching
won him considerable influence over the Jews of
Courland, where, because of his thorough know!
edge of German, he came to be known as the “ Ge!*
manist.” He did not stay in Courland long, but
after a period of wandering settled at Wilna.
His philosophy of religion was based on the only
two books which were within his reach when he was
a young man: a Hebrew translation of Mendels-
413
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gunzburg
Gurland
ee tg Pg, gepent Nay ge We Bee ty ay eG ee eRe Sees give ee het) eR ae gy ee eee FS a pie
gohn’s “ Phaédon ” and the “Sefer ha-Berit ” of Phine-
pas Hlijah b. Meir. He struggled energetically
against Cabala and superstition as the sources of the
Hasidic movement; but he was at the same time
opposed to freethinking, and regarded the German
rabbis as unfit for
the rabbinical office.
Ginzburg was the
creator of the modern
Hebrew prose style.
He never hesitated to
borrow expressions
from Talmudic litera-
ture oreven from the
modern languages,
but the ex pressions he
borrowed never con-
flicted with the spirit
of the Hebrew. He
begins a chapter gen-
erally with a fable.
Gunzburg’s style is in its form somewhat archaic,
put is at the same time simple and clear. He exerted
asalutary influence over the masses of his coreligion-
ists, and especially over the younger generation.
He wrote:
Gelot ha-Arez ha-Hadashah, on the discovery of America,
adapted from Campe. Wilna, 1823.
Toledot Bene ha-Adam, a universal history, adapted from
Politz’s ‘* Weltgeschichte.” First part ib. 1832. A few chapters
of the second volume were published in the * Leket Amarim,”
a supplement to “ Ha-Meliz,”’ 1889 (pp. 53-81).
Kiryat Sefer, a collection of 102 model letters in Hebrew.
Wilna, 1835.
Mal’akut Filon ha-Yehudi, an adaptation of Eckhard’s Ger-
man translation of Philo’s embassy to Caligula. Wilna, 1837.
‘Ittote Russiya, a history of Russia. Wilna, 1839.
Ha-Zarfatim be-Russiya, a history of the French invasion of
Russia in 1812-18. Wilna, 1842.
Mageid Emet, a refutation of Lilienthal’s ** Maggid Yeshu‘ah.”*
Leipsic, 1843,
Debir, a collection of letters, tales, and sketches, mostly trans-
lations from the German. Wilna, 1844-62.
Pi ha-Hirot, a history of the Russian invasion of France in
1813-15. Wilna, 1844.
Yeme ha-Dor, a history of Europe from 1770 to 1812. Wilna,
1860, ,
Hamat Dammesek, a history of the Damascus affair of 1840.
Konigsberg, 1860.
Abi‘ezer, autobiography. Wilna, 1864.
Tikkun Laban ha-Arami, a Satirical poem. Wilna, 1864.
Ha-Moriyyah, a collection of brief essays. Warsaw, 1878.
Lel Shimmurim, a vision, adapted from Zschokke’s *' Aben-
teuer.’? Wilna, 1884.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Giinzburg, Abi‘ezer, Wilna, 1864: Maggid,
Toledot Mishpehot Ginzburg, pp. 86-116, St. Petersburg,
1899; Slouschz, La Renaissance de la Littérature He-
braique, pp. 88-89, Paris, 1903.
H. R. M. SEu.
GUNZBURG-ULMA, SIMON BEN ELI-
EZER: German scholar; communal worker; born
at Ginzburg, Bavaria, 1506; died at Burgau Jan. 9,
1585. He was the first who adopted and transmitted
to his descendants the name “Giinzburg ” asa family
name, He wasa rich merchant, and traveled around
In Germany and Poland in the interests of his busi-
hess. He was also a great Talmudist, and had some
knowledge of secular sciences. It is probably ow-
Mg to these facts that Simon Giinzburg is variously
described by different historians. Albertrandy,
Quoted by Sternberg (“Gesch. der Juden in Polen,”
P. 148), says: “Simon, also called Selig Ginzburg,
Mordecai Aaron Ginzburg.
He wrote many works, and was the head of the rab-
binate and yeshibah.” It seems that Albertrandy
confused Simon Giinzburg with the physician Selig
Giinzburg of Slutsk. Czacki cites him as the
court physician of King Sigismund August and
chief of the community of Posen (Griitz, “Gesch.”
ix. 448). But Simon Gtinzburg never settled at
Posen. His residence was first at Gtinzburg, where
he built a synagogue and established a cemetery;
and then he settled at Burgau, a neighboring town.
There also he worked for the welfare of the com-
munity, for which reason his name is commemorated
in a special prayer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sternberg, Geschichte der Juden in Polen,
p. 148; Gritz, Gesch. 3d ed., ix. 448; Maggid, Toledot Mish-
pehot Ginzburg, pp. 4 et seq.; David Kaufmann, ib. p. 178.
H.R. M. SEt.
GURLAND, JONAH HAYYIM: Russian
and Hebrew writer; born at Kleck, government of
Minsk, in 1848; died at Odessa March 14, 1890. At
the age of ten Gurland entered the rabbinical school
of Wilna, from which he graduated as rabbi in 1860.
Then he went to St. Petersburg, and was admitted
to attend the lectures of the philological faculty, de-
voting himself to the study of Semitic languages
under the direction of Chwolson. During his stay
at the university Gurland translated into Russian
the fables of Lokman, and published a dissertation
on the influence of the Arabian philosophy on Moses
Maimonides—a subject proposed by the faculty, and
for his treatment of which Gurland received a gold
medal. On obtaining in 1864 his first degree
(“candidatus”) from the university, Gurland de-
voted three years to the study of the Firkovich
collection of Karaite manuscripts in the Imperial
Library. The result of his study was the publica-
tion, in Russian, of a work on the life of Mordecai
Comtino and his contemporaries, which gained for
its author the degree of “magister.” Gurland was
then charged with the cataloguing of the Hebrew
books of the Imperial Library. In 1869 he went to
Yekaterinoslav, where he was appointed examining
magistrate inone of the precincts. In 1878 Gurland
was appointed inspector of the normal colleges for
teachers at Jitomir, a position which he held for
seven years. The government conferred upon him
two orders and the title of “college councilor.” In
1880, in consequence of illness, Gurland went to
Germany, where he sojourned for three years, On
his return, he settled at Odessa, and founded there a
classic aud scientific college of eight classes, with a
curriculum including Jewish history and Hebrew
literature. In 1888 Gurland was elected govern-
ment rabbi of Odessa.
Gurland was the author of the following: (1)
“O Viiyanii Filosofii Musulmanskoi Religii na
Filosofiyu Religii Moiseya Maimonida,” St. Peters-
burg, 1863. (2) “ Ma’amar ha-Tammuz,” Chwolson’s
explanation of the term “ Tammuz” as it is used by
the prophet Ezekiel, translated from German into
Hebrew, Lyck, 1864. (38) “Ginze Yisrael be Sankt
Petersburg,” on the Karaite manuscripts of the
Imperial Library of St. Petersburg. The work
is divided into four parts, containing the following
subjects: (a) a description of voyages to Palestine
was known as a celebrated architect and geometer. | made by three Karaites of the Crimea in the sev-
VI.—8
Gutah
Gutzmann
enteenth and eighteenth centuries, published at
Lyck, 1865; (2) a description of the manuscripts
of the Imperial Library dealing with mathematics,
astronomy, and astrology, published in Russian and
German, St. Petersburg, 1866; (¢) extracts from the
writings of Mordecai Comtino, Caleb Afendopolo,
and Abraham Bali, published as an appendix to Gur-
Jand’s dissertation “Novyye Materialy dlya Istorii
Yevreiskoi Literatury XV Stolyetiya. M. Kuma-
tiano, Yevo Zhizn, Sochineniya i Sootechestvenniki,”
St. Petersburg, 1866; (d) “Penine ha-Melizot,” a
collection of sentences, proverbs, and maxims of
divers sages, 7b, 1867, (4) “Tif’eret Je-Mosheh,
Gloire & Moise,” in honor of Moses Montefiore, St.
Petersburg, 1867. (5) “Luah Yisrael,” a Jewish al-
manac in Russian and Hebrew, published first (only
Russian) at Kiev, 1877; secondly, at Warsaw, 1878;
thirdly, at St. Petersburg, 1879; fourthly, ¢. 1880,
(6) “Luah ¥eshurun,” Hebrew and Russian calen-
dar for the year 1884, St. Petersburg, 1888. (7)
“Le-Korot ha-Gezerot be- Yisrael,” a collection of
memoirs, documents, and elegies on the persecu-
tions of the Jews in Poland in 1648, with historical
annotations, published in “ Ozar ha-Sifrut,” 1887-89.
His brother, Jacob Gurland, rabbi of Poltava,
is the author of “Kebod ha-Bayit,” on the rabbin-
ical school of Wilna, 1858.
BIBLIOGRAPITY: Sokolov, Sefer Zikkaron, pp. 133 et seq.; Zeit-
lin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 131.
H, R. I, Br.
GUTAH, ZERAHIAH: Talmudic author of
the seventeenth century; died at Cairo in1647. He
was a pupil of Jehiel Bassani and Joseph di Trani
while living in Constantinople. He removed later
to Jerusalem, and thence to Hebron, and finally
settled in Cairo. Among his disciples was Judah
Sharaf. Two years after Gutah’s death his remains
were taken to the Holy Land and there buried (see
AzuLAl). Under the title “Zera‘ Ya‘akob” Gutah
wrote a commentary on the “Bet Yosef” of Caro;
he also composed various haggadic works and made
collections of responsa. One volume of these, with
the approbations of Bassani and Trani, has been
preserved to the present day. Gutah’s works are
in manuscript only.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, p. dla, Berlin, 1846 ;
eawlal Shem ha-Gedolim; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim,
D. 2 L. Gri.
GUTERBOCK, LUDWIG: German physician;
born at Berlin Oct. 23, 1814(University of Berlin,
M.D. 1837); died there Feb. 28, 1895. He settled in
his native city, and practised there until his death.
Giiterbock wrote several essays for the medical
journals, and was one of the collaborators on the
“ Jahresberichte tiber die Fortschritte der Gesamm-
ten Medicin'in Allen Lindern.” He was also the
author of “Schdnlein’s Klinische Vortrige in dem
Charité-Krankenhause zu Berlin,” Berlin, 1840 (8d
ed., 1844), and “Dr. Schénlein als Arzt und Kili-
nischer Lehrer,” 22. 1842.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Blog. Lex.
8. KF. T. H.
GUTERBOCK, PAUL: Germansurgeon; born
at Berlin June 2, 1844; died there Oct. 17, 1897. He
was educated at the universities of Wurzburg and
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
114
Berlin, graduating (M.D.) in 1865. After postgrag,
uate courses in Vienna, Paris, London, and Edin.
burgh, he began to practise in Berlin in 1866, pe.
coming at the same time assistant at the surgigg)
clinic of the university. In 1873 he was admitteg
to the medical faculty of the university as priyas.
docent in surgery; in 1884 he was appointed asseggo,
to the health board of Brandenburg; in 1894 he ye.
ceived the title of “professor,” and in 1896 of “@p.
heimer Medizinalrath.” His special surgical proy.
ince was in male genital diseases. He was one of
the collaborators of the “Jahresberichte tiber qje
Fortschritte der Gesammten Medicin in Allen Lgp.
dern,” and has written many essays in the medica]
journals. Among Giiterbock’s works the follow.
ing may be mentioned: “Die Neueren Methodey
der Wundbehandlung auf Statistischer Grundlage »
Berlin, 1876; “Die Englischen Krankenhiuser,” 79,
1881; “Die Chirurgischen Krankheiten der Harp.
und Mannlichen Geschlechtswerkzeuge,” Vienna,
1890-97.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lex.; Anton Bettelheim, Biog,
Bidtter, 1898, p. 75.
8. F. T. H,
GUTMANN, DAVID, RITTER VON: Aus.
trian merchant; philanthropist; brother of Wilhelm
von Gutmann; born at Leipnik, Moravia, Dec. 24,
1834. As president of the Israelitische Allianz of
Vienna he did much for the relief of his persecuted
coreligionists in Russia in 1882, as well as in Ru-
mania in 1900, and after the Kishinef outrages in
1903. He is president of the Jews’ poorhouse and
of the Baron de Hirsch school-funds for Galicia, and
is a member of the board of trustees of the Jewish
congregation. In 1879 Gutmann was created Knight
of the Iron Crown and raised to the hereditary
nobility.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Wiedmann, Festschrift Anldsslich des
Vierzigjtihrigen Geschiftsjubildums des Hatuses Gut-
mann.
Ss. EK. J.
GUTMANN, MOSES: Bavarian rabbi; born in
Baiersdorf 1805; died at Redwitz Feb. 1, 1862;
son of Yom-Tob Gutmann. Moses Gutmann was
educated at Erlangen University, and when twenty-
two years old was elected district rabbi of Redwitz,
which office he held for thirty-five years. He was
the first rabbi of Bavaria with an academic educa-
tion as well as a thorough Talmudical training who
espoused the cause of Reform, to which fact his con-
tributions to Geiger’s “Zeitschrift fir Jiid. Theolo-
gie,” Stein’s “ Volkslehrer,” and several of his re-
sponsa, bear witness. He published a translation,
with notes, of the Apocrypha, under the title “Die
Apokryphen des A. Testaments aufs Neue aus dem
Griechischen Text Uebersetzt” (Altona, 1841). His
translation of Josephus with a scholarly Latin
commentary has remained in manuscript.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud, xxvi. 150 et ae
s
GUTMANN, WILHELM, RITTER VON:
Austrian merchant; philanthropist; born at Leip-
nik, Moravia, Aug. 18, 1825; died at Vienna May
17, 1895. Destined for a teacher, the unlooked-
for death of his father made it necessary for him to
enter into commerce to support his mother and two
115
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gutah
Gutzmann
————— nO ee
rounger children. Utter failure was the result of
his first venture, and the savings of his parents were
entirely lost. As manager of a lime-works his atten-
tion was directed to the coal-deposits of Silesia, and
be planned for their development. In 1858 he and
nis brother David established the firm which, dur-
ing the war of 1859-60, despite the difficultics
then surrounding business ventures, supplied coal
for all the railroads, for all the great factories
throughout the empire, and for the cities of Vienna,
Budapest, and Briinn. Gutmann Bros, leased some
coal-mines from the Rothschilds in 1865, and pur-
chased outright other valuable carboniferous prop-
erties in Silesia, Galicia, and Hungary. The close
connection between coal and the production of
jron easily led the Gutmanns to combine their in-
terests with the Witkowitz iron-works, which they
afterward owned conjointly with the Rothschilds and
the counts Larisch and Andrassy. With Kuffner
they built (1871) the first sugar-factory in Austria.
In philanthropy Gutmann displayed no less en-
thusiasm and activity than in business. Numerous
institutions for the care of the poor and the sick
either owe their foundation solely to him or are
under obligation to his generous beneficence for
assistance. Of such may be mentioned: girls’ or-
phanage at Dobling, founded by the brothers Wil-
helm and David, and endowed with 300,000 fi.
($120,000) ; a hospital! for children, with fifty beds, at
the Polyklinik in Vienna, to which organization they
also gave 60,000 fl. ($24,000) for the erection of the
premises. They founded also a hospital at Krems,
which accommodates 60 cripples.
Wilhelm von Gutmann was elected to the Lower
Austrian Diet, where he gave impetus to the reform
of the poor-laws. The community conferred upon
him its highest honors. He held the offices of presi-
dent of the community (1890-92) and of the Jewish
Theological Seminary. Through a daughter by a
second marriage he became father-in-law to Sir
Francis Montefiore. By will he left 200,000 f1.
($80,000), the interest of which was to be divided
equally among the indigent Jews and Christians of
Vienna. Gutmann was delegate of the Vienna
Chamber of Commerce in the Diet of Lower Aus-
tria, and honorary citizen of Liepnik and Mihrisch-
Ostrau.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jewish Chronicle, May 24, 1895: Wiedmann,
Festschrift Aniliisslich des Vierzigjihrigen Geschidftsju-
biltiums des Hauses Gutmann.
a, F. 8. W.
GUTTMANN, JAKOB: Hungarian sculptor;
born in Arad 1811; died in Vienna April 28, 1860.
In his early childhood he carved toys, and in 1838
went to Vienna to satisfy his artistic cravings. Here
he became an engraver, and worked for three years
With his burin. He then received a scholarship
from Prince Metternich, which enabled bim to study
at the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts. He remained
here until 1843, receiving awards for an embossed
Profile in wax of the emperor Joseph II. and for a
steel-engraving of Metastasio.
In 1844 Guttmann produced a bronze statuette
of Baron Solomon von Rothschild from a portrait,
and was commissioned by the baron to execute a rep-
fica in marble. The baron also paid Guttmann an an-
nuity, thus enabling him to go to Rome. Here he
modeled his bust of Pope Pius [X., and completed
his masterpiece, “ Der Blumenspender.”
While in Rome, Guttmann was deeply interested
in the ghetto, which he described in letters to his
father. Later he went to Paris; and in 1857 he be-
came insane.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Miller and Singer, Allgemeines Kiinstler-
Lexicon, ii. 110, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1896 ; Wertheimer’s
Jahrbuch, iv. 87 et seq.
8. A. M. F.
GUTTMANN, PAUL: German physician and
medical author; born at Ratibor, Prussian Silesia,
Sept. 9, 1833; died in Berlin May 24, 1898. He re-
ceived his education at the gymnasium of his native
town and at the universities of Berlin, Vienna, and
Wurzburg, graduating from the last-named as doc-
tor of medicine in 1858. The following year he
engaged in practise as a physician in Berlin, becom-
ing a privat-docent at the university in 1867, and
in 1879 chief physician of the Moabit municipal
hospital.
Guttmann’s reputation as a clinician was widely
extended. He was the author of about eighty essays
on different medical subjects. The following are
his principal works: “Die Physiologie und Patho-
logie des Sympaticus” (with Albert Eulenburg),
which was published in Berlin in 1878, and which,
on its republication in London in 1879, received the
Astley-Cooper prize; and “ Lehrbuch der Klinischen
Untersuchungsmethoden,” Berlin, 1884. From 1885
to 1893 Guttmann was the editor of the “Journal ftir
Practische Aerzte.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. June 9, 1898; Hirsch, Biog.
Lez. s.v., Vienna, 1884; Pagel, Biog. Lex. s.v., Vienna,
1901.
s. F. T. H.
GUTTMANN, SAMUEL: German gynecolo-
gist and medical writer; born at Ostrowo, Prussia,
1839; died at Berlin Dec. 22, 1893. After comple-
ting his course at the gymnasium he entered the
University of Berlin, graduating thence as doctor of
medicine in 1864. In 1866 he settled as a physician
temporarily in Drebkau, Prussian Silesia, but sub-
sequently removed to Berlin, where he succeeded in
building up a large practise, and became a specialist
in gynecology.
For a few years he was a regular contributor to
the “Jahrbuch fiir Practische Aerzte,” and was also
assistant editor of the “Deutsche Medizinische
Wochenschrift,” succeeding Paul Albrecht Boerner
in the editorship on the death of the latter in 1885.
At this time he was also editing the “ Reichsmedi-
zinal-Kalender.” He was one of the collaborators
in the series of publications, edited by Leyden, on
the “Influenza Epidemie von 1890-91.”
Guttmann wrote many essays on medical sub-
jects; but his forte lay in organization, for which
he found a wide field in connection with the jour-
nals with which he was editorially associated.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Jan. 5, 1894; Hirsch, Biog. Lex.
s.v., Vienna, 1884; Pagel, Biog. Lex. s.v.
9. F. T. H.
GUTZMANN, HERMANN: German physi-
cian; born at Biitow, in Pomerania, Jan. 29, 1865.
He received the degree of doctor of medicine from
Guzikov
Habakkuk
the University of Berlin in 1887, and since 1889 has
practised as a specialist in diseases of the vocal
organs.
Gutzmann has published: “ Verhtiittung und Be-
kimpfung des Stotterns in der Schule,” Berlin, 1889;
“Vorlesungen tiber die Stérungen der Sprache,” 2d.
1893; (with Th. 8. Flatau) “ Die Bauchrednerkunst,”
7b, 1894; and “ Ueber das Stottern,” 74. 1897. Since
1891 he has been editor and publisher of the “ Mo-
natsschrift fiir die Gesammte Sprachheilkunde.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lez. s.v., Vienna, 1901.
8. F. T. H.
GUZIKOV, MICHAEL JOSEPH: Russian
musician; born at Shklov 1806; died at Brussels
Oct. 21, 1837. He was descended from a family of
talented inusicians, and became while still a youth
a skilful performer on many instruments. Accom-
panied by his father and other members of the fam-
ily, he .nade concert tours in Russia, played before
HAARBLEICHER, MOSES M.: German
author; born in Hamburg Nov. 14, 1797; died there
Sept. 25, 1869. Following the example of his father,
the founder of the Jewish School of Hamburg, and
under the influence of his guardian, the father of
Gabriel Riesser, he interested himself early in the
affairs of the Jews. He took an active part in the
establishment of the Tempelverein, being one of
the collaborators in the revision of its prayer-book ;
and he founded the Verein zur Beférderung Niitz-
licher Gewerbe Unter den Juden, which he directed
from 1823 to 1840. In 1840 he became secretary of
the congregation of Hamburg. MHaarbleicher, who
possessed an extraordinary knowledge of Romance
and Germanic languages, and wrote with ease in
Hebrew, was an acute and clever critic. Forty of
his songsand poems are contained in the hymn-book
of the Hamburg congregation. His poem “Hag-
bahah” was often ascribed to Gabriel Riesser. Some
years prior to his death he published the first part
of “Zwei Epochen aus der Gesch, der Deutsch-
Israelitischen Gemeinde in Hamburg,” Hamburg,
1866, a valuable work which remained unfinished.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. xxxiii. 893 et seq.
Ss.
HAAS, ROBERT: German Lutheran minister;
lived in the first half of the nineteenth. century, in
the duchy, of Nassau; pastor in the villages of
Gritvenwiesbach, Dotzheim near Wiesbaden, Dick-
schied near Langenschwalbach. He was interested
in Jewish affairs, and advocated the civic equality
of the Jews. Among his friends was Abraham
Geiger. He indorsed the rabbinical convention
held at Wiesbaden in 1837. In the same year he
addressed a circular letter to “all Christians in Ger-
many” to aid in establishing a faculty of Jewish
science and a Jewish seminary in a German uni-
versity. He was the author of “Das Staatsbir-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
116
See
the emperor Nicholas and the empress in 1828, ang
after successful concerts in Moscow and Kiev, yig.
ited Odessa, where he met Lamartine and wag ad.
vised by him to make a tourof Europe. He reside
in Vienna for five months, where he was digtiy.
guished by the emperor and Prince Metternich, and
befriended by artists and musicians. Guzikov nex}
visited Prague, Dresden, and Berlin, and wag Wel]
received at the court of Berlin. From Berlin he
went to Paris, and thence to Brussels. Here he fgj]
a victim to nervous prostration, of which he died,
Guzikov was the inventor of the straw violin, on
which he played with such masterly skill as to create
great enthusiasm wherever he went. There aye
many talented musicians among the Guzikov family
in Russia,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Schlesinger, Ueber Guzikov, Vienna, 183.
Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1837, p. 436. ;
H. R. J. G. L,
GYMNASIUM. See GLADIATOR.
H
gertum der Juden vom Standpunkt der Inneren
Politik,” Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1837, and of other
works.
S, M. §&).
HAAS, SIMHAH BEN JOSHUA: Traveler
and preacher; born in Dobrowitz, Bohemia, 1710;
died in Brahilov 1768. He was father-in-law to Sol-
omon Dubno, and was @ preacher in Brahilov. In
1764 he wrote an account of his journey to Pales-
tine, “ Ahabat Ziyyon” or “Sippure Erez ha-Galil”
(Grodno, n.d.). A large portion of this book in its
printed form was, however, written by the Karaite
Samuel ben David, an earlier traveler in Palestine.
Haas also published “ Neti‘ah shel Simhah,” speci-
mens of Hebrew poetry and rhetoric (Grodno,
1753), and “ Leb Simhah,” on morals and ascetics (70.
1757).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Luncz, Jerusalem, iv. 7, 186 et seq.; Benjacob,
Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 18; First, Bibl. Jud. iti. 320. K
a. M. K.
HAAS, SOLOMON BEN JEKUTHIEL:
Moravian rabbi of the first half of the nineteenth
century. Haas was successively dayyan at Holle-
schau and rabbi of Strassnitz, Moravia, He was the
author of “Kerem Shelomoh,” novelle on the Shul-
han ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, Yoreh De‘ah, and Eben
ha-‘Ezer (Presburg, 1840-46),
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2389; Zednel
Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 277,
J. M. SEL.
HA-ASIF (“The Harvest”): Hebrew yeal-
book, edited and published by Nahum Sokolow 12
Warsaw. Its first volume (5645) appeared in 1884;
it continued to appear regularly every year unl
1889, when the fifth volume (5649) came out at the
end instead of at the beginning of the Jewish ye
The sixth and last volume (5654) appeared in 1899.
The “Sefer ha-Shanah” (Book of the Year), which
117
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Guzikov
Habakkuk
ee ne ee a
now annually published by Sokolow, is considered
a continuation of “ Ha-Asif.” The “ Sefer Zikkaron,”
a biographical dictionary of contemporary Jewish
authors, was published as a supplement to the fifth
volume of “ Ha- Asif,”
Most of the better-known Hebrew writers of the
day have contributed to the six volumes of “Ha-
Asif,” which form an important collection of literary,
historical, biographical, and popular scientific es-
says. ‘They also contain poems, sketches, and
novels, some of which possess considerable merit:
while its yearly reviews, obituaries, and descriptions
of Russo-Jewish communities are of great value to
Jewish biography and history. Samuel Alexan-
drow’s “ Masseket Nega‘im ” (Warsaw, 1886) is a crit-
icism of the first two volumes of “ Ha-Asif.” A list
of other reviews of one or more of its numbers is
given in the “Bulletin of the New York Public
Library,” vi. 259.
E. ¢. P. Wi.
HABAIAH or HOBAIAH (713n, 723M): Head
of a family of priests who returned from Babylon
with Zerubbabel; not being able to prove their
genealogy, they were excluded from the priesthood
(Ezra ii. 61; Neh. vii. 68). In I Esd. v. 38 the name
is given as “ Obdia.”
E, G, HH, M. SEL.
HABAKKUK (pipan; LXX. ’Aufaxoip; Vul-
gate, “Habacuc”): Prophet; author of the eighth
in the collection of the twelve minor prophet-
icat books. The etymology of the name of the
prophet is not clear. It seems to be a loan-word
representing the Assyrian “hambakiku,” a garden-
plant (Friedrich Delitzsch, “ Prolegomena,” p. 84;
Konig, “ Historisch-Kritisches Lehrgebiude der He-
briischen Sprache,” ii. 1, 473, on the vocalization),
and has the appearance of being a writer’s pseudo-
nym (F. E. Peiser, “Der Prophet Habakuk,” in
“Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft, ”
1903, 1. 12). That he was a Levite has been urged
on the strength of the postscript to ch. iii. (verse 19,
“on my stringed instruments”), which indicates that
he owned instruments: only a Levite was author-
ized to use an instrument to accompany his songs in
the Temple. The superscription of the Septuagint
apocry phon B7A Kat Apdxwv, in the Codex Chisianus,
also designates him a Levite.
The absence of exact information concerning his
life left a vacuum that has been filled by myths and
legends (see Franz Delitzsch, “De Habacuci Pro-
phete Vita”). The above-named apocryphon makes
him a contemporary of Daniel, whom he was mirac-
wously privileged to visit in the lion’s den and sup-
ply with food. In this Greek story his father’s
hame is given as “Jesus” (Joshua). Jewish tradi-
tion makes him the son of the Shunammite woman
(see Extswa), but nevertheless a contemporary of
Daniel (see “ Seder ha-Dorot ”; Abravanel’s commen-
lary to Habakkuk: Zohar, Lek Leka; Neubauer,
“The Book of Tobit,” Appendix). Of the many
Conceits current among the cabalists with reference
to this prophet, the most curious was that which
declared him to be the reincarnation of Adam. His
grave was shown at several places (see HUKKOK).
Peiser (1.c.) contends that Habakkuk is the pseudo-
nym of a Judean prince held asa hostage in Nineveh,
and who witnessed the attack of the Medes, in alli-
ance with Chaldea and Babylon, in 625 n.c. But
his book announces a second attack.
The Age This prince may have been the son or
and Home grandson of Manasseh. Peiser shows
of Ha- that Habakkuk displays remarkable
bakkuk. familiarity with Assyrian literature,
his similes indicating quotations from,
and adaptations of, Assyrian mythological writings.
By others, Habakkuk is made the contemporary
of Jeremiah and a resident of Jerusalem, after the
“discovery ” of Deuteronomy (621 B.c.), but before
the death of Josiah (609 B.c.). By many Jewish
commentators he is assigned to the reign of Manas-
seh. He is, however, clearly under the influence of
Isaiah; and the view which makes him a younger
disciple of the greater prophet, advanced by Walter
K. Betteridge in “Journal of American Theology,”
Oct., 1908, seems to meet best the situation reflected
in the book. The Assyrians, originally regarded by
the Prophets as appointed agents of Yuwu, looked
upon themselves as “gods” (Isa. xiv.); but under
Sennacherib, through a rebellion of the Babylo-
nians (the Chaldeans), the plans of the conqueror
are thwarted. E. G. HL
HABAKKUK, BOOK OF.—Biblical Data:
One of the twelve minor prophetical books. It
readily falls into two parts: (1) ch. i. and ii. ; (2) ch.
iii, The first part is a “massa” (a condemnatory.
prophecy). But contrary to the usage in other
prophetical books, it is not stated against what
people the prophecy is spoken. As it
now stands in the Masoretic text, the
first part is in the form of a dialogue.
Ch. i. 2-4 laments the prevailing moral corruption,
which God does not seem to heed; i. 5-11 contains
the divine announcement of an impending judg-
ment through the Chaldeans; 1. 12-17 gives the
prophet’s complaint of the excessive pride and
cruelty of the enemy. In ch. ii. God admonishes
Habakkuk not to judge hastily that evil is trium-
phant, but to remain confident (1-4). Five “wos,”
the contents of the “mashal” or “taunting prov-
erb” (5-6), phrased by the very people oppressed
by the conqueror, are enumerated (6, 9, 12, 18, 19).
Ch. ili, is a psalm reciting various theophanies,
describing God’s warlike power, which bends earth,
mountains, and rivers to His purposes—yea, even
sun and moon, in behalf of His people. The song
concludes with a declaration that though the bless-
ings of nature shall fail in days of dearth, the singer
will rejoice in the Lord (17-19).
The book abounds in striking ex pressions and rare
words, ¢.g., the description of the invasion of the
Chaldeans (i. 6 ef seqg.); of God as having “eyes too
pure to behold evil” (i. 13); of “men
as fishes of the sea” (i. 14); of the
worship of the fisherman’s implements
(i, 16); of “the stone that crieth out” Gi. 11); of the
folly of idolatry (ii. 18-19). Ch. iii. especially is
rich in striking similes (14-15), The book Is re-
markable also for originality. The author departs
from the usual method of the Prophets. In their
addresses the nation is central; in Habakkuk’s it
Contents.
Style.
Habakkuk
Habdalah
is God and His government of the world, He at-
tempts to unravel the meaning of God’s tolerance of
tyranny and wrong. In his questions Habakkuk
voices doubts to God, though not against God
(G. A. Smith, “The Twelve Prophets,” ii. 130
et seq.).
Critical View: Ch. i. and ji., on the whole,
are regarded as the work of one prophet. Still, the
text as now presented has been found to contain
certain difficulties. Taking i. 2-4 to be descriptive
of Israe]’s moral corruption, critics have argued that
this section could not have been part of a prophecy
devoted to the setting forth of the wrongs under
which Israel was suffering, a different sense thus at-
taching to the “wicked” and “righteous” in i. 4
and i. 18 respectively. Gicsebrecht (“ Beitriige zur
Jesaiakritik,” pp. 197 et seg.) and Wellhausen
(“ Kleine Propheten,” in “ Vorarbeiten und Skizzen”)
therefore consider i. 5-11 to be an older and inde-
pendent prophecy written previous to the remainder
of i. and ii.; ch. i, 12 is regarded as the sequel to i.
4. The subject of the complaint in i. 2 is different
from that in ii. 1. Kirkpatrick (“Doctrine of the
Prophets,” p. 268) holds the book as a whole to
be the fruit of religious reflection, giving con-
clusions reached only “after a prolonged mental
struggle.”
That i, 5-6, where the power of the Chaldeans
is represented as still of the future, and i. 13-16, ii.
10, 17 disagree, though their descriptions of foreign
nations appear to be based on actual observation, is
another difficulty raised by critical scholars. Budde
(in “Studien und Kritiken,” 1898, pp. 383 e¢ seq.),
reverting to a certain extent to Kuenen’s disinclina-
tion to assume an earlier and a later section (see
Kuenen, “ Historisch-Critiseh Onderzoek,” ii. 886 e¢
seq., Leyden, 1889), showed that Habakkuk had in
mind two world-powers: an oppressor (i. 2~4), and
the Chaldeans, appointed to punish him (i. 5 e¢ seg.).
But this necessitates the placing of i. 5-11 after
ii. 4. The oppressor to be destroyed is Assyria,
and the Chaldeans are the implement of God’s
judgment. It is of the Assyrian’s pride that the
prophet speaks, not of the Chaldeans’ presump-
tuousuess.
Ch. iti. is a psalm, not free from mythological
elements and not by Habakkuk. It must have
formed part of a liturgical collection, accidentally
incorporated with Habakkuk’s prophecies (Stade’s
“ Zeitschrift,” iv. 157 et seq.). The text is corrupt in
many places (Wellhausen, “ Die Kleinen Propheten,”
3d ed.). Verses 17-19 are additions by later hands,
verse 18 being a eulogy, such as is frequently found
at the close of liturgical songs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nowack, Die Kleinen Propheten, Gottingen,
1897; Rothstein, in Studien und Krittken, 18984; Budde, in
The Expositor, May, 1895.
E. G. H.
See ZOROASTRI-
HABAR or HABBAR.
ANISM.
HABAZINIAH (A '3y3n): The head of a family
of Rechabites. His grandson Jaazaniah was a chief
of the Rechabites in the time of Jeremiah (Jer.
xxxv. 8).
E. G. H.
HABAZZELET. See PERIODICALS.
M. Set.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
118
HABDALAH or ABDALAH or ABDALD A
(adsan, adtax. xndqas = “separation”; “disting.
tion”): The rabbinical term for the benedic.
tions and prayers by means of which a division is
made between times of varying degrees of holinegg
é.g., between Sab-
bath and work-day,
festival and work-
day, or Sabbath and
festival. The rabbin-
ical law requires that
a formal separation
be made between
holy and profane
times, and prohibits
the resumption of or-
dinary work after a
holy day until such
division shall have |.
been made. This is |.
accomplished by pro-
nouncing the Habda- ‘
lah, At theevening |.
service of a day fol- SS
lowing one of greater =
holiness, words ex- |<:
pressing the distinc- =
tion are inserted in oe
the “‘Amidah”; and |-
just before the con- |=
clusion of the service =
a special Habdalah | -
ceremony is per- Sie
formed. This is be- ae
gun, in all cases, by et
pronouncing a bene- =
diction overacup of = |-:.
wine, or, if wine can
not be obtained, over
any other beverage ;
except water ordi-
narily used in the
country where the
ceremony takes.
place. Attheconclu- ue
sion of the Sabbath | ~
are added brief bene- S
dictions over spices
and a freshly kindled ”
light. Theseare fol- :
lowed by a lengthier De
benediction in which 2
the distinction be-
tween the holy and
the profane is em-
phasized, and thanks are given to God as the Author
of this distinction.
While pronouncing the benediction over the light
it is customary to open and close the hands and to
gaze atthe finger-nails. For this, three
Blessing reasons are given: (1) in order to obey
Over Light. the Talmudic precept which prohibits
the pronunciation of a benediction over
light unless one derives some advantage therefrom
(“En mebarekin ‘al ha-ner ‘ad she-ye’otu le-oro”;
Ber. 53b); (2) because the nails in their unceasi0g
Habdalah Light.
Hosted by Google
Fue Jewish Eneyelopedia, Vol. VE.
bofai the possession of Maurice Herrmann, New York,
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In the British Museum, London.
and Athert Musedii, Loodun.
oe.
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HABDALAT ”
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ne | Bie 8) 30)
oa : the possession of Foly Raunheim. New York. & 14. In the possession of Leonard L. Cohen, London, i. Tre the Vietorta
ee Temple Shoarith bsraek New York, 45. dnethe Bevis Marks Svinagowue. Lotion,
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Hosted by Google
119
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Habakkuk
Habdalah
a a a a a i EL LL£,« AR a
rowth are a symbol of the prosperity which, it is
poped, the week will bring (“ Tur,” in the name of
Hai Gaon); (3) because the blood, 7.¢., the life, can
pe seen through the fingers.
Some modern rabbis consider the blessing over the
light as a recognition of the importance of the ele-
ment fire as an instrument designed by God for the
economic subjugation of the world (S. R. Hirsch,
“Choreb,” p. 109). The usual interpretation is that
light having been created by God at the beginning
of the week, it is therefore proper to pronounce a
benediction over it at the beginning of each recur-
ring week (Gen. R. xii.). A more natural explana-
tion seems to be that, since fire may not be used in
any form on the Sabbath, its employment is a dem-
onstration of the fact that the Sabbath has ended
and the working-days have recommenced ; its use,
therefore, is very appropriate in a Habdalah or sep-
aration ceremony. Thisexplanation is corroborated
by the fact that the blessing over the light forms no
part of the Habdalah after festivals on which the
use of fire is permitted, while in the Habdalah after
the Day of Atonement, which resembles the Sab-
bath in the prohibition of the use of fire, this bene-
diction is inserted. The candle or taper over which
the blessing is spoken
must have at least
two wicks, giving
two or more lights,
since the language
of the benediction is
plural, “who creates
the lights of fire”
(“bore me’ore ha-
esh ”).
All varieties of
spices and odorifer-
ous plants are suit-
able for the benedic-
tion of the spices,
except that they must
not have been used
for any obnoxious
purpose, as, for in-
stance, to disguise
the odor of decom-
position or other foul
smells, or for idol-
atrous worship.
Some authorities pro-
hibit the use of
sharp, acrid spices,
such as pepper. The
use of myrtle is en-
joined, in allusion
to Isa. lv. 13, “In-
Stead of the brier shall come up the myrtle,” but it
isnot obligatory. The reasons usually given for the
employment of spices in the Habdalah
Habdalah Spice-Box and Taper-
Holder.
(In the Musée de Cluny, Paris.)
Use are that perceptions and enjoyments
of Sweet- through the sense of smell are the most
Smelling delicate; that they afford not a gross,
Herbs. material pleasure, but rather a spir-
itual one; and that the perfume of
spices is, therefore, a comfort to the over-soul of the
Sabbath (“neshamah yeterah ”), which grieves when
the holy day departs (Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hay-
yim, 297; Bahya to Gen. xxxii.-xxxvi.).
The order of benedictions in the Habdalah is indi-
cated by the mune-
monic word 7'9'3),
formed from the initial
letters of 9%, DOwa,
2, asan = “wine,
spices, light, separa-
tion-formula.” It is
customary to sing
hymns at the Hab-
dalah service after the
close of the Sabbath.
Of these, several con-
tain references to the
prophet Elijah, who,
according to one view,
will appear after the
conclusion of that day.
These hymns are some-
times accompanied by
instrumental music,
which, forbidden on
the Sabbath, is ap-
propriate for the Hab-
dalah. Perhaps the
best known of these
hymns is that begin-
ning “May He who
distinguishes between
holy and profane for-
give our sins” (“ Ha-
mabdil ben kodesh
le-hol hatotenu yim-
hol”). Rabbi Moses
Sofer, following Mor-
decai ben Hillel on
Yoma, has pointed out
that this hymn was
originally intended for
the Habdalah service
after the Day of
Atonement (“Hatam
Sofer, Orah Hay-
yim,” No. 67), and it
is so employed among
the Sephardim when
the Day of Atone-
ment falls on the Sab-
bath.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tur and Maginne Erez, Orah Hayyim,
§ 297; Levinsohn, Mekore Minhagim, Berlin, 1846; §. R.
Hirsch, Choreb, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1889: Dembitz, Jew-
ish Services in Synagogue and Home, Philadelphia, 1898 ;
Landshuth, Hegyon Leb, Kiénigsberg, 1845; Seligman Baer,
‘Abodat Yisrael, Rédelheim, 1868,
A. B. D.
The Habdalah benediction reads: “Blessed art
Thou, O Lord, our God, King of the Universe! Who
hast made a separation between what is holy and
what is profane (Lev. x. 10; Ezek. xlii, 20]; be-
tween light and darkness [Gen. i. 4, 18]; between
Israel and other nations [Lev. xx. 26]; between the
seventh day and the six working-days. Blessed art
Thou who hast separated the holy from the pro-
fane.” According to another, and apparently older,
Silver Spice-Box for Habdalah.
(In the possession of S, Heilbut, London.)
Habdalah
Haber
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
129
SSS ee pe ee a ee a es
tradition, these words were added: “between clean
and unclean [ Lev. xi. 47, xx. 25}; between the upper
and the lower waters [Gen. 1. 6, 7]; between land
and sea [Gen. i. 10]; between the priestly tribe of
Levi and the common people of Israel [Deut. x. 8]”
(see Pes. 104a). The questions as to whether the
benediction over the spices or that over the light
was to be recited first, and as to whether the benedic-
tion should precede or follow grace after meals, were
matters of contro-
versy between the
schools of Shammai
and Hillel. The Hab-
dalah formula was
originally recited in
the home at the
opening of the eve-
ning meal or before
each course (comp.
Ta‘an. iv. 8, which
shows that there was
no Friday or Satur-
day evening service
in the Temple; see
also Herzfeld,
“Gesch. des Volkes
Israel,” iii. [ii] 209);
soon, however, it
came to be recited
in the synagogue
also: sometimes as
a special benediction
of the Shemoneh
‘Esreh (this was the
view of R. Akiba);
sometimes inserted in
the last benediction
but one (this was
the view of R. Eli-
ezcr); but it finally
became the custoin
to insert it in the
fourth benediction
(Ber. v. 2).
The Habdalah
benediction was
afterward ascribed
to the “men of the
Great Synagogue,”
and if was held to
have been originally instituted as a synagogal
benediction; in times of prosperity for the Jews it
was the custom to recite it over the
Origin of cup of wine at the home meal, but
Habdalah. when distress befell the people it was
recited in its original place (Ber. 38a).
The many differences prevailing among the Tannaim
and Amoraim concerning the Habdalah (see Pes.
108b ef seg.; Hul. i. 7; Shab. 150b; Yer. Ber. v. 9b)
indicate either the Jack of any fixed custom or the
want of an authority able to establish the custom
permanently. While Abba Arika declared the Hab-
dalah in the synagogue to be of greater importance
than that at the table over the wine-cup (Ber. 38a),
others promised future salvation (Pes. 118a), family
continuity through male descendants (Sheb. 18b),
Habdalah Spive-Box.
(In the possession of H. Frauberger, Frankfort-on-the-Main.)
and material blessings (Pirke R. El. xxi.) to hin
who recited the Habdalah over the wine-cup, No
one was allowed to eat before the Habdalah cere.
mony (Pes. 10%a).
Especial importance was attached to the Habdalah
light, the reason given being that it was created on
the first day (Pes. 58b, 54a). Opinions differeg
however, as to whether it was preferable to recite
the benediction over a light produced afresh by frie.
tion between pieces
of wood or stone, oy
over a light that haq
been burning before
(Ber. 52b; Pes. 54a),
A blazing, torch-like
light was considered
most appropriate
(Pes. 8a). The fol.
lowing Jegend, obvi.
ously based on the
connection of the
Habdalah with the
fourth benediction of
Shemoneh ‘Esreh—
the thanksgiving for
the reason with
Which God has en-
dowed man—is told
by Jose, the pupil of
Akiba: “Fire was
one of the things God
had left uncreated
when Sabbath set in;
but after the close of
the Sabbath, God
endowed man with
divine wisdom. Man
then took two stones,
and by grinding them
together produced
fire: after which he
recited the benedic-
tiou: ‘Blessed be He
who createth the
blaze of the fire’”
(Pes. 58b). This is
elaborated in Gen.
R. xi. (comp. Pesik.
R. 28; Yer. Ber.
viii. 12b): “ The light
which God created on the first day lit up the world
for man from the time he was created until the
sunset of the following day, when the
Habdalah darkness surrounding hii filled him
Light. with dread and the fear that the
tempting serpent would altogether
overpower him. Then God furnished him with two
bricks, which he rubbed together until fire was pro-
duced; whereupon he offered a benediction over the
fire.” According to Pirke R. El. xx., God sent him
a pillar of fire, and, holding His hands against it,
said the benediction over fire; then, removing His
hands, said the Habdalah benediction. Stress 1s
also laid on the fact that one recites the benediction
on seeing the blaze of the fire reflected either in the
wine-cup or on the finger-nails; if there is no fire, 4
121
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Habdalah
Haber
J SS SS ee a lt
glance at the reflection of the stars on the finger-nails
should prompt the benediction (comp. Midr. Teh.
to Ps. Xxxv. 2). Healing powers were also ascribed
to the Habdalah wine when put upon the eyes
(Pirke R. El. Zc; comp. Shab. 113b for the “ Kid-
dush ” wine).
Many other customs sprang up with regard to the
Habdalah light, for which a wax candle came into
use later on (see “ Tanya,” xxi., and Tur Orah Hay-
yim, 298).
The spices formed another subject for mystic spec-
ulation. The remark of Resh Lakish that Adam
was given a higher soul on Sabbath and was de-
prived of it at the close of the day, was connected
with the custom of reciting a benediction over
spices (see Samuel b. Meir, Pes. 102b; Maimonides,
“Yad,” Shabbat, xxix. 29). A myrtle was pref-
erably chosen, cabalistic reasons being given for it
(Kol Bo xH.; comp. Zohar, Wayakhel, and Kizzur
Shene Luhot ha-Berit, Hilkot Shab-
The Spices, bat). According to the German cus-
and tom, Isa. xii. 2-8, Ps. iti. 9, xlvi. 12,
Habdalah Esth. viii. 16, and Ps. exci. 18 are re-
Legends. cited before the Hlabdalah. The Ro-
man Mahzor and the Portuguese use
different verses. With Isa. xii. 3a legend is con-
nected, according to which water from the won-
drous well of Miriam may be drawn at that time,
and healing for diseases be obtained by drinking it
(Kol Bo xli.). According to another legend Elijah
the Prophet, who does not appear on the eve of
Sabbaths or of holy days (‘Mr. 48b), but who is eager
to reward faithful Sabbath observance, is expected
wappearat the beginning of anew week and fortify
those who wait for the redemption of Israel (Abudra-
ham, Hilkot Moze’e Shabbat, and Ibn Yarhi, in Ha-
Manhig, Hilkot Shabbat, 71). Many songs and reci-
tations, as well as conjurations referring to Elijah
the Prophet, are recited before and after the Hab-
dalah ceremony, together with prayers for the new
week’s work. Itis especially significant that a lit-
tle prayer in the German vernacular is said, because
many pious Jews of old would speak only Hebrew,
as the holy language, on the Sabbath day. See
Ha-Mappin and ELWAHW IN MEDIEVAL FoLK-Lore,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Baer, ‘Abodat Yisrael, 1868, pp. 310 et seq.:
M. Briick, Pharisdische Volkssitten und Ritualien, pp.
108-123; Geiger, Lehr- und Lesebuch zur Sprache der
Mischnah, pp. 66 et seq.; idem, Jild. Zeit. vi. 105-116.
A. K.
As one of the chief home ceremonies of the Jews
itis natural that a certain amount of superstition
Should have grown up around the custom; but
whether such superstitions were derived from the
surrounding peoples or not, it is difficult to say.
Thus both in Russia and Galicia it is
believed thatif a girl drink of the wine
of Habdalah she will get a mustache
(“Urquell,” 1893, p. 74), and the same
belief is held among the Jews of Baden (“ Mitteil-
ungen,” iii. 9). If yousprinkle the table-cloth with
the wine of Habdalah you will have a “full week”
(“Urquell,” 1893, p. 88), and if the Habdalah candle
burns until consumed you will get good sons-in-law
0b, PB. 81). Where spirits are used instead of wine,
88 In Kiev, it is customary to pour what remains
Super-
Stitions.
after the Habdalah is completed into a metal pan,
and set it afire with the Habdalah light. If it burns
completely away gocd luck willresult. Asit burns,
some dip their fingers into the flame and convey
their fingers to their pockets, in order to gain a “ full
week,” J.
HABER (93h = “associate”; “colleague”; “ fel-
low ”): Term ordinarily used in rabbinica! lore in its
original Biblical sense, “companion,” “friend ” (Ps,
cxix. 68; Ab. ii. 9,10). A Talmudic proverb says,
“'Phy haber has a haber, and thy haber’s haber hasa
haber; thy words will thus circulate and become
public” (B. B. 88b; ‘Ar. 16a). The Rabbis urgently
recommend study in company, asserting that only in
this way can knowledge be acquired (Ber. 68b; Ned.
81a); therefore, if necessary, one should even expend
money for the purpose of acyuiring a companion
(Ab. R. N. viii. 8). A prominent teacher of the sec-
ond century declared that, while he had learned
much from his masters, he had learned more from his
“haberim” (Ta‘an, 7a). Hence the term came to
mean a “companion in study,” a “colleague”; and
when preceded or followed by the term “ talmid”
(pupil) it denotes one who is at once the pupil and
colleague of a certain teacher, a scholar who from
being a pupil has risen to be a colleague or fellow
(comp. B. B. 158b; Yer. Shek. iii. 47b).
‘‘Scholar” Eventually “haber” assumed the gen-
in General. eral meaning of “scholar” (B. B. 75a),
and appears as a title subordinate to
Hakam (comp. Kid. 33b). The title “haber” was
known in comparatively early times (11th cent.),
when it probably referred to a member of a court of
justice (see Schechter, “Saadyana,” p. 81, note 2);
but in Germany in later centuries it indicated that
its possessor had devoted many years to the study
of sacred literature. In congregational life it was
conferred as a rule on married men, but often also
on yeshibah graduates who were single. It is
worthy of note that Jonathan Eybeschiitz conferred
it on the Christian professor Tychsen.
“Haber” also denotes a member of a society or
order (“haburah,” “haburta,” “keneset” = “ag-
gregation,” “company,” “union”), or of a union of
Pharisees for the purpose of carrying out the observ-
ance of the laws of “clean” and “unclean” to their
fullest possible development. In their eyes, any
person about whom there was a doubt as to whether
he was particular in the observance of these laws
or those concerning the tithes was an ‘AM HA-AREZ,
whose contact was defiling. But the term “haber”
is by no means synonymous with “ Parush ” (Phati-
see), since not all Pharisees were haberim, though
sometimes the generic term “ parush ” is used in its
stead (Tosef., Shab. 3. 15). Occasionally the more
specific term “ne’eman” (trusty) takes the place of
“haber” (Dem. iv. 5, 6). On the Scriptural saying,
“He shall .. . cleanse it and hallow it” (Lev. xvi.
19), rabbinical ethics bases the maxim, “ Cleanliness
leads to holiness” (Yer. Shab. i. 8¢; comp. Sotah
ix. 15). But cleanliness was understood to be closely
connected with Levitical purity; of this there were
several degrees, there being sections in the commu-
nity which observed its rules more strictly and ex-
tensively than did others. Some even extended all
Haber
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
129
a a Se SaaS CRS eR Sa a NI aS Ea a aa ETS
the precautions necessary for the priest in eating
holy things to the layman who lived on secular food
(Hag. ii. 6, 7; see PHARISEES),.
The Bible (Lev. xxvii. 30-32; Num. xviij. 21-28;
4
z
eS Ny gal
asthe
2 £ di :
«ae ee: tite
SLE a f aE
clean,” were doubtless familiar to the people at
large; but not all people found it convenient or nog.
sible to comply with them. Particularly difficu
must their observance have been in the unsettleg
DIPLOMA CONFERRING THE HABER DEGREE, ISSUED BY MARCUS BENEDICT, 1828.
(In the possession of Prof. G. Deutsch.)
Deut. xiv. 22-29) lays on the products of an Israel-
ite’s farm and on his herds certain imposts to
be paid respectively to the priest, the Levite,
and the poor (comp. Tobit i. 6-8), but which were
not universally paid. The rules governing these
imposts, as well as the rules of “clean” and “un-
state of affairs during the Maccabean wars. It is
suggested by some that it was at this time that the
so-called “‘am ha-arez” (who included the great
majority of the people), either driven by circum
stances or seduced by temptation, neglected them;
| and that a certain more rigorous minority, not
123
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Haber
A a
knowing whom to trust in such matters, formed
among themselvesassociations (“haburot”), the mem-
bers (“haberim”) of which pledged
Levitically themselves to keep faithfully the rules
Pure. of Levitical purity and those regard-
ing the tithes. Accordingly the haber
is one who strictly observes the laws of “ ma‘aserot ”
(tithes) and of Levitical cleanness (see Git. v. 9). To
pe admitted asa haber the candidate must declare
nis determination never to present the “terumah ”
or the “ ma‘aser ” toa priest or a Levite who is classed
as an ‘am ha-arez; nor to allow his ordinary food to
pe prepared by an ‘am ha-arez; nor to eat his ordi-
nary food (“hullin,” grain and fruit from which
terumah and ma‘aser have been separated) except in
, certain state of Levitical cleanness (Tosef., Dem.
ji, 2). This declaration must be made before three
members of the order, and if they are satisfied that
the candidate has lived up to the rules in his private
life, he is accepted at once; otherwise he is admitted
as a “ben ha-keneset ” (son of the union, neophyte;
comp. Bek. v. 5; Zab. iii. 2) for thirty days. Ac-
cording to Bet Shammai, this period suffices only
when membership is sought for the lesser degrees of
purity, while for the higher degrees the period of
probation must be extended toa year. After this
period, if the candidate has proved his constancy,
he becomes a haber or ne’eman. And in this respect
po distinction is made between the learned and
the ignorant; all must make this declaration. An
exception is made only in favor of a scholar at-
tached to a college, it being presumed that he
took the pledge when he first joined the college
(Bek. 30b).
As there are several degrees of Levitical cleanness,
so there are several classes of haberim and ne’emanim,
pledging themselves to corresponding
Degrees of observances. The lowest class is that
Haburah. which pledges itself to practise Levit-
ical cleanness of “kenafayim” (lit.
“wings”). This is a very obscure term, for which
no satisfactory explanation has been found. It is
generally assumed to mean “hands”; and inasmuch
as the Pharisaic maxim is, “ Hands are always busy,”
touching without intention on the part of their
owner both clean and unclean things, they are re-
garded as being in a state of uncertain cleanness;
hence one must cleanse them before eating anything
Levitically clean (Toh. vii. 8; comp. Mark vii. 3 e¢
seg.). This may be legally accomplished by pouring
on them one-fourth of a log of water. But that proc-
ess suffices only where a person wishes to eat hullin,
ma‘aser, or terumah. If he desires to eat the sacri-
ficial portions, he must dip his hands into forty
Seahs of water; and if about to handle the water of
lustration, he must first subject his whole body to
Immersion (Hag. ii. 5; Gem. 18b ef¢ seg.). As the
ordinary Israelite and the Levite are not permitted
to handle the most sacred things, it naturally follows
that not all men are eligible for the higher degrees;
and even of those whose descent does not bar their
admission, not all are willing to assume the corre-
Spondingly greater precautions incident to the priv-
lege, Provision is therefore made for general ad-
Mission to the lower degrees, of which most people
availed themselves. It is ordained that if one de-
Sires to join the order of haberim, but does not
wish to subject himself to the duties devolving
upon the members of the higher degrees—the pre-
cautions necessary to keep himself Levitically clean,
as for the more sacred things—he may be ac-
cepted; but where, on the contrary, one seeks
admission to the higher degrees while refusing to
pledge himself to strict observance of the rules
governing the lower degrees, he must be rejected
(Bek. é.c.).
Having been admitted as reliable in matters of
ma‘aser, a haber must tithe what he consumes, what
he sells of his own producing, and what
Separation he buys for the purpose of selling, and
from must not eat at the board of an ‘am
the ‘Am _ha-arez, lest he be served with victuals
ha-Arez. that have not been properly tithed.
If he would become a full haber, he
must not sell to an ‘am ha-arez anything that mois-
ture would render subject to uncleanness (see Lev. xi.
38; Maksh. i.), lest the ‘am ha-arez expose the goods
to contamination; for rabbinical law forbids the
causing of defilement even to things secular in Pal-
estine (‘Ab. Zarah 55b). Nor must he buy of an
‘am ha-arez anything so rendered subject to un-
cleanness, nor accept invitations to the board of an
‘am ha-arez, nor entertain one who is in his ordinary
garments, which may have been exposed to defile-
ment (Dem. ii. 2, 3).
A haber’s wife, and his child or servant, are consid-
ered, in respect to religious observances, as the haber
himself (‘Ab. Zarah 89a); therefore the admission of
a candidate into the order embraces aJl the members
of his family. Even after the haber’s death his
family enjoy the confidence previously reposed in
them, unless there be reason for impugning their
fidelity. The same is the case when one of them
joins the family of an ‘am ha-arez; as long as there
is no reasonable suspicion to the contrary, it is pre-
sumed that the habits acquired under the influence
of the observant head of the family will not be dis-
carded, even under different circumstances. Simi-
larly, the presumption of habit governs the case of
members of the family of an ‘am ha-arez joining
that of a haber; they are not considered trustworthy
unless they pledge themselves to live up to the rules
of the haburah. However, the child or servant of
an ‘am ha-arez entering the house of a haber for the
purpose of study is exempt from the operation of
that presumption as long as he remains under the
haber’s direction. On the other hand, when the
pupil is the son orservant of a haber and the teacher
is an ‘am ha-arez, the presumption is extended in the
pupil’s favor. Again, where a man is recognized
as reliable while his wife is not—as when a haber
marries the widow or daughter of an ‘am ha-arez—
haberim may unhesitatingly buy of him articles of
food, but must not eat at his board if itis presided over
by his wife. If, on the contrary, the wife is reliable,
being the widow or daughter of a haber, while the
husband is an ‘am ha-arez, haberim may eat at his
table, but must not buy from him (Tosef., Dem. ii.
14-18).
As to the haber himself, once he has been recog-
nized as such, he continues so as long as he is not
found guilty of backsliding. If suspicion of back-
Haber
Habib
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
124
SSS Se eS Spee ge ea en a ag Gg es aera
sliding is reasonably aroused against him, he is sus-
pended from the haburah until he reestablishes his
trustworthiness. Similarly, where a
Suspension haber accepts an office that is consid-
from ered suspicious—as that of tax-col-
the Order. lector or publican—he is suspended
from the haburah, but is reinstated
upon surrender of the office (Bek. 31a).
The exact date when the haberim first appeared
can not be determined. That they existed, how-
ever, as a haburah in ante-Maccabean days, and are
identical with those cited in I Macc. xiv. 28 as the
“reat congregation of priests” (Geiger, “ Ur-
schrift,” p. 124), is not very probable, since in the
later period of the Medo-Persian rule over Pales-
tine no great formative events are on record which
could account for so great a separation from the
body of the people. The precise period of the ha-
burah’s organization should be sought, therefore,
in the last decades of the second pre-Christian cen-
tury. See ‘Am HA-AREZ; Demat; MA‘ASEROT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Geiger, Urschrift, pp. 121 et seq.; Gratz,
Gesch. 3d ed., iii. 74 et seq., and notes 9, 10, 13; Hamburger,
R. B. T-. ii. 126; Leopold Low, Nachgelassene Schriften, it.
140; Maimonides, Yad, Ma‘aserot, ix.-xii.; Semag, precept
135; Schiirer, Gesch. 3d ed., ii. 387; Monteflore, Hibbert
Lectures, p. 498; Bacher, in Monatsschrift, xliii. 345-360;
idem, Aus dem Wo6rterbuch Tanchum Jeruschalnis, p. 20,
Ss. 8. S. M.
HABER, SOLOMON VON: German banker;
born at Breslau Nov. 3, 1760; died Feb. 20, 1839.
The son of poor parents, he rose to a position of
wealth and eminence by his talents andenergy. He
settled at Carlsruhe during the stormy years at the
end of the eighteenth century. Many of the larger
German national loans were effected through him,
and he was instrumental also in founding some of
the industrial enterprises of the grand duchy of
Baden. After being appointed court banker by
Grand Duke Karl] (1811-18), Grand Duke Ludwig
conferred upon him (1829) a patent of hereditary
nobility. Jn 1816, and again in 1819, the ancient
prejudice against the Jews that was threatening to
break out into open hostility in Carlsruhe was held
in check by Haber, who used his influence and posi-
tion to shield his coreligionists. Haber was instru-
mental in the founding (1818) of a “ Cultusverein,”
which conducted services on the Hamburger Tem-
ple plan. The services, however, were soon discon-
tinued; but the result was that in 1824 the Grossher-
zogliche Oberrat, which had been founded in 1809,
and of which Haber was a member, introduced
officially the German sermon. Until his death Ha-
ber was a member of the Grossherzogliche Oberrat
fiir die Staatsbtirger Mosaischen Glaubens in Baden.
One of his sons, Louis, became a member of the
Austrian House of Lords (Herrenhaus), having pre-
viously embraced Christianity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Friedrich Weech, Badische Biographien, i.
324; A.Chorin, Iggeret al-Asaf, pp. 2846, Prague, 1826; Ben
Chananja, 1863, p. 72; Kayserling, Bibliothek Jiidischer
Kanzelredner, p. 350. ;
8. A, BLUM.
HABERKASTEN, KALMAN (KALONY-
MUS): Polish rabbi of the sixteenth century. He
is the first known rabbi of the city of Ostrog, Vol-
hynia, where he settled after having previously pre-
sided over a yeshibah in Lemberg. His daughter
Lipka married Solomon Luria, who succeeded to the
rabbinate of Ostrog when Haberkasten went to
Palestine, about 1560. Haberkasten is known to
have made the acquaintance of the great cabaligtg
who then flourished in the Holy Land, and is men.
tioned by Hayyim Vital Calabrese in the manuscript
work * Likkute Torah.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gans, Zemah Dawid, 1557, part i.; Buber, 4 y.
she Shem, p. 201, Cracow, 1895; Nissenbaum, Le-Korot hq.
Yehudim be-Lublin, p. 20, Lublin, 1899.
K, P. Wr.
HABIB, JACOB (BEN SOLOMON) IBN:
Spanish Talmudist; born at Zamora about 1460.
died at Salonica 1516. In his youth Habib studieq
the Talmud under R. Samuel Valensi. In 1492
when the Jews were expelled from Spain, he settleq
at Salonica, where he wrote his “‘En Ya‘akob” jn
the house of Don Judah ben Abraham Benveniste,
who placed his rich library at his disposal. Habib
also availed himself of the library of Don Samuel
Benveniste, which contained, among other great
works, a large collection of novelle on the Talmud
by many distinguished commentators. By the aid
of the works from these two libraries Habib col-
lected all the haggadic passages from the Babylo-
nian, and many from the Palestinian, Talmud. The
publication of this work began in 1516 in the print-
ing establishment of Judah Gedaliah, the author
himself carefully reading the proof-sheets; but he
died just as the first two orders (Zera‘im and Mo‘ed)
came from the press. His son, R. Levi, completed
the labors of his father, but the work appeared be-
fore the public without the notes of the author to the
last four orders (“sedarim ”), and without the index,
which the author originally intended to cover the
entire work. The haggadot of the Jerusalem Tal-
mud are also Jacking.
The “‘En Ya‘akob” is the only work Habib left
to the world. The object of the author was to
familiarize the public with the ethical spirit of Tal-
mudic Jiterature; at the same time his notes were
intended to refute the charges brought against the
Talmud by the numerous Spanish converts. The
book, which thus appealed to the mass of the un-
learned, became very popular. It was often edited
and annotated, and served as a text-book of re-
ligious instruction. There are over thirty editions
known; the latest (Wilna, 1883) contains twenty
commentaries, among them one which consists of
selections from more than one hundred homiletical
works. Of the additions, the most important one is
that of Leo di Modena, under the title “ Ha-Boneh,”
which has appeared in all editions since 1684. The
author’s intention was chiefly to propagate a more
rationalistic view of the Talmudic Haggadah. In
some editions the title of the whole work is “‘En
Yisrael.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Besides the bibliographical works s.v. 2/3) ]°}:
see the introduction of the author and the various commen-
tators in the Wilna edition of 1883: Zunz, G. V. p. 94; Miel-
ziner, Introduction to the Talmud, p. 76; Gratz, Gesch. x.
35; Rabbinovicz, Dikduke Soferim, Introduction to Megiliah.
D.—B. FR.
HABIB, JOSEPH IBN (called also J OSEPH
HABIBA): Spanish Talmudist; flourished in the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Like his prede-
cessor, R. Nissim b. Reuben (RaN), Ibn Habib wrote
125
Haber
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Habib
ne
4 commentary on the halakot of Isaac Alfasi, en-
titled “ Nimmuke Yosef,” published with the text
aud the commentary of R. Nissim (Constantinople,
4509). Against the opinion of Conforte (“ Kore ha-
DPorot,” p. 26a) that Ibn Habib commentated only
those treatises which R. Nissim had omitted, Azulai
(“Shem ha-Gedolim”) proved that Ibn Habib’s “ Nim-
muke Yosef” covered the entire halakot of Isaac
Alfasi, but a part of it had remained unpublished,
and that the commentary to the halakot of Mo‘ed
Katan and Makkot, attributed to R. Nissim, belongs
to Ibn Habib. The latter quotes Asher b. Jehiel,
Yom-Tob ben Abraham, his master RaM, and R.
Nissim himself. The “Nimmuke Yosef” on Ketu-
pot and Nedarim was also included in the work
“Tshshe Adonai ” (Leghorn, 1795), and the portion on
Shebu ‘ot in the “ Bet ha-Behirah ” (20. 1795). Azulai
says that Ibn Habib was the author of novelle on
the whole Talmud.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim; Cassel, in Ersch
and Gruber, Eincyce. section ii., part 31, p. 73; Steinschneider,
Cat. Bodl. col. 1449; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 470.
K M. SE.
HABIB, LEVI BEN JACOB IBN: Rabbi of
Jerusalem; born at Zamora, Spain, about 1480; died
at Jerusalem about 1545, Under King Manuel of
Portugal, and when about seventeen, he was com-
pelled to submit to baptism, but at the first oppor-
tunity fled to Salonica, where he could follow the
dictates of his consciencein safety. In 1523 he went
to Jerusalem, but in a short time returned to Salo-
nica. In 1525 he settled permanently at Jerusalem,
where his learning won him the position of chief
rabbi. There he met Jacob BERAB, with whom he
often came into conflict on questions of rabbinical
law. <A. serious quarrel broke out between these
two rabbis when Berab, becoming chief rabbi of
Safed, reintroduced the ancient practise of the ordi-
nation of rabbis. They carried on a bitter and en-
venomed controversy for some time, in the course of
which Berab referred to Jbn Habib’s adoption of
Christianity. The latter frankly admitted the fact,
but pointed out that at the time he was a mere
youth, that his involuntary profession of Christian-
ity lasted hardly a year, and that he took the first
opportunity to escape and rejoin the religion of
his fathers, This controversy was chiefly responsi-
ble for the fact that the practise of ordination ceased
again soon after Berab’s death.
Ibn Habib had some knowledge of mathematics
and astronomy. In his youth he edited his father’s
“‘En Ya‘akob” (Constantinople, 1516; see Hast,
JACOB IBN). He wrote: “She’elot u-Teshubot,” a
collection of 147 responsa; “Kontres ha-Semikah,”
a treatise on ordination; “Perush Kiddush ha-
Hodesh,” a commentary on Kiddush ha-Hodesh
(rules governing the construction of the calendar
in Maimonides’ code). All these works were pub-
lished together at Venice (1565); the last-named
work was also published separately (7b. 1574-76).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, pp. 32a, 33b, 37a:
Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., ix. 293-296; De Rossi, Dizionario, i. 84;
Hazan, Ha-Ma‘alot li-Shelomoh, pp. 58a-54a; Fiirst, Bibl.
Jud. i. 153; Steinschneider, Cat. Boal. col. 1606.
D, M. SEu.
HABIB, MOSES IBN: Palestinian rabbiof the
seventeenth century. He was a disciple of Jacob
Hagiz, one of whose daughters he married. He
wrote: “Get Pashut,” on the laws of divorce, Orta-
keni, 1714; “Shammot ba-Arez,” Talmudic novell;
Constantinople, 1727; “‘Ezrat Nashim,” on matri-
monia] law, 7, 1731. Some of his responsa are
found in Abraham ha-Levi’s “Ginnat Weradim,”
Constantinople, 1715-16.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim; Benjacob, Ozar
ha-Sefarim. :
D. L. Gr.
HABIB, MOSES B. SHEM-TOB IBN: He-
brew grammarian, poet, translator, and philosopher
of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Being a
native of Lisbon, he called himself “Sefardi”; but
he left his native country long before the expulsion
of the Jews. He lived for a time in the Levant
(Sxyoe YN), then went to southern Italy, and
died in the beginning of the sixteenth century. <As
grammarian he was under the influence of Efodi,
who endeavored to base Hebrew grammar upon
logic. He wrotea grammatical work entitled “ Perah
Shoshan” (British Museum MS. No. 2857), quoted
by Ibn Habib himself in “ Darke No‘am,” and fre-
quently by Abraham de Balmes in “ Mikneh Abra-
ham.” This book is divided into seven sections
(D’yy), cach consisting of a number of chapters
(D»p15). As his chief sources he names Hayyuj,
Ibn Janah, Ibn Ezra, and Efodi. He finished the
book at Naples the 27th of Kislew, a.m. 5245 (=
Dec. 15, 1484), having commenced it on the 23d of
Siwan, A.M. 0244 (= June 16, 1484). <A second
and smaller grammatical work by him, entitled
“Marpe Lashon,” summarizes the principles of
the Hebrew language in catechetic form. It ap-
peared at Constantinople about 1520, next in the col-
lection “ Dikdukim” (Venice, 1506), in the gram-
mar “Debar Tob” of Abigdor Levi of Glogau
(Prague, 1783), and finally in an edition by Heiden-
heim (Rédelheim, 1806). With it was printed the
“Darke No‘am,” containinga summary of Hebrew
poetics and versification based on Aristotle’s “ Poet-
ics.” In “ Darke No‘am” Habib makes the statement,
often repeated since, that he saw a rimed inscription
of two lines on the tombstone of a Jewish gen-
eral(?) Amaziah, in Spain. The introductory poem,
dated the 14th of Nisan, 1486, is dedicated to the
physician Joseph Levi, in Bitonto, Apulia. At
Otranto Ibn Habib wrote for his pupil Azariah b.
Joseph acommentary to Jedaiah Bedersi’s “ Behinat
‘Olam,” published at Constantinople about 1520
(only a fragment of this edition, now in the posses-
sion of Dr. Harkavy, is known), at Ferrara in 1551,
and at Zolkiev in 1741. Extracts from this com-
mentary were made by other commentators on the
same work, including Yom-Tob Lipman Heller,
Eleazar b. Solomon in “ Migdanot Eleazar,” and
Jacob b. Nahum of Tyszowce in “Or Hakamim.”
In this commentary, which evidences its author’s
thorough knowledge of philosophical literature, [bn
Habib speaks of composing a work entitled “ Kiryat
Arba‘,” concerning the number four, hence indefinite
in subject; but nothing is known about such a work.
Ibn Habib translated “She’elot u-Teshubot,” ques-
tions and answers on the six natural things the body
requires, according to the science of medicine; the
original is ascribed to “Albertus,” probably Al-
Habillo
Had Gadya
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
126
Se Sy Oe a oe ag ee a eg ee ee Se Ee ae het ea ease ee a on ee ae ee gas ee eee eT,
bertus Magnus. The manuscript of this translation
is in the Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris (No. 977).
The contents are quoted by Steinschneider (“ Hebr.
Uebers.” § 486).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1786; idem,
Hebr. Uehers. p. 110 and § 486; Finn, in Ha-Karmel, 1863-
1864, iv. 198 (repeated 1872, p. 541; unreliable); Bacher, Die
Hebriiische Sprachwissenschaft vom Zehnten bis zum
Sechzehuten Jahrhundert, etc., pp. 100,113; Wiener, in Ben
Chananja, 1865, p. 50; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, s.v.
aby; mma ; Renan-Neubauer, Les Ecrivains Juifs Francais,
Pp. 39-42; Wiener, Bibliotheca Friedlandiana, i., Nos. 1108
et seq.
a S. P.
HABILLO (XABILLO) ELIJAH BEN
JOSEPH (MAESTRO MANOEL): Spanish
philosopher; lived at Monzon, Aragon, in the second
half of the fifteenth century. He wasan admirer of
the Christian scholastics, and studied Latin in order
to translate into Hebrew some of their works, espe-
cially those dealing with psychology. The works
which he partly translated and partly adapted
(some bearing his name; others, though anonymous,
known to be his) were the following of Thomas
Aquinas: “ Queestiones Disputate, Queestio de Ani-
ma” (Steinschneider, “Cat. Hamburg,” No. 267);
“De Anime Facultatibus” (Hebr. title, “Ma’amar
be-Kohot ha-Nefesh”), published by Jellinek in
“Philosophie und Kabbala,” Leipsic, 1854; and
“De Universalibus” (Steinschneider, J.c. No. 267);
“She’elot Ma’amar be-Nimza ube-Mahut,” questions
on Thomas Aquinas’ treatise on being and quality
(Neubauer, “ Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No, 24588). He
furthermore translated: three treatises of Occam’s
(or Okam’s), entitled “Summa Totius Logices,” to
which he added anappendix (MSS. Parma, No. 457);
“Qusstiones Philosophice,” by the same author
(2b. No. 201); “ De Causa,” thirty-two premises, with
their explanations, by Aristotle (7d. No. 437). Ac-
cording to Jellinek and Steinschneider, Habillo also
translated, anonymously, Vincenz of Beauvais’ “ De
Universalibus,” under the title “ Ma’amar Nikbad bi-
Kelal” (#6. No. 4577).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Munk, in Orient, Lit. vii. 725; idem, Mé-
ianges, p. 308; Jellinek, Philosophie und Kabbaia, p. xiv.;
Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 265, 470, 477, 4833 idem,
Cat. Hamburg, p. 111.
G. I, Br.
HABILLO (CHAVILLO), ELISHA BEN
SOLOMON: Venetian Talmudist of the eighteenth
century; descendant of a prominent Palestinian
family. Judah Chavillo is mentioned asa renowned
Talmudist in the responsa “Darke No‘am” (iii. 39)
of Mordecai Levi of Cairo. Elisha was a disciple of
David Pardo and the author of the following works:
(1) * Pat Lehem,” containing the ritualistic laws con-
cerning the venedictions, especially the grace after
meals (OM M333) (Leghorn, 1794); (2) “Hamon
Hogeg,” commentary on the Haggadah of Passover
(7b. 1798); (8) “‘Abodat ha-Tamid,” commentary on
the prayer-book according to the Spanish rite (7.
1794), in which he adopted many interpretations of
the renowned Shabbethai Hayyim, afterward dis-
carding them as being heretical; (4) “Shif‘at Rebi-
bim,” liturgical poems of David Pardo, with addi-
tions of his own (7d. 1793).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nepi-Ghirondi, Tuledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 11;
Mortara, Indice Alfabetico, p. 12; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books
Brit. Mus. p. 176, s.v. Chavillo; Furst, Bibl. Jud. iii. 598.
G. I. Br.
HABILLO, SIMON BEN JUDAH BEN
DAVID: Rabbi at Hebron in the middle of the
seventeenth century ; contemporary of Moses Zacuto
who approved his works. Habillo was the author
of: “Hebel ben Yehudah,” a commentary on the
Haggadah of Passover, Mantua, 1694; and “Hele,
Yehudah,” a commentary on Ruth, published to.
gether with the text, Venice, 1695. The last-nameq
work is preceded by a prayer of Habillo arrangeg
in the style of Psalm cxix.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bod. col. 2611; Nepi.
Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 331.
K. I. Br.
HABINENU: Initial word, also the name, of a
prayer containing in abridged form the Eighteen
Benedictions (see SHEMONEH ‘ESREH), minus the first
three and the closing three(see Lirurey). The prayer
was formulated by Samuel of Nehardea, to be sub.
stituted where time or circumstances prevent the
reciting of all the benedictions in full (Ber. 29a). At
the close of Sabbaths and festival days, when the
“Habdalah ” is to be recited, the “ Habinenu” doeg
not serve as substitute, nor may it be used when the
prayer for rain is to be offered. In the Jerusalem
Talmud (Ber. iv. 8a) the version differs somewhat
from the commonly adopted one given in the Baby-
lonian Talmud. Translated into English, it reads
as follows:
**Render us intelligent that we may know Thy ways. Cir.
cumcise our hearts to fear Thee; forgive us that we may be re.
deemed. Keep us far from paiu, and fertilize for us the green
pastures of Thy land. Gather us from the four corners of the
earth. Let those who have strayed from Thy knowledge be
taught therightway. Lift Thy hand againstthe wicked. Grant
joy to the just in the reconstruction of Thy city, in the restora-
tion of Thy Temple, in the renewal] of the kingdom of Thy serv-
ant David and of the splendor of the son of Jesse, Thine
anointed. Hear us before we call! Blessed be Thou, O Lord!
who hearkenest to prayer.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Baer, ‘Abodat Yisrael, p. 108, ncte.
K. J. Br.
HA-BOKER OR. See PERIODICALS.
HABOR: River flowing through the land of
Gozan; the classical “Chaboras.” To the banks of
this river Tiglath-pileser carried “the Reubenites,
and the Gadites, and the half tribe of Manasseh,
and brought them unto Halah and Habor” (I Chron.
v. 26). In the ninth year of King Hoshea, Shal-
maneser “took Samaria, and carried Israel away into
Assyria, and placed them in Halah and in Habor by
the river of Gozan” (II Kings xvii. 6, xviii. 11).
Habor is identified with the modern Khabur.
E. G. H. B. P.
HACHILAH, HILL OF (nbsnn nyo): A
hill in the wooded country of the wilderness of Ziph,
where David hid himself from Saul (I Sam. xxiii.
19; xxvi. 1, 3).
E.G. Bi. M. SEL.
HACHMONI, THE SON OF (‘y109n 33): 1:
Jashobeam, one of David’s mighty men (I Chron.
xi. 11). 2. Jehiel, tutor of David’s children (%.
XXvii. 32). The former, however, occurs in the Eng-
lish Authorized Version as “an Hachmonite.” In
the parallel list of IT Sam. xxiii. 8, the name of the
same hero occurs as “ Yosheb ba-Shebet Tahkemoni,’
127
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
abillo
ad Gadya
which the Authorized Version translates “the Tach-
wonite that sat in the seat,” the whole sentence
peing an epithet of ADINO THE EZNITE.
E. G. H. M. SEL,
HACHUEL, SOL: Moorish martyr; beheaded
at Fez 1834. On account of domestic troubles she
fled from her home to some Mohammedan friends.
Two women among these testified that she had
agreed to resign herself to the Mohammedan faith.
She refused to do this and was cast into prison,
whence on appeal she came before the sultan. He
was so struck with her beauty that he offered her a
place in his harem if she would abjure. This she
refused to do, and she was beheaded outside Fez.
Her beauty and resolution attracted attention to her
fate, which was made the subject of a drama, “La
Heroina Hebrea,” by Antonio Calle (1852).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. M. Romero, El Martirio de la Joven
Hachiel, Gibraltar, 1889; Meakin, The Moors, p. 488, Lon-
don,
8. J.
TAD GADYA (“One Kid”): An Aramaic song,
which is recited at the conclusion of the Seder
service, held on the first two evenings of the Pass-
over (“ Pesah ”) festival in Jewish households (see
HaccGaDAH). It is so called after the introductory
phrase, which is also used as a continuous refrain at
the end of each of the ten verses of which the poem
consists. It belongs toaspecies of cumulative rimes
familiar alike to the child in the nursery and to the
folklorist. It was for a long time regarded as an
allegorical version of the principle of “ jus talionis,”
a sort of commentary upon Ex. xxi, 24-25, It is, in
fact, simply a Jewish nursery-rime, now known to
have been borrowed from, or fashioned after, a pop-
ular German ballad, the prototype of which seems
to have been an old French song. The English
translation of this Aramaic doggerel runsas follows:
‘One only kid, one only kid, which my father bought for two
zuzim. One only kid, one only kid. Thecat came and ate the
kid, etc. Then came the dog, and bit the cat, etc. Then came
the stick, and beat the dog, etc. Then came the fire that
burned the stick, etc. Then came the water, and quenched the
fire, ete. Then came the ox, and drank the water, etc. Then
came the slaughterer, and killed the ox, ete. Then came the
angel of death, and slew the slaughterer, etc. Then came the
Most Holy—blessed be He !—and destroyed the angel of death
that slew the slaughterer that killed the ox that drank the
water that quenched the fire that burned the stick that beat the
dog that bit the cat that ate the kid which my father boughi for
two zuzim. One only kid, one only kid.”
According to the commentators, the legend illus-
trates how the people of Israel were for centuries
oppressed and persecuted by all the nations of an-
tiquity, and how the oppressors all perished one by
one, and how Israel, the oppressed, survived. The
allegorical explanation of the story is this: The kid
8ymbolizes the Hebrew nation; Yuwu being the
Sather, who bought or redeemed His people through
Moses and Aaron (= the two pieces of money) from
Egypt. The cat is Assyria, conqueror of Israel.
The dog is Babylonia, the next to oppress the Jews.
he stick stands for Persia; the fire, for Macedonia;
the water, for Rome; the ov, for the Saracens, who
Conquered Palestine; the slaughterer, for the Cru-
Saders; the angel of death, for the Turk, now ruling
Over Palestine; and, finally, the Most Holy, for the
Principle of eternal justice to vindicate Israel, the
one only kid of the allegory.
Quite an extensive and interesting literature clus-
ters about this curious droll. In 1781 Philip Nic-
odemus Lebrecht, a baptized Jew, publshed at
Leipsic a tract with the following title: “x44 4n.
Ein Zicklein, das Ist, ein Merck wiirdiges Ritzel aus
der Jiidischen Oster-Liturgie Welches in Sich Be-
greifet die Begebenhciten und Schicksahle des Jii-
dischen Volcks, so Sie von Ausgang Egyptian biss
auf die Zukunft Ihres Annoch Taglich [zu] Erwart-
enden Messie Darunter Verstehen” (comp. Wolf,
“Bibl. Hebr.” iv. 954, 955). This commentary is
borrowed from the Latin of Herrmann von der
Hardt, who in 1727 published at Helmstadt an ex-
planation of the “riddle,” under the title, “ Aenig-
mata Judaica” (Wolf, de. p. 1044; Franz Delitzsch,
“Zur Gesch. der Jiidischen Poesie,” p. 81, Leipsic,
1886; Steinschneider, “Cat. Bodi.” col. 1082). In
1732 Christian Andreas Teuber published in Leipsic
another treatise, based upon Lebrecht’s, entitled:
“Seay xd yeaa on, 4. ¢. Wahrscheinliche Muht-
massung von dem Alten und Dunekeln Jiidischen
Oster-Liede: Ein Zicklein, ein Zicklein.” Wolf (lc.
iv. 1044) gives full information concerning the con-
tents of this book. A number of other Christian
writers have published and commented upon this
nursery-rime, as though it were a profound philo-
sophical poem, notably Wagenseil (“ Belehrung von
der Jiidisch-Teutschen Red- und Schreib-Art,” 2d
ed., pp. 98, 105, Kénigsberg, 1699) and Boden-
schatz (“Kirchliche Verfassung der Heutigen Ju-
den,” section vili., pp. 310-319, Erlangen, 1748), In
England, too, the legend was known and discussed in
the “London Congregational Magazine” for 1834,
whence it was reprinted in New York, 1835, under
the title, “A Kid, a Kid, or the Jewish Origin
of the Celebrated Legend, ‘The House That Jack
Built’ ” (see an article describing this little book in
“The New York Times Saturday Review,” Feb. 9,
1901). In the preface it is called a “parabolical
hymn.” Henry George published in London in 1862
an essay on the same subject: “An Attempt te
Show that Our Nursery Rime ‘ The House That Jack
Built’ Is an Historical Allegory, . . . To Which Is
Appended a Translation and Interpretation of an
Ancient Jewish Hymn” (comp. Steinschneider,
“Hebr. Bibl.” v. 638).
There are, moreover, a number of Jewish com-
mentaries on “Had Gadya.” A partial list of them
(the earlier items alphabetically arranged) is given in
the bibliography to this article.
Parallels to this legend may be found in Oriental
and Occidental folk-lore. Joseph Jacobs, in the
notes to his “English Fairy Tales” (London, 1893),
has collected some of the analogues,
Folk-Lore from “Don Quixote,” and from Per-
Parallels. sian, Indian, and other sources. The
origin, however, is now held to be a
German folk-song, “ Der Herr der Schickt den Jokel
aus,” a variant of which was sung in certain places in
Germany on Sept. 17—a date sacred to a local saint,
St. Lambert—and called “Lambertuslied” (see
Nork, “ Festkalender,” pp. 587-588, Stuttgart, 1847).
A French chanson, edited by Gaston Paris (see
bibliography), is also cited as the prototype of the
Chaldaic verses. There are, besides, two other
French nursery-rimes, “Ah! Tu Sortiras, Biquette”
Had Gadya THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 128
eee
and “La Petite Fourmi qui Allait 4 Jérusalem,” soma ain by ‘51 (MS. Michael, No. 405; comp, Benjacob, 1.¢,
which bear a striking resemblance to the Jewish D: 148, NO. 99) «Judai Dery MOrcecal HORWitZs 24.1) B3/p,
legend G. A. Kohut has republished (see bibliog- Konigsberg, 1164, Dubno, 1794; Judah ben Moses, 1327 +p xb,
nore S - : each ana aiodcns Gwen ea: Altona (?), 1776; Zebi Hirsh ben Solomon Salman, x45»
raphy) the German, 3 , Ss er e : wey tn Sy op wap, Prague, 1827 (extract from the same
ants; but perhaps the most curious analogue, in author's work, ‘3¥ ‘y, which doesnot appear to bave been
Siamese, was printed in “Triibner’s Record” for published).
Feb., 1890 (comp. “ Jewish Messenger,” New York, Besides these special treatises and commentaries see the
April 28, 1897) numerous editions of the Pesah Haggadah, ¢.g., those of
P ; : : David Cassel and L. Landshuth. To the latter's edition (Mag.
Asregards theage of the Jewish song, the Prague gid me-Reshith, Berlin, 1856) Steinschneider has contribu
(1526) edition of the Haggadah does not contain it; a bibliography, Nachwort, die Literatur der Haggada Be.
but the edition of 1590, published in the same city,
prints it with a German translation (comp. Zunz,
treffend, pp. xxvi.-xxx. (comp. G. Polak, Haggadah shel Pe.
sah, Amsterdam, 1851). The literature is carefully listed, with
critical noe ae Benjacob, wea ae ai Le 124-139
: . Wilna, 1880. See also Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 4]]'
“G. V.” 2d ed., p. 183a; Steinschneider, “ Hebr, ix Br i
wh)? xj > . Fe Roest, Cat. Rosenthal. Bibl. pp. 688-695; 8. Wiener, Biblio.
Bibl. ane 52). The l ortuguese and South-Arabian graphite der Oster-Haggadah, 1500-1900, St. Petersburg, 1902.
(Yemen) rituals do not include either the Eaap M1 Bacher, in Zeit. ftir Heb. Bibl. vii. 88-89. :
r ‘ “Ty, Nadwa?- On the origin of the Had Gacdya and its parallels, see, als,
YopeEa‘or the “Had Gadya”; though one Yemen | ine tonowing works: Wolf, Bibl, Hebr. ti. 1287, iv. 104371042.
: x , Darmesteter, Neubauer, and G. Paris, in Roumania, 1872.)
said to contain the latter, added by a later hand, and 218-225; A. Sabatier, Chansons Hébr. Proveng. dex Juifs,
Zunz found the former in a mahzor of Avignon No, 1, Nimes. 1874 ; stinenncider, ve Bibl. v. 68, vii, 8,
“ TF ay moss ; iQ] : ix. 92, xiv. 52; Jacobs, English Fairy Tales, New York, 1893;
( Allg . Zeit. des Jud. i. ‘ 469) ? Itis Inter ESE 40 G. A. Kohut, Le Had Gadya et tes Chansons Similaires, in
note that a German version of the “Had Gadya” is
to be found in Von Arnim and Brentano’s anthology
pp. 12-17: April, 1902, pp. 274-276; idem, in Jewish Hapo-
nent, April-June, 1906; see also JEW. ENCYC. VY. 78, 8.v,
EHAD MI Yopra‘, and sources there given; Schwab, Réper-
toire, pp. 69, 109, 210, 271, 291; A. A. Green, The Revised
Haggada, pp. 98-99, 105, notes, London, 1898; I. 8. Moses,
Haggada, with musical notes, New York, 1902; Keane, Rhp-
420, 1598 ; Zedner, Cat, Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. pp. 440-446.
manuscript, in the Sutro Library, San Francisco, is Sanders, in Busch’s Jahrbuch fiir Israeliten, vi. 267 et seq.:
R.E. J. xxxi. 240; idem, in Helpful Thoughts, Sept., 1901,
“Des Knaben Wunderhorn.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Moses b. Jacob Aberle, nba odipn 2 r2D
ho aM Ow apna ap, Altona, 1770; Anonymous, }7*NN NM NHK
NTI AN Attn yn ys, Amsterdam, 1762 (on the title-page
it is stated that the author, in deep humility, wishes to with- “4lig. Zeit. des Jud. April, 1902.
hold his name.’ The preface states that the interpretation
ape is A. G. A. K.
came to him in a vision); Asher Anshel, 3m Sy psapn cyNe2
x12, London, 1785; Moses b. Simeon Blumenfeld, O°9W ) "2D Music: The “Had Gadya ? tg usually chanted
Be A SD SN 2 ADO el eee Pee in the traditional style of cantillation, a typical
Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 289, No. 358); Judah Jiidel (Ga) : ue ees 4 2 7 Piet oa
rangement of which may be seen in A. Schonfeld’s
Engel, xv an xppren Sy sp mya ON ADD, Altona, 1779; | TANSCMer ;
Jonathan ben Nathan (Nata) Eybeschiitz, p’w asain by wren Recitative und Gesinge zum Vortrige am Ersten
HAD GADYA
desia, London, 1902 (contains a Malagasy version; comp. I,
Abrahams in Jewish Chronicle, London, Jan. 10, 1902, p. 27);
1A Kid - ling, a Kid-ling! "Twas pur-chased by my Fa- ther; Two
2.A Stick was ly - ing’ by there That
3. But soon a rush of Wa- ter Came
4. The Slaugh-ter - er soon seized him, That
5. The Ho - ly One _ se-eth! He bade Death cease from slay - ing, When
eee J (Slower. )
a a 9 2 a = SS se
— 4a ge of $a a fs nd
eS PES ES RE a ee ee
Adagio. mf dante moderato. |
—|-§--——_$ pai
Pe De RE TAD tra
pie- ces was the price (Of Kid- ling, of Kid-ling); The Cat crept up so
owed the Dog a_ grudge (For Kid- ling, for Kid-ling); He gave him such 4a
pour-ing from a spout (For Kid- ling, for Kid-ling); It hissed a - bout the
man with knife so keen (For Kid- ling, for Kid-ling): He drew that knife,and
thus the Bntch-er died (Like Kid - ling, like Kid-ling) Thatkilled the Ox so
129 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Had Gadya
sly - ly And ate it in a trice (Poor Kid-ling, poor Kid-ling). In
thrash-ing Be - fore hethencecouldbudge (For Kid-ling, for Kid-ling). But
em - bers And put the Fire right out (For Kid-ling, for Kid-ling) A
quick-ly The Ox hadslaugh-tered been (For Kid-ling, for Kid-ling), But
thirst-y That drank the Wa-ter’s tide (For Kid-ling, for Kid-ling) That
5 eee J =
Sh RATS PR BE erent [ eae BS a ae
a a a ee mae ee) Vamenta teen se een. a _. See,
#5 iss ses
Py
AS, AA ORY = | —#-
eee —~,-=—-—— pote
ceaeaaacaae = es a a
"e°
rushed the Dog, but too late To save the lit-tle Goat (Poor Kid - ling, poor
in the glow-ing em- bers The Stick his judge soon found (For Kid - ling, for
thirst-y Ox that saw this From drink-ing did not stop (For Kid - ling, for
then drew near Death’s An - gel, For die is what men must (Like Kid - ling, like
quench’d the Fire that burnt up The Stick that beat the Dog (For Kid - ling, for
See!
Po RUN” RE ae
f
- -i—__—___
va
Kid-ling); He sprang up - on the Cat then, And bit her in the
Kid -ling); ‘The Fire burst out and burnt him To ash - es on the
Kid - ling) Till there was no more Wa - ter: He left no sin - gle
Kid-ling); He in his turn was van-quished, The Butch -er soon was
Kid - ling) That bit the Cat that ate th’ Kid My Fa - ther bought of
_ 4+]
Se es ns a
SS
-@-
throat (For Kid-ling, for Kid-ling).
ground (For Kid-ling, for Kid-ling).
drop (Poor Kid-ling, poor Kid-ling).
dust (Like Kid-ling, like Kid-ling).
yore, A Kid-ling, a Kid-ling. Last time Da Capo.
Hadad
Hadamard
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
130
rr ——-~Oowrorrrr 00 0m
und Zweiten Abende des Ueberschreitungsfestes,”
No. 31, Posen, 1884. A melody of great interest
was traditional in the home or J. Offenbach, the
elder, hazzan at Cologne; and it may be found, with
pianoforte accompaniment, in his edition of the Hag-
gadah (Cologne, 1838). This arrangement is said to
be due to Jacques Offenbach, the younger, the well-
known composer of opera-bouffe. The textis given
in the German version “Ein Laimmchen”; and the
setting, slightly abbreviated, reappears in Abraham
Baer’s “Ba‘al Tefillah,” No. 773, Géteborg, 1887.
An English version, here reproduced, was given in
“Young Israel,” ii., No. 14, London, 1898.
A. PL. “©,
HADAD: Name of an Aramaic, and possibly of
an Edomitish, deity. It occurs asan element in per-
sonal names, for instance, in “Hadadezer,” “ Ben-
hadad” (see Baudissin, “Studien zur Semitischen
Religionsgesch.” i. 310). In these compound names,
the variant reading occasionally gives “Hadar”
for “Hadad.” The connection of “Hadad” with
“FEizer” is the more usual, and “ Ben-hadad ” seems
originally to have been a secondary form of the com-
mon name “ Hadadezer,” in Assyrian inscriptions
“Hadad-idri” (“idri” = Wy; Schrader, “K. G. F.”
pp. 871, 588-539; dem, “K. A. T,” 2d ed., p. 200).
“Hadad ” may have been identical with “ Rimmon,”
or “ Raman,” since for “ Hadad-idri” the equivalent
“Raman-idri” is also found. The meaning of this
name is apparent from that of the root 397 (= “to
make a loud noise”; in Arabic “hadd,” used of a
falling building, of rain, of the sea, etc., so that
“haddah” connotes “thunder”). The name desig-
nates the Aramaic weather- or storm-god; as such
this element is met with in names on the Zenjirli
inscription (see Lidzbarski, “ Handbuch der Nordse-
mitischen Epigraphik,” Index), in such compounds
as Samay (Scholz, “Gédtzendienst,” etc., p. 245;
comp. Euting in “Sitzungsberichte der Kéniglichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,” p. 410;
Baethgen, “Beitrige zur Semitischen Religious-
gesch.” p. 68), and in names on the El-Amarna
tablets (Bezold, “The Tell el-Amarna Tablets in the
British Museum,” p. 155, London, 1892). As to its
occurrence in Arabia, see Wellhausen, “Skizzen und
Vorarbeiten,” iii. 31. According to Halévy (“ Etudes
Sabéennes,” p. 27), “Hadad” represents also a Sa-
bean deity.
In the Old Testament “Hadad,” without the ad-
dition of a qualifying word (verb), occurs as a per-
sonal noun, designating the Edomites. It is proba-
ble that where “Hadad” is found alone the second
element has dropped out, and “Hadad” must be
regarded as denoting the deity (Schréder, “ Die
Phonizische Sprache,” 1869, p. 254; Nestle, “Die
Israelitischen Eigennamen,” 1876, pp. 114-116;
Kerber, “ Die Religionsgesch. Bedeutung der Hebri-
ischen Eigennamen,” 1897, p. 10). Variants of this
name are “Hadar,” “Hadad” (Wellhausen, J.c. p.
55), “Haddam” (?) in Himyaritic inscriptions (“C, I.
S.” Him. et Sab. No. 55), and “ Hadu,” in Nabateean
(G. Hoffmann, in “ Zeit. fiir Assyr.” xi. 228).
“Hadad” combined with “Rimmon” is found in
Zech. xii. 11; the context of the verse shows that
the mourning of, or at (see below), Hadadrimmon
represented the acme of desperate gricf. The older
exegetes agree in regarding “Hadadrimmon” a,
denominating a locality in the neighborhood o¢
Megiddo. The lamentations of Sisera’s mother
(Judges v. 28), and the assumed weeping over Aha.
ziah, King of Judah, who died at Megiddo (II Kings
ix. 27), have been adduced in explanation of the ar
lusion, The most favored explanation is that givep
by the Peshitta, that the plaint ye.
Earlier ferred to was for King Josiah, who had
Inter- _ fallen at Megiddo (II Kings xxiii. 29),
pretations. The Targum to Zech. xii. 11 combines
two allusions, one to Ahab, Supposed
to have met his death at the hands of a Syrian by
another to
the name of “Hadadrimmon,” and
Josiah’s fall at Me-
giddo, These various
references to public
lamentations over one
or the other Biblical
personage have been
generally abandoned
by modern scholars.
Following Hitzig, it
is now held that Zech-
ariah had in mind
a public mourning
for the god Hadad-
rimmon, identified
with the Phenician
Adonis (Ezek. viii. 14.
“Tammuz ”), whose
yearly death was the
occasion for lament.
This theory, plausi-
ble on the whele, is,
however, open fo ob-
jections arising from
the text of the verse
in Zechariah.
“ Hadadrimmon ” is
certainly a compound
of two names of de-
ities. The Masoretic
text identifies the
second element with
Rimmon, “the pome-
granate,” and among
modern scholars the
attempt has been
made to justify this
reading on the as-
sumption that the
pomegranate was a symbol of the Hadad-Ado-
nis cult. This view, however, still awaits con-
firmation. In the pictorial representations of Hadad
(see “ Mitteilungen aus den Orient, Sammlungen, ” p-
84, plate vi.) the god is shown bearded, wearing 4
cap and having horns on his head; while the de-
scription of the god of Heliopolis (identitied with the
Aramean Hadad by recent writers like Baudissin)
which is found in Macrobius shows him with a whip.
or lightning-bolt, in one hand, and with ears °
grain in the other. These data, in which the pom
granate is missing, confirm the opinion that Hadac
was a god of thunder, corresponding thus to the 4*
Hittite Representation of Hadad.
(In the Royal Museum, Berlin.)
131
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hadad
Hadamard
ee Eg ee ee ee ig oe ogee ee ee ee
sumed Assyrian god Raman (“the thunderer ”), and
that the second element probably read, originally,
“Raman.” Adonis-Tammuz, however,
A Thunder- was a solar deity; the thunder-god is
God. not believed to have died, and why a
lament should have been instituted
over him and should have become typical of mourn-
ing is one of the unsolved riddles in the way of the
interpretation now generally favored. It is true,
Baudissin (in Herzog-Hauck, “ Real-Encyc.” vii. 292)
deduces from the place-name, Heliopolis, and the
material of the statue, gold, as described by Macro-
pius, that Jater, as a result of Egyptian influences,
the Aramean thunder-god was conceived of as a sun-
god. He adduces other pictorial representations,
including a seal with the legend “Hadad” (“C. I.
9.” Aramaic, No. 75). Still, the transformation of
the thunderer Hadad into a dying (solar) Adonis-
Tammuz appears to be problematic. Of ceremonies,
such asare known to have been centralin the Adonis
cult, in connection with the worship of Hadadrim-
mon, nothing isknown. Nor, evenif Hadad, identi-
fied with the Adonis of Byblus, or worshiped along-
side this Adonis and thus gradually confounded
with him (see Baudissin, /.c. p. 294), was believed
to die every year, are data at hand to prove that
such a lament took place at Megiddo.
In view of these uncertainties the explanation of
“Hadadrimmon” as the name of a locality in the
plain of Megiddo has come again to
Difficulties the front, modified by the supposition
of Identi- that the place derived its name from
fication. a sanctuary supposed to exist there
for the worship of Hadad-Raman.
Still, a locality of this name is not known, notwith-
standing Jerome’s equation “ Adadremnon” =“ Maxi-
mianapolis.” Perhaps the modern Rummanah, in the
plain of Jezreel, might serve to locate the Biblical
(Hadad) Rimmon, Then “ Hadadrimmon” would
be analogous to such names as “ Ba‘al-Lebanon,”
“ Ashtart-Karnayim,” and would signify the Hadad
of the place Rimmon, which place received its name
from an old (Canaanitish; see Judges i. 27) temple
or altar erected to a deity (Rimmon, or Raman) by
later Aramean settlers, and identified with their god
Hadad, so that finally it came to be known by the
double name.
This leaves open the question as to what mourn-
ing could have been observed at this place. The
death of Josiah seems to afford the most plausible
explanation of the prophet’s simile. But even if
the mourning is regarded as having taken place
Where the king died and not at the place of his
burial (Jerusalem), it is difficult to believe that the
one historical mourning should have been vivid
enough in the minds of the people to evoke such an
allusion; especially so if Zech. xii. belongs to the
apocalyptic writings. The mourning at Hadadrim-
moh must have been constant and excessive.
George Adam Smith (“The Twelve Prophets,” ii.
482) calls the locality the “classic battle-field of the
land”; the mournin g, then, would have reference to
the thousands slain in the various battles fought
there. But this fails to account for the prominent
Mention of Hadadrimmon. Perhaps the difficulty
would be removed, without recourse to such forced
textual emendations as those proposed by Cheyne
(in Cheyne and Black, “Encyc. Bibl.”), by taking
into consideration the fact that Hadad had the qual-
ities of Moloch (see Baudissin, “ Moloch,” in Herzog-
Hauck, “ Real-Encyc.” xii.). At his sanctuary hu-
man sacrifices were usual. Hence the lament both
of the victims and of the mothers. As“ Gehinnom,”
the name of a Moloch furnace, occurs as a common
apocalyptic simile, why should not “ Hadadrim-
mon” be associated with similar horrors’ The
murder of him whom the inhabitants of Jerusalem
have pierced (Zech. xii. 10, 11), for whom they shall
lament as for an only son, as for a first-born, carries
out the analogy to the Moloch cult. The first-born
(that is, the only son) was offered to this Hadad-
Melek-Raman. E. G. H.
HADAD (357): Name of several Idumean
kings, the meaning of which is “a loud noise.” It
was primitively the name of an Aramean divinity
and formed a part of various Aramean theophorons
names, as “ Hadadrimmon” and “ Hadadezer.” The
name was borne by: 1. The third [dumean king, who
reigned before the time of the first king of Israel,
and who gained an important victory over the
Midianites (Gen. xxxvi. 35; I Chron. i. 46). 2. The
last Idumean king (I Chron. i. 51). In Gen. xxxvi.
39 the name occurs as “Hadar.” 3. A member of
the royal house of Edom, who escaped the massacre
under Joab and fled to Egypt (1 Kings xi. 14 et seq. ;
see Epom). 4. (73M) One of the sons of Ishmael
(Gen. xxv. 10 [A. V. “Hadar”]; I Chron. i. 30).
E. G. H. M. SE.
HADADEZER or HADAREZER (77y557,
sayosn): Son of Rehob, and King of Aram-zobah,
who, while he was on his way to establish his do-
minion on the Euphrates, was defeated by David,
suffering great loss in chariots, horses, and men (II
Sam. viii. 3-12; I Chron. xviii. 3,4; I Kings xi. 28).
After the first repulse of the Ammonites and their
Syrian allies by Joab, Hadadezer seized an apparent
opportunity to avenge himself. He sent his army
to assist the people of Maachah, Rehob, and Ishtob
(R. V. “the men of Tob”; II Sam. x. 15; I Chron.
xix. 16). They crossed the Euphrates under the
command of Shobach (Shophach), the chief of Had-
adezer’s host. On this occasion David himself
commanded. The rout of the Arameans was com-
plete; forty thousand horsemen were slain, inclu-
ding Shobach, the commander-in-chief (II Sam. x.
16-18; I Chron. xix. 16-18).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HADADRIMMON. See Tammuz; Hapap.
HADAMARD, AUGUSTE: French painter;
born at Metz 1823; died in Paris 1886. <A pupil of
Paul Delaroche, he established himself at Paris,
where, in addition to painting, he sketched for the
illustrated papers. Among his works the most notice-
able are: “La Pique Juive”; “ Allemagne (XVII.
Siécle)”; “L’ Education d’Azor”; “Billet de Loge-
ment”; “La Fée aux Mouettes”; “Chant du Soir.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: La Grande Encyclopédie.
8. V. E.
HADAMARD, ZELIE: French actress; born
at Oran, Algeria, in 1849. The daughter of an
army interpreter and professor of Arabic, she went
Hadassah
Hadith
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
139
Sr
to Paris and passed at the Conservatoire, making her
stuge début at the Odéon. After playing in Brus-
sels and Rouen she returned to Paris, where she ap-
peared at several theaters. At the Odéon, to which
she afterward became attached, she filled and created
many important parts, especially in classic tragedy.
On Sept. 18, 1887, she appeared in “ Andromaque”
at the Comédie Francaise, where she is still engaged
(1903), playing in both tragedy and comedy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: La Grande Encyclopédie.
S. V. E.
HADASSAH (lit. “the myrtle”): Earlier name
of Esther, Mordecai’s cousin (Esth. ii. 7). The name
“Hadassah” occurs here only. It is not given by
the Septuagint. Inthe Vulgate the name is givenas
“Edissa.” See ESTHER.
E. G. H. B. P.
HADASSI, JUDAH BEN ELIJAH HA-.-
ABEL: Karaite scholar, controversialist, and litur-
gist; flourished at Constantinople in the middle of the
twelfth century. Regarding the name “ha-Abel,”
which signifies “mourner for Zion,” see ABELE
Zion. Neubauer thinks that “Hadassi” means
“native of Edessa” (“ Aus der Petersburger Biblio-
thek,” p. 56). Nothing of Hadassi’s life is known
except that he was the pupil of his elder brother
Nathan. He dealt with Hebrew grammar, Maso-
rah, theology, and philosophy, and knew Arabic
and Greek well (Mordecai b. Nisan, “Dod Mor-
dekai,” ch. 11). Hadassi acquired his reputation by
his “ Eshkol ha-Kofer,” or “Sefer ha-Peles.” Itisa
treatise on the Commandments, in which the author
endeavored to explain them philosophically, and in
which he applied all his analytical talent and schol-
arship. The work embodies not only much of the
science of his time, but even legends and folk-lore,
so that it has appropriately been termed “a sea of
learning.” Itis written in rimed prose, the general
rime throughout the work being 4; and the initial
letters of the successive verses form alternately
the acrostics of 732" and priwn, repeated 379 times.
The alphabetic chapters 105-124 are, however,
in the regular form of poems. Ha-
Contents dassi began the work on Oct. 9, 1148.
of the Starting from the premise thatall laws
‘¢Eshkol.” contained inthe Pentateuch, and those
added by the Rabbis, as well as the
minor ethical laws by which the Jews regulate their
daily life, are implied in the Decalogue, Hadassi
enumerates, under the head of each of the Ten Com-
mandments, a complete series of coordinate laws;
and the whole work is mapped out according to this
plan.
The first commandment, affirming the existence of
God, contains alphabets 1-95, in which the author
treats of the duties of the created toward the Crea-
tor, dealing, for instance, with prayer, repentance,
future punishment and reward, and resurrection.
Beginning with alphabet 35, Hadassi treats of the
nature of God, of creation (TYWRID Nwyy), of angels,
of the celestial bodies, etc. In fact, this part of the
work is a compendium of religious philosophy, as-
tronomy, physics, natural history, geography, and
folk-lore. The second commandment, affirming the
unity of God, contains alphabets 96-129, Here
Hadassi refutes the views of other sects; for eXam.
ple, the Christians, Rabbinites, Samaritans, and Sad.
ducees, who maintain the eternity of the world, He
is indignant at those who identify the Karaites wit,
the Sadducees, and shows great animosity toward
the Rabbinites. Alphabets 99-100 contain a yio.
lent attack upon Christianity. The third commang.
ment is discussed in alphabets 180-143; the fourth
in alphabets 144-248. In the latter he treats of the
laws concerning the Sabbath, and then proceeds to
the holidays and to the laws connected with they
as those relating to sacrifices, which include all laws
concerning the priests, slaughtering, zizit, etc.
This part is the more important as it containg
Hadassi’s views on exegesis and grammar. For
discussing with the Rabbinites the kinds of work
permitted or forbidden on the Sabbath, he jg
obliged to state his exegetical rules, and he endeay. -
ors to show that the Karaites are not inferior tg
the Rabbinites as exegetes. After giving the thir.
teen rules (“middot”) of R. Ishmael and the thirty.
two of R. Eliezer ben Jose ha-Gelili, he gives his
own, dividing them into two groups, one of sixty
and one of eighty, and finding an allusion to them in
Cant. vi. 8. The sixty “queens” denote the sixty
grammatical rules, headed by five “kings” (the
five vowels); the eighty “concubines” denote the
eighty exegetical rules; and the “virgins without
number” represent the numberless grammatical
forms in the Hebrew language. Considering pho-
neticsas necessary for the interpretation of the Law,
Hadassi devotes to this study a long treatise, in the
form of questions andanswers. The fifth command-
ment contains alphabets 249-264, treating of the
laws regulating the relations between parents and
children, of inheritance, mourning, etc. The sixth
contains alphabets 265-274, and the seventh, alpha-
bets 275-886, the latter covering all the laws concern-
ing adultery, incest, cleanliness and uncleanliness,
women in childbirth, and the fruit of the first three
years. The eighth commandment is discussed in
alphabets 337-353, covering the lawson the different
kinds of theftandfraud. Theninth embraces alpha-
bets 354-3862, in which are discussed all kinds of false
itnesses, including false prophets. Finally, the
tenth commandment contains alphabets 363-379,
dealing with the laws imovlicd in the prohibition
against covetousness, Hadassi illustrates his ex-
planations by examples interspersed with tales and
legends.
Obviously his model was Nissim ben Noah’s
“Bitan ha-Maskilim,” or “Peles Bi’ur ha-Mizwot,”
written 370 yearsearlier, The sources
His upon which he drew included the
Model and “Ma‘aseh Bereshit ” of R. Ishmael; the
Sources. Baraita of R. Samuel, for astronomy:
the “Yosippon,” for history; David
al-Mukammas’ work on the sects; Eldad ha-Dani, for
legends; while for grammar he utilized especially the
Karaite grammarians, though he also made use 0
the Rabbinites, quoting Judah Hayyuj and Ibn
Janah. The fact ought to be mentioned that
Hadassi has included in his “ Eshkol” the first grat”
matical work of Abraham ibn Ezra (“ Moznayim™,
composed in Rome, 1140), without acknowledgins
the fact (“Monatsschrift,” xl. 68 e¢ seg.). In
133
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hadassah
Hadith
eT ae Coe we ae PT ee ER we Pe eg a ee EN Ct fag Ewa NEL ha we Saha | wf rn Qed pape eee ee gD Se Cm ee ee ee a we
attacking the Rabbinites, he followed the exam-
le of his predecessors, as Solomon ben Jeroham,
Japheth b. ‘Ali, Sahl b. Mazliah, and others. This
work was printed at Eupatoria (18386), with an in-
troduction by Caleb Afendopolo entitled “ Nahal
Eshkol.” Alphabets 99-100 and part of 98 were ex-
eluded from this edition by the censor, but have
peen published by Bacher in “J. Q. R.” (vill. 481
gt seg.). Hadassi mentions a previously written
work of his entitled “Sefer Teren bi-Teren,” a col-
jection of homonyms which, he says, was an addi-
tion to the eighty pairs of Ben Asher (alphabets 163 3,
168 D, 178 3). There exists also a fragment which
Firkovich (Cat. No. 619, St. Petersburg) entitled
«Sefer ha-Yalkut” and attributed to Hadassi, while
Pinsker regarded it as an extract from Tobiah’s
“Sefer ha-Mizwot.” P. F. Frankl, however, agreed
with Firkovich in regarding it as a part of the “ Esh-
kol ha-Kofer,” which Hadassi had previously writ-
ten in prose. In the Karaite Siddur there are four
piyyutim by Hadassi.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pinsker, Likkute Kadmoniyyot, p. 223: Sup-
plement, p. 93; Jost, Gesch. des Judenthume, ii. 852 et _seq.;
First, Gesch. des Kardert. ti. 211 et seg.; P. F. Frankl, in
Monatsschrift, xxxi. 1-13, 72-85; Bacher, ib. xl. 14, 68, 109;
J. Q. R. viii. 481 et seq.; Gottlober, Bikkoret le-Toledot ha-
Karaim, p. 172; introduction to Eshkol ha-Kofer by Caleb
Afendopolo, entitled Nahal Eshkol.
K. M. Sex.
HADDAD, ISAAC: Talmudic scholar of Gerba
(an island near Tunis), where he died in 1755. He
was a pupil of Zemah ha-Kohen, and was the author
of two works, “Toledot Yizhak,” novella on Hag-
gadah and Midrashim (Leghorn, 1761), and “ Karne
Re’em,” novellse on Rashi’s and Mizrahi’s commen-
taries to the Pentateuch, followed by “Zera‘ Yiz-
hak,” notes on Midrashim (2b, 1765).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 611; First, Bibl.
Jud. i. 852; Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 163;
Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Afus. p. 172; Benjacob,
Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 538, No. 634.
K M. SEL.
HADES. See SHEOL. »
HADID (3"4n): City mentioned with Lod and
Ono (Ezra ii. 83; Neh. vii. 37; xi. 34, 35). From
the last-given passage it would seem that Hadid was
a Benjamite town, though it is not given in the list
in Joshua (xviii. 21-28). An “ Adida” (=“ Hadid ”)
is mentioned in I Macc. xii. 38, xiii. 13 as having
been fortified with gates and bars by Simon the Mac-
cabee. The Mishnah (‘Ar. 32a) says that Hadid, as
wellas Lod and Ono, had been surrounded by walls
from the time of Joshua. Hadid may be identified
With the modern Al-Hadithah, not far from Lydda
(Lod), mentioned also by Eusebius (“ Onomasticon,”
8.v. “ Adithaim ”) under the name of “ Adatha” or
“Aditha,” and as east of Diospolis (Lydda). See
Zunz in Benjamin of Tudela’s “Itinerary ” (ii. 439,
ed. Asher).
E.G. H. M. SEL.
HADIDA, ABRAHAM BEN JUDAH:
Spanish Talmudist of the fifteenth century. He
was the author of a commentary (unpublished) to
Ecclesiastes, Esther, and the Haggadah (“Cat. De
Rossi,” No. 177). He is quoted in the Responsa of
Joseph di Trani (i., No. 33).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : De Rossi, Dizionario, i. 79: Michael, Or ha-
Hayyim, No. 111.
K, M. SEL.
HADITH: An Arabic word signifying “narra-
tive” or “communication”; the name given to say-
ings traced to the prophet Mohammed, or to reports
of his actions by eye-witnesses, The authenticity
of the hadith depends upon the value of the chain
of tradition (“sanad,” “isnad” = “support ”) which
precedes the quotation or the report (“matn”); that
is, upon the trustworthiness of the authorities who
have handed down the tradition. Since, on account
of the meagerness of the Koran, the most important
documents for the religious, ritualistic, and legal
development of Islam are contained in the hadith,
the examination of the authenticity of the latter,
with especial regard to the trustworthiness of the
channels of transmission, has always formed one of
the most important theological concerns of Islam.
Notwithstanding the painstaking and precise char-
acter of such examinations, European critics hold
that only a very small part of the hadith can be re-
garded asan actual record of Islam during the time
of Mohammed and his immediate followers. It is
rather a succession of testimonies, often self-contra-
dictory, as to the aims, currents of thought, opin-
ions, and decisions which came into existence dur-
ing the first two centuries of the growth of Islam.
In order to give them greater authority they are re-
ferred to the prophet and his companions. The
study of the hadith is consequently of the greater
importance because it discloses the successive stages
and controlling ideas in the growth of the religious
system of Islam. According to the consensus of
Mohammedan critics, six canons, in which the most
authentic records of the hadith are collected, have
attained special authority, and form the most im-
portant source, next to the Koran, for Islamic the-
ology. The collections of Bukhari (ad. 870) and
Muslim (d. 875) are those to which the highest au-
thority is ascribed. These are supplemented by
four others, namely, the collections of Abu Daud
(d. 888), Tirmidhi (d. 892), Nasa’i (d. 914), and Ibn
Maja (d. 886). All these works have recently been
rendered accessible in the Orient; three-fourths of
the Bukhari collection has been printed also in Eu-
rope (8 vols., Leyden, 1862-68).
Through an inexact extension of the term the con-
tents of these works as well as the hadith in general
have been called “sunnah,” which latter term must
be distinguished from “hadith.” By “sunnah” are
to be understood the religious customs
‘‘Sunnah.” handed down from the oldest genera-
tions of Islam, whether authenticated
in the form of hadith or not. Hadith, on the other
hand, may be a record of what is regarded as sun-
nah, but is not identical with it. For the sake of
offering an analogy from Jewish literature, a par-
allel has often been drawn between “kur’an” and
“mikra” and between “sunnah” and “mishnah.”
This comparison, however, is quite absurd, for the
Arabic “sunnah” (which means “manner,” “cus-
tom”) is etymologically and materially different
from the Hebrew word with which it was identi-
fied. Just as incorrect was the widely prevalent
opinion, which was supported by a comparison of
the differences observed in Judaism between Rab-
binites and Karaites, that the two great divisions
into which Mohammedans are divided, Sunnites and
Hadith
Haftarah
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
134
a rr
Shiites, are distinguished from each other through
the fact that the former recognize, in addition to the
Koran, the traditions of the hadith and sunnah, while
the latter recognize only the validity of the Koran
as a religious document, and not of the hadith. For
the Shiites also recognize hadith as a source of
religious doctrine, but they make the condition
thatthe “isnad” be transmitted by authorities whom
they regard as trustworthy (Shiitic hadith), As far
as contents are concerned, the Shiitic hadith often
coincides with the Sunnitic hadith (excepting in re-
gard to the principles of public law).
The scope of the hadith includes everything that
comes under the influence of religion—the ritual,
the law in its entirety, the religious legends, and the
ethical precepts and views. Within it a halakicand
a haggadic hadith may be discriminated. The ma-
terial which early Islam borrowed from Judaism
is also clothed in the garb of the hadith. In later gen-
erations rabbinical precepts and legends which found
their way into Mohammedan literature as a result of
intercourse between Jew and Mohammedan were
simply claimed as Islamic property, and, put in the
technical phraseology of the hadith, were ascribed
to the Prophet. In the article IsLam the subject of
derivation from the Halakahis treated more in detail.
Even more plainly than in the case of the law and
its codification, Jewish influence is seen in those
portions of Islamic religious literature which corre-
spond to the Jewish Haggadah, because here its
elements were not forced into codified forms, and
could therefore develop in greater freedom. This
Mohammedan Haggadah seems to have received its
final form, if at all, only very late; it is seen ex-
panding freely as long asthe impulse to hadith-crea-
tion remains active to any degree. Apart from the
legendary amplifications of Biblical history, whose
sources are usually rabbinical Haggadah and apoc-
ryphal literature, the moral precepts attributed to
Mohammed and his companions and successors also
show traces of rabbinical origin. And even Biblical
passages are sometimes claimed in Mohammedan lit-
erature as hadiths of the Prophet. If, on the one
hand, for the sake of making a display of learning,
citations (including some from rabbinical sources;
see “Z, D. M. G.” lii. 712) which are foreign to the
hadith literature are inserted in it as coming from
Biblical sources (“taurat” and “zabur”; see 7d.
Xxxli. 348 ef seg.), on the other hand, rabbinic say-
ings are sometimes inserted as being original Mo-
hammedan hadiths. A few characteristic examples
must suffice:
(1) mow sa on xby mapn Swat mnnap 3
(Ta‘an. 2a; comp. 13) MINNaS Aya, Tan., Gen.,
ed. Buber, pp. 106, 155): found in Bukhari’s
“Tauhid,” No. 4; “Istiska’.” No. 28 (the thought is
the same, though five keys are mentioned instead of
three or four).
(2) Peahi. 1; see“ R. E. J.” xtiv. 66 et seg.
(3) 33) Nporo N32 Sneed NM y AN? (Hag. 9b);
Bee Scireine® “ Studien tiber Jeschu‘a b. Jehuda,”
p. 14, note 8, Berlin, 1900
(4) psy pn spew myy7 (an old Jewish saying not
found in the Talmud: comp. Briill’s “ Jahrb.” vii.
28); occurs in Abu Zaid’s * Nawadir.” pp. 171, 179,
Beirut, 1894; “ When it pleases you to lie, leave your
witness at a distance” (it is possible, however, that
this saying was borrowed by the Jews from the
Arabs).
(5) MAY MwN2 Sip (Bezah 29a), as a religious rule.
a literal translation in the “Mufid al-‘Ulum,” p, 31,
Cairo, 1310 A.H.
(6) “In heaven is proclaimed: ‘A, the daughter of
B, shall be the wife of C, the son of D’”; cited ag
teaching: of the Prophet by Jahiz, “Le Livre deg
Beautés et des Antithéses,” ed. Van Vloten, p. 218
(7) Abot iii. 7; see Goldziher’s “ Abhandlungen
zur Arab. Philologie,” i. 193.
Other examples. may be found in Barth’s “Migq.
raschische Elemente in der Muslimischen Tradition,”
in the “ Berliner Festschrift,” pp. 38—40.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Goldziher, Ueber die Fintwickelung deg
Hadith, in Muhammedanische Studien, ii. 1-274 Halle,
1890; idem, Hadith und Neues Testament, pp. 382-399 :
idem, Neue Materialien zur Literatur des Dae
ungswesens bei den Muhammedanern, in Z. D. M. G
465-506 ; W. Marvais, Le Tagrib d’en-Nawawi, Paris, 1963, |
G. I. G.
HADLAI (S7n): An Ephraimite; father of
Amasa, who was one of the chiefs of his tribe in the
time of Pekah (II Chron. xxviii. 12).
E. G. Il. M. SE.
HADORAM (n7;97): 1. Son of Joktan; pro-
genitor of one of the Arabian tribes (Gen. x, 27; I
Chron. i. 21). 2. Sonof Tou, King of Hamath; sent
by his father to congratulate David after his victory
over Hadadezer, bearing presents in gold, silver, and
brass (I Chron. xviii. 10). In the parallel narrative,
If Sam. viii. 9, 10, the name is given as “Joram.”
See ADONIRAM.
KE, G. H. M. Se.
HADRACH: Name occurring in Zech. ix. 1.
The connection seems to indicate that it was the
country in which Damascus was situated, or a neigh-
boring locality. The Septuagint translates the name
as “Sedrach.” It has been suggested that Hadrach
may be the name of a Damascene deity, or of a king
of Damascus.
E. G. H, Bb. P.
HADRIAN : Roman emperor (117-138). At the
very beginning of his reign he was called upon to
suppress the final outbreaks of Jewish rebellion at
CYRENE and ALEXANDRIA. According to a late but
trustworthy source, he is said to have enticed the
Jews of Alexandria into the open country, where
about 50,000 of them were killed by his soldiers
(Eliyahu R. xxx. 8). Afterward he seems to have
avoided conflict with the Jews and to have granted
them certain privileges. The Jewish siby], in fact,
praises him (Sibyllines, v. 248); and Jewish legend
says that R. Joshua b. Hananiah was on friendly
terms with him, and that Hadrian intended to re-
build the Temple at Jerusalem (Gen. R. Jxiv.).
This agrees with the statement of Epiphanius (“ De
Mensuris et Ponderibus,” § 14) that the emperor
commissioned the proselyte Akylas (Aquita)—who,
according to the rabbinical legend, was related to
him—to supervise the building at Jerusalem, this of
course referring to the city and not to the Temple.
Other Christian sources, as Chrysostom, Cedrenus,
and Nicephorus Callistus, say that the Jews had in-
tended to build the Temple themselves; but a pas-
135
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hadith
Haftarah
_——————— Se ee a a. ga a a en ee a ee ee oe a
sage in the Epistle of Barnabas (xvi. 4)—though its
jnterpretation is disputed among scholars—seems to
indicate that the Jews expected the pagans to re-
build the Temple.
Scholars also differ as to the cause of the rebel-
jion. According to Gregorovius (comp. Schlatter,
“Die Tage Trajans und Hadrians,” p. 2), “ Pal-
estinians instituted the kingdom of Jerusalem as a
protection against the oppressions of Hadrian.”
Other scholars, however, say that the institution
of the Messianic kingdom followed upon the re-
building of the Temple. Even the ancient sources
differ on this point. Thus, Spartianus (“ Hadri-
anus,” § 14) reports that the Jews rebelled be-
cause circumcision was interdicted; while the more
reliable Dion Cassius says (Ixix. 12) that Hadrian
attempted to turn Jerusalem into a pagan city,
which the Jews regarded as an abomination, and
they therefore rebelled. It is possible that both of
these measures were responsible for the rebellion;
on the other hand, it is also possible that they
were merely the consequences of it. Hadrian, who
had a gentle disposition, was lauded throughout the
great empire as a benefactor; he indeed so proved
himself on his many journeys. Palestinian cities like
Cesarea, Tiberias, Gaza, and Petra owed much to
him; and his presence in Judea in 180 is commem-
orated on coins with the inscription “ Adventui
Aug[usti] Jude.” He therefore could have had no
intention of offending the Jews; but as a true Roman
he believed only in the Roman “sacra” (Spartianus,
ic. § 22). It may have happened that in his zeal to
rebuild destroyed cities he had disregarded the pe-
culiarities of the Jews. The law against circumcision
was founded on earlier Roman laws, and did not af-
fect the Jews only. So long as the emperor was
in Svria and Egypt the Jews remained quiet; but
after his departure in 132 the rebellion under Bar
Koxsa broke out.
It seems that Hadrian himself remained in Judea
until the rebellion had been put down (Darmesteter,
in “R. E. J.” i. 49 e¢ seg.), and he may have men-
tioned the Jews in his autobiography, a point that
Dion Cassius dwells upon; but he did not use the
customary formula in his report to the Senate, that
he and the army were well (Dion Cassius, ¢.c.), for
the Roman army also was suffering. After the
dearly bought victory in 1385, Hadrian received
for the second time the title of “imperator,” as
inscriptions show. Now only could he resume
the building, on the ruins of Jerusalem, of the
city lia Capitolina, called after him and dedi-
cated to Jupiter Capitolinus. <A series of mag-
nificent edifices that Hadrian erected in Jerusa-
lem are enumerated in a source that gathered its
information probably from Julianus Africanus
(“Chron. Paschale,” ed. Dindorf, i. 474; “J. Q. R.”
Xiv, 748). The temple of Jupiter towered on the
site of the ancient Temple, with a statue of Hadrian
in the interior (Jerome, Comm. on Isaiah ii. 9). The
Jews now passed through a period of bitter perse-
cution; Sabbaths, festivals, the study of the Torah,
and circumcision were interdicted, and it seemed as
if Hadrian desired to annihilate the Jewish people.
His anger fell upon all the Jews of his empire, for
he imposed upon them an oppressive poll-tax (Ap-
pian, “Syrian War,” § 50). The persecution, how-
ever, did not last long, for Antoninus Pius revoked
the cruel edicts.
After this the Jews did not hold Hadrian’s mem-
ory in high honor; the Talmud and Midrash follow
his name with the curse “Crush his bones.” His
reign is called the time of persecution and danger,
and the blood of many martyrs is charged to his ac-
count. He is considered the type of a pagan king
(Gen. R. Ixiii. 7).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., iv. 182-157; Schtirer,
Gesch. 3d ed., i. 640-704, 781; Rapoport, Hrech Miilin, p. 17;
Schlatter, Die Kirche Jerusalems vom Jahre 70-130, Giiters-
loh, 1898; Lightfoot, The Apostolic Fathers, ii. 1, 476 et
seq.; W.M. Ramsay, Lhe Church in the Roman Empire, pp.
ot ae Schultze, in Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyc. 3d ed.,
G. S. Kr.
HAFFKINE, WALDEMAR MORDECAI
WOLFF: Bacteriologist; born at Odessa, Russia,
1860; graduated from the University of Odessa in
1884 (D.Sc.). He resided for the five following years
at Odessa, working in the zoological muscum of
the university. His researches resulted in several
papers, published in Russian and French scientific
journals, on the infusoria and lower alge (1883-
1888). In the latter year he was appointed assistant
professor of physiology under Professor Schiff at the
University of Geneva. After eighteen months he
went to Paris to work under Pasteur. Here he
studied typhoid and cholera, and discovered the
principle and method of inoculation with attenuated
virus against cholera. In 1893 he went to India to
conduct investigations for the Indian government.
Making Calcutta his headquarters, he extended his
operations over the whole of Bengal, and into the
Punjab, the North-West Provinces, and Assam. In
1896 he was deputed by the Indian government to
inquire into the bacteriology of the plague. He dis-
covered an effective method of inoculation, and suc-
ceeded in reducing the mortality by 80 or 90 per
cent. In recognition of his services he was created
C.1.E. The Haffkine method of inoculation has been
generally adopted throughout India, and the gov-
ernment plague research laboratory founded by
him issues many thousand doses to various tropical
countries. Haffkine’s contributions to biological
research include pamphlets and official reports on
heredity and monocellulaz organisms, infectious dis-
eases in connection with infusoria, the adaptability
of microbes to their environment, Asiatic cholera and
its etiology, and inoculation against cholera and the
Indian plague. He has likewise translated into
Russian a German text-book of zoology and a Nor-
wegian work on botany.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Sept. 16, 1892; June 2, 1899; Men
and Women of the Time; Jewish Year-Book, 1902-3.
J. G. LL.
HAFTARAH (lit. “conclusion ”): That portion
of the Prophets read immediately after the reading
of the Torah in the morning services on Sabbaths,
feast-days, and the Ninth of Ab, and in the after-
noon services on fast-days. The passage chosen
usually contains an explicit reference to some event
described in the section previously read from the
Torah; for instance, Isa. liv., on account of verse 9,
goes with Gen. vi. 9-xi. 82; Hosea xii. 18 with Gen.
XXvili, 10-xxxii. 2: Micah v. 6-vi. 8 with Num.
Haftarah |
Hafz al-Kuti
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
136
SSS ee ee a ee Se ee ee ae a
xxii.-xxv. In all of these cases the direct relation
of one passage to the other is limited to one verse.
Often the two sections bear merely a general resem-
blance to each other in their content, as is the case
with those for most feast-days, those for the four
Sabbaths before the Feast of Passover, etc. For
example, II Kings iv., on account of verse 16, goes
with Gen. xvili.-xxil.; I Kings i. with Gen. xxili.-
xxv. 18, on account of xxiv. 1, with which the
weekly lesson originally began; Judges xiii. with
Num. iv. 21-vii. 89, on account of vi. 1 e¢ seg.
Sometimes, when nothing more appropriate could
be found, a remote similarity of ideas determined
the selection of the haftarah: thus, Isa. xlii. 5 would
be coupled with Gen. ivi. 8; Ezek. xxxvii. 15
with Gen. xliv. 18-xlvii. 27; indeed, sometimes the
connection consists only in one word, as between
Hosea ii. 2 and Num. i.-iv. 20; Isa. xxvii. 6 and
Ex. i. 5. The haftarot are definitely fixed; they
consist of from ten to fifty-two verses, and are read
by the last person called upon by the prayer-leader
or the rabbi to read from the Torah. They are
preceded by two exordiums on the subject of God's
delight in His prophets and their utterances and in
the Torah, and are concluded by four laudations—
upon God’s faithfulness to His promises in regard
to the restoration of Zion, the coming of the Messiah,
and the reestablishment of the throne of David,
upon the revelation of the Torah, upon the Prophets,
and upon the feast-day.
The haftarah has passed through several stages of
development (see Lirurey). The Talmudic sources,
which trace the custom of reading from
Stages the Torah back to Moses and Ezra,
of De- do not mention the originator of the
velopment. haftarah, which would seem to point
toalaterorigin. Abudarham, a Span-
ish teacher of the fourteenth century, traces th2
haftarah back to the time of the persecution under
Antiochus IV., Epiphanes (168-165 B.c.), when, ow-
ing to the prohibition against reading from the
Torah, the corresponding sections from the Prophets
were read instead, this practise becoming established
as a custom. Although all authority for this ex-
planation is lacking, itis not improbable that the cus-
tom dates from the pre-Christian era, and that origi-
nally it was observed only on feast-days and on the
four special Sabbaths, and was later extended to all
Sabbaths. It appears that the Pharisees in their con-
flict with the Sadducees read in connection with the
various sections from the Torah such selections from
the prophetical books—principally from the so-called
Earlier Prophets—as supported their own interpre-
tation of the laws concerning the festivals. Tal-
mudic statements, together with Luke iv. 17, show
that the reading of the haftarah on the Sabbath had
already been’ instituted in the first century of the
common era (Meg. 25b; Yer. Meg. iv. 75c; Tosef., iv.
34), although the selections at that time were by no
means fixed (Meg. iv. 9).
The portions to be read on feast-days were first
determined in the middle of the second century
(Tosef., Meg. iv. 1); then followed those for the
special Sabbaths; for ordinary Sabbaths only a few
were fixed, which bore special relation to the sections
from the Torah (Tosef., Meg. iv. 18). In the see-
ond century the choice of the passage was still legt
to the scholar who was called upon to read from the
Torah (Meg. iv. 5). In Palestine the reading of the
Prophets was completed in three years, in accord.
ance with the three-year cycle of readings from the
Torah, and consequently necessitated as many selec.
tions as there were weeks in the three years, 4
manuscript in the Bodleian Librar
Triennial contains an incomplete list of these,
Cycle. which manuscript came ori ginally
from a synagogue in Cairo, probably
of the Palestinians, who in the twelfth century
still observed the triennial cycle. These haftarot
consisted often of two or three verses, as in the
oldest times, and were repeated in Aramaic, the lan.
guage of the people, by an official translator, sen.
tence by sentence, as they were read (Meg. iv. 4),
Inappropriate passages remained untranslated. At
times an address followed the reading from the
Prophets (comp. Luke iv. 17 e¢ seg., and Pesikta),
usually based upon the section from the Torah. In
the course of time the haftarah grew (comp. Meg.
31a). When the triennial cycle was replaced in Bab-
ylonia by an annual cycle, and each three sections of
the Torah were read as one, the haftarah to the first
section was usually preserved, seldom that of the
second or third, which is explained by the similarity
of the rites in this respect. The Karaites almost al-
ways chose the haftarah to the middle section. The
haftarot for the three Sabbaths of mourning before
the Ninth of Ab and for the three Sabbaths of con-
solation after the Ninth of Ab, which have no con-
nection with the section from the Torah, are later,
though probably of Palestinian origin; for the
former, admonitory speeches are chosen from Jer.
1.-ii. and Isa. i.; for the latter, consolatory speeches
from Isa. xl.-lxi. The haftarot of consolation were
later made to extend over the following Sabbaths to
the New- Year, and attained such importance that the
homilies of the preacher touched only upon the haf-
tarah and not upon the Torah (Pesikta). However,
the extension beyond the three haftarot of consola-
tion did not at first find general recognition, and not
until later did it become prevalent. The benedic-
tions preceding and following the haftarah are first
found in the Palestinian treatise Soferim (xiii. 9~14),
and, with some variations, in the prayer-book of the
gaon Amram of Babylonia (900). For the accents
of the haftarah see JEw. Encyc. iii. 540-546, 8.2.
CANTILLATION, Nos, 3-8.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rapoport, Erech Millin, pp. 167 et seq.; HerZ-
feld, Geseh. des Volkes Jisrael, iii. 215; Biichler, in J. Q. BR.
vi. 1 et seq.; Miller, Tractat Soferim, pp. 181 et seq.
EK. G. H. A. Buca.
The following is alist of the sidrot and the corre-
sponding haftarot for the various Sabbaths, together
with the sections and haftarot for special Sabbaths
and festivals:
—_—
SIDROT. HAFTAROT.
gt Y
SABBATHS.
Isa. xiii. 5—xliii. 10
(among _Sephar-
dim xiii, 5-21)
Gen. vi. 9-xi. 32 Isa. liv. 1-v.
(among Sephar-
dim liv. 1-10)
Isa, xl. 27~xli. 16
Bereshit Gen. i. 1-vi. 8
Noah
Lek Leka Gen. xij. 1-xvii. 27
ee ee . feiseaee Sear
a a ee
SABBATHS.
NS
|
SIDROT.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
HAFTAROT,
Haftarah
Hafz al-Kuti
SABBATIIS. SIDROT. HAFTAROT.
Wayera Gen. xviii. l-xxii. 24. | J] Kings iv. 1-387 Rosh Hodesh on | Weekly portion I Sam. xx. 18-42
. (among Sephar- day following
dim iv. 1-23) Sabhath
Hayve Sarah Gen. xxiii. l-xxv. 18_ | I Kings i. 1-31 Shekalim Ex. xxx. 11-16 II Kings xii. 1-17
Toledot Gen. xxv. 19-xxviii. 9 | Mal. i. 1-ii. (among Sephar-
wayeze Gen. xxviii. 10-xxxii. | Hosea xii. 13-xiv. 10 dim xi. 17-xii. 17)
3 (among Sephar- Zakor Deut. xxv. 17-19 I Sam. xv. 2-34
dim xi. 7-xii. 12) (among Senhar-
Wayishlah Gen. xxxii. 4~xxxvi. | Hosea xi. @- xii. 12, dim xv. 1-34)
43 or Obad. i. 1-21 Parah Num. xix. 1-22 Ezek. xxxvi. 16-36
Wayesheb Gen. xxxvii. I-xl. 23 | Amos ii. 6-iii. 8 Ha-Hodesh Ex. xii, 1-20 Ezek. xly. 16-xlvi.
Mikkez Gen, xli. 1-xliv. 17 I Kings iii. 15-iv. 1 18 (among Sephar-
Wayiggash Gen. xliv. 18-xlvil. 27 | Ezek. xxxvii. 15-28 dim xlvy. 18-xlvi.
Wayehi Gen. xlvii. 28-1. 26 I Kings ii. 1-12 15)
Hanukkah on Sab- | Part of Num. vii. Zech. ii. L4-iv. 7
Shemot Ex. i. 1-vi. 1 Isa. xxvii. 6-xxViil. at
13 (among Sephar- | Sabbath ha-Gadol | Weekly lesson Mal. iii. 4-24
dim Jer. i. 1-ii. 3) Passover, lst Day | Ex. xii. 21-51; Num.]| Josh. iii. d-ivy. 1
Wa’era Ex. vi. 2-ix. 35 Ezek. xxviii. 25- xxviii. 16-25 (among Sephar-
xxix. 21 dim v. 2-vi. 1)
Bo Ex. x. 1-xiii. 16 Jer. xlvi. 13-28 Passover, 2d Day | Lev. xxii. 26-xxiii. 44; | IT Kings xxiii. 1-10,
Beshajlah Ex, xiii. 17-xvii. 16 Judges iv. 4-v. 31 Num. xxviii. 16-25 25
(among Sephar- Passover and Sab- | Ex. xxxiii. 12~xxxiv. | Ezek. xxxvii, 1-15
dim v. 1-31) bath 26; Num. xxviii. 19-
Yitry Ex, xviii. 1-xx. 26 Isa. vi. I-vii. 6 25
(among Sephar- } Passover, 7th Day | Ex. xiii. 17-xv. 26; | II Sam. xxii. 1-51
dim vi. 1-18) Num. xxviii, 19-25
Mishpatim Ex, xxi. 1-xxiv. 18 Jer. xxxiv. 8-22; | Passover, 8th Day | Deut. xv. 19-xvi. 17; | Isa. x. 32-xii. 6
XXXHii. 25-26 Num. xxviii. 19-25
Terumah Ex. xxv. l-xxvii. 19 | I Kings v. 26-vi. 18 Shebu‘ot, Ist Day | Ex. xix. 1-xx. 28; | Ezek. 1, 1-28 and iii.
Tezawweh Ex. xxvii. 20-xxx. 10 | Ezek. iii, 10-27 Num. xxviii. 26-31 ~1
(Ki) ‘Tissa Ex. xxx. ll-xxxiv. 35|I Kings xviii. 1-39 | Shebu‘ot, 2d Day | Deut. xv. 19-xvi. 17; | Hab. iii.1-19 (among
(among Sephar- Num. xxviii. 26-31 Sephardim ii. 20-
dim xviii. 20-39) fii. 19)
Wayakhel Ex, XXxV. 1-xxxviii.20|I Kings vii. 40-50 | Tish‘ah be-Ab, | Deut. iv. 25-40 Jer. viii. 18-ix. 23
(among Sephar- Morning
dim vii. 18-26) Tish‘ah be-Ab,| Ex. xxxii. 11-14, | Isa. iv. 6-lvi. 8
Pekude Ex. xxxviii. 21-x]. 88 | I Kings vii. 51-viii. Afternoon xxxiv. 1-10
21 (among Sephar- | Rosh ha-Shanah, | Gen. xxi. 1-84; Num. | I Sam. i. 1-ii. 10
dim vii. 40-50) Ist Day xxix. 1-6
; Rosh ha-Shanah,|Gen. xxii. 1-19; | Jer. xxxi. 2-20
Wayikra Lev. i. I-v. 26 Isa. xliii. 21-xliv. 23 d Da Num. xxix. 1-6
Zaw Ley. vi. 1-viii. 36 Jer. vii. 21-viii. 3 | Yom Kippur, | Lev. xvi. 1-34; Num. | Isa. lvii. 14-1viii. 14
; and ix. 22, 23. Morning xix, 7-11
Shemini Lev. ix. 1-xi. 47 II Sam. vi. i-vii. 17 | Yom Kippur, | Lev. xviii. 1 Jonah i. 1-iv. 11 (Se-
(among Sephar- Afternoon phardim add Mi-
dim vi. 1-19) cah vii. 18-20)
Tazria* Lev. xii. 1-xiii. 59 II Kings iv. 42-v.19 | Sukkot, 1st Day | Lev. xxii. 26-xxiii.44; | Zech. xiv, 1-21
Mezora* Ley. xiv. 1-xv. 33 II Kings vii, 3-20 Num. xxix. 12-16
Ahare Mot Lev. xvi. 1-xviii. 30 | Ezek. xxii. 1-16 Sukkot, 2d Day Lev. xxii. 26-xxiii. 44; | I Kings viii. 2-21
Kedoshim Lev. xix. 1-xx. 27 Amos ix. 7-15 Num. xxix. 12-16
(among Sephar- | Sukkot, on Sab-] Ex. xxxiii. 12-xxxiv. | Ezek. xxxviii. 18-
dim Ezek. xx. 2-20) at 26; Num. xxix. 26-381 | xxxix. 16
Emor Lev. xxi. 1-xxiv. 23 | Ezek. xliv. 15-31 Shemini ‘Azeret | Deut. xiv. 22-xvi. 17; | I Kings viii. 54-66
Behar Lev. xxv. 1-xxvi. 2 Jer, Xxxii. 6-27, Num. xxix. 35-xXx.
Behukkotai Lev. xxvi. 8-xxvii. 34 | Jer, xvi. 19-xvii. 14 1
" Simhat Torah Deut. xxxiii., xxxiv.; | Josh. i. (among Se-
Bemidbar Num. i. 1-iv. 20 Hosea ii. 1-22 Gen. i-ii. 3; Num.| pbardim i. 1-10)
Naso Num. iv. 21-vii. 89 Judges xiii. 2-25 xxix. 35-xxx. 1
Beha‘aloteka Num. viii. 1-xii. 16 Zech. ii. 14-iv. 7 Fast of Gedaliah
Shelah Num. xiii. 1-xv. 41 Josh. ii. 1-24 Fast of 10th of
Korah Num. xvi. 1-xviii. 82. | 1 Sam. xi. 14—xii. 22 Tebet Ex. xxxii. 11-14, t Isa. iv. 6-8
Hukkat Num. xix, 1-xxii.1 Judges xi. 1-33 Fast of Esther xxxiv. 1-10 oaks
Balak Num, xxii. 2-xxv.9 | Micah v. 6-vi. 8 Fast of 15th of
Pinehas Num. xxv. 10-xxx.1 | I ae xviii. 46- Tammuz
xix. :
Mattot Num. xxx. 2-xxxii. 42 | Jer. i. 1-11. 3
meee e ma xxxiil. 1-xxxvi, ee ae 4-28 and tv. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hebrew Bible, ed. Hahn; American and
ue English Jewish Year Booka; Gaster, The Book of Prayer,
Debarim Deut. i. 1-iii. 22 Isa. i. 1-27 London, 1901. 1apD
Wa’ethanan Deut. iii. 23-vii. 11 Isa, xl. 1-26 J. - ur. LY,
‘Ekeb Deut. vii. 12-xi. 25 Isa. xlix. 14-li. 4
Re’eh Deut. xi. 26-xvi. 17 | Isa. liv. I1-lv. 6 HAFZ (IBN AL-BIRR) AL-KUTI: Author
Shofetim Deut. xvi. 18-xxi.9 | Isa. li. 12-lii. 18 : ena at
Ki Teze Deut. xxi. 10-xxv. 19 | Isa. liv. 1-10 of the eleventh century, or earlier, according to
Ki Tabo Deut. xxvi. 1-xxix. 8 | Isa. lx. 1-22 : ‘der iblv j ical with Hafz (Hefez
Nizzabim Deut. xxix. 9-xxx. 20 { Isa. 1xi. 10-1xifi. 9 Steinschneider , possibly ide ne = : (E v
Wayelek Deut, xxxi. 1-30 Isa. lv. G-lvi. 8 | b. Yazliah. Hafz al-Kuti translated the Book o
(among Sephar- | Psalmsinto Arabicrime. Mosesibn Ezra, in his “ Ki-
210; Micah vii. | tab al-Muhadarah,” quotes a passage from the intro-
18-20) i Be his translation (“ Bodl.
Ha’azinu Deut. xxxii. 1-52 Wosea xiv. 2-10 duction, and Ps. lv, 22-28 of this transla (
(among Sephar-
dim II Sam. xxii.
Libr. Hunt.,” No. 599; Neubauer, “Cat. Bod]. Hebr.
MSS.” No. 1974; see Schreiner in “R. E. J.” xxi. 106).
Steinschneider recognized a manuscript in the library
Wezot ha-Bera- | Deut. xxxiii. ]-xxxiv. Joa. 1-18
man Mm of the Escurial (“Codex Ambros.” No. 86, copied in
1625 by Colville) as this translation of Hafz al-Kuti.
As it contains evidences of Christian influence, Ham-
mer designated Hafz as a “Jewish renegade”; for
the same reason Neubauer mukes him an Arabic
SPECIAL
SABBATHS AND
HOLY Days.
Rosh Hodesh on| Weekly portion and | Isa. Ixvi. 1-24
Sabbath Num. xxviii. 9-15
Hagab
Hagenau
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
138
SO rT? O -- CO
or Syrian Christian, while Steinschneider maintains
that the author was a Jew, and that the traces of
Christian influence are due to later additions or
emendations. Solomon ibn Gabirol quotes sentences
of Hafz al-Kuti.
The name “al-Kuti” isdoubtful. In one instance
the reading is “al-Futi,” which Schreiner (.c.) re-
gards as correct; “al-Kuti,” however, appears more
probable. It is generally supposed to mean “the
Goth,” 7.¢e., the Spaniard, but according to Neubauer
the author might have come from Kut in Balkh (see
Yakut’s “ Mushtarik,” iv. 251; but comp. Harkavy
in “R. E. J.” xxx. 318).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Hebr. Uehers. p. 312; idem,
Arabische Literatur, 88 62,66; Schreiner, in R. BE. J. xxi.
106, note 2; Neubauer, in R. H. J. xxx.65; Graetz, Hist. iii.
ne anes: in Winter and Wiinsche, Jtidische Litteratur,
J. M. Sc.
HAGAB (33n): Family of Nerarnim, which re-
turned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 46).
In I Esd. v. 30 the name is given as “ Agaba.”
E. G, i. M. SEL.
HAGABA, HAGABAH (x23n, 723n): Fam-
ily of NETHINIM, which came back from captivity
with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 45; Neh. vii. 48). In
I Esd. v. 29 the name is given as “ Graba.”
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HAGAR.—Biblical Data: Egyptian handmaid
of Sarah, and mother of Ishmael. According to
one narrative, Sarah, having no children, requested
Abraham to take Hagar as concubine, so that she
might adopt her children (comp. Gen. xxx. 3, where
Rachel makes a similar request). When Hagar had
conceived she became domineering, and Sarah, with
the consent of Abraham, drove her into the wilder-
ness. There, as she sat by a fountain, an angel of
the Lord appeared and commanded her to return
to her mistress and submit to her. He promised
that she should bear a son who would be called
“Ishmael” (= “he whom the Lord will hear”), and
that he would be a strong fighter (“a wild assamong
men”), and would be respected by his brethren
(Gen. xvi.). Another narrative tells that when
Isaac had been weaned Ishmael “played” with him
or “mocked” him (pny is ambiguous), and that
Sarah demanded of Abraham that he cast out Hagar
and her son, that the latter might not inherit with
Isaac. Abraham was unwilling to do so, but upon
God’s command he yielded. Hagar fled again into
the wilderness, where Ishmae] came near dying of
thirst. In the moment of her greatest despair an
angel of God appeared to her and showed her
a well, promising her that Ishmael would found
a great nation. She dwelt with her son in the
wilderness of Paran, where he became an archer,
and she took a wife for him from Egypt (Gen. xxi.
9~21).
Only one other mention of Hagar is found in the
Bible (Gen. xxv. 12), where she is merely referred
to as the mother of Ishmael. There are in various
passages in Chronicles, however, references to the
tribe of Hagarites, who were neighbors of the trans-
Jordanic tribes of Israel and were driven from
their homes by them (I Chron. v. 10, 18-22; xi. 88;
xxvii, 81). The Hagarites have been identifieq
with the Agraioi mentioned by Strabo (xvi. 4, 9)
and though Arabians, they do not belong to the
Ishmaelites.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dillmann, Die Genesis, 6th ed., p. 315, Leipgic
1892; Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encye. s.v.
——In Rabbinical Literature: According to the
Midrash (Gen. R. xlv.), Hagar was the daughter of
Pharaoh, who, seeing what great miracles God haq
done for Sarah’s sake (Gen. xii. 17), said: “It is bet-
ter for Hagar to bea slave in Sarah’s house than
mistress in her own.” In this sense Hagar’s name
is interpreted as “reward” (“ Ha-Agar” = “ this ig
reward”), She was at first reluctant when Sarah
desired her to marry Abraham, and although Saray
had full authority over her as her handmaid, she
persuaded her, saying. “Consider thyself happy to
be united with this saint.” Hagar is held up as an
example of the high degree of godliness prevalent
in Abraham’s time, for while Manoah was afraid
that he would die because he had seen an angel of
God (Judges xiii. 22), Hagar was not frightened by
the sight of the divine messenger (Gen. R. 7.c.),
Her fidelity is praised, for even after Abraham sent
her away she kept her marriage vow, and therefore
she was identified with Keturah (Gen. xxv. 1), with
allusion to WWp (Aramaic, “to tie”; Gen. R. Ixi.),
Another explanation of the same name is “ to adorn,”
because she was adorned with piety and good deeds
(1.c.). It was Isaac who, after the death of Sarah,
went to bring back Hagar to the house of his
father; the Rabbis infer this from the report that
Isaac came from Beer-lahai-roi, the place which
Hagar had named (Gen. xvi. 14, xxiv. 62; Gen.
R. lx.; see commentaries ad loc.).
Other homilies, however, take an unfavorable
view of Hagar’s character. Referring to the report
that when she had conceived she began to despise
her mistress, the Rabbis say that she gossiped about
Sarah, saying: “Sheiscertainly not as godly as she
pretends to be, for in all the years of her married tife
she has had no children, while I conceived at once”
(Gen. R.xiv. ; Sefer ha-Yashar, Lek Leka). Sarahtook
revenge (Gen. xvi.) by preventing her intercourse
with Abraham, by whipping her with her slipper,
and by exacting humiliating services, such as carry-
ing her bathing-materials to the bath (/.c.); she further
caused Hagar by an evil eye to miscarry, and Ish-
mael, therefore, was her second child, as is inferred
from the fact that the angel prophesied that she
would bear a child (Gen. xvi. 11), while it had been
narrated before that she was pregnant (Gen. xvi. 4).
It is further inferred, from the words “she went
astray ” (Gen. xxi. 14, Hebr.), that as soon as she
had reached the wilderness she relapsed into idola-
try, and that she murmured against God’s provi-
dence, saying: “Yesterday thou saidest: ‘I will
multiply thy seed exceedingly ’ [Gen. xvi. 10]; and
now my son is dying of thirst.” The fact that she
selected an Egyptian woman as her son’s wife is
also counted against her as a proof that her conver-
sion to Judaism was not sincere, for “throw the
stick into the air, it will return to its root” (Gen.
R. liii., end). This Egyptian wife is explained m
the Targum of pseudo-Jonathan to refer to Khadijé
139 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hagab
Hagenau
and Fatima, the widow and the daughter of Mo-
hammed (see Zunz, “G. V.” 2d ed., p. 288,
note a).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Yalkut, Genesis, 79, 80, 95.
g. 8. D.
——Critical View: While the two narratives,
Gen. Xvi. and xxi. 9-21, are not directly contradict-
ory, the critical school, pointing to the fact that in
poth instances Hagar is expelled upon Sarah’s re-
quest and with the reluctant assent of Abraham, and
that in both instances she receives, while sitting by
a fountain, a divine message foretelling the great
destiny of her son, finds in these narratives two
parallel accounts of the origin of the Bedouins,
whose racial affinity with the Israelites the latter
had to admit, while degrading them by tracing their
origin to a concubine of their common ancestor,
Accordingly the name “ Hagar” is ex plained as “the
fugitive,” from the Arabic “hajar” (to flee). Her
native country was not Egypt, but Musri in northern
Arabia, according to Winckler (“ Altorientalische
Forschungen,” pp. 29 et seg., as cited by Holzinger,
“Genesis,” in “Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum
Alten Testament,” p. 151). As regards sources, the
account in Gen. xvi. is assumed to be Jahvistic,
with the exception of verse three, which, apparently
repeating verse two, isascribed to the Priestly Code;
the account in Gen. xxi. is put down as Elohistic.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The commentaries on Genesis by Dillmann,
Delitzsch, and Holzinger; Herzog-Hauck, Real-Hneye.
E. C.
—In Arabic Literature: According to the
Midrash (Gen. R. xlv.), Hagar was the daughter of
Pharaoh, who presented her toAbraham. Thesame
story is told in Mohammedan tradition. When she
bore Ishmael, from whose countenance the light of
Mohammed shone forth, Sarah demanded her expul-
sion. Abraham desired to spare her, but Sarah
swore to bathe her handsin her rival’s blood. Abra-
ham thereupon pierced Hagar’s ear and caused the
blood to run over Sarah’s hand, that her vow might
be fulfilled without sacrificing Hagar’s life. When
Isaac was born Sarah’s jealousy awoke afresh, and
she insisted that Hagar should go. Conducted by
the archangel Gabriel, Abraham took Hagar and
Ishmael into the Arabian desert, and left them at
the place where the Kaaba of Mecca was built later
on. As soon as Hagar’s scant provisions were ex-
hausted she sought water, running and praying,
between the hills Safa and Marwah. This she re-
peated seven times. At last the archangel Gubriel
Teappeared, and, stamping his foot on the ground,
brought forth a spring. This is the holy fountain
of Zamzam, near the Kaaba. In commemoration of
Hagar’s example, running seven times between the
two hills mentioned above has been made an impor-
tant ceremony in the pilgrimage to Mecca. As the
Spring provided Hagar and Ishmael with water,
they remained there, and Abraham visited them
every month. When Ishmael was thirteen years
old Abraham was told in a dream to sacrifice him.
Satan. however, appeared to Hagar and asked her:
“Dost thou know whither Abraham went with thy
Son?” “Yes.” shereplied; “he went into the forest
to cut wood.” “No,” said Satan; “he went to
slaughter thy son.” “How can that be,” asked
Hagar, “since he loves himasmuch as 1 do?” “He
believes,” Satan answered, “that God has com-
manded him to doso.” “If this be so,” said Hagar,
“let him do the will of God.”
E.G. i. H. Hr.
HAGAR, HAGRIM: Names used by Jewish
medieval writers to designate Hungary and the
Hungarians. The expression “Erez Hagar ” occurs
in Rashi on Yoma tla, in a responsum of the
French tosafist Isaac b. Abraham (died about
1200), and in the “Or-Zarua‘” (i. 51a) of Isaac b.
Moses (early thirteenth century; comp. Emden,
“ Megillat Sefer,” p. 85, Warsaw, 1896; S. Kohn [in
Hungarian} on the Hebrew sources and data for the
history of Hungary, pp. 144-159, Budapest, 1881).
Since the latter half of the fifteenth century the
name “Hagrim” is used more frequently; for in-
stance, by Isaac Tyrnau and by Moses Isserles in his
Responsa (No. 82). The “Hagrim” of the Psalms
(ixxxiii. 7, Hebr.) is rendered in the Targum by
“ Hungera’e,” which, according to Levy (“Chal.
Worterb.” 8.0.) and Kohut (“ Aruch Completum ”),
means “Hungary.” Selig Cassel endeavored to
prove (“ Auswahl,” p. 331) that the “ Hungera’e” of
the Targum is simply the Aramaic form of the He-
brew for “children of Hagar,” or Arabs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Zipser, in Ben Chananja, x. 616, 659; Low,
in Busch’s Jahrbuch, v. 101; Rapoport, in Kerem Hemed,
v. 201; S. Kohn, in Monatsschrift, xxx. 145-161, 198-201.
G. M. SEL.
HAGARENES, HAGARITES, or (R. V.)
HAGRITES: A nomadic people dwelling in the
east of Palestine, against whom the tribe of Reuben
was victorious in the time of Saul, seizing their
tents and taking possession of their territory through-
out the east of Gilead (I Chron. v. 10). The war is
described (2). 18-20) as having been made by “the
sons of Reuben and the Gadites and half the tribe
of Manasseh .. . with the Hagarites, with Jetur,
and Nephish, and Nodab”; and the booty which the
Israelites took from the Hagarites was considerable.
The Hagarenes are mentioned in Ps. Ixxxiii. 6-8 as
confederates against Israel. A Hagarite (A. V.
“Hagerite”) named Jaziz was the chief overseer of
David’s flocks (I Chron. xxvii. 31). As tothe origin
of the Hagarites see Cheyne and Black, “Encyc.
Bibl.” s.v., and Hastings, “ Dict. Bible,” s.2.
E. G. I. M. SEu.
HAGEGE, ABRAHAM: Chief rabbi at Tunis,
where he died in 1880. After his death Israel Zei-
toun of Tunis and Aaron ben Simon of Jerusalem
published his explanations of most of the treatises
in the Babylonian Talmud under the title “Zar‘o
she] Abraham ” (Jerusalem, 1884).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cazés, Notes Bibliographiques, pp. 218 et seq.
8. M. K.
HAGENAU: Fortified town of Alsace, situated
on the Moder, sixteen miles north of Strasburg.
Attracted by the numerous privileges granted to its
inhabitants by Frederick Barbarossa, Jews settled
there soon after it received its charter as a city
(1164), and a synagogue was established in 1252.
Until the middle of the sixteenth century the Jews
lived peaceably among their fellow citizens, though
Hagenau
Haggadah
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
140
nN a ae,
at the time of the Crusades they had to petition Em-
peror Conrad, imploring his protection. In 1262
Richard IY. officially confirmed the privileges of the
city in a charter which contained the following par-
agraphs concerning the Jews: “We desire and or-
dain that the Jews of Hagenanu, serfs of our impe-
rial chamber, according to our letters patent, be
subject only to our chamber and to our orders, No
one may subject them to uncustomary scrvice, or
transgress our law without incurring our disfavor.”
In consequence of the refusal of the citizens of
Hagenau to submit to Charles IV. while Louis of
Bavaria was still alive, John of Lichtenberg entered
the city and confiscated the houses and
Confisca- synagogue of the Jews. The towns-
tion and people, impoverished by the protracted
Ban- civil war, in their turn plundered the
ishment. Jews, subjected them to every imag-
inable persecution, and finally banished
them (1346). The Jews were, however, soon read-
mitted on condition that they paid the debts of the
city. The persecutions of 1349, which the commu-
nity of Hagenau escaped, brought to the environs of
that city a considerable number of Jews. In order to
arrest their increase Sigismund, although confirming
the protection of Jews already established in the
city, prohibited the sale or lease of houses to new
arrivals (1436). This, however, did not prevent the
municipality from repeatedly granting for a cer-
tain sum, the amount of which was continually in-
creased, temporary shelter to the Jews of the envi-
rons whenever war or disorders arose in the country.
In 1561 the municipal council issued an order pro-
hibiting non-resident Jews from frequenting the
synagogue; and the congregation was compelled to
sign a treaty in which it pledged itself, under pen-
alty of having the house of worship closed altogether,
to enforce the regulation.
During the second half of the sixteenth and the
first half of the seventeenth century the condition
of the community remained unchanged. Only six
families, which had settled at Hagenau in the twelfth
century, were allowed to have a permanent resi-
dence there; and it was only on a heavy monetary
payment that a newcomer was allowed to take the
place of a deceased head of one of these families.
Besides the yearly taxes to the emperors and to the
city, the Jewish residents had to pay for a special
permit for maintaining their synagogue and for
every interment. .
With the occupation of Alsace by France in 1648
the municipality adopted a more liberal policy
toward the Jews. In 1657 it granted gratuitously
a temporary shelter to Polish refugees. Under the
pressure of the government one Gershon, a Jewish
purveyor to,the army, was adinitted as a resident.
He was followed by others; so that in 1695 the com-
munity numbered nineteen families. But this liber-
ality on the part of the municipality was due to the
fact that its finances were in an unsatisfactory con-
dition, and the exorbitant taxes paid by the Jews
contributed materially to the income of the city. It
is not astonishing, therefore, that as soon as the
municipality became more prosperous it showed
itself more rigorous toward new Jewish settlers.
Thus in 1714 it issued an edict forbidding the citi-
zens to shelter foreign Jews and prohibiting resident
Jews from transacting business on Sundays or Chris.
tian holy days. In 1720 it issued the
Inthe following regulations, which remained
Eighteenth in force until the French Revolution:
Century. “The Jews who are at present liy.
ing in the city may remain. Only
one married son in each family has the right to
settle in the city; the other children, both male ang
female, must on marriage leave it, except when
they live in common households with their parents,
Grandsons acquire this right of residence only on the
death of their grandfather.” The Jews of Hagenau
were, moreover, restricted in their conimercial activity
to dealing in horses, cattle, and old clothes, and to the
lending of money on interest; and they were closely
watched by the Christian merchants, who were jeal-
ous of Jewishcompetition. In 1790 Hagenau ceased
to be an imperial privileged city ; and the history of its
Jewish community thenceforward differs little from
that of other communities in France and Germany,
During the Middle Ages the affairs of the Hage.
nau congregation had been administered by elected
officers. About the middle of the seventeenth cen-
tury the Jews applied to the municipality for per-
mission to nominate a rabbi. This demand being
refused, a certain Lowel, availing himself of his
privilege to engage a bookkeeper, brought to the
city, ostensibly in that capacity, a rabbi named
Meyer, who was registered as Liwel’s bookkeeper
(1660). Meyer soon gained the favor of the munici-
pality, which tacitly recognized him as judge in
civil affairs between Jews. Meyer was very active
in the rebuilding of the synagogue (1665) and in the
construction of a new edifice (1683), the former one
having been burned in 1677. Meyer’s
successors, until the introduction of
consistories, were: Wolf Hohenfelden
(d. 1720); Elijah Schwab of Metz (1722-46); Samuel
Halberstadt (1746-58); Lazarus Moyses (1753-71);
Jequel Gougenheim (1771-?). On the introduction
of consistories in France Hagenau was assigned to
the consistory of Strasburg. The present rabbi is
M. Lévy; and the community numbers 695 Jews in
a total population of 17,958.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lévy, Coup Wil Historique sur UV Etat
des Juife en France, et Particuliérement en Alsace, in
Revue da’ Alsace, 1836, i. 269-295; Véron and Réville, Les
Juifs d’ Alsace sous P Ancien Régime, in tb. 1864, pp. 271-
289; Reuss, Les Israélites d’ Alsace au XVIT. Siecle, Paris,
1898; Scheid, Histoire des Juifs d’ Alsace, Paris, 1873; idem,
Histoire des Juifs de Haguenau, in R. Bb. J. 1885; see also
JEW. ENCYC. i. 455, 8.U. ALSACE.
D. I. Br.
HAGENBACH: Village in Upper Franconia,
Bavaria. Thatanold Jewish colony existed there is
proved by “Das Martyrologium des Niirnberger
Memorbuches” (ed. Salfeld, p. 271), which mentions
Hagenbach among those places in which the Jewish
inhabitants suffered during the persecution in Fran-
conia in 1298.’ When the Jews of Bamberg were
exiled by the prince-bishop Philipp von Henneberg
in 1478, numerous petty communities came into
existence throughout the diocese under the protet-
tion of the country nobility, among which Hagen-
bach, where the Jews lived under the protection of
the Baron von Seefried, held a not unimportant
position.
Rabbis.
re
141 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hagenau
Haggadah
All the country Jews, together with the Jews
living under the direct protection of the bishop,
formed an association for the purpose of maintaining
a common district rabbinate and of representing
their common interests in their relations with the
lords. Of the five districts which were included in
the district rabbinate of Bamberg, Hagenbach was
one. Whenthe Jewish corporations of the kingdom
were dissolved by the edict of the Bavarian govern-
ment (1813; see Bavaria), Hagenbach became the
seat of an independent rabbinate including fourteen
communities, almost all of which have since been
dissolved.
So far as is known the first rabbi of Hagenbach
was Benedict Moses Mack, who was followed, in
Sept., 1836, by Aaron Seligman. Seligman’s succes-
sor was Dr. Kénigshéfer, who afterward was called
to Furth as principal of the orphan asylum. In 1867
the rabbinate of Hagenbach was united with that of
Baiersdorf; and in 1894, when this was dissolved,
the communities were included in the district rab-
binate of Bamberg. At present (1903) the Hagen-
bach congregation is composed of eight families ag-
gregating thirty persons ; it supportsa public school.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Eckstein, Gesch. der Juden im Ehemali-
gen Fiirstbistum Bamberg, 1898; idem, Nachtrdge zur
Gesch. der Juden in Bamberg, 1899. AE
D. : ‘
HAGGADAH (775 or 738): Derived from
the verb 9°39 (kal 939). “to report,” “to explain,”
“to narrate.” The verb 7°44 sometimes introduces
halakic explanations, but the noun 77971 is used only
in contradistinction to “halakah.” and means a tale,
a narrative, an explanation, a homily, including also
the gnomic laws of the Rabbis, as well as stories and
legends bearing upon the lives of Biblical and post-
Biblical Jewish saints. Such topics as astronomy
and astrology, medicine and magic, theosophy and
mysticism, and similar subjects, falling mostly
under the heading of folk-lore, pass as a rule also
under the name of “haggadah.” Jt thus stands for
the whole content of the non-legal part of the old
rabbinical literature. When applied to the Scrip-
tures in order to indicate interpretation, illustration,
or expansion in a moralizing or edifying manner, it
is used in the form “ Midrash Haggadah ” (see Mip-
RABH HAGGADAB).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Levy's and Jastrow’s Dictionaries, s.v.;
Schtirer, Gesch. 3d ed., ii. 389, note 26. J
8. 8
HAGGADAH (SHEL PESAH): Ritual for
Passover eve, Ex. xiii. 8, R. V., reads: “And
thou shalt tell thy son in that day, saying, It is be-
cause of that which the Lord did for me, when I.
came forth out of Egypt.” On the basis of that
passage it was considered a duty to narrate the story
of the Exodus on the eve of Passover (Mek. ad loe.).
Whether there was such a ritual for that service in
the days of the Temple is, perhaps, doubtful. The
New Testament reports of the Passover celebration
of Jesus (Matt. xxvi. 17-30; Mark xiv. 12-26;
Luke xxii. 1-20) contain nothing be-
Develop- yonda statement in two of the sources
ment. that a hymn was sung (Matt. xxvi. 30;
Mark xiv. 26), which was undoubt-
edly the “Hallel.” The first mention of any such
ritual is found in the Mishnah (Pes, x. 5), where it
is reported that R. Gamaliel said, “One who has not
said these three words on Passover has not done his
duty: ‘pesah,’ ‘mazzah’ [unleavened bread], and
‘maror’ {bitter herbs].” It is impossible to suppose
that Gamaliel desired merely these three words to
be pronounced; he must have meant that the eating
did not fulfil the Law (éx. xii. 8)if the spiritual
meaning of the act was not recognized. The opin-
ion is held by many scholars that this Gamaliel was
the first of that name (Landshuth, “ Hagadavortrige,”
p. xv., Berlin, 1855; Miller, “ Die Haggadah von Se-
rajewo,” p. 6, Vienna, 1898), but this opinion, based
on the fact that Gamaliel speaks of the Passover
lamb, is hardly warranted. It is much more reason-
able to assume with Weiss (“ Dor,” ii. 74) that Ga-
maliel II. arranged a Passover ritual, just as he ar-
ranged the ritual for the daily service and for the
grace after meals, because the destruction of the
Temple had made it necessary to find new methods
of public worship. The mere fact that R. Gamaliel
introduced a ritual proves conclusively that the
services of Passover eve already existed. This is
also borne out by the Mishnah (Pes. x. 4): “Theson
shall ask his father about the meaning of the cere-
monies, and according to the maturity of the son
shall the father instruct him. If the son has not
sufficient intelligence to ask, the father shal! inform
him voluntarily.” This is done in literal fulfilment
of the Biblical passage: “And it shall be when thy
son asketh thee in time to come, saying, What is
this? that thou shalt say unto him, By strength of
hand the Lord brought us out from . . . the house
of bondage” (Ex. xiii. 14). Of such questions, the
Mishnah, as the context shows, antedates the tim
of Gamaliel, preserves four: |
‘What is the difference between this night and all other
nights? On all other nights weeat leavened or unleavened
bread; on this night only unleavened?” ‘... On all other
nights we eat various herbs; on this night only bitter herbs?”
* . . On all other nights we eat our meat roasted, cooked, or
stewed; on this night only roasted?” “...On all other
nights we dip {the vegetable with which the meal begins]
ohly once [into salt]; on this night twice?”
This portion has, with some slight alterations, due
| chiefly to the abrogation of the sacrifice, remained
in the present ritual, and its initial words, “Mah
Nishtannah,” are used as the name of the Haggadah,
as in the question: “ What has Korah [F713] to do in
the Mah Nishtannah?” Another old part of the ritual
is the recital of the “Hallel,” which, according
to the Mishnah (Pes. v. 7), was sung at the sacrifice
in the Temple, and of which, according to the school
of Shammai, only the first chapter (cxiii. ; according
to the school of Hillel, only the first two chapters,
exiii.-cxiv.) shall be recited (Pes. x. 6). After the
Psalms a benediction for the Redemption is to be
said. This benediction, according to R. Tarfon, runs
as follows: “Praised art Thou, O Lord, King of the
Universe, who hast redeemed us, and hast redeemed
our fathers from Egypt.” According to R. Akiba,
there should be added the prayer: “ Mayest Thou,
O God, allow us to celebrate the com-
ing holy days, rejoicing in the rebuild-
ing of Thy city and exulting over Thy
sacrificial cult; and may we eat of the
sacrifices and of the Passover lambs! Praised art
Thou, Redeemer of Israel!” Another passage in the
Earliest
Portions.
Haggadah
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
142
i
Mishnah (“It is therefore our duty to thank, praise,
exalt, and magnily Ilim who hath done for us and
for our fathers all these wonders, who hath led us
forth from slavery to freedom, from sorrow to joy,
from mourning to feasting, from darkness to full
light, from bondage to redemption! We shall say
in His presence ‘ Hallelujah!’ ”) is, like the introduc-
tory remark, “Everybody shall consider himself
as if he had been personally freed from Hgypt,”
evidently not originally intended as a prayer, al-
though it has been embodied in the Haggadah.
Auother part of the oldest ritual, as is recorded
in the Mishnah, is the conclusion of the “ Hallel”
(up to Ps. cxviii.), and the closing benediction of
the hymn “ Birkat ha-Shir,” which latter the Amo-
raim .explain differently (Pes. 116a), but which
evidently was similar to the benediction thanking
God, “who loves the songs of praise,” used in
the present ritual. These benedictions, and the
narrations of Israel’s history in Egypt, based on
Dent. xxvi. 5-9 and on Josh. xxiv. 2-4, with
some introductory remarks, were added in the
time of the early Amoraim, in the third cen-
tury; for in explanation of Pes. x. 4 (“He shall
begin with the disgrace [7.e., with the reciting of
the misery} and shall end with praise”), Rab re-
marks, “ He shall begin with the words, ‘ In the be-
ginning our forefathers served idols’”; while Sam-
uel says, “ We were slaves of Pharaoh in Egypt ”—
both of which are found in the present ritual. In
post-Talmudic times, during the era of the Geonim,
selections from midrashim were added; most likely
Rab Amram (ce, 850) was the originator of the pres-
ent collection, as he was the redactor of the daily
liturgy. Of these midrashim one of the most im-
portant is that of the four sons, representing four
different attitudes toward religion: the wise (or
studious), the wicked (or skeptical), the simple (or
indifferent), and the ignorant (who is too unintelli-
gent to ask for enlightenment). This division is taken
from the Jerusalem Talmud (Pes. 34b) and from a
parallel passage in Mekilta (13-14 [ed. Weiss, p.
28b]); it is slightly altered in the present ritual,
chiefly owing to a mistake in the quotation of Deut.
vi. 20 (Landshuth, é.¢. p. viti.), These four sons
were an attractive subject for illustrators and en-
gravers, and the types found in an Amsterdam Hag-
gadah of the seventeenth century are still largely
reproduced. Other haggadic sayings are freely re-
peated, as the story of R. Eliezer, who discussed the
Exodus all night with four other rabbis, which tale
is found in an altogether different form in the To-
sefta (ed. Zuckermandel, p. 173; see Zunz, “G. V.”
p. 126). The custom of reading selections from the
Talmudic Haggadah antedates Rab Amram, for his
predecessor, Rab Natronai, speaking of those who
omit these selections (possibly the Karaites), says
that they have failed to fulfil their duty, that they
are heretics who despise the words of the sages, and
that they shall be excommunicated from every Jew-
ish congregation (Weiss, “Dor,” iv. 115 [ed. Fried-
mann, p. 10).
The costliness of manuscripts may have suggested
at an early time the writing of the ritual for Pass-
over eve in a separate book. This could hardly have
been done, however, before the time of Maimonides
(1185-1204), who included the Haggadah in his code
(“ Yad,” after “Hamez”) The opinion of Frieg.
mann (p. 9), that special books con-
The taining the Passover service existed
Haggadah in Talmudic times, is based on a
as a Book. judgment of Raba in favor of a
man who claimed a Haggadah (“ Sifra
de-Agadia”) from an estate under the plea that he
had lent it to the deceased (Shebu. 46b). This inter.
pretation, however, is not probable, for, according
to Rashi, who is upheld by the context, the passage
speaks of homiletic works. Existing manuscripts do
not go back beyond the thirteenth century, the time,
probably, when the service for Passover eve wag
first written separately, since no mention of the fact
occurs in earlier writings. When such a volume
was compiled, it became customary to add poetical
pieces. This is mentioned in “Tanya,” which is an
abstract of Zedekiah ben Abraham Anaw’s “Shib-
bole ha-Leket,” written about 1250 (Landshuth,
le. p. xviii.). These piyyutim were not written
for this service, but were selected from other collec-
tions. The most popularamong them is Appir Hu;
another one, beginning NJ 12 ‘3, is fragmentary
(Landshuth, l.c.). At the end of the service are two
nursery-songs, EHap Mr Yonga‘ and Hap Gapya,
The Haggadah has been very often printed.
Adolf Oster of Xanten endeavored to collect all
available editions, and in 1890 had acquired 280
(Rahmer’s “Jtid. Lit.-Blatt,” xvi. 54, xvii. 62, xix.
56); but S. Wiener was able tocount 895. The old-
est edition extant was printed in Italy, probably in
Fano, about 1505; but at least one edition must have
preceded it, probably that bound up with the copy
of the “ Tefillat Yahid,” Soncino, 1486, and which is
now in the possession of M. Sulzberger. From
early days it has been customary to translate the
Haggadah into the vernacular for the benefit of
children. Aaron ha-Kohen of Lune! (14th cent.)
mentions it asa laudable custom, and says that it
was done in England (Moses Isserles, in his commen-
tary on Tur Orah Hayyim, 473). A Latin transla-
tion was printed in Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1512
(Wiener, “Bibliographie der Oster-Haggadah,” No.
4), but this was not for the use of Jews. An edi-
tion of Salonica, 1567, contains only the laws in
Ladino, but Venice editions of 1609 contain transla-
tions of the whole Haggadah into Ladino, Italian,
and Judszo-German. From the sixteenth century on
the Haggadah was very frequently commentated,
mostly from the homiletical point of view. The
Wilna edition of 1892 contains 115 commentaries.
Typical in this respect is the haggadic commentary
of Aaron Teomim, in the edition of Amsterdam
(1694-95), entitled “ Hillukade-Rabbanan.” In mod-
ern times free translations and modifications have
been made, chiefly with the object of eliminating the
fanciful Talmudic haggadot. Such are the transla-
tions of Leopold Stein (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1841),
H. M. Bien (“Easter Eve,” Cincinnati, 1886), 1. 8.
Moses (in the first ed. of the “Union Prayer-Book,”
pp. 227-257, Chicago, 1892), and Maybaum (Berlin,
1898).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Zunz, G. V. pp. 126 et seq.; Landshuth, Ha-
gadavortrdige fiir die Beiden Pessachabende, with biblio-
graphical notes by Steinschneider, Berlin, 1855; Cassel, Die
Pessach Hagadah, Berlin, 1866, 9th ed. 1902; M. Friedmann,
8
J]
&
TURY.
TH CEN
USCRIPT HAGGADAH OF THE FIFTEEN
MAN
RATED
ST
GE FROM AN ILLU
Pa
)
ion of the Earl of Crawford,
in the possess:
(Formerly
Haggadah
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
144
ee
Das Festhueh Haggadah nach den Quellen, ete., Vienna,
1895; Miller and Von Schlossar, Die Haggadah von Sera-
jewo. Vienna, 1898; Wiener, Bibliographie der Oster-Hag-
gadah, St. Petersburg, 1902; Greenberg, The Haggadah Ac-
cording to the Rite of Yemen, London, 1898; Grunwald,
Feast of Passover and Folklore. For periodicals see Schwab,
Répertoire : see also Mittheilungen der Gesellschaft fiir
Ji sees Volkskunde, passim, and Jew. Chron. April 18 and
ws ne
D
The Haggadah, being the chief ritual work for
home use in which none of the questions in regard
to using human figures for decorative
Illumina- purposes could arise, afforded mani-
tion and fold opportunities for illustration.
Illus- Accordingly some of the very earliest,
tration. manuscript copies contained illumina-
tions and miniatures. Of such illus-
trated manuscripts executed before the spread of
printing about twenty-five are known, of which
and historic scenes; while an elaborate Manuscript
in the possession of Baron Edmond de Rothschiiq
has highly original domestic and Biblical sceneg
executed in quattrocento style.
With the introduction of printing, this Variety
in illustration for the most part ceased. The ny.
merous illustrated editions show a distinct teng.
eucy toward monotony, and confine
Illustrated themselves almost entirely to what hag
Printed above been termed the domestic ang
Editions. the historic sides of the old illuming.
tions. Most of the scenes are now
grouped, and the domestic incidents showing the
various details of the Seder service are given very
often in one engraving. Similarly, the Ten Plagues
which were scattered through the manuscriptg
are now put upon one plate. Most of the many.
Natt!
.
aN
HARI
A COCR
——
Ss
——
ae ES Se ae a
THE FOUR TYPES OF THE HAGGADAH.
(From a Passover Haggadah, Vienna, 1823; in the possession of J. D. Eisenstein.)
twenty are described in the elaborate work of Mtiller
and Von Schlossar (see bibliography). These are of
great variety, in both subject and treatment. Gen-
erally speaking, the topics illustrated are either (a)
historic, centering upon the Exodus; (0) Biblical,
reproducing Biblical scenes without definite reference
to the Exodus; or (c) domestic, relating to the ac-
tual scenes of the Seder service. The later of two
Haggadahs in the Germanic Museum at Nuremberg
is especially noteworthy for illustrations of the last
type. The German Haggadah possessed by D.
Kaufmann, which he dated about 1322, appears to
confine its illustrations to the Exodus and an elabo-
rate zodiac. The fifteenth-century Haggadah in the
Bibliothéque Nationale has initials, and domestic
scripts give the four types of inquirers separately
(comp. Miller and Von Schlossar, f.c. pp. 175, 195),
but in the printed editions these are combined into
one engraving, the wicked son invariably being 4
soldier; whereas in the manuscripts this latter type
does not occur until quite late, as, for example, ip
the Crawford and Balcarres German manuscript of
the sixteenth century.
The first illustrated edition appears to be that of
Prague, 1526, and was followed by that of Augs
burg, in 1584. These set the type of illustrations
for the whole of northern Europe, especially for
Prague and Amsterdam editions. Of the Italian
type, the first illustrated edition appears to be that
of Mantua, of 1550, followed by that of 1560, the
i
i
!
J
$
Pacr From AN ILLUSTRATED MANUSCRIPT
a45
VI.—10
HAGGADAH OF THE FIFTEENTH
(In the possession ©
CENTURY, SHOWING PREPARATIONS FOR PASS
f Baron Rothschild, Paris.)
OVER.
Haggadah
Haggai
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
146
Fa eT a na
latter having illustrations surrounding each page.
The editions of Venice, 1599 and 1629, also contain
a considerable number of figures, and from these
were derived the Haggadot used in southern Ku-
rope. Both northern and southern types almos:
always confine themselves to the following scenes:
Rabbi Gamaliel; the preparation of the mazzot;
scenes of the Seder service; the Exodus, with the
Ten Plagues.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jacobs and Wolf, Catalogue of the Anglo-
Jewish Historical Exhibition, London, 1887, edition de luxe 5
Miiller and Von Schlossar, Die Haggadah von Serajewo,
Vienna, 1898; M. Schwab, in R. E. J. Aug., 1902.
HAGGADAH — TRADITIONAL MUSIC.
See Appir Hu; CantTinLatrion; Hap Gapya; HAL-
LEL; Kippustr; Kr Lo NAEH.
HAGGADISTS. See Mipraso AGGADAH.
HAGGAI: Judean prophet of the early post-
exilic period; contemporary with Zechariah (Ezra
v. 1; Tl Ezra [I Esd.]} vi. 1, vii. 8).
wm =“ Aggeus” inI Esd.; “Aggeeus,” “Ayyacos = “ festal”
(born on feast-day) or “feast of Yah” (Olshausen, “ Gram-
matik,”’ § 277b) ; Wellhausen,in Bleck, ** Einleitung,” 4th ed.,
p. 434, takes ‘‘Haggai* to be equivalent to “* Hagariah”’
(‘= ‘'God girdeth’’). The name is found on Semitic inscrip-
tions—Phenician, Palmyrene, Aramaic, Hebrew; comp. * C.I.
S.” Ixviii. 1 and Lidzbarski, ‘‘ Handbuch der Nordsemitischen
Epigraphik,” p. 270, Weimar, 1898; it occurs as ** Hagga” on a
tablet from Nippur (Hilprecht, in “* Pal. Explor. Fund Quar-
terly,”? Jan., 1898, p. 55).
Very little is known of Haggai’s life. Ewald (“ Pro-
pheten des Alten Bundes,” p. 178, G6ttingen, 1868)
concludes from Hag. ii, 3 that he had seen the first
Temple, in which case he would have been a very
old man at the time of Darius Hystaspes, in the sec-
ond year of whose reign (520 B.c.) Haggai appears
as a prophetic preacher to stir the people to the
work of rebuilding the Temple (Hag. i. 1 é seq.).
It is not certain that Haggai was ever in Babylonia.
He may have lived continuously at Jerusalem (comp.
Lam. ii. 9). At all events, to judge by the extent
of his book, his public ministry was brief. That
Zechariah was the leading prophet of those times
(Zech. vii. 1-4) lends plausibility to the assumption
that Haggai was nearing death when he made his
appeal to the people. According to tradition he
was born in Chaldea during the Captivity, and was
among those that returned under Zerubbabel. It
has even been claimed that he was an angel of
YuwhH, sent temporarily to earth to move the indif-
ferent congregation (see Hag. i. 13). He was remem-
bered as a singer of psalms, and as the first to use the
term “Hallelujah.” In fact, his name is mentioned
in the Septuagint superscriptions to Psalms exii.,
exlv.-cxlix., though not in all manuscripts alike
(Kohler, “Die Weissagungen Haggais,” p. 32;
Wright, “ Zechariah and His Prophecies,” xix. et seq. ;
B. Jacob, in Stade’s “Zeitschrift,” xvi. 290; Cheyne
and Black, “Encye. Bibl.” ii. 1935, note 2, in refer-
ence to Epiphanius, “ Vitee Prophetarum”). By
Jewish historiography Haggai is numbered among
the “men of the Great Synagogue” (B. B. 15a), or
among those that “ transmitted revelation ” (see CaB-
ALA) from their prophetic predecessors to the “ men
_ of the Great Synagogue ” (Ab. R. N. i. [recension A,
p. 2, ed. Schechter]; comp. Yoma 9b). In his days
prophetic inspiration was growing less frequent
(2b.).
Haggai is credited with having instituted certain
practical decisions (“ takkanot”). Among these were
a provision for the intercalation of the month of
Adar (R. H. 19b); a decision in favor of enlargine
the altar; a decision permitting the bringing of Sac.
rifices independently of the existence or presence of
the Temple (Mid. iii. 1; Zeb. 62; Yer. Naz. ii. 7),
The organization of the priestly service into twenty.
four relays (Tosef., Ta‘an. ii.; ‘Ar. 12b), and the
regulation of the wood-contributions (Tosef., Ta‘an,
iii.; Ta‘an. 28; comp. Neh. x. 35), are traced to
him. Other references to Haggai’s legislative influ.
ence are given in R.H.9; Yeb. 16a; Kid. 48a; Hul.
137b; Bek. 57; Naz. 58a. The “seat” (R35) on
which he sat as legislator is mentioned (Yeb. 16a),
E.G. H.
HAGGAI, BOOK OF: One of the so-called
minor prophetical books of the Old Testament. It
contains four addresses. The first (i. 2-11), dated
the first day of the sixth month of the second year
of Darius Hystaspes (520 8.c.), described as di-
rected against, or to, Zerubbabel the governor and
Joshua the high priest (i. 1), is designed to arouse
the people from their indifference to the rebuilding
of the Temple, an indifference in glaring contrast
to the care taken to secure comfortable and well-
appointed private dwellings (i. 4); drought and
dearth are announced as a penalty (i. 5-6, 10-11).
Their failure to rebuild the Temple is the cause of
their disappointment (i. 9). This brief discourse has
the desired effect (i. 12). Haggai announces that
Yuwu is with them. In the twenty-fourth day
of the sixth month (520) work on the Temple
begins.
The second address is dated the twenty-first day
of the seventh month, and strikes the note of en-
couragement. It seems that many had again be-
come despondent; the prophet assures
The Four these that God's spirit, in accordance
Discourses. with the covenant made at the time of
the exodus from Egypt, is with them.
Yet a little while, and Yuwu’s power will become
manifest. All the nations will bring tribute to make
this house glorious, What the nations now call
their own is in fact Yuwu’s. Thusthe glory of the
later house will be greater than that of the earlier,
which so many despair of equaling. Peace will
reign in the Second Temple (ii. 1-9).
The third discourse is dated the twenty-fourth
day of the ninth month of Darius. It is prefaced by
questions addressed to the priests concerning certain
applications of the law of Levitical purity. The
answers of the priests to his questions furnish the
text for his exposition of the people’s sin in not
erecting the Temple. These shortcomings are the
reason for the dearth. Their removal, therefore,
will bring Yawn’s blessing (ii. 10-19).
On the same day (the twenty-fourth of the ninth
month) Haggai addresses another (the fourth) dis-
course to Zerubbabel, announcing Yuwu’s deter-
mination to bring to pass great political upheavals,
resulting in the dethroning of kings and the defeat-
ing of their armies. In consequence of these won-
derful reversals of the prevailing political conditions,
PAGE FROM THE FIRST ILLUSTRATED PRINTED HAGGADAH, PRAGUE, 120.
Haggai
Ha clocrapha
™
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 148
Se a ee a ee a gn a ey pe me ga Pe AG ONO YO ew gg ep ene
Zerubbabel will become the “signet” as the one
chosen of Yuwu; that is, Zerubbabel will be
crowned as the independent (Messianic) king of in-
dependent Judea (ii. 20-28).
Contrasted with the flow and fervor of the utter-
ances of other prophets, Haggai’s style certainly
justifies the rabbinical observation that he marks
the period of decline in prophecy (Yoma 9b). He
scarcely ever rises above the level of
Hagegai’s good prose. The critics have found
Style. in thisa confirmation of the assump-
tion that Haggai wrote and spoke only
after having reached a very ripe old age. Certain
turns of phraseology are characteristically affected
by him: p9205 s3 ww (i. 5, 7; ii. 15, 18a, b); ANN
= “and now,” introducing an appeal! (i. 5; ii. 4, 15).
Repetitions of words are frequent: 'M Wr (i. 7, 8);
[PINIS] A ONS (il. 4a, b, c, 6, 7, 8a, b, 14, 17, 28a,
b,c); MADAM (ii. 22, twice); pyn Gi. 4, thrice), Hag-
gai loves to recall in one final word the preceding
idea: i. 2b, 12b; ii. 5b Cn 5x), 19b Carn ove
JAN).
The text is in good condition, and the versions do
not exhibit important variants. The Septuagint has
additions in ii, 10-15, and several omissions, one (ii.
5) very extensive. “Be-mal’akut” (i. 13) is repre-
sented by év ayyéAore =“ be-mal’ake.” The Peshitta
presents the reading “hereb” (sword) for “horeb”
(drought) in i. 11, and the “hif‘il” instead of the
“kal” in “u-ba’u” (ii. 7; comp. L. Reinke, “ Der
Prophet Haggai,” pp. 23 et seg., Minster, 1868, on
the text of Haggai). Of emendations proposed by
modern scholars, the following may be noted: In
ch. i. 2 the first ny should be read Ap (“ now ”), or,
still better, corrected into Ty (“as yet”); the ver-
sions omit i. 10. oo by is probably a dittogram of the
preceding j5 by. For omnby (“their God ”) in 3, 12,
the Septuagint, the Peshitta, and the Vulgate pre-
sent ome (“unto them”), which is preferable. Ch.
i. 18 is held to be suspicious as a later gloss (Béhme,
in Stade’s “Zeitschrift,” vii. 215; Nowack, “Die
Kleinen Propheten,” in “ Handkommentar zum Alten
Testament,” p. 305, Géttingen, 1897). Ch. ii. 5a is
grammatically of difficult construction; the Revised
Version inserts “remember”; the Septuagint omits
it. It is in all likelihood an interpolation (see
Nowack, /.c. p. 806). AMS (i. 6) is doubtful; the
Septuagint reads yy instead of ppp. Well-
hausen’s observation (“Die Kleinen Propheten,” ad
loc.), that the verse combines two originally distinct
readings, one as the Septuagint has it and the other
that of the Masoretic text, with MAN omitted, is
probably based on fact. In verse 8
‘¢Varise ynann has been taken to refer to the
Lectiones.” Messiah (comp. the name “ Moham-
med”); but the allusion is distinctly to
the “ precious possessions ” of the nations; perhaps it
should be vocalized “hamudot.” For ii. 9 the
Septuagint hasa much more complete text, proba-
bly originally included (see Wellhausen, 1.c¢., ad
loc.). The Septuagint addition to il. 14 is partly
taken from Amos v. 10, and the whole looks like a
gloss. In ii. 16 something seems to have dropped
out of the text (see Nowack, f.c. p. 309). DINN PR
wbx (ii. 17) is clearly corrupt; Ss ova one PN is
the better reading proposed (Nowack, “e.). In ij.
18, from py to 3 boon must be considered as an
explanatory gloss by a later reader. At the end of
verse 22 some verb seems to be required. Wel}.
hausen supplies “shall fall.” Instead of $35", ip
reference to the horses’ undoing, Griitz (“ Emenda-
tiones,” ad loc.) proposes y44N (“tremble ”).
The authenticity of ti, 20-23 has been impugneg
by Bohme (Stade’s “ Zeitschrift,” vii, 215 e¢ seq.) on
the ground that (a) differences of expression indicate
a different authorship, and that (6) their contents
merely repeat Haggai’s former assurances; yet this
conclusion is not warranted. The concluding dis.
course is marked in the text as addressed to Zerub-
babel alone. This accounts for the repetitions, if
there be any; the differences in style are not so stri-
king as to be incompatible with Haggai’s author.
ship.
It is clear that in 520 B.c., according to Haggai’s |
explicit statement, the reerection of the Temple had
not begun. This is contrary to the common opin-
iou that the work of rebuilding the Temple had
been undertaken immediately after the
The return under Cyrus. Ezra iii. (and
Historical iv. 1-5) names the second year after
Back- _ the return as the date when the mach-
ground. inationsof the Samaritans brought the
enterprise to a standstill. For this
reason Haggai has been held to plead merely for the
“resumption,” not for the “undertaking,” of the (in-
terrupted) building operations. Still, neither in
Haggai nor in Zechariah is there any indication to
justify this modification. Haggai is silent concern-
ing the previous laying of a corner-stone. Far from
laying the blame to foreign interference, he is em-
phatic in denouncing, as the sole cause of the de-
plorable state of affairs, the indifference and des-
pondency of the Jews. In ii. 18 the laying of the
corner-stone is described, either by himself or bya
glossarist (see above), as taking place in his own
time (Winckler, in Schrader, “K. A. T.” 3d ed., p.
293, does not take this view, urging against it Hag-
gai ii. 3, “how do ye see it now”). Probably on
the return of the exiles only an altar was set up.
Ezra iii. and iv., written much later, ascribe the
later occurrences to an earlier date. W. H. Koster
(“Het Herstel,” 1894, German ed. 1895) argues,
partly on these grounds, that no exiles returned
under Cyrus, and that the Temple was built by
Jews who had been left at Jerusalem (sce against
him Wellhausen, “ Die Riickkehr der Juden,” 1895,
and Eduard Meyer, “Die Entstehung des Juden-
tums,” 1896). This extreme view is inadmissible.
But Haggai makes it evident that the Temple was
erected only in his time (during Darius Hystaspes’
reign, not that of Cyrus), and that its erection was
largely due to his and Zechariah’s efforts.
Haggai’s description reveals the difficulties with
which the small community had to contend; ‘drought
and dearth (i. 9 e¢ seg., Hi. 15) were
Rebuilding among them; and the population must
ofthe have been small. Under these dis-
Temple. heartening circumstances, what €n-
couraged the prophet to urge his pee
ple to theenterprise? The conditions of the Persian
empire furnish a clue to the answer (comp. Isa
ee
ar rn rere re are see
reopen hin i
149 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Haggai
Hazgiographa
Ix.); in the impending disruption of the Persian
power he sees YHWH’S purpose to reestablish
Judea’s independence under the (Messianic) king
Zerubbabel.
In the large Behistun inscription, Darius has left
the record of these disturbances, caused by the as-
sassination of pseudo-Smerdis in521. While Darius
was busy fighting the Babylonian usurper Nidin-
tubal, Persia, Susiana, Media, Assyria, Armenia, and
other provinces, under various leaders, rose in rebel-
lion against him, These campaigns kept Darius en-
gaged during 520-519, the period of Haggai’s first
appeals (see Ed. Meyer, “ Die Entstehung des Juden-
tums”). Nevertheless, Nowack contends that the
predictions in Haggai concerning the great upheav-
als which, while troubling and overturning all other
nations, will result in establishing permanent peace
in Jerusalem (ii. 9), are of the nature of eschatolog-
ical apocaly ptic speculations. Haggai, according to
him, was the first to formulate the notion of an ulti-
mate opposition between God’s rule and that of the
heathen nations, The réle clearly assigned to Zerub-
babel in the prediction of Haggai does not seem to
be compatible with this assumption. He is too
definite and too real a historical personage in the
horizon of Haggai to admit of this construction.
The “ideal” Messiah is always central in apocalyptic
visions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. A. Béhme, in Stade’s Zettschrift, vii. 215
et seq.; Dillmann, Jesaja, Leipsic,,1898 ; Duhm, Die Theologie
der Propheten, Bonn, 1875; Hitzig, Die Kleinen Propheten,
Leipsie, 1881; Eugene Hiihn, Die Messianischen Weissag-
ungen, Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1899; A. Kohler, Die Weissag-
ungen Haggdi’s, Erlangen, 1860; Koster, Het Herstel van
fsraet in het Perzische Tijdvak, Leyden, 1894; Ed. Meyer,
Die Eintstehung des Judentums, Halle, 1896; Nowack, Kleine
Propheten, Gottingen, 1897; W. Pressel, Kommentar zu
den Schriften der Propheten Haggai, etc., Gotha, 1870; T. T.
Perowne, Haggai and Zechariah, Cambridge, 1888; Reinke,
Der Prophet Haggai, Minster, 1868; Sellin, Serubbabel,
Leipsic, 1898; George Adam Smith, The Book of the Twelve
Prophets, New York, 1901; Wellhausen, Skizzen und Veor-
arbeiten, 2d ed., vol. v., Berlin, 1893,
E. G. H.
HAGGERI: Father of Mibhar, one of David’s
chosen warriors (I Chron. xi. 88 [R. V. “ Hagri”)}).
In the parallel list, IT Sam. xxiii., the words “ben
Hagri” (the son of Hagri) are changed to “Bani ha-
Gadi ” (Bani, the Gadite).
E. G. H. M. SE.
HAGGI: Second son of Gad and progenitor of
the Haggites (Gen. xlvi, 16; Num, xxvi. 15). The
name is the same for individual and for family.
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HAGGIAH (7°3n) (“festival of Jehovah”): Le-
vite of the family of Merari; son of Shimea and
father of Asaiah (I Chron. vi. 15 [A. V. 30]). In
the Septuagint the name is given ’Ayyie and “Aya
and ’Ava:a,
E. C. Bb. P.
HAGGITES (377): Tribal name of the descend-
ants of Haggi, second son of Gad (Num. xxvi. 15);
given “Agite” in the Vulgate, and ’Ayyec in the
Septuagint.
E. C. B. P.
HAGGITH: One of David’s wives; known also
as the mother of Adonijah (II Sam. iii. 4; I Kings
1,5, 11; if. 18; I Chron. iii. 2), but apparently
Married to David after his accession to the throne.
Adonijah is commonly designated as “the son of
Haggith” (I Kings i. 5, 11; ii. 18) who was born
at Hebron. In II Samuel Haggith and her son
Adonijah are fourth in the list of David’s wives
and sons respectively.
E. G. H. B. P.
HAGIA (Greck, “Ayia; Vulgate, “Aggia”):
Servant of Solomon (I Esd. v. 34), whose children
returned from the Captivity with Zerubbabel. Ez-
ra ii. 57 and Neh. vii. 59 give “the children of Hat-
til,” though this is probably an error. The Septua-
gint rendering in Neh. vii. 59, Eyy7A, points more
to “Hagia” than to “ Hattil.”
BE. C. B. P.
HAGIN DEULACRES (Hayyim Gedaliah,
or Dieulacresse): Last presbyter or chief rabbi of
England; appointed May 15, 1281. He appears to
have been raised to this position by the favor of
Queen Eleanor, mother of King Edward Il. Hagin
was probably a nephew of Elyas, the “Great Pres-
byter,” and was not, it seems, living at the time of
the Expulsion, as his name is not mentioned among
those who were expelled in 1290, though the house
of his son Benedict fell into the king’s hands (Jacobs,
“Jewish Ideals,” p. 185). Neubauer attributes to
Hagin the translation of some of Abraham ibn Ezra’s
astrological works for Henry Bate at Malines (“ Rab-
bins Francais,” p. 507), but on very insufficient
grounds, and on still slighter evidence the transla-
tion of the “ Image du Monde,” credited by others to
Mattithiah ben Solomon Delacrut. It has been sug-
gested that Hagin Lane in London was named after
this Hagin, who probably lived opposite it, but
recent evidence seems to show that its original
name was “Hoggen,” the Middle English plural
of “hog.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tovey, Anglia Judaica, p. 59; Miscellany of
the Soc. Hehr. Lit. ii. 159; Jacobs, Jewish Ideats, pp. 185-
188: Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., vii. 180. J
HAGIN FIL. MOSSY: Presbyter or chief
rabbi of the Jews of England. He appears to have
been the chirographer of the Jews of London, and
obtained great wealth, but he lost it under Edward I.
In 1255 he was appointed presbyter on the expul-
sion of Elyas from that office. It seems probable
that he was a brother of Elyas (Tovey, “Anglia
Judaica,” p. 58). During the riots preceding the
battle of Lewes in 1264 he fled to the Continent.
His wife, Antera, and his son, Aaron, seem to have
held possession of the only remaining synagogue in
London at the Expulsion in 1290.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Papers of the Anglo-Jewish Historical Ez-
hibition, pp. 28, 178, 179, 198, 194. J
HAGIOGRAPHA (p'21n> = “ writings”) : The
third part of the Old Testament canon, the other
two being the Law (A M1) and the Prophets (Q°x"33).
It includes the three books n"p"& (Hebrew initials
of odin, ben, 3Y), which in a special sense are
designated as the poetic books par excellence,
Job, Proverbs, and Psalms; the five Megillot (=
“rolls”), which are read on five different festivals,
and which include Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations,
Ecclesiastes, and Esther; the books of Daniel,
Hagiographa
Hagiz, Moses
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
150
— On en nm nk eel eee
Ezra-Nehemiah (considered as two parts of one
book), and Chronicles—eleven books in all.
The order of the Hagiographain the Talmud is as
follows: Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Canticles,
Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Daniel, Esther, Ezra,
Chronicles (but see “Halakot Gedo-
Talmudic lot,” ed. Hildesheimer, p. 633). The
Sequence. first place was given to the Book of
Ruth on the ground, probably, not
only that it contained an episode in the history of the
house of David, but also that the genealogy at the
end of the book, reaching down to David, was a suit-
able introduction to Psalms, ascribed to David. The
Book of Job followed the Psalms because, on the
one hand, the three great hagiographs should be
grouped together, and, on the other, Proverbs should
not be separated from Canticles, both being ascribed
to Solomon. Ecclesiastes was for the same reason
placed with the earlier books; and the three later
books, Esther, Ezra, and Chronicles, were placed
after Daniel because it was assumed that the latter
was Written earlier (by Daniel himself) at the Perso-
Babylonian court. Thissequence is found in differ-
ent manuscripts, with the exception that in some,
Proverbs immediately precedes Job, or Canticles
precedes Ecclesiastes, and Esther precedes Daniel.
The sequence differs among the Masoretes, who, ac-
cording to Elijah Levita (“ Massoret ha-Massoret,”
p. 120; ed. Ginsburg, p. 67), follow the Sephardic
arrangement, which is as follows: Chronicles,
Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Canticles, Ecclesiastes,
Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, Ezra. The German
manuscripts give another sequence: Psalms, Prov-
erbs, Job, the five Megillot, Daniel, Ezra, and Chron-
icles, the five Megillot following the order in which
they are now read in the synagogue—Canticles,
Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Estber. Many
other variations, however, are found in the different
manuscripts.
The sequence of the Hagiographa in the Alexan-
drian canon must also be mentioned, as it not only
differs from the Jewish canon in the order of the
several books, but also includes a number of works
not recognized as canonical in Palestine. Here the
Book of Ruth follows Judges; I Ezra and II Ezra
(Ezra and Nehemiah) follow the Chronicles; and
Esther follows the apocryphal Tobit and Judith,
which follow Iand II Ezra; of the other books, Job,
Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles, as
the specifically poetical books, are placed together;
Lamentations is an appendix to Jeremiah (between
Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah); and the Book
of Daniel follows, and ranks with, the three greater
prophets. Through the Vulgate this sequence was,
on the whole, adopted by Luther in his Bible.
The existence of the Hagiographa collection as a
third part of:the canon is first stated in the prologue
(about 130 B.c.)to Sirach, with which
Origin of the translator and grandson of the au-
the thor of EHcclesiasticus prefaced his
Collection. Greek translation. At the very be-
ginning mention is made “ of the many
and important things which were transmitted to the
Jews through the Law, the Prophets, and the others
that followed them.” There isno doubt that in this
summing up of the Old Testament literature the
authors of the Hagiographa are meant by “those
that [kar’ avrotg = “as authors ”] followed the Proph.
ets.” A confirmation of the fact that this Hagiog.
rapha collection ranked even then with the older
books of the canon is found in a passage in I Mac.
cabees (vil. 17; written probably 100 B.c.), where
two verses of a psalm (Ixxix. 2-8) are quoted us
Moly Scripture; and as all the books of the Hagiog.
rapha as now known date back at least to the second
half of the second century B.c., it may be inferred
that the collection included even then—that is, in
the beginning of the first century B.c.—the same
books as now, with the exception, perhaps, that
single detached portions may have been added
later. Again, it is known that the canonicity of
certain books of the Hagiographa was disputed—
Canticles, Ecclesiastes, and Esther. The canon,
including, of course, the Hagiographa, was de-
fined at the Synod of Jabneh about 90, the
point at issue being not the admission of new
books into the canon, but the exclusion of certain
books—Canticles, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Proverbs,
Ruth, and even Ezekiel, books that had already
been included, but that were deemed by some
unworthy of that position. The energetic advo-
eacy of Akiba in behalf of all the books, and the
fact that the Mishnah recognized the twenty-four
books as of equal canonicity, finally decided the
issue.
Another point to be considered is the gradual
growth of this collection. Although any conclu-
sions in reference thereto are mainly based on con-
jecture, it may safely be assumed that the nucleus
of the Hagiographa, Psalms, Proverbs, and Job, ex-
isted and was held in high esteem at the time when
the books of the Prophets were officially read in the
synagogue, and that other books were added in the
course of time. As in the passage mentioned above
(I Macc. vii. 17) an unmistakably Maccabean psalm
is quoted, it follows that a Maccabean psalm had
previously been admitted into the Psalter, which
had then been in existence for a long time and was
regarded ascanonical. The formula with which the
writer of I Maccabees (about 100 B.c.)introduces the
passage showsthis. Tothisnucleus the other books
were gradually added, none being admitted, how-
ever, Which an author who lived after the time of
Ezra and Nehemiah (with which the period of canon-
icity ended) wrote under his own name. Thus it
happened, for instance, that the highly valuable
Book of Sirach was excluded, while Ecclesiastes,
because ascribed to Solomon, and the Book of
Daniel, because ascribed to the Daniel of the Perso-
Babylonian court, were admitted, although the lat-
ter at least was certainly written in the period of the
Maccabees.
That earlier works, becoming increasingly appre-
ciated, were included at a later date, may be seen in
the case of the Chronicles, which were the last ad-
mitted, although they form the first part of the great
historical work which concludes with the Book of
Ezra-Nehemiah. The present sequence of the books
of the Hagiographa is by no means identical with
the order of their admission, as may be seen in the
case of the five smaller books, Canticles, Ruth, Lam-
entations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther, which were
ee ee me —
151 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hagiographa
agiz, Moses
subsequently grouped together for the reason that
they were read at the synagogal services on Pass-
over, Pentecost, the anniversary of the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem, the Feast of Tabernacles, and
Purim; they were written on special scrolls, like the
Torah, deriving thence their special name “ Hamesh
Megillot ” (Five Rolls).
The Hagiographa was called also mpsn (“ Wis-
dom”), and in later Jewish literature wap 3%
(“ Words of Holiness”). It can not now be ascer-
tained when the name “ Ketubim” and the Greek
designation “Hagiographa” were first given to the
collection. They could not have been current at the
time when the translator of the Book of Sirach wrote
his prologue; otherwise he would not have used such
general expressions as “the Law, the Prophets, and
the others that followed them,” or “the Law, the
Prophets, and the other books of the fathers.” On
the gradual development of the term “ Ketubim,”
however, see Blau, “Zur Einleitung in die Heilige
Schrift,” p. 22.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Buhl, Kanon und Text des Alten Testa-
mentes, Leipsic, 1891; G. Wildeboer, Het Ontstaen van den
Kanon des Quden Verbands, 2d ed., Groningen (Ger. transl.
by F. Risch, Die Entstehung des Alttestamentlichen Ka-
nons, Gotha, 1891); H.N. Ryle, The Canon of the Old Testa-
ment, London, 1892; T. Mullen, The Canon of the Old Testa-
ment, New York, 1898; the various introductions to the books
of the Old Testament; Marx, Traditio Rabbinorum Veter-
rima, Leipsic, 1884; H.L. Brack, Kanon des Alten Testa-
ments, in Herzog-Hauck, Real-Eneyc. ix. 741-768.
E. G. H. V. Ry.
HAGIZ, JACOB: Palestinian Talmudist; born
of a Spanish family at Fez in 1620; died at Constan-
tinople 1674. Hagiz’s teacher was David Karigal
(*“Korban Minhah,” No. 105), who afterward be-
came his father-in-law. About 1646 Hagiz went to
Italy for the purpose of publishing his books, and re-
mained there until after 1656, supporting himself by
teaching. Samuel di Pam, rabbi at Leghorn, calls
himself a pupil of Hagiz. About 1657 Hagiz left
Leghorn for Jerusalem, where the Vega brothers of
Leghorn had founded a bet ha-midrash for him
(Gritz, “Gesch.” x. 212), and where he became a
member of the rabbinical college (Moses ibn Habib,
“Get Pashut,” p. 129). There a large number of
eager young students gathered about him, among
whom were Moses ibn Habib, who became his son-
in-law, and Joseph Almosnino, later rabbi of Bel-
grade (Moses Hagiz, “ Mishnat Hakamim,” No. 624).
Another son-in-law of his was Moses Hayyun
(Azulai, “Shem ha-Gedolim ”).
Shabbethai Zebi’s chief opponent was Jacob
Hagiz, who put him under the ban (Gritz, Jc. x.
475, note 3). About 1678 Hagiz went to Constanti-
nople to publish his “ Lehem ha-Panim,” but he died
before this was accomplished. This book, as well
as many others of his, was lost (Moses Hagiz, in the
introduction to “ Halakot Ketannot”). Healso wrote:
“Tehillat Hokmah,” on Talmudic methodology,
published together with Simson of Chinon’s “Sefer
Keritot ” (Verona, 1647); “Orah Mishor,” on the
Conduct of rabbis (an appendix to the preceding
work; 2d ed., with additions by Moses Hagiz, Am-
sterdam, 1709); “Petil Tekelet,” on the “ Azharot ”
of Solomon Gabirol (Venice, 1652; 2d ed., London,
1714); “‘Ez ha-Hayyim,” on the Mishnah (Leghorn,
1654-55; 2d ed., Berlin, 1716).
Hagiz also translated the “Menorat ha-Ma’or” of
Isaac Aboab into Spanish (1656).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. x. 212 et seq., and note 3.
D. L. Gri.
HAGIZ, MOSES: Palestinian rabbi and author;
born at Jerusalem in 1671; died at Safed after 1750.
His father, Jacob Haciz, died while Moses was still
achild. The latter was therefore educated by his
maternal grandfather, Moses GALANTE the younger,
who had succeeded his son-in-law. With the death
of Moses Galante (1689) support from Leghorn was
withdrawn, and Hagiz found himself in very strait-
ened circumstances. He went to Safed to collect a
claim which his mother had against the congrega-
tion, but succeeded only in making bitter enemies,
who later persecuted him. Returning to Jerusalem,
he was given letters of recommendation, through
which he expected to obtain support for a bet ha-
midrash which he intended to establish. At Rashid
(Rosetta), Abraham Nathan gave him 80,000 thalers
to deposit at Leghorn forthis purpose. Arriving at
Leghorn, he secured from Vega, the protector of his
family, a promise of further support; but his Pales-
tinijan enemies slandered him and ruined his pros-
pects. He subsequently wandered through Italy,
and edited at Venice (1704) the “ Halakot Ketannot ”
of hisfather. Somewhat later he went to Amsterdam,
where he supported himself by teaching, and occu-
pied himself with the publication of his works. In
Amsterdam he made the acquaintance of Zebi Asu-
KENAZI, then rabbi of the Ashkenazic congregation,
and assisted him in unmasking the impostor Nehe-
miah Hayyun. This step, however, made more
enemies for him, and, like Zebi Ashkenazi, he had
to leave the city (1714). Until 1738 he resided at
Altona; he then returned to Palestine, settling first
at Sidon, and later at Safed, where he died. He
married a daughter of Raphael Mordecai Malachi,
and was therefore a brother-in-law of Hezekiah da
Silva. He had no children.
Moses Hagiz was not only a great Talmudic
scholar, but alsoa man of wider secular learning than
most of the rabbis of his time. According to Wolf,
who knew him personally (“ Bibl. Hebr,” iii. 908), he
understood several languages and was somewhat
familiar with modern history (see his “ Mishnat Ha-
kamim,” Nos. 627 and 682); he advocated the study
of secular sciences (#2. No. 114), and admitted that
the Zohar has been interpolated by later scribes (75.
No. 108). In regard to his character reports differ;
some represent him as filled with sincere religious
zeal, others as a contentious wrangler (Gritz,
“Gesch.” 3d ed., x. 479-482). Jacob Emden de-
scribes him as a time-server, and even as religiously
insincere, though he respected him as a friend of
his father (“ Megillat Sefer,” pp. 117-122, Warsaw,
1896). Hagiz wrote: “Leket ha-Kemah,” novelle
to the Shulhan ‘Aruk (Orah Hayyim and Yoreh
De‘ah, Amsterdam, 1697 and 1707; Eben ha-‘Ezer,
Hamburg, 1711 and 1715); “Sefat Emet,” on the re-
ligious significance of Palestine (Amsterdam, 1697
and 1707); “Eleh ha-Mizwot,” on the 613 command-
ments (Wandsbeck, 1713); “Sheber Posh‘im,” polem-
ics against Hayyun (London, 1714); “Leket ha-
Kemah,” commentary or the Mishnah (Wandsbeck,
Hagiz, Samuel
Hai ben Sherira
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
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152
Se SS SS 6 00800080 rs
1726); “Perure Pat ha-Kemah,” commentary to
Daniel (Amsterdam, 1727); “Zeror ha-Hayyim,”
ethics (Wandsbeck, 1728); “ Mishnat MHakamim,”
ethics (7b. 1733); “Shete ha-Lehem,” responsa (éd.
1733), Other works of his remained unpublished.
He also wrote numerous prefaces to the books of
others. His writings are signed mp7, the initial
letters of “ Moses ibn Jacob Hagiz.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. x., passim, especially pp. 4793-
482, where the older sources are quoted; Jacob Emden, Me-
gillat Sefer, Warsaw, 1896.
L. Grt.—D.
HAGIZ, SAMUEL BEN JACOB BEN SAM-
UEL, OF FEZ: Father of Jacob Hagizand grand-
father of Moses Hagiz; according to an epitaph, died
in 1634. He edited Solomon Duran’s “ Tif’eret Yis-
rael” about 1596, and wrote: “Debar Shemu’el,” a
haggadic commentary, especially on Deuteronomy
Rabbah (Venice, 1596); and “Mebakkesh ha-Shem,”
sermons on the Pentateuch (ib. 1596).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2411; First,
Bibl. Jud. i. 155.
J M. Sc.
HAGUE, THE. See NETHERLANDS.
HAHIROTH. See Pi-HAnIROTH.
HAHN, AUGUST: German theologian and
Orientalist; born at Grossosterhausen, Saxony,
March 27, 1792; died in Silesia May 18, 1863. He
studied theology and Oriental languages at Leipsic,
devoting special attention to Syriac. His treatise
on Ephraem the Syrian, published in 1819, led to his
appointment as professor at Kénigsberg, where he
published “ Bardesanes Gnosticus Syrorum Primus
Hymnologus” (1819) and, in conjunction with his
colleague Sieffert, “Chrestomathia Syriaca sive S.
Ephraemi Carmina Selecta ” (1825). In 1826 he was
called to Leipsic as professor of theology and
preacher, and there began a vigorous campaign
against the rationalism prevailing in theology and
the Church. In 18383 he became professor anda
member of the consistory of Breslau, and in 1844
was made general superintendent of the province of
Silesia, which post he retained until his death. He
was best known by his stereotyped edition of the
text of the Old Testament, published by the Tauch-
nitz firm in Leipsic (1833), and of which hundreds
of thousands of copies have been sold.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Alig. Deutsche Biographie, x. 356-358.
, KK. H. C.
HAHN, JOSEPH YUSPA NORDLINGER
(JOSEPH BEN PHINEHAS NORDLINGEN);:
German rabbi; born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in
the latter half of the sixteenth century; died there
April 3, 1687. He received a good education from
his father, the learned rabbi Seligmann. The name
“Hahn,” as his grandson, Joseph ben Moses Kos-
man, says in the preface to “ Noheg ka-Zon Yosef,”
is derived from the family house called “Zum rothen
Hahn.” Hahn was the author of “ Yosif Omez,”
which was published at Frankfort-on-the-Main in
1723 by Moses Reiss Darum, son-in-law of Joseph
ben Moses Kosman. This interesting work treats of
liturgical questions, of the most important moments
of religious life, of education, charity, morality, the
Christian holidays, and the civil calendar. It is
written in a popular style; and short remarks show
the author to have been a master of the Halakah.
As such he was acknowledged by his contempo.
raries Isaiah Horowitz, author of “Shene Luhot ha-
Berit,” and Joel Sairkes, author of “ Bayit Hadash.»
He expresses rational views in regard to pedagogics,
He recomniends adherence to the old rule given ig
Prov. xxii. 6, “Train up a child according to its
way” (A, Y. “in the way he should go”), and that
the scope, method, and subject of instruction be
adapted to the capacity of the child: it should not
be compelled to learn what is beyond its compre.
hension. If not fit for the study of the Talmud, it
should receive thorough instruction in the Bible,
which is plain and wins the heart for the fear of
God. In this work Hahn also tells of the troubles
that befell the Frankfort Jews beforeand duriug the
persecutions caused by Vincent FETTMILcH, of their
expulsion in 1614, and of their readmission in 1616.
Hahn was a member of one of the forty families to
which the privilege of returning was first granted,
In communal affairs Hahn also displayed great
activity. He founded a society, Gomel Hesed,
whose duty it was to render the last honors to the
dead, especially to such as had no relatives. The
congregation conferred upon him offices of honor;
and he officiated as rabbi when the rabbinate was
vacant. His name is inscribed in the “memorial
book,” and his Hebrew epitaph (No. 1590) is found
on one of the monuments of the Jewish cemetery
of Frankfort.
Another work of Hahn’s, containing explanations
and glosses to the four codes of the Shulhan ‘Aruk,
is still in manuscript.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. i. 355; Steinschneider, Cat.
Bodl. col. 1519; Horovitz, Frankfurter Rabbinen, ii. 5-18.
D. S. Man.
HAI BEN DAVID: Dayyan, and later gaon
in Pumbedita from 890 to 897. He is mentioned in
Isaac ibn Ghayyat’s “ Halakot,” in connection with
the curious Bagdad custom of reciting the “ ‘Abo-
dah” on the morning of the Day of Atonement,
which custom even Hai b. David was unable to abol-
ish. It is probable that he wrote in Hebrew. Ac-
cording to somewhat doubtful Karaitic sources, he
wrote an anti-Karaitic book with the purpose of
justifying the Rabbinite calendar, the calculation of
which is ascribed perhaps by him, if not by Hai ben
Sherira, to R. Isaac Nappaha (comp. Pinsker, “ Lik-
kute Kadmoniyyot,” pp. 148 e¢ seg.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Die Arabische Literatur, p.
101, note 1; Furst, in Orient, Lit. x. 262; Neubauer, M. J. C.
i. 65, 66, 188; ii. 224; Harkavy, Teshuhbot ha-Geonim, p. 384;
idem, in Ha-Goren, iv. (1903) 80; Weiss, Dor, iv. 184, 189.
note 23: Halévy, Dorot ha-Rishonim, iii. 240, 248, 282; see
also JEW. ENCYC. VY. 571, &v. GAON.
1 opmer es M. Sc.
HAI BEN NAHSHON: Gaon of Sura (889-
896) and president of the school of Nehardea. He
was, according to a manuscript in the Vatican Li-
brary, the author of opinions on many Talmudical
tractates. He protested against reciting “Kol Ni-
dre ” (Rosh, on Yoma, end; Tur Orah Hayyim, 619:
Kol Bo, § 68). His father, R. Nahshon, and grand-
father, R. Zadok, were both geonim.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rechts-Gutachten der Geonen, ed. Cassel, P-
9; First, in Orient, Lit. x. 261; Rapoport, in Bikkure ha-
‘Ittim, x. 37, xi. 82; Steinschneider, Die Arabische Litera-
153 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
tur, p. 101, note 1; Neubauer, M. J. C. i. 39, 189; Lands-
buth, ‘“Ammude ha-~-'Abodah, i. 62; Harkavy, Teshubot ha-
Geonim, p. 384; Halévy, Dorot ha-Rishonim, tii. 282; see
also JEW. ENCYC. V. 571, 8.U. GAON.
E. C. M. Sc.
HAI BEN SHERIRA: Gaon of Pumbedita;
born in 939; died March 28, 1038. He received his
Talmudic education from his father, Sherira, and in
early life acted as his assistant in teaching (Schech-
ter, “Saadyana,” p. 118). In his forty-fourth year
he became associated with his father as “ab bet din, ”
and with him delivered many joint decisions.
AS @ consequence of the calumnies of their an-
tagonists they were imprisoned together, and their
property was confiscated, by the calif Al-Kadir (997;
see Abraham ibn Daud in “M. J.C.” i. 67). The im-
prisonment, however, seems not to have lasted very
long. Sherira, then old and sick, appointed his son
to the position of gaon (998). Hai’s installation was
greeted with great enthusiasm by the
Ap- Jewish population. An old tradition
pointment (Abudarham, ed. Venice, p. 70c) says
as Gaon. that on the Sabbath after Sherira’s
death, at the end of the reading of
the weekly lesson, the passage (Num. xxvii. 16 et
seg.) in which Moses asks for an able follower was
read in honor of Hai. Thereupon, as haftarah, the
story of Solomon’s accession to the throne was read
(I Kings ii, 1-12), the last verse being modified as
follows: “ And Hai sat on the throne of Sherira his
father, and his government was firmly established.”
Hai remained gaon until his death in 1088 (accord-
ing to Abraham ibn Daud, /.c. p. 66). He was cele-
brated by the Spanish poet Solomon ibn Gabirol and
by Samuel ha-Nagid (see “ Ha-Karmel,” 1875, p. 614),
Hai ben Sherira’s chief claim to recognition rests
on his numerous responsa, in which he gives deci-
sions affecting the social and religious life of the
Diaspora, Questions reached him from Germany,
France, Spain, Turkey, North Africa, India, and
Ethiopia (see Miller, “ Mafteah,” pp. 197-201 e¢ seq. ;
Harkavy, “Studien und Mittheilungen,” iv. 225),
His responsa, more than eight hundred in number,
deal with the civil law, especially the
His laws concerning women, with ritual,
Responsa. holidays, etc. Many of them contain
explanations of certain halakot, hag-
gadot, and Talmudic matters. In halakic decisions
he quotes the Jerusalem Talmud, but without ascri-
bing any authority to it (“ Teshubot ha-Ge’onim,” ed.
Lyck, No. 46). Many of his responsa may have been
written in Arabic; only a few of them have been
preserved (“Sha‘are Zedek,” Salonica, 1792; Har-
kavy, “Teshubot ha-Ge’onim,” Nos. 83-117, 197,
198, 201, 208, 3825, 410, 421; Derenbourg, in “R.
E. J.” xxii. 262; Steinschneider, “Hebr. Uebers.” p.
909; idem, “ Die Arabische Literatur der Juden,” p.
101; Miller, Z.c.).
Hai ben Sherira codified various branches of Tal-
mudic law. He wrote in Arabic a treatise on pur-
chases, translated into Hebrew by Isaac Albarge-
loni with the title “Ha-Mekah weha-Mimkar”
(1078); “Sefer ha-Mashkon,” a treatise on mortgage,
anonymously translated into Hebrew ; “ Mishpete ha-
Tanna’im,” a treatise on conditions, alsoanonymously
translated into Hebrew. These three treatises were
published together (Venice, 1604); later editions also
agiz, Samuel
al ben Sherira
contain commentaries by Eleazar ben Aryeh (Vienna,
1800) and by Hananiah Isaac Michael Aryeh (Salo-
nica, 1814). Another anonymous trans-
Legal lation of them exists in manuscript
Treatises. under the title“ Dine Mamonot.” <Ac-
cording to Azulai, Hai also wrote in
Arabic “Sha‘are Shebu‘ot,” atreatiseon oaths. Ac-
cording to another Hebrew source, the original title
was “Kitab al-Aiman.” This treatise was twice
anonymously translated into Hebrew: (1) “Mishpete
Shebu‘ot” (Venice, 1602; Altona, 1782); (2) “Sefer
Mehubbar be-Kozer Min ha-Dinim be-Bi’ur Kelalim
we-‘Ikkarim be-Helke Hiyyub la-Shebu‘ah ” (Neu-
bauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 818). The “Sha-
‘are Shebu ‘ot ” were metrically arranged by an anony-
mous writer, probably of the thirteenth century,
under the title “Sha‘are Dine Mamonot we-Sha‘are
Shebu‘ot,” and by Levi ben Jacob Alkalai. Hai’s
treatise on boundary litigations, “Mezranut,” is
known only through quotations (Rapoport, in “ Bik-
kure ha-‘Ittim,” x. 93, note 27). “Hilkot Tefillin,”
“Siddur Tefillah,” and “ Metibot ” are also quoted as
his (Rapoport, J,c. xi. 91).
Hai b. Sherira’s philological abilities were directed
to the expounding of the Mishnah; of this work only
the portion on Seder Tohorot is extant; it was pub-
lished by T. Rosenberg in “ Kobez Ma‘aseh ” (Berlin,
1856). This commentary contains especially interest-
ing linguistic notes, Arabic and Aramaic being often
adduced for comparison. The author quotes the
Mishnah, the two Talmuds, the Tosefta, the Sifra,
Targums Onkelos and Jonathan, the
Com- Septuagint, the works of Saadia, the
mentaries “Sifre Refu’ah,” and other anonymous
onthe sources. Healso quotes his own com-
Mishnah. mentary on Zera‘im (p. 34) and on Baba
Batra (p. 43). These quotations, and
many others cited by the ‘Aruk, prove that the com-
mentary extended to the whole Mishnah, containing
among other explanations historical and archeo-
logical notes. Some passages of the commentary
are quoted by Alfasi and Hananeel on Yoma, and by
Solomon ibn Adret in his “Hiddushim” (Weiss,
“Dor,” iv. 185 ef seg.), while Abu al-Walid ibn Ja-
nah cites Hai’s commentary to Sabbath frequently
(Bacher, “ Leben und Werke des Abulwalid,” p. 87).
It is uncertain whether Hai wrote commentaries in
Arabic on the Bible as a whole or on parts of it.
Ibn Ezra, however, in his commentary on Job quotes
several of his explanations.
Hai compiled also a dictionary of especially dif-
ficult words in the Bible, Targum, and Talmud, the
Arabic title of which was “ Al-Hawi.” Abraham ibn
Ezra translated this title, in his “Moznayim,” into
“Ta-Me’assef,” while Abu Bukrat’s translation,
“Ha-Kolel,” and Moses Botarel’s translation, “Ha-
Kemizah,” did not become popular. Fragments of
this dictionary were discovered by Harkavy, and
published by him in “Mizpah” (St. Petersburg,
1886), in “Hadashim Gam Yeshanim” (No. 7), and
in “Mi-Mizrah umi-Ma‘arab” (1896, iii. 94 e¢ seq.);
these show that the work was arranged according to
an alphabetic-phonetic plan of three consonants in
every group; for instance, 8.7. Sax it quotes the
permutations ans, ONT, xbn, abn, Sax. Judah ibn
Balaam is the earliest Jewish author who expressly
Hai ben Sherira
Haidamacks
quotes this dictionary (see his commentary on the
Pentateuch, “ Kitab al-Tarjih”; Neubauer, “Cat.
Bod]. Hebr. MSS.” No. 292; Schorr, in “ He-Haluz,”
ii. 61). Mosesibn Ezra and some African authors of
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries also mention it
(Steinschneider, in “Z. D. M. G.” Iv. 129 et seq.).
Of Hai’s poetical writings few have been pre-
served, and even of these the genuineness is doubted.
The didactic poem “Musar Haskel ”
The is generally regarded as authentic,
‘“‘Musar though Dukes expressed some doubts
Haskel.” as to its genuineness, as old Jewish
authors like Al-Harizi and Ibn Tibbon
do not mentionit (“ Orient, Lit.” xi, 505); and Stein-
schneider also regarded it as of doubtful authentic-
ity (Cat. Bodl.” p. 2161; “Jewish Lit.” p. 366,
notes 39, 40). The first edition appeared about 1505
(see FANO); others were published in Constantino-
ple (1581), in Paris (1539), and elsewhere (Stein-
schneider, “Cat. Bodl.” p. 1021). The modern edi-
tions are as follows: Dukes, “Ehrensiulen,” p. 96;
Gritz, “ Blumenulese,” p. 27; Steinschneider, “ Musar
Haskel,” Berlin, 1860; Weiss, “ Likkute Kadmonim,”
Warsaw, 1893; Philipp, “Siaimmtliche Gedichte des
R. Hai Gaon,” Lemberg, 1881; a Latin translation
by Jean Mercier, “Cantica Eruditionis Intellectus
Auctore per Celebri R. Hai,” Paris, 1561; another by
Caspar Seidel, “Carmen Morale =rpogopvfuov Elegan-
tissimum R. Chai,” etc., Leipsic, 1688. The “ Musar
Haskel” consists of 189 double verses in the Arabic
meter “rajaz,” and it is said to have therefore re-
ceived the title of “ Arjuzah.” If it really belongs to
Hai, he was, as far as is known, the first Eastern
writer to use an Arabic meter in Hebrew poetry.
Every strophe is complete in itself, and independent
of the preceding strophe.
Some piyyutim are ascribed to him, as the piyyut
beginning with the words “Shema‘ koli,” preserved -
in the Sephardic liturgy for the evening of the Day
of Atonement (Landshuth, “‘Ammude ha-‘Abodah,”
p. 62).
Many spurious writings have been ascribed to
Hai, especially by later cabalists. Among them are
a “Sefer Kol ha-Shem ba-Koah” (Moses Botarel,
commentary on the “Sefer Yezirah,” p. 10a, Grodno) ;
“Pitron Halomot,” Ferrara, 1552; “Sefer Refafot,”
2.; “ Perush me-‘Alenu”; “Teshubah,” on the thir-
teen rules of R. Ishmael and on the Ten Sefirot; “A
Letter to the Priests of Africa ” (Steinschneider, “ Cat.
Bodl.” p. 1029; idem, “Hebr. Uebers.” p. 8938; Har-
kavy, “Studien und Mittheilungen,” iii. 14). Some
of the responsa attributed to him are mere forgeries.
Others again were falsified or mutilated by later ad-
ditions and interpolations, as, for instance, the one
containing attacks upon Aristotle and his philosophy
(“ Monatsschrift,” xi. 37; Griitz, “Gesch.” vi., note 2;
Geiger, in “ Wiss. Zeit. Jiid. Theol.” i. 206).
Hai was not only a master of Hebrew lore, but
was also familiar with the Koran and the Hadith,
with Plato, Aristotle, Alfarabi, the
Character- grammarian Al-Halil, the Septuagint,
istics. the Greek calendar (Harkavy, U.c. No.
45), Greek history (2b. No. 376), and the
Persian translation of “Kallah wa-Dimnah.” He
did not hesitate to consult even the Catholicosin an
exegetical difficulty (Ps. cxli. 5), as the Sicilian day-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
154
yan Mazliah ibn al-Basak relates in his biography
of Hai (“ Sirat R. Hai”; see Steinschneider, “ Die Arg.
bische Literatur,” § 85); he justified his action b
saying that scholars in former times did not hesitate
to receive explanations from those of other beliefs,
He had an exact knowledge of the theological move-
ments of his time, of which that of the orthodox Ash-
‘ariyyeh attracted him the most. Moses ibn Ezra,
in his “Poetik” (fol. 1196), even called him g
Motekallam. He was also competent to argue with
Mohammedan theologians, and sometimes adopted
their polemical methods (see Harkavy, l.c. iii. 178),
Hai was orthodox as regards tradition, and up-
held custom to its fullest extent. He established
the principle that where the Talmud gives no deci-
sion traditional customs must be adhered to (“ Esh-
kol,” i. 1). He even went so far as to recommend
the observance of every custom not in direct oppo-
sition to law (“Eshkol,” ii. 3). In many passages
of his responsa he warns against deviating froma
custom even when the meaning of its origin hag
been lost, as in the case of the practise of not drink-
ing water during the Tekufot (“Teshubot ha-
Ge’onim,” ed. Lyck, No. 14). But this did not pre-
vent him from opposing the abuses common to his
time. Thus he protested against the practise of
declaring null and void all oaths and promises which
may be made during the coming year (2b. No. 38),
and against the refusal to grant an honorable burial
to excommunicated persons and their connections
(4, No. 41).
Hai’s conservative standpoint explains the fact
that in the study of esoteric sciences he detected
a danger to the religious life and a deterrent to
the study of the Law. He warned against the study
of philosophy, even when pursued with the plea
that it leads to a better knowledge of God.
Of his own views on religious-philosophical sub-
jects only those regarding the anthropomorphisms of
the Bible (expressed in his appeal to a well-known
dictum of R. Ishmael: “The Torah spoke in lan-
guage of men”) and one or two other subjects (see
Schreiner in ‘“ Monatsschrift,” xxxv. 314 et seq.)
were known prior to the publication of Ibn
Balaam’s commentary on Isaiah (“ R. E, J.” xxii. 202)
A responsum of Hai given in this commentary dis-
closes his opinion on the subjects of divine fore-
knowledge and the predestined Jength of human
life. The essence of divine prescience seems to con-
sist, according to him, in a preknowledge of both
hypothetical and actual occurrences. In this he
shows the influence of Saadia (Kaufmann in “Z. D.
M. G.” xlix. 73).
Ilis attitude toward the Cabala is determined by
his conservative standpoint. Its elements, as far as
they can be traced back to the Talmud, he con-
sidered to be true. When the inhabitants of Fez
made inquiries regarding the proportions of God
(“Shi‘ur Komah”), he answered, as one of the
signers of the responsum, that God is above any
corporeal qualification and that the Talmud forbids
the public discussion of these things (“Ta‘am Ze-
kenim,” Nos. 54-57), His answer to the question
regarding the interpretation of the Talmudic tradi-
tion that four men entered paradise is interesting,
and has caused much discussion (“Teshubot ha-
155
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hai ben Sherira
Haidamacks
Ge’onim,” ed. Lyck, No. 99). He refers to the
opinion of various scholars that specially favored
persons could attain, by means of castigation and
the reciting of psalms, to an ecstatic state in which
they might behold the heavenly halls (“hekalot ”)
as vividly as if they really had entered them. Con-
trary to his father-in-law, Samuel ibn Hofni, gaon
of Sura, he followed former scholars in deeming it
not impossible that God should reveal the marvels
of heaven to the pious while in this state of ecstasy
(see Hananeel and Tosafot to Hag. 14b, s.v. “Arba‘ah
she-niknesu...”). But all the elements of the
later Cabala not found in Talmudic tradition, as the
belicf that miracles could be performed with the
names of God, he designated as foolishness not
credited by any sensible man.
The best characterization of Hai is given by
Steinschneider (“ Hebr. Uebers.” p. 910): “Certain
cabalistic pieces were ascribed to him; but in truth
he was no mystic in the usual sense of the word.
In fact he fought against superstition. He was an
orthodox Jew, in possession of general culture, but
hostile to deeper philosophical research.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY : In addition to the works guoted above: Stein-
schneider, Die Arabische Literatur, § 57; Gratz, Gesch. v.
20, vi. 1 ef seq., note 2; Weiss, Dor, iv. 174 et seg.; idem,
Likkute Kadmoniyyot, 1873, Introduction ; idem, in Ha-Asif,
iii, 151; Winter and Winsche, Die Jiidische Litteratur, ii.
54 et seqg.; Schechter, Saadyana, p. 113; idem, Genizah MS.
offprint from Festschrift zum 70 Geburtstage A. Berliners,
pp. 2 et seq.; idem, Studies in Judaism, pp. 94, 254, 255, 330,
421: J. Q. R. xiii. 52 et seq.
E. C. M. Sc.
HA-‘IBRI. See PERIODICALS.
HAIDA, ABRAHAM BEN SIMEON (also
known as Abraham Lemberger): Printer in
Prague between 1612 and 1628; son of Simeon
Haida. In 1610, with Moses Utiz and Gershon
Popers, he assisted in the printing of Samuel Lani-
ado’s “Keli Hemdah.” In 1612 he was associated
with Moses Utiz in the printing of Manoah Hen.
del’s “Manoah Maza Hen.” He also printed the
following works: Immanuel ben Solomon’s “Mah-
beret ha-Tofet weha-‘Eden” (1613; according to
Steinschneider); “‘En Mishpat” (Steinschneider,
“Cat. Bodl.” No, 3995) and Joseph ben Moses’ “ Bi’ure
Rashi” (1614); Isaac ben David Schik’s “Zeri‘at
Yizhak” and Abraham Sheftel’s “ Yesh Nohalin”
(1615); Solomon Luria’s “ Yam shel Shelomoh,” on
Baba Kamma (1616); Solomon ben Jacob’s “Shir
ha-Shirim” (1626); and many other books. He
worked in the houses of Samuel Meisel, Judah ben
Jacob Cohen, and Jacob Bak. His sons printed,
in 1641, Léb ben Josef Rofe’s “Kol Yehudah.”
According to Steinschneider (“ Cat. Bodl.” No. 5786),
Judah Lob Lemberger, author of “Ein Hibsch
Gottlich Biichel,” may be one of Abraham Lem-
berger’s sons.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Zung, Z. G. pp. 263 et seqg.: Ortent, Lit. xi.
os Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. p. 2973; First, Bibl. Jud. i.
J M. Sc.
HAIDA, MOSES BEN JOSEPH: German
mathematician ; lived at Hamburg in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries. He was a grandson of
Samuel Haida, author of “Zikkukinde-Nura.” He
was the author of “Sefer Ma‘aseh Harash we-
Hosheb,” an arithmetic, written at the time of the
great fire of Altona (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1711).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. i. and iii., No. 1600; Stein-
ecrneroen Cat. Bodl. col. 1887; idem. Jewish Literature,
‘6. M. SEL.
HAIDA, SAMUEL: Bohemian cabalistic au-
thor; died June 1, 1685, in Prague, where he was
dayyan and preacher, and which was probably his
native city. He edited the Tanna debe Eliyahu
Rabbah with two commentaries and copious refer-
ences (Prague, 1676); but he changed the text arbi-
trarily, considering himself to be under the inspira-
tion of the prophet Elijah, whom he believed to be
the author of this work of an unknown writer in
the tenth century (see Zunz, “G. V.” 2d ed., p. 119).
In order to receive this inspiration he fasted, visited
the graves of pious men, and engaged in different
mystic practises. He justifies pilpulistic methods,
and finds even for the habit of gesticulations at Tal-
mudic disputations a basis in Biblical and Talmudic
literature, for which he is severely criticized by
Jair Hayyim Bacuaracu (see “Hawwot Ya’ir,”
Nos. 1238, 152, and “ Bikkurim,” ed. Keller, i. 6).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gecolim, s.v.; Benjacob,
Ozar ha-Sefarim, s.v.; Hock, Die Familien Prags, p. 94,
Presburg, 1892; Friedmann, Seder Hliyahu Rabbah und
Seder Kliyahu Zuta, p. 4, Vienna, 1902 D
K. ‘
HAIDAMACKS: Russian brigand bandsof the
eighteenth century. The disorganized condition of
Poland during the eighteenth century made it pos-
sible for the discontented peasants and Cossacks of
the Greek Orthodox faith to make organized attacks
on their Catholic masters—the Polish nobles—and the
Jews. The general disorder, and the agitation of
the Greek Orthodox priests led to the formation of
brigand bands known as “ Haidamacks,” composed
of runaway serfs, Saporogians, and Cossacks from
Russian Ukraine. In 1784 and again in 1750, under
Cossack leaders, they robbed and destroyed many
towns, villages, and estates in Kiev, Volhynia, and
Podolia, killing a great number of Jews and Polish
nobles. In 1768 occurred the Uman massacre, when
Gonta and his followers killed thousands of Jews,
sparing neither old nor young.
Internal dissensions in Poland caused a division
into parties. One joined the Russian government
in demanding religious liberty and political freedom
for all of the Greek Orthodox faith, while the other
opposed these demands, and formed the Federation
of Nobles to defend the old order of things. Dur-
ing the armed conflict agitators urged the peasants
to rise against the confederacy. A
false decree of Catherine II. was cir-
culated which ordered the extermi-
nation of the Jews and the Poles.
Under the leadership of the Saporogian Cossack
Zhelyeznyak bands of Haidamacks in the spring
of 1768 swept over the government of Kiev, killing
Poles and Jews, and ruining towns and villages.
They often hanged together on the same tree a
Pole, a Jew, and a dog, accompanied with the in-
scription, “A Pole, a Jew, and a dog—all of one
faith.” Thousands of Jews and Poles fled to the
fortified city of Uman. So great was the number
of fugitives that many could find no room within
the city walls, and camped in the adjoining fields.
The commandant of the city, Mladanovitch, had
Russian
Parties.
Haidamacks
Hair
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
156
Se ep oe ee ee
under him a detachment of Cossack militia com-
manded by Gonta, Although there was strong sus-
picion that Gonta was in sympathy with Zhelyez-
nyak, Mladanovitch nevertheless sent him against
the latter. Gonta and his followers joined Zhelyez-
nyak, and soon appeared before the walls of Uman.
The besieged made a determined resistance during
the first day, the Jews working together with the
Poles on the city walls.
There was no able leader to command them, how-
ever. Mladanovitch endeavored to negotiate terms
of peace with the Cossacks. The latter promised
that they would not touch the Poles, while they
assured the Jews that their attack was directed only
against the Poles. Gonta and Zhelyeznyak with
their Haidamacks entered the city and began a most
terrible slaughter. Heeding neither age nor sex,
they killed the Jews in the streets, threw them from
the roofs of tall buildings, speared them, and rode
them down with their horses. When
the streets were so filled with corpses
that it was difficult to pass, Gonta
ordered them collected into heaps and
thrown outside the city gates to the dogs and pigs.
Three thousand Jews fled to the synagogue and
made a stand there. Armed with knives, a number
of them attacked the Cossacks. Gonta blew in the
door of the synagogue with a cannon; the Haida-
macks rushed into the building and showed no
mercy.
Having finished with the Jews, the Haidamacks
turned onthe Poles. When Mladanovitch in chains
reproached Gonta for his treachery, the latter an-
swered, “You treacherously sold the Jews to me,
and I by perjury sold you to the devil.”
It is estimated that about twenty thousand Jews
and Poles were killed in Uman alone. Throughout
the district the Jews were hunted from place to
place. Many succumbed to hunger and thirst;
many were drowned in the Dniester; and those who
reached Bendery were seized by the Tatars and
sold into slavery. Smaller Haidamack bands mas-
sacred the Jews in other places. Hundreds were
killed in Tetiub, Golta, Balta, Tulchin, Paulovich,
Rashkov, Lizyanka, Fastov, Zhivotov, and Granov.
The determined efforts of the Jews of Brody in be-
half of their brethren, and the lawlessness of Gonta,
led to an energetic campaign against him. Soon after
the Uman massacre Gonta and Zhelyeznyak were
taken by the order of the Russian general Krechet-
nikov and handed over to the Polish government.
Gonta was executed in a most cruel manner. His
skin was torn off in strips, and a red-hot iron crown
placed on his head. The remaining Haidamack
bands were captured and destroyed by the Polish
commander Stempkovski.
Massacre
at Uman.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rawita Gawronski, Humanszezyzna, in
Tygodnik Ilustrowany, 1899; Graetz, Hist. Hebrew ed.,
vill. 451, 458; Skomarovski, Die Gezirah fun Gonta, in
Jiidische Volksbibliothek, ii, 32, Kiev, 1889.
J. G. L.
H.R.
HAIFA: Syrian seaport, at the foot of Mount
Carmel, and ten kilometers from Acre. Near Haifa
are two grottos, one associated with the name of the
prophet Elijah, the second with that of Elisha. In
Asher (Judges v.17). Haifa had a Jewish commu.
nity during the Talmudic period; the followin
rabbis are mentioned as having lived
Pil- there: Abba of Haifa, Ami, Isaac Nap-
grimages. pahah, and Abdima. The Jews of
Haifa make a pilgrimage once every
year to the tomb of the above-mentioned rabbi Ab.
dima, which is in their cemetery. From the fifth
to the thirteenth century the community was fre.
quently broken up by the numerous conquerors of
Palestine, but began to enjoy fairly settled and reg.
ular conditions of existence under the compara-
tively tolerant rule of the Mameluke sultans, at the
beginning of the thirteenth century (1221).
In 1084 Elijah ha-Kohen, gaon of Palestine,
held a council at Haifa (“J. Q. R.” xv. 85). In
1259 R. Jehiel, head of the rabbinical academy
of Paris, after making a pilgrimage to the Holy
Land, settled at Acre; he died there, and was
buried at Haifa. Jacob Baruch, a Jewish traveler
from Leghorn, who visited Haifa in 1799, says
(“Shibhe Yerushalayim”) that he found a syna-
gogue there. In the middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury there were but seven Jewish families at Haifa,
In 1857 Eleazar Cohen Himsi, a rabbi of Smyrna,
who was on his way to Tiberias by way of Haifa,
consented to remain at Haifa as spiritual head of the
community. He died after officiating twelve years
(1857-69). Meanwhile the community was enlarged
by the arrival of Jews from Constantinople, Smyrna,
Syria, and Morocco. In 1870 Abraham Halfon, a
rabbi of Tiberias, but originally from Tetuan, ac-
cepted the title of grand rabbi of Haifa, but resigned
after one year. Since 1878 two Moroccan rabbis,
Mas‘ud Hahuel and Abraham Cohen, both from
Tetuan, have acted conjointly as rabbis. About
1882 Abraham Raphael de Léon, originally from
Smyrna, acted at Haifa as consular agent of Holland.
At the end of 1882 Laurence Oliphant took up his
abode at Haifa, which he intended to be the center
of the Palestine settlement which he had plauned.
He found in the town about thirty families who
were waiting for government permission to colonize
the proposed settlement.
In a population of 4,000 Haifa has 1,000 Jews,
who are for the most part poor, and are occupied
chiefly with commerce. Some are engaged as car-
penters, coppersmiths, blacksmiths, and wheel-
wrights. In 1881 the Alliance Israélite established
two schools, one of which is attended by 180 boys,
and the other by 105 girls.
The community has quite an old synagogue and
a bet ha-midrash. One half-hour’s journey from
Haifa there is a Jewish agricultural colony, Zikron
Ya‘akob, or Zammarin,
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Estori Farhi, Kaftor u-Ferah, ed. Luncz, p-
<97, Supplement; J. Baruch, Shibhke Yerushaiayim.
G. M. FR.
HAIL: Frozen rain falling in pellets of various
sizes and shapes. The Hebrew words for “ hail” are:
393, the most usual term; moa5ye (Ezek. xiii. 11, 13;
XXXvili, 22); and bon (Ps. Ixxviii, 47), the meaning
of which is only conjectural. Hailstones were re-
garded as proofs of God’s might (Ecclus. [Sirach}
Biblical times this region belonged to the tribe of | xliii. 15); they are spoken of as being kept in God's
ao hand ret vaaire 6 gt oe Clas wes inaay ve sf na
ote tem serene:
157 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Haidamacks
Hair
storchouses or treasuries (Job xxXviii. 22). The best
known hail-storm in the Bible is the seventh plague
which God inflicted on the Egyptians immediately
before the Exodus (Ex. ix. 18-35; Ps. Z.¢.). On an-
other oceasion hail served as God’s destroying agent;
aud it is said that those who died from hailstones
were more than those who died by the sword of
Israel (Josh. x. 11). For this reason hail is often
mentioned as a punishment (Isa. xxviii. 17; Ezek.
xiii. 11,18). Oncehail occurs in a description of the
appearance of God (Ps. xviii. 13). Hailis very often
coupled with fire (Ex. ix. 28, 24; Ps. xviii. 18 [A.
V. 12}), and it is also mentioned in connection with
thunder (Ex. ix. 23, 28; Ps. xviii. 14).
KE, G. H. M. SEL.
HAIM, ISRAEL BEHOR: Servian author;
born at Belgrade, Servia. He left his home in 1813
in consequence of the invasion of the Dahjas, and
settled at Vienna, where he edited the Ladino trans-
lation of the Bible, the daily prayers, and other
ritual works, as well as school-books, Returning to
Belgrade toward 1838, he devoted himself to Jewish,
especially to Judseo-Spanish, literature. Many of
his storics and poems, written in Ladino, were des-
troyed in 1866. Haim also published: “The Say-
ings of Joshua ben Sira,” translated into Ladino,
Vienna, 1818; “Hobot ha-Lebabot: Este Libro es
Llamado en Ladino Obligacion de los Coraceens, é es
Primera vez Tresladado de el Gaon ha-Chasid
R. Bahie, € Agora fue Segunda vez Tresladado
de... ,” Vienna, 1822.
Per Kayserling, Bibl. Exsp.-Port.-Jud. pp. 51
s€q.
‘ee M. K.
HAINDORF, ALEXANDER: German phy-
sician, writer, and philanthropist; born at Len-
hausen, a Village in Westphalia, May 12, 1784; died
at Hamm Oct. 16, 1862. The son of poor parents,
he went, after their early death, to his grandparents
at Hamm, where, though a mere boy, he was obliged
to engage in peddling. He studied Hebrew with a
Polish Talmudist, and secretly read German books;
after many difficulties he finally obtained permis-
sion to attend the gymnasium at Hamm. On his
graduation he studied medicine at Wirzburg, Er-
langen, Heidelberg, and Paris. He became privat-
docent at Heidelberg, and later practised at Minden.
After a few years he accepted an appointment, at
the Academy of Miinster as professor of medicine
and surgery, which he retained until that school was
dissolved in 1847. Haindorf wrote: “ Versuch einer
Pathologie und Therapie der Geistes- und Gemiiths-
krankheiten,” Heidelberg, 1811; “ Beitriige zur Kul-
turgesch. der Medicin und Chirurgie Frankreichs
und Vorziiglich Seiner Hauptstadt, mit einer Ueber-
Sicht Ihrer Simmtlichen Hospitiler und Armen-
anstalten,” Gottingen, 1815; “Versuche tiber Hy-
pochondrische und Andere Nerven-Affectionen,”
translated from the English of John Reid, with notes
and additions, Essen, 1819.
Haindorf’s chief claims to recognition le in his
effortsin behalf of the spread of cultureand Biblical
knowledge among his coreligionists. In 1825 he
founded at Minster the Verein zur Beférderung von
Handwerken Unter den Juden, in connection with a
Seminary for teachers for the Jewish communities;
the influence of this society extended within ten years
over Westphalia and Rhenish Prussia, on account of
the founder’s reputation as a physician and philan-
thropist. Haindorf was for many years director of
this society, and himself gave lectures in natural
science. The school enjoyed so high a reputation
between 1830 and 1840 that many Christian inhabit-
ants of the city sent their children there. In 1835
the institution was placed on a firm basis by a gift
of 25,000 thalers from MHaindorf’s father-in-law.
Several hundred teachers and artisans graduated
there in the course of the nineteenth century. <A
lover of art, Haindorf collected such works as were
within his reach, and his picture-gallery included
among its four hundred paintings works by the fore-
most German and Dutch masters. In 1854 he went
to Hamm to be near the family of his only daughter,
ending his days in retirement. In conformity with
his will he was buried at Miinster beside his wife,
who had died forty-six years previously.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Geiger, Jtid. Zeit. ii. 1 et seq.; Allg. Zeit.
des Jud. xxvi. 646, 670 ef seq. MK
s. . KW,
HAIR.—Biblical Data: The hair of the an-
cient Hebrews was generally black (comp. Cant. iv.
1, v. 11). In Eccl. xi. 10 black hair is designated
as a sign of youth in contrast with the white hair of
age. Josephus narrates (“ Ant.” xvi. 8, § 1) that
Herod dyed his gray hair black in order to appear
younger. Black hair was in any case considered
beautiful, black being the general color, while light
or blond hair was exceptional. David is designated
as “admoni” = “ruddy ” (I Sam. xvi. 12, xvii. 42),
this expression being also applied to Esau’s hair
(Gen. xxv. 25). The Hebrews had thick hair (Ezek.
vill. 3). Long, heavy hair was considered as a sign
of vitality. In the case of Samson, traced back to
religious reasons (he having been dedicated to God),
the connection of long hair and bodily strength was
based on the current views. Absalom’s famous
hair (II Sam. xiv. 25 e¢ seg.) was considered not only
as an ornament, but as a token of strength. <A bald
head, therefore, was an object of mockery (II Kings
li. 28; comp. Isa. iii. 17, 24).
From the Old Testament it may be gathered that
it was customary for the men to have their hair cut
from time to time. The NAZARITES allowed theirs
to grow uncut for religious reasons.
Fashion Absalom, proud of his thick head of
Among hair, had itcut once a yearonly. But
Men. generally the hair was cut oftener.
It was never shaved save on special
occasions; the high priests and the priests in general
were expressly forbidden to have theirs shaved.
They were neither to shave their hair according to
heathen custom, nor to allow it to grow uncut like
that of the Nazarites (comp. Ezek. xliv. 20). There
is no other information in the Bible concerning the
care of the hair.
As the ancient Egyptians had combs, and as the
Assyrians, also, were very careful in dressing their
hair, it may be due to mere chance that combs are
not mentioned in the Old Testament. The Hebrews,
however, did not follow the Egyptian custom of
wearing wigs. The Assyrians wore their hair in
several braids reaching down to the nape of the
Hair
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
158
neck. Samson's seven braids (“ mahlefot”; Judges
xvi. 18, 19) indicate that this fashion obtained, for a
time at least, in Israel.
Among women long hair is extolled as a mark of
beauty (Cant. iv. 1, vii. 6). A woman’s hair was
never cut except as a sign of deep
Fashions mourning or of degradation (Jer. vii.
Among 29; comp. Deut. xxi. 12). Women
Women. gave much thought to the care and
decoration of their hair (II Kings ix.
380; Cant. iv. 1, vi. 4, vii. 5; Judith x. 3). The
prophet Isaiah derides the many aids used by the
women in curling and tending their hair (Isaiah iii.).
Josephus mentions the custom—still obtaining in
the East—of sprinkling gold-dust on the hair in
order to produce a golden shimmer (“ Ant.” viii. 7,
§ 3).
As asignof mourning, part of the head, especially
in front, was shaved. Although this was forbidden
by the Law as a heathen superstition
Religious (Deut. xiv. 1; Lev. xxi. 5), the words
Customs. of the Prophets indicate that it was
customary among the people (Isa. xii.
12; comp. 20. iti. 24; Jer. vii. 29, xvi. 6; Ezek. vii.
18; Amos viii. 10; Micah i. 16; compare also the
same custom among Arab women). The practise
can not be interpreted as indicating a renunciation
of everything considered in ordinary life to be a
mere ornament (comp. Jer. vil. 29).
The Law regards it in an entirely different light,
as it forbids shaving of the head on the ground that
Israe] belongs to Yuawsx only (Deut. xiv. 1). Orig-
inally, shaving in times of mourning indicated that
the hair was sacrificed to the dead (comp. Lucian,
“De Dea Syria,” 60). The Law also regarded asa
heathen custom the shaving of the head in a circle,
so that only a strand remained in the center (comp.
Jer, ix. 26, xxv. 23, xlix. 32), and forbade it as such
to the Israelites (Lev. xix. 27). Herodotus (iii. 8)
says expressly that the Arabs intended to imitate
thereby the fashion of their god Orotal-Dionysus,
and he correctly ascribes to the custom a religious
reason. The ancient conception, mentioned above,
that the continuously growing hair, like the blood,
is asign of vitality sufficiently explains the sacrifice
of the hair.
RE. G. H. I. Br.
In Rabbinical Literature: The hair was re-
garded by the Rabbis as so powerful an aug-
mentation of beauty that married women were
recommended to hide it. In connection with this
recommendation the Talmud relates the following:
Kimhit, the mother of seven sons who successively
held the office of high priest, was once asked by
what merit of hers she was so blessed in her sons.
“ Because,” said she, “the beams of my house have
never seen my hair” (Yoma 47a). In Talmudical
times it was the custom for women to plait their
hair. “Because she [the wife accused of adultery]
plaited her hair to please him [her alleged para-
mour] the priest loosened her hair” (Num. R. ix.).
A man who curled his hair was regarded as a vain
person. At the age of seventeen Joseph was still
termed “lad” (“na‘ar”), because he was childish
enough to curl his hair (Gen. R. xxxiv.). Elijah
had naturally curly hair; his enemies, however,
mocked him, declaring that he curled it (Pesik. R.
26 [ed. Friedmann, p. 129a]). While Samson was
filled by the Holy Spirit his hair made a noise like
bells, and the sound was heard from Zorah to Eshtao}
(Yer. Sotah 17b). The Midrash finds in the name
“Joel ben Petuel” an indication that the prophet
who bore it curled his hair like a maiden (Midr. Teh.
Ixxx.), Absalom was very vain of his hair, ang
therefore he was hanged by his hair (Sotah 9b).
One who does not wash his hands after shaving hig
hair has spells of anxiety for three days (Pes. 112a),
In enumerating the wonders of Creation, God pointed
out to Job the wisdom shown even in the making
of human hair. Each hair (N*9) has a separate
fellicle, for should two hairs derive their nourish.
ment from one follicle, the human eye would be
dimmed (B, B. 16a).
Because such was the custom of the heathen the
Rabbis forbade the Jews to trim the hair over the
forehead, but let it hang down over the temples in
curls (Sifre, Ahare Mot, xiii. 9). A certain Abtalion
ben Reuben, however, was allowed to wear his hair
in that fashion ("%)p DD) because he associated with
the court (B. K. 83a). David had four hundred chil-
dren who wore their front hair in that fashion, while
their back hair was in long locks, as in a wig
(nya; Kid. 76b). This way of wearing the back
hair is disapproved by the Rabbis. “He who grows
his back hair in the form of a wig [neds] does so
for an idolatrous purpose” (Deut. R. ii.). The king
had his hair cut every day; the high priest, every
week; an ordinary priest, once a month. The high
priest had his hair cutin the “ Lulian” (= “ Julian ”)
style (msg5y5), which consisted in having the top of
one row of hairs touching the root of the other
(Sanh, 22b; Ned. 51a). A penalty of one hundred
“sela‘im” is imposed by the Rabbis for pulling an
antagonist’s hair (Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat,
420, 41). The washing of the dead (S717) begins
with the hair, because human hair is associated with
the thoughts (“Sifte Renanot” to “Ma‘abar Yab-
bok,” ch. xi.). The number of the hairs of the
human head is one billion and seven thousand; ac-
cording to another statement the human head has a
billion locks, each lock containing 410 hairs, equiva-
lent to the numerical value of wytp (“holy ”); and
each hair has 410 worlds (2d.).
8. 8,
I. Br.
——Superstitions: The hair of children is not cut
till they are at least three years old. In Palestine
this is done on the grave of some saint, as on the
“ Ttilula” of Rabbi Simson ben Yohai (Reischer, “ Sha-
‘are Yerushalayim,” p. 24). Among the Beni-Israel,
if the child comes as the result of a vow, its hair is
not cut till its sixth or seventh year. It is usual in
all these cases to weigh the hair cut off against coins
which are given by the parents to charitable pur-
poses. Ifa person’s body is very hairy, it is a sign
that he will be very lucky. The hair cut from the
head should be burned, or hidden in a crevice where
it can be found; if thrown away it will cause a head-
ache. Red-haired persons are supposed to be very
passionate and traitorous; hence, perhaps, the red
hair attributed to Judas in early Christian art. Al-
binos can never become great.
159 THE JEWISH BENCYCLOPEDIA
Hair
In Taimudic times, when a man was to be buried,
his hair was cut (M. K. 8b). This custom seems to
be no longer followed. J.
——Anthropology: Among Jews the color of the
hair has attracted special attention because, while
the majority have dark hair, there is found a con-
siderable proportion with blond and red hair, as
shown by the appended table (No. 1):
TaBLE No. 1: CoLtor oF Harr Amone 145,380
JEWISH ScHooL CHILDREN.
ro Percentage. |
Country. = sj Observer.
Se} | cc > ad
= aa 2
e 2 is za = l
oa ~ = = |
—|—-—-
AuStTia......... 59,808 | 27.0 | 55.4 | 16.9 | 0.6 Schimmer.
Bavaria ...... 7,054 | 30.0 | 50.0 | 20,0 |Majer.
Germany....... 79,801 | 32.03 | 54.39 | 11.46 | 0.42 | Virchow.
Hungary........[ 3,141 [23.7 | 57.0 | 19.3 | SoS
From these figures it is seen that the proportion
of dark hair (black and brown) is quite high—66 per
cent in Germany, and reaching 76.5 percent in Hun-
gary. The proportion of fair hair is lowest in Hun-
gary (23.7 per cent) and highest in Germany (82 per
cent). Ina fair proportion of blond-haired children
the hair becomes darker asage advances; it is there-
fore essential to take observations upon adults. In
the appended table (No. 2) are given the results of
investigations upon Jews of both sexes and in vari-
ous parts of the world:
TaBLE No. 2: Cotor oF Hatr Amone 7,505 Jews.
|
= | Percentage.
=>)
Country. x goes Observer,
te Se =a fa
A eh ee
Ashkenazim (Men).
Baden ic eswxs ces 86) 84.9 | 12.8 '2.3 |Ammon.
CalUCaSia se deme xa | 251, 96.0 | 2.0 |2.0 |Pantukhof.
England.......... 372| 73.8 | 25.5 (0.7 |Jacobs.
Galil vcs sasvsaae ve 44,54 | 21.10 pen Maley and Koper-
nicki.
POMNGs os ssnaen es 200, 96.81 | 0.53 |2.66) Elkind.
100! 68.0 | 82.0 |...,|Blechman.
Ruasia {| 938) 75.79 | 20.05 4.16) Talko-Hryncewicz.
Ogu ne 100] 88.0 | 13.0 (4.0 |Weissenberg.
245 87.29 2.70 ee Yakowenko.
es 290} 93. 3.5 \B.5 |Beddoe.
Various.....++++ ) 17.188! 83.49 | 13.98 2.53'Fishberg.
Ashkenazim
Women).
GANOlha ss ta we3 a 25} 76.0 | 20.0 Paes and Koper-
| nicki.
POMDGs.os0000s 4% 125) 86.4 8.0 (5.6 |Elkind.
799) 83.1 | 14.0 (2.9 \Talko-Hryncewicz.
RUsSi8.. 6.0055 500 41, 83.0 {14.6 (2.4 Weissenberg.
(| 100) 93.0 7.0 |,,../ Yakowenko.
VariouBies is ve vase 1,084] 80.17 | 16.14 (3.69 Fishberg.
Sephardim. | |
Bosnia ......0e0e. | 55] 79.6 [18.5 [1.8 |Gliick.
ENG IANG wccee ces | 51] 88.1 | 11.9 |....) Jacobs.
Ital {| 103) 96.0 4.8 |.... Lombroso.
shite ae i} 84) 88.2 111.8 |...) Livi.
VELIOUS 3 canan ous | 375) 95.3 | 2.6 }1.1 taaiaoagiee
The figures in this table show again that dark
hair predominates, The percentage of blond Jews
varies only slightly, but is greatest in those coun-
tries in which the non-Jewish population is blond.
Thus in northern Russia (the Baltic Provinces)
Blechman found 82 per cent of blonds; in England,
according to Jacobs, 25.5 per cent have blond hair.
On the other hand, in Caucasia, where the ratives
are dark, the Jews show 96 per cent of dark hair.
The proportion of red hair is also quite high, reach-
ing 4 per cent in some observations. This has been
considered characteristic of the Jews
Red Hair. by some anthropologists. It appears
to be not of recent origin, and was not
unknown among the ancient Hebrews (Esau was
“red, all over like a hairy garment”; Gen. xxv. 25).
Races are also differentiated, more or less. by
straight, curly, or woolly hair. Among the Jews
the distribution of these varieties of hair is shown in
the following table (No. 3):
TABLE No. 3: VARIETY OF HatR AMONG JEWS.
| |
| . | & 9 al was
a es na am ae .
21814) el ee] &
i#/2; 8 | & | ss 5 ‘4
: : fee || oR z = i & 2 5
Variety of Hair. aioe) ron 25 | an =
Z| 2) 4 Ss | aea| & o
mQ re = ae a
| ae 4
xO Bi Ae Ea 2h or Na, Fuk
Straight asa 6, eXe casa t6.e. 4 | 36 | 84 | 64.90 | 97.0 96.56 66.97 | 59 9
WAVY cach rbnee shite | 86) 14 | 25.71] 10 | 2.6 | 25.66 |. °*"*
CUTTY S ixs taeesecavs | 2 | 9,39] 2.0 | 0.84) 7.37 | 7.1
|
The next table (No. 4) shows that the beard is
usually darker than the hair.
TABLE No. 4: Coton or THE BEARD.
Authority.
Color. tt Tt...
Blech- | Weissen- jy Yako-
man. berg. | Fishberg. wenko.
ae xe p one
Dark: cs:cicdnsssacercees G10 } 73.0 | 63.72 74.97
Fair ......s... ee 36.0 15.0 | 2538 | 13.23
Red...... ih a sacl Be 12.0 | 10.90 11.8
By comparing these figures with those in No. 2 it
is found that in the beard the proportion of light to
dark is much higher. The number of red beards
also increases perceptibly.
The differences in the color of the hair between
the sexes havealso been investigated. Jacobs shows
that the Jewesses in England have
Hair of darkerhair. Similar observations have
Jewesses. been made by Weissenberg in South
Russia, by Talko-Hryncewicz in Little
Russia, by Yakowenko in Lithuania, and by Majer
and Kopernicki in Galicia. On the other hand,
Elkind in Poland and Fishberg in America have
found conditions different: the males have darker
hair than the females.
The true explanation of the existence of Jewish
blonds has been the subject of lively discussions
among anthropologists. Some believe that it isdue
to climate and environment (Pruner,
Cause Bey, Pritchard, Jacobs), while others
of Blond attribute it toracial intermixture, par-
Hair. ticularly to the admission of Aryan
blood into modern Jewry (Broca,
Virchow, Schimmer, Ripley, and others). Elkind
shows that the color of the hair is independent of
the cranial index. Virchow’s investigations show
that in the eastern or darkest provinces of Germany
the proportion of blond types among Jews does not
decrease; whereas in the Prussian provinces, which
are predominantly blond, the Jews show the highest
Hair
Hakkafot
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
"a
160
Se eee Se ee
proportion of brunettes, and in Silesia, where the
non-Jewish population is of very dark complexion,
the Jews have a high percentage of blonds. The
same has been shown by Schimmer to be the case in
Austria. Andree (“Zur Volkskunde der Juden,”
pp. 84-40) points out that the fact that red and blond
Jews are found in North Africa, Syria, Arabia,
Persia, etc., is proof that intermarriage has had little
to do with the production of the blond type in east-
ern Europe. Heis of the opinion that there were
blonds among the ancient Hebrews, and that the
modern red and blond Jews are their descendants.
Luschan agrees in this view. Jacobs attributes the
erythrism of the Jews to defective nutrition, and
shows that it is present not only among the Euro-
pean Jews, but also among those in Algiers, Tunis,
Bosnia, Constantinople, Smyrna, and Bokhara, where
the presence of Aryan blood could not be admitted.
The color of the hair undergoes changes with the
advance of the age of the individual. Up to the
age of thirty-five or forty the hair re-
Grayness mains the same color in the majority
and of people. If grayness occurs earlier
Baldness. it is considered premature. It has
been stated that premature grayness
is very frequent among Jews (Weissenberg); but in-
vestigations by Fishberg and Yakowenko show that
it appears rather later—at about the age of forty-five.
Baldness also is considered premature before the
age of forty-five, at which age other signs of decay,
such as loosening of the teeth and weakening of sight,
begin toappear. It occurs most often among brain-
workers and among those exposed to prolonged
mental worry and anxiety. Weissenberg found that
among Jews between the ages of twenty-one and
fifty 16 per cent are more or less bald. Others
point out that normal baldness (that is, baldness not
due to favus) is not more frequent among Jews than
among others. Yakowenko shows that it is found
only as an exception among Jews before forty-five,
and that when it occurs before this age it is usually
due to favus. Fishberg reports only 8 individuals
wholly or partially bald among 1,188 Jews over the
age of twenty. Only 12 Jews among those less
than forty were thus affected.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jacobs, On the Racial Characteristics of
Modern Jews, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute,
xv. 23-62; idem, On the Comparative Anthropometry of
English Jews, ib. xix. 76-88; Virchow, Gesamthericht ...
aber die Farbe der Haut, der Haare und der Augen der
Schulkinder tn Deutschland, in Archiv fiir Anthropolo-
gie, xvi. 275-475; Schimmer, Erhebungen tiber die Farhe
der Augen, der Haare und der Haut bei den Schulkindern
Oesterreichs, in Mitthetlungen der Anthropologischen Ge-
sellschaft, Vienna, Supplement i., 1884; Fishberg, Physical
Anthropology of the Jewa, in American Anthropologist,
Jan.-March, 1903; Elkind, Evrei Trudi Antropologitshes-
kavo Amdilla, xxi., Moscow, 1903; Majer and Kopernicki,
Chakterystyka Fizyezna Ludnosci Galicyjskiej, in Zhior
Viadam do Antrop. Kraj, Cracow, i. and ix., 1877-85: J. Bed-
doe, On the Physical Characters of the Jews, in Trarsac-
tions of the Ethnological Society of London, 1861, i.
222-237; Pantukhof, Observations Anthropologiques au
Caucase, Tiflis, 1893.
J M. Fy.
HAJES, MENAHEM MANUS.
yut, MENAHEM.
HAJES, ZEBI HIRSCH B. MEIR. See
CHAJES, ZeEBI Hinscu B. MER.
HAKAM (o5n; Aramaic, opm; Arabic, “ha-
kim”): A wise or skilful man. The word is gen-
erally used to designate a cultured and learned per-
See Hay-
son: “He who says a wise thing is called a wige
man {“hakam ”}, even if he be nota Jew ” (Meg. 16a).
Hence in Talmudic-Midrashic literature wise and
learned non-Jews are commonly called “hakme um.
mot ha-‘olam ” (the wise men of the nations ; Pes. 94b,
and passim). “Hakam” as an official title is found
as early as the first Sanhedrin, after the reconstruc-
tion of that body, when the Hadrianic religious perse-
cutions had ceased; in addition to the nasi Simon b.
Gamaliel, two other scholars stood at the head of
the Sanhedrin, namely, R. Nathan as As BET Din,
and Meir ashakam (Hor. 13b). Another hakam men-
tioned by name was Simon, the son of Judah ha-Nagj
I., who after the death of his father officiated ag
hakam with his elder brother, the nasi (Ket. 103b).
Just what the functions of the hakam were is not
clear. Rapoport’s suggestion that he was the arbi-
ter in matters of ritual prohibition and permission
ishighlyimprobable. Zacharias Frankel looks upon
the hakam as a presiding officer whose duty it was
to examine a casein question from all points of view,
and, having summed up the results, to present the
matter for discussion. It is more probable, how-
ever, that the office of hakam was created in order
to secure a majority in cases of difference of opinion
between the nasi and the ab bet din in the affairs of
the Sanhedrin; one of the most eminent scholars
was always chosen for the post. <A baraita (M. K.
22b) leads to the inference that the hakam was always
the director of a school (“bet ha-midrash ”), for in
addition tothe Great Sanhedrin, which
Functions. later came to take the place of an acad-
emy, there were also private academies
under the direction of eminent scholars. The origin
of the office of hakam is as doubtful as its duration.
Frankel thinks that Joshua b. Hananiah, who lived
in the beginning of the second century C.E., was the
first hakam, but he does not sufficiently support this
assertion. The office seems to have existed in Pal-
estine as long as theacademy of the nasi. Anamora
of the fourth century recounts the following rule of
etiquette, still observed in his time: “ When the
hakam appears in the academy every one present
must rise as soon as he comes within four ells of
him, and must remain standing until he has gone
four ells beyond” (Kid. 83b). It is hardly possible
that the office of hakam existed in Babylonia, where
the relation of the resh galuta to the heads of the
academy was entirely different from that existing in
Palestine between the latter and the nasi. Here “ha-
kam” was merely the term for a Jewish scholar who
studied chiefly oral traditions, while the terms “so-
fer” and “kara” were applied to Bible scholars (Kid.
49a, b; Sotah 49a; Yer. Sotah ix. 28b; Yer. Ta‘an.
iv. 68a, where “hakkim” is used ironically for the
hakam of the academy). In the Seder ‘Olam Zuta
(“M. J. C.” ed. Neubauer, pp. 71 et seg.) every resh
galuta is accompanied by a hakam, who probably
had charge of the religious affairs of the exilarchate;
but as this work originated in Palestine (comp.
SEDER ‘OLAM ZuTA), the author probably applied
Palestinian conditions to Babylon. The Syrian
Aphraates, who had met only Babylonian Jews,
mentions a man “ who is called the ‘hakkima’ of the
Jews” (“ Homilies,” xxiv., ed. Wright, p. 394), but
this, too, may mean “the wise man ” of the Jews.
Foe ee i
te ren oe ee a
161 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hair
Hakkafot
Among the Spanish-Portuguese Jews “hakam” ,
is the official title of the local rabbi, but it has not
yet been ascertained how old the title
Among is. Solomon ben Adret addresses some
the of his responsa to people with “le-
Sephardim. hakam Rabbi. . .” (Responsa, Nos.
79, 395), others again with “la-rab
Rabbi... .” (Nos. 219, 846), but it is possible that
“le-hakam” simply means “to the wise.” The
plural, “hakamim,” is generally used in the Tal-
mud, and also by the Tannaim, to designate the
majority of scholars as against a single authority.
The Aramean equivalent is “rabbanan.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Frankel, in Monatsschrift, i. 845-349; idem,
Darke ha-Mishnah, p. 154, and Supplement, pp. 7, 8; Halévy,
Dorot. ha-Rishonim, ii. 20 (to the passages cited by Halévy
ada Yer. Mak. ii. 31d); Rapoport, “Erek Millin, p. C
S. 8. iG.
HAKAN, SAMUEL (SAMUEL HA-LEVI
IBN HAKIM): Egyptian rabbi of the sixteenth
century, first at Cairo, subsequently at Jerusalem
(Levi ibn Habib, Responsa, Nos. 10, 110; Conforte,
“Kore ha-Dorot,” s.v. “Ashkenazi”; Joseph Tay-
tazak, “She’erit Yehudah,” ed. Salonica, 1604, p.
67b). Hakan was a pupil of Elijah Mizrahi (Re-
sponsa, No. 15). He edited and printed Isaac bar
Sheshet’s responsa at Constantinople (1546). He is
quoted in Caro’s “Bet Yosef,” in Shulhan ‘Aruk,
Hoshen Mishpat, § 86, and in Moses di Trani’s Re-
sponsa, part ii., No. 67. R.Tam ibn Yahya, to
whom he and Jacob Berab (whose adversary he sub-
sequently became) addressed a question from Cairo,
calls him simply “Samuel Hakan” (IwpNM: see his
responsa, “Tummat Yesharim,” Nos. 100, 190, Ven-
ice, 1621; Taytazak, s.v.). It appears from the pas-
sages quoted above that he was among the foremost
men of his time; but no independent works by him
are extant.
HA-KARMEL: Hebrew periodical, edited and
published by Samuel Joseph FUENN in Wilna. It
was founded in 1860 as a weekly, and was continued
as such (with the interruptions usual in the case of
all Jewish periodical publications in Russia) until
1871. Eight volumes appeared in these eleven
years, of which vols. i.-iii. have supplements in
Russian. It then became a monthly, of which four
volumes appeared from 1871 to 1881, when the pub-
lication was suspended. Hayyim Léb Katzenellen-
bogen was associated with Fuenn in the editorship
(see “Letters of J. L. Gordon,” No. 87, Warsaw,
1894), Hayyim Léb Markon later assisted Fuenn in
the same capacity.
“Ha-Karmel” was more of a literary periodical
and less of a newspaper than other Hebrew contem-
poraries like “ Ha-Maggid ” or “Ha-Meliz.” It con-
tained much historical material, and its criticisms
and book reviews were of a high order. It was one
of the important forces of the progressive, or “has-
kalah,” movement in Russia.
eens Kowner, Zeror Perahim, pp. 120-124, Odessa,
E. C. P. W1.
HA-KEREM. See PERIODICALS.
HAKKAFOT: Processional circuits of the con-
gregation in the synagogue on the Feast of Taber-
nacles, usually around the ALMEMAR, reminiscent
of Joshua vi. and the proceedings in the Temple
related in Sukkah 45a. The procession is omitted
on the Sabbath, but on other days of the festival a
scroll is taken from the Ark to the almemar at the
close of the Musar, and the possessors of LULAB
and Erroe join in procession, following the offi-
ciant, who chants the HosHa‘na refrain and hymn
for the day. The chant reproduces the sad tones of
the SeLiHoTt, but opens and closes with an intona-
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Azulai, Shem ha-~Gedolim. ; : d ;
K, L. Grt. tion peculiar to the festival, as here shown. The
HAKKAFOT
Animato. mf CANTOR. CoNGREGATION. CaNTOR
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Seetot THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 169
CONGREGATION, CANTOR.
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term “hakkafot” is also applied to the sevenfold pro-
cessional during which the scrolls are carried seven
times around the synagogue in the service of the
Rejoicing of the Law. The traditional chants for
this are comparatively modern. The Sephardim
make circuits (also called “hakkafot ”) on HosHa‘Na
RasBau and at the entrance to the cemetery, around
a coffin about to be interred.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sulzer, Shir Ziyyon, No. 69, Vienna, 1866;
Baer, Ba‘al Tefillah, Nos. 898-902, 926, G6teborg, 1877; Cohen
and Mosely, Handbook of Synagogue Music, Nos. 156 and 15/7,
186 and 187, London, 1889; Cohen and Davis, Voice of Prayer
and Praise, Nos. 168 and 185, London, 1899.
A. F. L, C.
HAKKOZ (yipn): 1. A priest, chief of the sev-
enth course, appointed by David (I Chron. xxiv.
10). In this passage the 7 is considered by the Sep-
tuagint to be the definite article, the name being
“Koz.” 2. Progenitor of a post-exilic priestly fara-
ily which, not being able to prove its genealogy,
was removed from the priesthood (Ezra ii. 61; Neh.
vii. 63). *“8. Grandfather of Meremoth, who assisted
Nehemiah in reconstructing the wall of Jerusalem
(Neh. tii. 4, 21).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HAKMAN IBN ISHMAEL: Egyptian rabbi
of the sixteenth century. He wrote novelle on the
Talmud and on Maimonides’ “ Yad,” some of which
were included by R. Mas‘ud Hai b. Aaron Rokeah
in his “Ma‘aseh Rokeah,” a commentary on the first
part of the “ Yad” (Venice, 1742).
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BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, p. 111; Fuenn,
Keneset Yisrael, p. 674.
K. N. T. LL.
HA-KOL. See PERIODICALS.
HALAFTA: Nameof several tannaim and amo-
raim; frequently interchanged with Halfa, Halifa,
Hilfa, Hilfai, Dlfa, and Tahlifa.
HALAFTA: Scholar of the firstand second cen-
turies (second tannaitic generation), always cited
without patronymic or cognomen; his descent is
traced back to Jonadab the Rechabite (Yer. Ta‘an.
iv. 68a; Gen. R. xcviii. 4). He was a senior contem-
porary of Gamaliel II. and Johanan b. Nuri (Tosef.,
Shab. xiii. [xiv.] 2; 7. Ma‘as. Sh. i. 18), and con-
ducted a rabbinic school at Sepphoris. Here he in-
troduced some ritual reforms (Ta‘an. ii. 5; R. H.
27a). Tradition relates that, together with Hananiah
b. Teradion and Eleazar b. Mattai, he saw the mon-
uments which Joshua had placed in the Jordan (see
EvLEAzAR B. Marral). MHalafta seems to have at-
tained an advanced age. He communicated to
Gamaliel II. an order given by his grandfather Ga-
maliel I., and which he had himself heard in the last
years of Judea’s independence (Shab. 115a); he sub-
sequently participated in the ‘Akabia controversy
(see “R. E. J.” xii. 41), and later he is met with in the
company of Eleazar b. Azariah, Huzpit the inter-
preter, Yeshebab, and Johanan b. Nuri, when they
were old (Tosef., Kelim, B. B. ii. 2). But few halaket
™
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gas ae ee See
+
163
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hakkafot
Halakot
are preserved in his name, and most of these were
transmitted by his more famous son, R. Jose (Kil.
xxvi. 6; Tosef., Ma‘as. Sh. i. 18; 2. B. B. ii. 10; 28.
Oh. v. 8; Bek. 26a).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Briill, Mebo ha-Mishnah, i. 189: Frankel,
Darke ha-Mishnah, p. 182: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.;
Weiss, Dor, ii. 122; Zacuto, Yuhkasin, ed. Filipowski, p. 64.
S. M.
E. C.
HALAFTA OF HUNA (HUGA, HEWAH,
HEFA): Palestinian amora of the third century;
senior of R. Johanan. The latter communicates to
Halafta’s sons a halakah in their father’s name (Git.
86b; Yer. Git. ix. 50b).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Frankel, Mebo, 85a.
Be C; S. M.
HALAFTA (HILFAI) B. KARUYA, ABBA
(also known as HALFA): 1. Tanna of the second
century, contemporary of Gamaliel II. Gamaliel once
visited him at Karuya (Kiryava; see Neubauer, “ G.
T.” p. 277), and solicited his prayers; whereupon
Halafta pronounced over him the blessing of Psalm
xx. 5 (A.V. 4) (Midr. Teh. ad loc.). As “Hilfa” or
“Filfai” he is cited in connection with some hala-
kot (Tosef., Ma‘as. Sh. iv. 5; Yer. Ma‘as. Sh. iv.
54d), and it appears that one of his halakot was
taught and practised in Rome (?2.).
2. Palestinian amora of the third century, con-
temporary of Hiyya b. Abba (B. B. 123a). They
both endeavored to reconcile the apparent discrep-
ancy between the statement of Gen. xlvi. 27, “ All
the souls of the house of Jacob, which came into
Egypt, were threescore and ten,” and the list pre-
ceding it (8-26), which contains one less. Hiyya
would have it that the person unnamed in the list
was a twin sister of Dinah. This view Halafta re-
jects, arguing that a twin sister might as well be
ascribed to Benjamin. Finally, Hiyya quotes Hama
b. Hanina as authority for the assumption that Joche-
bed was born soon after Jacob and his party entered
Egypt, and is therefore reckoned among the souls
that originally came with Jacob; with her the full
count of seventy is completed (B. B. 128a; see also
Gen. R. Ixxxii. 8). Bacher (“Ag. Pal. Amor.” ii.
177) locates the meeting of these rabbis in Rome.
It is nowhere shown, however, that the younger
Halafta ever visited Rome, and the context from
which Bacher draws the inference speaks of Halafta
the elder. Asto the praenomen, it appears variously
as “Tifa,” “Tilfai,” “Halifa,” “ Tahlifa.” Once it
is altogether omitted, leaving only the title and cog-
nomen (Gen. R. xix. 83; comp. Pesik. Zutarta to Gen.
iii. 1). It is probable that to Halafta b. Karuya
belongs the remark headed with the curious name of
R. Barkirya. Seeing a procession of coftins contain-
ing the remains of people who had died in foreign
lands, R. Barkirya remarked to Eleazar: “ What
benefit can they derive from being buried here? To
them Iapply the words: ‘ Ye made mine heritage an
abomination [since ye did not choose to live here],’
and ‘when ye entered, ye defiled my land [since ye en-
tered as corpses|’ ” (Jer. ii. 7). Eleazar, however,
told him that as soon as such processions reach Pal-
estine, clods of Palestinian earth are laid on the
coffins, and that that makes atonement, as the Bible
Says, “His earth will atone for His people” (Deut.
Xxxii. 43, Hebr.; Yer. Kil. ix. 32d; comp. Pesik.
R. i. 8; Tan., Wayehi, 6 fed. Buber, p. 214], where
“Kazrah” occurs in place of “Barkirya”). The
custom of sprinkling Palestinian earth on the dead
is still common (see BURIAL).
EK. €, 5S. M.
HALAFTA OF KEFAR HANANIAH, R.
or ABBA: Tanna of the second century; junior of
R. Meir, in whose name he transmits the legal
maxim: When the condition is expressed before an
obligation depending on it, the condition is valid;
but when the obligation precedes the condition, the
condition is void (see CONDITIONS). From him the
Mishnah (Ab. iii. 6) preserves an interesting homily
on the number of persons constituting a quorum for
the study of the Law. In the treatise Abot, usually
incorporated in the Jewish rituals, the name of the
author of this mishnah is “R. Halafta b. Dosa of
Kefar Hananiah”; in Mahzor Vitry (ed. Berlin, 1893,
p. 508), however, the patronymic does not appear,
but there are also some other variants.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dvorot, ii. Zacuto, Yu-
hasin, ed. Filipowski, p. 64. .
KE. C. S. M.
HALAKAHB (7357): Noun, derived from the
verb son, “to go,” “to walk.” The act of going or
walking is expressed by 773 4m, while the closely rela-
ted aon is used only in the sense of “ way of acting,”
“habit,” “usage,” “custom,” and especially “ guid-
ance ” and the norm of practise. For instance, when
it is said in the Talmud that a halakah is according
to this or that rabbi, it is meant that the opinion of
the rabbi referred to, though in opposition to other
opinions, is decisive for the practise. Sometimes it
is used with the meaning of “tradition,” as, for in-
stance, when the Rabbis said: “If this is halakah
[¢.e., tradition] we will accept it; butifit is merely
a ‘din’ [v.e., an argument] it is open to question”
(Ker. iii. 9). “Halakah” stands sometimes for the
whole legal part of Jewish tradition, in contradis-
tinction to the Haggadah, comprising thus the
whole civil law and ritual Jaw of rabbinical litera-
ture and extending also to all the usages, customs,
ordinances, and decrees for which there isno author-
ity in the Scriptures. In modern works occurs also
the term “midrash halakah,” covering interpreta-
tions, discussions, and controversies connected with
the legal part of the Scriptures (see MiprasH Haua-
KAH).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dictionaries of Kohut, Jastrow, and Levy;
Zunz, G. V. 20 ed., p. 44. J
HALAKOT: The body of religious law which
constitutes one of the three main divisions of Jew-
ish oral tradition. Later, the singular form “ hala-
kah” was generally adopted, even in reference to a
whole collection of halakot, just as “haggadah”
took the place of “haggadot.” The Halakot were
codified by R. Judah ha-Nasi and formed the jurid-
ical body of his Mishnah. Thereafter the term “ Mish-
nah” displaced the term “Halakot,” except in Pal-
estine, where, even after the codification, the use of
the term “Halakot” was continued, so that the
Mishnah was known there as “Halakot” (Lev.
R. iii.). |
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Die Aelteste Terminologie der
Jidischen Schriftausleguig. pp. 34, 42, Leipsic, 1899.
E. C. M. Sc.
Halalah
Halberstadt
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 164
SS eg ee eS ee a ne Y
HALALAH: The female issue of a priest's con-
nection with a divorced woman or widow, a con-
nection regarded as illegal. According to the Bib-
lical law, a priest (“ kohen”) could not marry a harlot,
or one “ profaned ” (“halalah ”), ora divorced woman,
while the high priest was also forbidden to marry a
widow (Lev. xxi. 7-14). The priest who married a
woman that had been previously illegally married to
another priest was guilty of two transgressions. For
instance, if a priest married a divorced woman, she
became a halalah, and her issue also was considered
“profane.” If another priest married her afterward,
he transgressed two commandments, that against
marrying a divorced woman and that against marry -
ing a halalah (Kid. 77a; Maimonides, “ Yad,” Issure
Biah, xix. 1; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer, vii. 12).
The name is restricted to those women with whom
connection is regarded as illegal for priests, and is
not applied to such as are illegal for all. The fe-
male offspring of an incestuous or adulterous con-
nection of a priest is not called halalah, since such
a connection is forbidden also to ordinary Israelites
(Kid. 7ib; “Yad,” dc. xix. 5).
The punishment prescribed for the marriage of a
priest with a halalah is stripes. Authorities differ
as to whether the same punishment was meted out
to him if he had had intercourse with such a woman
without marriage (“ Yad,” f.c. xvii.
The Pun- 2; RAbD and Maggid Mishneh ad
ishment. Joc.). The priest himself, although
punished for his transgression, was
not disqualified from the priestly office, but the
male issue of such a connection was considered
“halal,” and was not permitted the privileges or
the duties of the priest.
The halalah was not regarded as an illegitimate
child; the only restrictions upon her were that she
could not enjoy the advantages of a daughter of
a priest—that is, she could not eat of the heave-
offerings (“terumah ”) or of the sacrificial meats—
and that she could not be married to a priest. If
she married a non-priestly Israelite, her daughter
was not regarded as halalah, and might marry a
priest. The issue of the halal, however, retained
the same status forever, even to the thousandth
generation. The female children of a halal were
also regarded as profane, and could not be married
into the priesthood (Kid. 77a; “Yad,” U.c. xix. 14,
16; Eben ha-‘Ezer, vii. 16). The daughter of a
priest was not forbidden to marry a halal, nor into
any Other class that was unfit for the priesthood
(Kid. 72b; “Yad,” U.c. xix. 11; Eben ha-‘Ezer, vii.
22). See ILLEGITIMACY; PRIESTLY CODE.
E. C. J. H. G.
HALASZ (FISCHER), IGNAZ: Hungarian
philologist; born at Tés in 1855; died at Budapest
April 9,1901. He studied at the gymnasia of Vesz-
prim and Stuhlweissenburg, and at the University of
Budapest. From 1877 to 1892 he taught at the Ober-
gymnasium of Stuhlweissenburg; in 1898 he was
appointed professor of Hungarian philology at the
University of Klausenburg. Between 1880 and 1890
he was sent three times by the Hungarian Academy of
Sciences to the Swedish and Norwegian Laplanders,
among whom he gathered much material relating
to folk-poetry and comparative philology. Tho
following are the most important of his philolog.
ical works: “ Ritkabb és Homalyosabb Képzék” (oy
rare formative sounds; crowned by the Academy),
“Magyar Sz6k az Eszaki Szlav Nyelvekben” (on
Hungarian words in North-Slavic languages).
“Svéd-Lapp Nyelv” (on the language of the Swe.
dish Laplanders); “Az Ugorszamojed Nyelvrokon.
sig” (on the relationship of the Ugro-Samoyed
languages). He collected and translated Finnish
folk-songs, translated Grimm’s “Household Tales,”
and published original Hungarian fairy-tales.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: _ Szinnyei, Mag) ar Irhik Elete; Magyar
Genius, 1893; Budapesti Naplo, April 10, 1901. -—
8. . Vz.
HALAYO, DAVID BEN SAMUEL: Proba.
bly a son of the Samuel Halayo of Bersak (qw53)
who was in correspondence with Simon ben Zemah
Duran. David, who was 2 hazzan or cantor, was a
pupil of Simon Duran, and it was at his suggestion
that the latter wrote the commentary on Isaac Ghay-
yat’s “Baruk Asher Ashash.” David extols this
commentary in verses.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Morali, Zofnat, i. 8, Berlin, 1897. Con-
cerning a David Halayo who flourished about 1363, see Stein-
schneider, Hebr. Bibl. xiii. 75.
G. H. B.
HALBAN, HEINRICH, RITTER VON:
Austrian statesman; born at Cracow 1846; died at
Gastein Aug. 13, 1902. Halban, whose name was
originally Blumenstock, studied law at Cracow,
and went to Vienna some time before 1870, where he
devoted himself to journalism. When Potocki be-
came president of the Council of Ministers (1870) he
appointed Blumenstock to a position in the press
bureau, where he advocated in the Polish papers
the policy of the government. He rose to great
prominence under the ministry of Count Taaffe
(1878), who made him a court councilor in 1885, and
a year later appointed him chief of the Reichsrath’s
office, in which capacity he had the important task
of representing the government in its transactions
with the parliamentary parties. |Blumenstock,
whom Count Taaffe had ennobled with the title of
“Ritter von Halban,” rose to the height of his power
under the ministry of his Galician countryman,
Count Badeni (1895), and was considered the real
leader in the government. After the resignation of
Badeni (1897) he became very unpopular, and retired
from public life in 1898. He had been converted to
Christianity in the beginning of his career, and was
married to a sister of the socialist deputy Victor
Adler.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Neue Freie Presse, Vienna, Aug. 14, vos
8. :
HALBAN, LEO VON. See BLUMENSTOCK
von HALBAN, LEo.
HALBERSTADT: Townin the Prussian prov-
ince of Saxony. The earliest documentary evidence
of the presence of Jews in Halberstadt is contained
in a letter of protection from Bishop Volrad, dated
1261 (Bishop Volrad decreed that the jurisdiction of
the Jews should be upheld “ . . . prout et antiquo
in civit. Halb. dinoscitur consuetum, ...”). The
ee de ees ee RY Al Nn cn ae Laat fen mln Re CONN Fae 8 corte
TE ASO ORR cP sm? py cnn np Ld ance sayy as nde Penne} teh ented on A.
165
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Halalah
Halberstadt
scant reports concerning the Halberstadt Jews da-
ting from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries
make them appear as a subject of liti-
Thirteenth gation between the bishop and the
to city council. In the middle of the
Sixteenth fifteenth century the Jewish commu-
Century. nity must have been in a flourishing
condition. It received a_ setback
through the edict of Bishop Ernest ITI. (who was also
Archbishop of Magdeburg) expelling the Jews from
his archbishopric in 1498.
Seal of Halberstadt Cathedral; Jews Represented as Stoning
St. Stephen.
After some time, however, Jews were permitted
to return to Halberstadt; and about the middle of
the sixteenth century the Jewish population was
again a considerable one, swelled by the immigration
of Jews expelled from Nordhausen. Bishop Henry
Julius, after harassing the Jews of Halberstadt in
the most reckless manner, again expelled them in
1594; but the prospect of an increased tax revenue
induced him to readmit them under letters of pro-
tection. Heeven allowed them to build a synagogue.
This friendly attitude was brought about at great
pecuniary sacrifice by Jacob ben Israel Naphtali, one
of the many “shtadlanim ” who represented the com-
munity. It wasonly fora comparatively short time,
however, that the community enjoyed the possession
of a synagogue. The disturbances of the Thirty
Years’ war set in, which caused the “mad” bishop
Christian to impose heavy taxes upon the people.
The infuriated mob wreaked vengeance upon the
helpless Jews by destroying the synagogue (1621),
although the Jews were the victims of extortion to
even a higher degree than the rest of the popula-
tion.
During the Swedish régime the constitutional es-
tates ordered an expulsion of Jews not possessing
letters of protection; but in spite of all
During hardships the community continued to
the Thirty increase in numbers. By the treaty
Years’ of Westphalia (1648) Halberstadt was
War. annexed to Brandenburg. Elector
Frederick William began his adminis-
tration with the introduction of measures favorable
to the Jews; but he, too, would not have “the Jews
increase to intolerable numbers”: their number at
this time was 280. In 1660 he allowed them to
build a schoolhouse, which permission the Jews con-
strued to extend to the erection of a synagogue also.
The estates appealed to the elector, who then de-
clared that the building of a synagogue was not in-
cluded in the permit. This declaration was seized
upon by the populace asa pretext for demolishing
the beautiful synagogue in the Joeddenstrasse (Marcb
18, 1669), in which work of devastation they were
aided by the military. The hammer with which the
synagogue was forced open is still preserved in the
parish house. Although the elector was very in-
dignant at this high-handed action, he refused per-
mission to rebuild the synagogue, bidding the Jews
hold their services at their homes.
Notwithstanding the animosity which the people
showed toward the Jews, and in spite of the heavy
taxes imposed upon the latter, the community still
continued to grow. The numberof Jewish families
at about this time was 120. The burial society still
existing dates back to 1679. In this period flourished
Issachar ha-Levi BerMANN. At the instance of
Bermann, Zebi Hirsch BraLen (“Uarif”), a noted
scholar, went to Halberstadt as rabbi (see Buber,
“Anshe Shem,” p. 179, Cracow, 1895); and under
his direction the Talmud school greatly prospered.
The congregation meanwhile groaned under the bur-
den of a heavy debt contracted in previous times in
order to meet the demands of the extortionate taxa-
tion. In addition to the enormous
The taxes (amounting to about 2,500 thalers
Burden of in 1794) the community spent large
Taxation. sumsin behalf of the Talmud school
and in aid of needy communities.
During the Seven Years’ war Halberstadt received
the unwelcome visit of a French skirmishing party
(1760), which laid the Jewish congregation under
contribution; and as the sum demanded was not
raised, the house of one of the trustees of the con-
gregation was set on fire, and two Jews, together
with several prominent citizens, were carried off as
hostages.
After an interesting legal contest Hirsch Géttin-
gen, who filled the position of counsel at the Jewish
court, as well as that of teacher, was elected by the
congregation in 1782 as “ Klaus” scholar in opposition
to the wishes of the grandson of the founder anda
trustee of the fund, who favored another candidate.
This gave a footing to the Goéttingen family (after-
ward bearing the name of “ Hirsch ” for its ancestor)
in Halberstadt, which family during nearly a whole
century furnished directors to the community, while
contributing materially to its general welfare. At
the close of the eighteenth century Hirsch Ké6slin
founded the Hazkarat Zebi, a school in which, “ be-
sides the Bible and Talmud, instruction is given by
a head teacher and an assistant teacher in German,
arithmetic, and all the branches yielding knowledge
requisite in socialintercourse.” It is one of the old-
est Jewish schools in Germany conducted on modern
principles.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century Hal-
berstadt was annexed to the kingdom of West-
phalia, and its Jewish community came under the
jurisdiction of the newly established consistory of
Cassel. As president of the consistory was ap-
pointed (1808) Israel Jaconson, a native of Halber-
stadt, who did much toward bettering the condi-
tion of the Jews. In 1811 the special Jew-tax was
abrogated in Westphalia; and in 1812 the emanci-
pation of the Jews throughout Prussia was an-
nounced. Two years later Halberstadt came again
under Prussian rule, and the old burdens were not
Halberstadt
Halévy
renewed. Thenceforward the congregation, which
during the Westphalian régime had greatly declined,
steadily increased, mainly owing to immigrations,
until the number of Jews exceeded 800. The
“Klaus” was reorganized in 1858, the synagogue
was renovated in 1879, and on the occasion of the
centenary of the school in 1898 a spacious new
school-building was erected. The Jews of Halber-
stadt number at present 820 out of a total population
of 42,792.
Previous to 1661 the rabbinical functions were
discharged by scholarly members of the congrega-
tion, and often also by the directors. The follow-
ing is a list of rabbis since 1661:
Solomon ben Johanan Reinbach (1661-91); Abraham ben
Judah Berlin (1692-1715; later in Amsterdam); Zebi Hirsch
Bialeh (“ Harif’’) (1718-48); Moses Brisk (1748-57); Meyer
Barby (1757-63; later in Presburg); Hirshel Levin (1764-70;
formerly in London and afterward in Berlin); Acting Rabbi
Eliezer Lichtenstein (1770-72); Jacob Schwanfeld (1772-753
formerly in Peine, near Hanover); Lob Eger (1775-1814); Akiba
Eger (1814-24; nephew of the preceding and formerly a
‘Klaus’? scholar); Matthias Lewian (1824-62); B. H. Auer-
bach (1862-72: formerly in Darmstadt); Selig Auerbach (1873~
1901; formerly director of the Jewish town-school at Furth) ;
Isaac Auerbach, the present (1903) incumbent.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Auerbach, Gesch. der Israelitischen Ge-
meinde Halberstadt, Halberstadt, 1866.
D. B. A.
HALBERSTADT, ABRAHAM BEN
MENKI: German Hebraist and Talmudic scholar ;
died at Halberstadt about 1780. Uis “ Pene Abra-
ham ” (unpublished), a treatise on the most difficult
halakot of the Talmud, shows him to have been an
authority in Talmudic matters. Besides this there
exists a collection of very interesting letters written
by him to his friend R. Jeremiah at Berlin. A Ger-
man translation of these letters was published by
Auerbach in his “ Gesch. der Israelitischen Gemeinde
Halberstadt,” pp. 187-197. In a long letter dated
1770 Halberstadt defended warmly the memory of
Jonathan Eybeschiitz, whose pupil he was. In an-
other letter, dated 1774, he defended the study of
synonyms, which study was deprecated by R. Jer-
emiah; and in one dated a year later he expressed
his admiration for Wessely and Mendelssohn. In
the same letter he severely censured rabbis who have
no knowledge of mathematics or astronomy, with-
out which it is impossible to explain many passages
in the Talmud.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Auerbach, Gesch. der Israelitischen Ge-
meinde Halberstadt, pp. 78, 99, 187-197.
K. M. SEL.
HALBERSTADT (also STADTHAGEN),
JUDAH BEN BENJAMIN: Rabbinical author
of the eighteenth century. He was the author of
“Minhat Yehudah,” giving explanations of all pas-
sages in Rashi on Berakot in which the word “ ke-lo-
mar” occurs, <A similar work on Shabbat, ‘Erubin,
and Berakot appeared later (Altona, 1768). He was
also the author of a discourse on “Zenon we-Zayit ”
(Ber. 36a), on the benediction to be recited on eating
radishes and olives (Altona, 1765).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 733; Zedner,
Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 341.
K N. T. TL.
HALBERSTADT, MORDECAI: German
rabbi; born at Halberstadt at the beginning of the
eighteenth century; died at Ditsseidorf about 1770.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
166
After studying at Frankfort-on-the-Main under
Jacob ha-Kohen (1730), Halberstadt became teacher
in therabbinical school of his nativetown. In spite
of his youth he was elected rabbi of Griesheim on
the recommendation of his teacher; he subsequently
occupied the rabbinates of Darmstadt and Diissel-
dorf. Asa cabalist Halberstadt was called upon
by Samuel Heilmann of Metz and Jacob Joshua Falk
for an opinion as to whether Eybeschiitz’s amulets
were positively Shabbethaian in spirit. To have
given an affirmative answer would have necessarily
associated Halberstadt with the enemies and intend-
ing excommunicators of Eybeschiitz; he therefore
merely advised the inquirers to refrain from pressing
their attacks further, declaring himself unable to
definitely pronounce the amulets Shabbethaian in
character. He was the author of a work entitled
“Ma’amar Mordekai,” responsa (Brtinn, 1782), and of
a grammatical work, as yet unpublished.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Auerbach, Gesch. der Israelitischen Ge.
meinde Hatlberstadt, pp. 74-76.
K. M. SEt.
HALBERSTAM, SOLOMON JOACHIM:
Austrian scholar; born at Cracow Feb. 23, 1882;
died at Bielitz March 24, 1900. His father, Isaae
Halberstam, was a prominent merchant who devoted
his leisure time to study, and left in manuscript a
work which Solomon published in his honor under
the title “Siah Yizhak,” Lemberg, 1882. This work
contains also notices on the genealogy of Halber-
stam, who numbered eminent rabbis among his
ancestors both on his father’s and on his mother’s
side. Jn 1860 he settled at Bielitz as a prosperous
merchant. The larger
part of his time, how-
ever, he devoted to
Jewish learning, and
a considerable part of
his income to increas-
ing his library, which
was especially rich in
rare and valuable—
manuscripts, the love
of collecting having
been developed in him
early. For half a cen-
tury he corresponded
widely with the repre-
sentatives of Jewish
learning of all shades
of opinion; and he took
part in learned dis-
cussions on the most
diverse questions, con-
tributing to nearly all the periodicals papers written
in Hebrew and in other languages.
Halberstam was one of the directors and chief
supporters of both the old and the new Mekize Nir-
damim, the publications of which include contribu-
tions from him. He contributed valuable intro-
ductions to the works of a great number of Hebrew
writers, and was also a collaborator on collective
works, such as the jubilee or memorial volumes in
honor of Gritz, Steinschneider, Kohut, and Kauf-
mann.
Halberstam’s editions are: “Hiddushe ha-Ritba
Solomon Halberstam.
ce eee see
167 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Halberstadt
Halévy
‘al Niddah,” novelle and discussions on the treatise
Niddah by R. Yom-Tob ben Abraham (abbreviated
“Ritba”) of Seville, Vienna, 1868; Abraham ibn
Ezra’s “Sefer ha-‘Ibbur,” a manual of calendar
science, 1874; Hillel b. Samuel of Verona’s
“Tagmule ha-Nefesh,” 1874; Judah b. Barzilai
of Barcelona’s commentary on “Sefer Yezirah,”
1884; and the same author’s “Sefer ha-Shetarot,”
1900.
In 1890 Halberstam issued a complete catalogue
of his manuscripts (411 items) under the title “ Kehil-
lat Shelomoh.” The greater part of them was ac-
quired by Montefiore College, Ramsgate, England,
while his large collection of printed books, and a
considerable number also of manuscripts, was bought
by Mayer Sulzberger and
presented to the library
of the Jewish Theological
Seminary of America.
BIBLIOGRAPRY : M. Reines, Dor
wa-Hakamaw, 1890; Lippe,
Bibliographisehes Lexicon ;
M. Schwab, Répertoire.
s. W. B.
HALEB. See ALEPPO,
HA-LEBANON. See
BRILL, JEUWIEL.
HALEVY (HAL-
FAN), ELIE: French
Hebrew poet and author;
born at Firth in 1760; died
at Paris Nov. 5, 1826;
father of Fromenthal and
Léon Halévy. At an
early age Halévy went to
Paris, where he became
cantor. His knowledge of
the Talmud and his poet-
ical talent acquired for
him the esteem of many
French scholars, particu-
larly the well-known Ori-
entalist Sylvestre de Sacy.
His first poem was “Ha-Shalom,” a hymn com-
posed on the occasion of the treaty of Amiens; it was
sung in the synagogue of Paris, in both Hebrew and
French, on the 17th Brumaire (Nov. 8), 1801. The
poem was praised in Latin verse by the Protestant
pastor Marron. In 1808 Halévy composed a prayer
to be recited on the anniversary of the battle of
Wagram; in 1817, with the help of some of his co-
religionists, he founded the French weekly “1L’Is-
raélite Francais,” which, however, expired within
two years. To this periodical he contributed a re-
markable dialogue entitled “Socrate et Spinosa ” (ii.
73). His “Limmude Dat u-Musar” (Metz, 1820) is
a text-book of religious instruction compiled from
the Bible, with notes, a French translation, and
the decisions of the sanhedrin instituted by Na-
poleon. Halévy left two unpublished works, a
Hebrew-French dictionary and an essay on Asop’s
fables. He attributes the fables to Solomon
(comp. I Kings v. 12-13 [A. V. iv. 382-33}),
and thinks the name “ Atsop” to be a form of
“ Asaph.”
Jacques Francois Halévy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1839, Beiblatt No.1; Léon
Halévy, in Univ. Isr. xviii. 274-276; Gritz, Gesch. 2d ed., xi.
217-218; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. pp. 138-184.
S, M. SE.
HALEVY, JACQUES FRANQOIS FRO-
MENTHAL ELIE: French composer: born at
Paris May 27, 1799; died at Nice March 17, 1862.
His family name was “Levi”; his father, Elie Ha-
lévy, was a Bavarian by birth. At theage of ten he
entered the Paris Conservatoire and studied under
Cazot (elements of music), Lambert (piano), and
Berton (harmony). He won the solfeggio prize in
1811, and the second prize in harmony in 1812. He
thereafter became a pupil of Cherubini in composi-
tion, with whom he remained for five years; and,
after twice winning the
second prize at the Con-
servatoire, he finally se-
cured the Grand Prix
de Rome (1819) for his
cantata “Herminie.”
Shortly before his de-
parture for Rome his “ De
Profundis” (text in He-
brew), composed on the
death of the Duc de
Berri, and dedicated to
Cherubini, was performed
at the synagogue in the
Rue St. Avoye (March 24,
1820).
After actively prose-
cuting his studies in
Italy Halévy returned to
France, where for several
years he experienced con-
siderable difficulty in ob-
taining a hearing for his
compositions. His comic
opera “L’Artisan” (in
one act), performed at
the Théatre Feydeau in
1827, met with but little
success, but the three-act
opera “Clari,” produced at the Théatre Italien in
1829, the principal réle being sung by Malibran,
made a somewhat better impression,
and was probably largely instrumen-
tal in securing for the composer
the appointment of “chef du chant”
at the theater in question, a position which he
occupied in association with Hérold.
For several years to come, however, the composer
was not destined to score a decided triumph, al-
though opera followed opera in quick succession.
Still, the air “ Vive, vive, l’Italie,” in his comic opera
“Le Dilettante d’Avignon” (1829), became exceed-
ingly popular with the Parisian public, while his
ballet “Manon Lescaut” (1880), by reason of its
melody and verve, also found favor.
Halévy had already attained the age of thirty-six
when his masterpiece, “La Juive,” a grand opera ip
five acts, was produced at the Opéra (Feb. 23, 1885),
where it was hailed with enthusiasm, and at once
secured for its author a European reputation. The
opera was presented with unprecedented scenic
Early
Works.
Halévy
Halfon
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
168
splendor, the stage-setting alone having cost, it was
said, 150,000 francs. Ten months after the first
performance of “La Juive” Halévy’s musical com-
edy “L’Eclair” appeared; and, although in spirit
the exact antithesis of “La Juive,” it immediately
became a favorite with Parisian audiences.
Although the composer had.given splendid evi-
dence of his extraordinary talent and versatility in
these two widely divergent compositions, he now
lost much of his originality and became imitative
rather than creative—a deterioration ascribed partly
to the influence of Meyerbeer, then at the zenith of
his fame, and partly to Halévy’s carelessness in the
selection of librettos. At all events, it may be said
that, out of about twenty dramatic works, chiefly
comic operas, which followed upon “La Juive,”
only a few, suchas “ Les Mousquetaires de la Reine ”
(1846) and “Le Val d’Andorre ” (1848), are still oc-
casionally produced. Nevertheless, many of them,
and notably “La Dame de Pique” (1850), although
perhaps Jacking in dramatic interest, are replete
with melody.
~ In 1851 Halévy obtained a professorship at the
Conservatoire, where Gounod, and afterward Bizet,
were among his pupils, the latter sub-
Professor- sequently marrying Halévy’s daugh-
ship in the ter. In 1854 Halévy was appointed
Con- permanent secretary of the Académie
servatoire. des Beaux-Arts, and his “Souvenirs
et Portraits, Etudes sur les Beaux
Arts” (1869), written inthis capacity, constitute a
very attractive series of criticisms and eculogies.
Halévy’s “Lecons de Lecture Musicale,” published
in 1857 and since revised, is still the standard text-
book on solfeggio in the elementary schools of Paris.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. J. Fétis, Biographie Uvniverselle des
Musiciens; Champlin, Cyclopedia of Music and Musicians ;
Benjamin E. Woolf, in Famous Composers and Their
Works, ii. 665-672; Riemann, Opern Handbuch; Edouard
Monnaie, F’. Halévy, Paris, 1863.
Ss J. So.
HALEVY, JOSEPH: French Orientalist; born
at Adrianople Dec. 15, 1827. While a teacher in
Jewish schools, first in his native town and later in
Bucharest, he devoted his leisure to the study of
Oriental languages and archeology, in which he be-
came proficient. In 1868 he was sent by the Alli-
ance Israélite Universelle to Abyssinia to study the
conditions of the Fauasnas. His report on that
mission, which he had fulfilled with distinguished
success, attracted the attention of the French Insti-
tute (Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres),
which: sent him to Yemen to study the Sabean in-
scriptions. Halévy returned with 686 of these, de-
ciphering and interpreting them, and thus succeed-
ing in reconstructing the rudiments of the Sabean
language and mythology. Since 1879 Halévy has
been professor of Ethiopic in the Ecole des Hautes
Etudes, Paris, and librarian of the Société Asiatigue.
Halévy’s scientific activity has been very exten-
sive, and his writings on Oriental philology and
archeology, which display great originality and in-
genuity, have earned for him a world-wide reputa-
tion. He is especially known through his contro-
versies, still proceeding, with eminent Assyriologists
concerning the non-Semitic Sumerian idiom found
in the Assyro-Babylonian inscriptions. Contrary to
the generally admitted opinion, Halévy put forward
the theory that Sumerian is not a language, but
merely an ideographic method of writing invented
by the Semitic Baby-
lonians themselves.
For the student of
specifically Jewish
learning the most
noteworthy of Ha-
lévy’s works is his
“Recherches _ Bib-
liques,” wherein he
shows himself to be
a decided adversary
of the so-called
higher criticism. He
analyzes the first
twenty-five chapters
of Genesis in the
light of recently
discovered Assyro-
Babylonian docu-
ments, and admits Joseph Halévy.
that Gen. i.-xi. 26
represents an old Semitic myth almost wholly As-
syro-Babylonian, greatly transformed by the spirit
of prophetic monotheism. The narra-
Biblical tivesof Abraham and hisdescendants,
Re- however, although considerably em-
searches. bellished, he regards as fundamentally
historical, and as the work of one au-
thor. The contradictions found in these narratives,
and which are responsible for the belief of modern
critics in a multiplicity of authors, disappear upon
close examination. The hypothesis of Jahvistic and
Elohistic documents is, according to him, fallacious.
The following are Halévy’s principal works, all
of which have been published in Paris:
Rapport sur une Mission Archéologique dans le Yemen, 1872,
Voyage au Nadjran, 1873.
Mélanges d’Epigraphie et d’Archéologie Sémitiques, 1874.
Etudes Sabéennes, 1875.
Etudes Berbéres, Epigraphie Lybique, 1875.
La Prétendue Langue d’Accad, Est-Elle Touranienne ? 1875.
Etudes sur le Syllabaire Cunéiforme, 1876.
Recherches Critiques sur l’Origine de la Civilisation Baby-
lonienne, 1876.
La Nouvelle Evolution de ]’Accadisme, 1876-78.
Priéres des Falachas, Ethiopic text with a Hebrew trans.
lation, 1877.
Documents Religieux de |’ Assyrie et dela Babylonie, text with
translation and commentary, 1882.
Essai sur les Inscriptions du Safa, 1882.
Mélanges de Critique et d’Histoire Relatifs aux Peuples
Sémitiques, 1883.
Apercu Grammatical sur PAllographie Assyro-Babylonienne,
8
Essai sur l’Origine des Ecritures Indiennes, 1886.
La Correspondance d’Amenophis III. et d’Amenophis IV.
Transcrite et Traduite, 1891-93.
Les Inscriptions de Zindjirli, two studies, 1893, 1899.
Tobie et Akhiakar, 1900.
Recherches Bibliques, a series of articles begunin ‘‘ R. E. J.""5
continued, after 1893, in the ‘‘ Revue Sémitique d’Epigraphie et
d’Histoire Ancienne,” founded by Halévy; and published in book-
form in 1895,
Nouvelles Observations sur les Ecritures Indiennes, 1895.
Le Sumérisme et I’Histoire Babylonienne, 1900.
Taazaze Sanbat (Ethiopic text and translation), 1902.
Le Nouveau Fragment Hébreu de 1’Ecclésiastique, 1902.
Les Tablettes Gréco-Babyloniennes et le Sumérisme, 1902.
Essai sur les Inscriptions Proto-Arabes, 1903.
Etudes Evangéliques, 1903.
169 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Halévy is the author of “Mahberet Melizah we-
Shir,” Hebrew essays and poems (Jerusalem, 1895).
In the earlier part of his life he was a regular con-
tributor to the Hebrew periodicals, the purity of
his Hebrew being greatly admired.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, viii. 219;
La Grande Encyclopédie, xix. 755; Fuenn, Keneset Yis-
rael, p. 479; Brainin, in Ha-Eshkol, iv. 257.
8.
I. Br.
HALEVY, LEON: French author and dra-
matic writer; brother of Jacques Francois Fromen-
thal Halévy; born at Paris Jan, 14, 1802; died at
Saint Germain-en-Laye Sept. 2, 1888. After fin-
ishing a course at the Lycée Charlemagne, Ha-
lévy became a disciple and collaborator of Saint
Simon, aiding in the foundation of his organ, “Le
Producteur,” and writing the introduction to his
work, “Opinions Littéraires, Philosophiques et In-
dustrielles,” in which Rodrigues and Bailly also
assisted. In 1831 Halévy was appointed assistant
professor of French literature at the Ecole Polytech-
nique, but abandoned the position three years later.
In 1837 he was attached to the Ministry of Public
Instruction as chief of the bureau of scientific so-
cieties, and remained there until his retirement in
1858, after which he devoted the remainder of his
life to literature. Halévy wrote a large number of
poenis, translations, plays, and other works. Among
the poems may be cited: “Le Vieux Guerrier au
Tombeau de Napoléon,” 1821; “La Peste de Barce-
lone,” 1822; “ Poésies Européennes,” 1828; “ duvres
Lyriques d’ Horace,” 1831 (2d ed., 1856). His plays
include: “Le Czar Demetrius,” 1829, staged at the
Théatre Francais; “Le Duel,” a two-act comedy,
produced at the Théatre Francais; “L’Espion,”
1828, a five-act drama, produced at the Odéon (in
collaboration with Drouineau); “Le Chevreuil,”
$831 (in collaboration with Jaime); “Indiana,”
1833; “Leone Leoni,” 1840; “Un Mari,” 1848; and
“Le Balai d’Or,” 1848. Among Halévy’s later plays
were: “Le Mari aux Epingles,” 1856; “Ce Que
Fille Veut,” 1858; “Un Fait-Paris,” 1859; “ Electre,”
1864. Of Halévy’s other works may be mentioned:
“Résumé de J’Histoire des Juifs Modernes,” 1828;
“ Recueil de Fables,” 1844 (2d ed., 1856; crowned by
the Academy); “La Gréce Tragique,” 1846; “ Vie
de Fromenthal Halévy,” 1862.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: La Grande Encyclopédie ; Larousse, Dict.
g, V. E.
HALEVY, LUDOVIC: French dramatist; born
in Paris Jan. 1, 1834; a son of Léon Halévy and a
nephew of Jacques Francois Fromenthal Halévy.
He was educated at the Lycée Louis le Grand in
Paris; after graduating he entered the service of the
government. During this period he wrote several
comic operas under the nom de plume of “ Jules Ser-
viéres.” His success with these induced him to re-
sign his position (1865),and devote himself entirely to
the drama in association with Henri Meilhac. The
operas written by Halévy and Meilhac were suc-
cessfully produced on nearly all the stages of Europe
and America. |
Halévy’s earlier plays include: “ Bataclan ” (1855;
music by Offenbach); “L’Impresario” (1856; with
Battu); “Le Docteur Miracle” (1857; with Battu);
Halevy
Halfon
“ Orphée aux Enfers ” (1858); “La Chanson de For-
tunio” (1861); “Le Pont des Soupirs” and “La Ba-
ronne de San Francisco ” (1862).
The following were produced in collaboration
with Meilhac: “La Belle Héléne” (1865; music by
Offenbach, one of his greatest successes); “Le Train
de Minuit” (1863); “Barbe-Bleue” (1861); “La
Grande Duchesse de Gérolstein,” a satire on militar-
ism (1867; music by Offenbach); “ Froufrou ” (1869);
“Le Réveillon” (1872); “La Petite Marquise”
(1874); “Carmen” and “La Cigale” (1877); “Te
Petit Due” (1878); “La Petite Mademoiselle ”
(1879). In 1882 the partnership came to an end.
There were rumors of a quarrel, which, however,
were denied by Halévy. Meilhac continued to pro-
duce plays, while Halévy devoted himself to litera-
ture. “Froufrou” is their most famous play. It
ran for 250 nights at the Gymnase and for 100 more
at the Porte Saint Martin, with Sarah Bernhardt in
the cast; it was revived at the Théatre Francais in
1892.
Halévy’s novels include: “Un Scandale ” (1860);
“L’Invasion,” “Madame et Monsieur Cardinal,”
“Le Réve,” “Le Cheval du Trompette,” and “ Quand
On Attend Ses Messes” (1872); “Marcel” (1876);
“Les Petites Cardinal” (1880); “ L’ Abbé Constantin ”
(1882); “La Famille Cardinal,” “Criquette,” “ Deux
Mariages,” “Un Grand Mariage,” “Un Mariage
d’Amour,” and “Princesse” (1886); “Les Trois
Coups de Foudre” and “Mon Camarade Mussard ”
(1886); “ Karikari” (1892).
Halévy was decorated with the cross of com-
mander of the Legion of Honor, and became a mem-
ber of the Academy in 1884. He died May 10, 1908,
BIBLIOGRAPHY ; Curinier, Dict. National des Contemporains:
Vaperean, Dict. Universel des Contemporains; La Grande
Encyclopédie.
8. F. T. H.
HALF-BLOOD. See Famiuy and Famrizy Lire.
HALFAN, URI SHERAGA PHOEBUS
BEN ELIEZER MANNELES: Rabbi of Un-
garisch-Brod, Moravia, in the first half of the eight-
eenth century. He was the author of a work
entitled “Dat Esh,” containing responsa and a com-
mentary on the laws of Kilayim in Maimonides’
code (Berlin, 1748). The second word of the title
contains the initials of his name—Uri Sheraga.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, il., s.v. Dat Esh;
Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2692.
D. M. SER.
HALFON, ABBA MARI: Italian astronomer
of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In 1492 he
was at Naples, where he studied astronomy. Halfon
was the author of “Ta‘ame Mizwot,” containing ex-
planatory notes on the ALFONSINE TABLES, and still
extant in manuscript (MS. Naples, iii, F 12; MS.
Parma, De Rossi, No. 336, 7, under the title “Ta-
‘ame ha-Kelaliin”). According to A. Berliner, the
“Bayit Ne’eman,” a Hebrew translation or paraphrase
of a commentary by Ibn Rajal on the same astro-
nomical tables, with an introductory Hebrew poem,
found in the Naples codex, was the work of Abba
Mari, who signed therete the same initials (HOX =
“Abba Mari Talmid”) as those used by him in his
“Ta‘ame Mizwot.” An elegy written by Halfon
Halfon
Halizah
(1490) at Lucca on the death of Jehiel of Pisa
was published by D. Kaufmann (“R. E. J.” xxvi.
106).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Berliner’s Magazin, xvi. 49; Steinschneider,
Hebr. Bibl. xxi. 116; idem, Hebr. Uebers. p. 626; Mortara,
Indice.
K. I. Br.
HALFON, ABRAHAM BEN RAPHAEL:
Rabbi of Tripoli, North Africa; died about 1803.
He was the author of a work entitled “ Hayye Abra-
ham,” a treatise on the ritual laws of Orah Hayyim
and Yoreh De‘ah (Leghorn, 1826).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p.41;
Fuenn, Aeneset Yisrael, p. 33.
K, M. SEL.
HALFON, ELIJAH MENAHEM: Italian
Talmudist and physician; son of the astronomer
Abba Mari and son-in-law of Kalonymus ben Da-
vid (Maestro Calo); flourished at Venice in the mid-
dle of the sixteenth century. In a collection of
responsa compiled by Joseph Graziano of Modena,
Halfon gives his opinion on the question whether a
Jew may instruct Christians in Hebrew. Citing
numerous passages from the Talmud, which he elu-
cidates with logical acumen, Halfon shows that ele-
mentary instruction may certainly be given, if only
for the purpose of enabling non-Jews to comply
with the seven laws given to Noah. Halfon was
one of the rabbinical authorities from whom Fran-
cesco Georgio obtained for Richard Croke a rabbin-
ical opinion regarding the divorce of Henry YIII.
This circumstance, and his friendship for Solomon
Moicho, brought about a quarrel between Halfon
and the physician Jacob Mantino.
Halfon’s authority as a Talmudist was widely rec-
ognized, and a responsum of his, in which he calls
himself the grandson of Joseph Colon, is found in
Moses Isserles’ collection of responsa (No. 56, ed.
Cracow). Halfon was also a versatile poet, and sev-
eral of his productions are still extant in manuscript
(Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 948, 6).
BIBLIOGRAPHY; Carmoly, in Revue Orientale, ii. 183; Kauf-
mann, in J. Q. R. ix. 01; idem, in R. B. J. xxvii. 51.
K. f. Br.
HALFORD, GEORGE EDWARD: Private
in the mounted infantry of the City of London Im-
perial Volunteers; born 1878; died at Karee, near
Bloemfontein, May 15, 1900, during the war with
the Transvaal (1899-1900). He was educated at
University College School, London, and, entering
the volunteers, became lance-corporal in the ist
Middlesex (Victoria and St. George’s), On the
outbreak of war he enlisted among the mounted in-
fantry of the volunteer force, and took part in the
fighting round Paardeberg; serving later as one of
the escort of the Boer general Cronje as far as the
Modder River station on his way to Cape Town and
St. Helena. Halford subsequently took part in the
great march to Bloemfontein; and its accompany-
ing hardships and privations culminated in an attack
of fever to which he succumbed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jewish Chronicle, June 30, 1900,
J. G. L.
HALHUL: City in the hill country of Judah,
mentioned in the list of cities in the inheritance of
that tribe (Josh. xv. 58). Halhul was about four
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
170
miles to the north of Hebron, and, according toa
Jewish tradition (Hottinger, *“Cippi Hebr.” p. 32),
was the burial-place of Gad, David’s seer (I Sam.
xxii. 5; If Sam. xxiv.11). It is probably the mod-
ern Halhul.
E. G. H. B. P.
HALI: Town on the boundary of Asher, men-
tioned in Josh. xix. 25 between Helkath and Beten,
The Septuagint gives the name as “ Aleph.”
E. G. H. B. P.
HALILAH: Biblical term denoting “far be it
[from me, thee, etc.].” In Talmudic literature it
has two distinct meanings, derived from the two
meanings of the root “halal” (to profane; pollute),
In some instances its signification is cognate to that
given to it in the Bible (Gen. R. xlix. 16; Yalk to
Gen. lxxxiii.); in other places it has the meaning of
“round about,” “in turn,” from “halal” (to bore,
pierce, make hollow or round), usually in conjunc-
tion with the word “hazar” (to turn around, begin
again; Suk. 55d; Ket. 95a; Zeb. 10a).
In later Hebrew and in the Yiddish language the
word is employed in its original meaning, but car-
ries with it greater emphasis than is given to it in the
Bible, having the signification of “ God forbid,” “by
no means.” It is sometimes strengthened, in collo-
quia} speech, by the addition of the word “ we-has”
(may He have pity). The expression is very com-
mon in Yiddish, and is especially used to ward off
the evil effects of an ill-omened utterance.
E. C, J. H. G.
HALIZAH (“taking off,” “untying”): The cer-
emony of the taking off of a brother-in-law’s shoe by
the widow of a brother who has died childless,
through which ceremony he is released from the
obligation of marrying her, and she becomes free to
i.
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The Halizah Shoe.
(After Bodenschatz, 1748.)
marry whomever she desires (Deut. xxv, 5-10). It
may be noted that only one brother-in-law need per-
form theceremony. The old custom of the levirate
marriage (Gen. xxxviii. 8) is thus modified in the
Deuteronomic code by permitting the surviving
brother to refuse to marry his brother’s widow, pro-
171
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Halfon
Halizah
vided he submits to the ceremony of halizah (see
the article LEvrrate). In the Talmudic period
the tendency against the original custom was in-
tensified by the apprehension that the brother-in-
law might desire to marry his brother’s widow from
other motives than that of “establishing a name
unto his brother,” and therefore many rabbis of
Talnudic as well as of later times preferred halizah
to actual marriage (Yeb. 89b). Thus theancient in-
stitution of the levirate marriage fell more and more
into disuse, so that at present halizah is the general
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Rabbis declared that the ceremony should take place
before a court of three, who need not be very learned,
but must at least understand Hebrew (Yeb. 10la;
Shulhan “Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer, 169, 1). All those
who are disqualified from testifying in legal mat-
ters (see EVIDENCE) are disqualified also from act-
ing on this board of judges (Yeb. 101a). These
three should appoint two others to assist them, and
at the service on the evening preceding the day of
the ceremony they should appoint a place for its
performance, so as to give the matter more pub-
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HaLIzAH SCENE IN HOLLAND, EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
(From a Dutch translation of Leo di Modena’s ‘ Riti,”? Amsterdam, 1725.)
rule and marriage the rare exception (Shulhan
‘Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer, 165, and commentaries). In
theory, however, the Biblical law of levirate mar-
riage is still presumed to be in force, and in the cer-
emonies attending upon halizah the presumption is
that the brother-in-law brings disgrace upon him-
self and upon his family by refusing to marry his
brother’s widow.
The ceremony as described in Deuteronomy (i.c.)
is very simple. The widow loosens the shoe of the
brother-in-law in the presence of
The the elders of the town, spits upon the
Ceremony. ground before him, and pronounces a
certain prescribed formula. This cer-
emony, however, was later elaborated by the Rabbis,
making the act more solemn and more public. The
licity. The place chosen is usually the synagogue
court or the house of the rabbi, although the cer-
emony may take place in the house of the widow.
All investigations with regard to the parties con-
cerned in the halizah should be conducted on the
previous day, on which both are instructed in the
details of the ceremony, and on which the “ yebamah”
(widowed sister-in-law) is not allowed to partake
of any food. ‘The halizah should not be per-
formed in the evening (Yeb. 104a), nor on a Sabbath
or a holiday (Bezah 36b), nor on the eve of a Sab-
bath or a holiday (“ Terumat ha-Deshen,” $ 227).
On the day set for the halizah, immediately after
the morning service, when all the people are still in
the synagogue, the three judges and their two as-
sistants, who also act as witnesses, repair to the ap-
Halizah THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 172
qualified from testifying may become Witnesses,
Both the yabam and the yebamah must be made
aware of the fact that by this ceremony the widow
becomes free to marry whomever she may desire,
After these preliininary details, and after the yabam
pointed place. The three judges sit on one bench,
the two assistants on a bench placed beside it; the
“vabam ” (brother-in-law) and the yebamah stand
between them. Before the ceremony is commenced
a thorough public examination is made of the case.
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HALIZAH CEREMONY AMONG GERMAN JEWS, EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
(From Bodenschatz, ‘* Kirchliche Verfassung,’’ 1748.)
The relationship of the parties must be clearly es-
tablished and their maturity ascertained. If he or
she is a minor, a deaf-mute, a mute, or an idiot, or
makes a public declaration that he has not been forced
by any outside influence to submit to the halizah,
but that he does it of his own free
if his foot is crooked or turned to one side, the hali- The will, the actual ceremony commences.
zah can not be performed. The court must also Halizgah The shoe, which is usually the prop-
know whether she is left-handed or whether he is Shoe. erty of the community, is brought
left-footed, and must be convinced that more than forth and examined as to its cleanli-
ninety-one days have passed since the death of her
husband (see Divorce; LeviraTE). To establish
these matters it is not necessary to have legally eli-
gible witnesses. Even those who are otherwise dis-
ness and construction, in accordance with the pre-
cepts of the law. The halizah shoe is made entirely
of leather, usually from the skin of a clean animal.
It is made of two pieces, the upper part and the sole,
WUD Ayo pi ee
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272 BNR DI? WH Wp» SE te aN. -
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PRINTED HALIZAH BLANK USED BY MODERN AMSTERDAM JEWS.
(In the possession of Prof. G. Deutsch.)
pas
alle-on-the-Saale
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
174
sewed together with leather threads. Three small
straps are attached to the front of the shoe, each of
which hasa knot (“ humrata”) at the top to fit a hole
made on the other side of the shoe. ‘T'wo white leather
straps are attached to either side of the shoe, by which
it is fastened to the leg. The yabam must have his
right foot, on which the shoe is placed, washed very
scrupulously, and after he has strapped it on he must
walk four cubits in the presence of the judges.
Then the chief of the judges reads the following
passage, which the yebamah repeats word for word:
“My brother-in-law refuses to raise unto his brother
a name in Israel; he will not marry me”; then the
yabani is required to repeat the sentence: “I do not
wish to take her.” He then presses his right foot
against the floor while she loosens the straps with
her right hand and, holding his leg in her left hand,
takes off the shoe and throws it some distance away.
Then she places herself in front of the yabam, spits
on the floor in front of him, and repeats these words
after the presiding judge: “So shall it be done unto
that man who will not build up his brother's house,
and his name shall be called in Israel, ‘the house of
him that hath his shoe loosed.’” She repeats the
last phrase three times, the assembly
The reciting it three times after her.
Formulas. Then the yabam returns the shoe to
the court, and the judges say: “May
it be the will (of God] that Jewish women be no
more subjected to halizah or to yibbum.” As they
rise, the chief of the judges says: “Blessed be He
who sanctified us with the commandments and stat-
utes of Abraham our father.” All the passages re-
cited by the yabam and by the yebamah must be read
in Hebrew as they are found in the original in Deu-
teronomy, and if the parties do not understand He-
brew the passages must be translated for them (Eben
ha-‘Ezer, 169; “Seder Halizah” and commentaries
ad loc.).
Various reasons have been offered for the cere-
mony of loosening the shoe. From the incident re-
lated in the Book of Ruth (iv. 7, 8), which certainly
refers to this ancient custom, it would seem that the
loosening of the shoe was a symbol for a transfer of
rights, and had no stigma attached to it. Some of
the later rabbis (Jehiel of Paris, for instance) say
that the removal of the shoe symbolized the entrance
into a state of mourning. From the time when the
yabam actually refused to marry his brother’s widow
and thus perpetuate his name in Israel, his brother
was considered dead, and the yebamah, by drawing
off his shoe, thus declared to him that from that
time on he was a mourner (“ Perush Seder Halizah,”
82; comp. Weill, “La Femme Juive,” part iv., ch.
v., Paris, 1874).
In order to prevent the yabam from extorting
money from the widow who wishes to be released
from the shackles of perpetual widowhood, the Rab-
bis established the institution of the “shetar hali-
zah” (see DEED). This institution provides that
at the marriage of a young couple
all the brothers must sign a document
in which they pledge themselves to
submit to the act of halizah without
claiming any remuneration in case their brother dies
childless (“ Nahalat Shib‘ah,” p. 22, Warsaw, 1884).
Shetar
Halizah,
If at the time of marriage there wasa minor brother,
who could not legally sign the document, there was
the institution of the “shetar bithon halizah,” es-
tablished by the Rabbis for such cases, by which the
father of the bridegroom promises to pay to the
bride a certain sum of money if this son should re-
fuse to submit to the ceremony of halizah (74. 23:
comp. “ Pithe Teshubah ”; Eben ha-‘Ezer, 165, note
10; see INHERITANCE). Notwithstanding this, cases
often occur where brothers-in-law demand money
before they will submit to the ceremony.
The Reform view, as expressed in various trea-
tises written by the leaders of the movement, and
as adopted at the different rabbinical conferences
held in Germany and in America, is that the cere-
mony of halizah is not essential to the remarriage of
the widow. The Philadelphia conference (1869) re-
solved that “The precept of levirate marriage and
of halizah has lost to us all meaning, import, and
binding force.” The Second Israelitish Synod, held
in Augsburg (1871), also passed a resolution to the
same effect, with the addition that “For the sake of
liberty of conscience, however, no rabbi will refuse,
on request of the parties, to conduct the ceremony of
halizah in a proper form.” The great majority of
Jews, however, still cling to this ancient institution
and observe it in all its details.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hastings, Dict. Bible, s.v. Marriage; Ham-
burger, . TI. s.v. Schwagerehe; Saalschiitz, Das Mo-
saische Recht, ch. ciy., Berlin, 18538; Michal of Cracow,
Seder Gittin wa-Halizah, with Pithe Teshubah, Wilna,
1896; Buchholz, Die Famitie, pp. 65-67, Breslau, 1867; Reds-
lob, Die Levirats-Ehe bei den Hebrdern, Leipsic, 1836;
Duschak, Das Mosaisch-Talmudische Eherecht, 8 5, Vienna,
1864; Bergel, Die Eheverhdltnisse der Alten Juden, ch. x.,
Leipsic, 1881; Mielziner, Jewish tLaw of Marriage and
Divorce, §§ 22-238, Cincinnati, 1884; Verhandlungen der
Zweiten Israetitischen Synode, Berlin, 1873; Rosenau,
Jewish Ceremonial Institutions and Customs, Baltimore,
E. ©. J. H. G.
HALLAH: The priest’s share of the dough.
The Biblical law in the case of hallah (Num. xv.
17-21; comp. Neh. x. 88), asin the case of the heave-
offering (“terumah”; Num. xviii. 11), is indefinite.
It enjoins the separation of the hallah “from the first
of your dough,” but does not specify how much
dough there should be, or what proportion of the
dough should go to the priest. The Rabbis, how-
ever, made the law more explicit by limiting it.
According to their definition the dough, in order to
be subject to the law of hallah, must consist of at
least one omer (14 cabs, or enough to fill a vessel
10 x 10 x 31 inches in size; see WEIGHTS AND MEas-
URES) of flour (Hal. ii. 5; comp. ‘Eduy. i. 2), the
portion due to the priest being 3, of the dough of a
private household and +; of that of a baker (‘Eduy.
i. 7). The priest’s share was taken from the dough
and not from the flour (comp. Yer. Hal. iii. 1).
The obligation rested upon the person to whom
the dough belonged, and not upon the person who
kneaded it. Hence if the dough belonged to a non-
Jew, and it was prepared by a Jew, no portion of it
went to the priest, even if the non-Jew afterward
presented itto the Jew. AJew, how-
Obligation ever, was obliged to separate hallah
on Owner. from his dough even when it was
prepared by a non-Jew (Hal. iii. 5).
Dough prepared as food for animals was not subject
to this obligation, unless it was also partaken of by
175
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Halizah
Halle-on-the-Saale
men (fal. i. 8). The priest’s portion was taken only
from dough made from the flour of one of these five
kinds of cereal: wheat, barley, spelt, oats, and rye
(Hal. i. 1). Dough made from the flour of rice,
nillet, or peas was excepted. The dough must
have been prepared for the baking of bread, but not
for pastry or cakes of any kind (Hal. i. 4). If the
separation of the hallah from the dough had been
forgotten, it could be made after the bread was baked
(Sifre to Num. xv. 21).
The Biblical expression “when you eat of the
bread of the land” clearly indicates that the law of
hallah applies only to Palestine; but, in order that
this institution should not be forgotien in Israel, the
Rabbis ordained that it should also be observed be-
yond Palestine and for all time. Since, however, it
can no longer be observed as a priestly offering, be-
cause everything now is in a state of impurity, the
portion taken from the dough is thrown into the fire
and need not be proportionate to the amount of the
dough; the obligation can be discharged with the
smallest portion (Hal. iv. 8-11). When the dough
is thrown into the fire a blessing should be pro-
nounced. At present the laws pertaining to the
separation of hallah are very lenient, both with re-
gard to the separation and with regard to the holi-
ness attached to it (Maimonides, “ Yad,” Bikkurim,
v.-vill.; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 322-3380),
See PRiEstLY Cope; for hallah as sacrifice see Sac-
RIFICE; THANK-OFFERING.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Saalschtitz, Das Mosaische Recht, ch. xli.,
note 441, Berlin, 1853.
ake H. G.
E. C.
HALLE-ON-THE-SAALE: University town
in the Prussian province of Saxony. Jews settled
there soon after the city was founded, in the begin-
ning of the twelfth century, the wealthy members
of the community having business relations with the
nobility in the vicinity. The Jews, who were at
first subject to the archiepiscopal court and then to
the mayor, lived in a quarter of their own, called
the “ Judendorf,” and had a synagogue and ceme-
tery. Like their coreligionists in other parts of Ger-
many, they were repeatedly plundered and _ perse-
cuted. It is doubtful whether they suffered much
up to the time of the Second Crusade (1145), but
they certainly did in 1206, 1261, 1849, and 1492.
Several times, as in 1814 and 1446, they had to leave
their homes, and in 1498 they were peremptorily ex-
pelled by Archbishop Ernst. Two centuries later a
new community was formed, the authorities per-
mitting some exiled families from Halberstadt to
settle at Halle in 1692. They laid outa cemetery in
1693, and builtasynagoguein 1700, They were still
subjected to medieval restrictions: they were for-
bidden to acquire real estate or to attend the uni-
versity, and their commerce was limited by special
laws. The general privilege granted by Frederick
William I. of Prussia, dated Feb. 26, 1704, regu-
lated their civic status; yet in 1724 the synagogue
and houses of the Halle Jews were demolished dur-
ing a conflict with the students, and special taxes
were laid upon them during the Seven Years’ war.
The Westphalian government granted full citizen-
ship to the Jews in a roya! decree of 1808, by which
the body-tax, the protection money, and other extra
taxes were abolished. When Halle came again
under Prussian rule, the Jewish community of the
town included about 150 persons. By the law of
July 28, 1847, separating the Jews into synagogal
districts, some neighboring communities were atlli-
ated with the community of Halle, for which a rep-
resentative constitution was drawn up. The first
rabbi, Dr. Fréhlich, was installed in 1860. In 1864
anew cemetery was laid out and a new synagogue
was built, to which an organ was added in 1900.
The school, attended by 180 children (1908), is under
the direction of the local rabbi, Dr. Fessler, There
are ahebra kaddisha, a women’s society, a “Rat und
Tat” society (for the relief of business men in dis-
tress), a B’nai B’rith lodge, etc. Halle has (1908) a
population of 156,624, cluding 1,800 Jews.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Aronius, Regesten : Salfeld, Martyrologium ;
Auerbach, Gesch. der Israelitischen Gemeinde Halherstaat,
Halberstadt, 1866; Dreyhaupt, Ausfithrliche Beschreibung
des Saathreises, 2 yols., Halle. 1755; Hertzberg, Gesch. der
Stadt Halle-a.-S.im Mittelalter, Halle, 1889; Jsraelit, iv.
(1863), Nos. 2 and 6; Statistisches Jahrbueh des Deutseh-
Israelitischen Gemeindebundes, Berlin, 1903: Freudenthal,
Aus der Heimat Moses Mendelssohns, pp. 175 et seg., 246 et
seq. (on Hebrew printing establishments in Halle).
D. S. Sa.
—Typography: Moses Benjamin Wulff, court
Jew at Dessau, obtained in 1694 a privilege from
the Prince of Dessau to establish a printing-office in
that city. He began to publish books in 1696, but
financial difficulties compelled him to abandon the
business, One of his typesetters, the proselyte
Moses ben Abraham, was called to Halle in 1706 to
assist J. H. Michaelis in the printing of the Bible.
The citizens protested against the presence among
them of a Jew without a royal letter of protection,
and the king sustained their objection. Michaelis,
however, procured registration at the university
for the printer’s son Israel Moses, who thereby
became exempt from the jurisdiction of the city
authorities, and upon the intercession of the uni-
versity the king permitted the father to reside in
Halle so long as the printing of the Bible was in
progress, but under the stipulation that he should
do no other work. Moses ben Abraham nevertheless
printed various other books there: Jacob Reischer’s
responsa, “Shebut Ya‘akob” (1709); five Talmudic
tractates, which were to form part of an edition of
the Babylonian Talmud already planned by his
former employer, Moses Benjamin Wulff, who gave
him the necessary type and machinery; some Tal-
mudic works; a prayer-book; two descriptions, in
Judzeo-German, of the conflagrations at Altona and
Frank fort-on-the-Main; ete.
Altogether sixteen books were issued by the press
of Halle. In 1711, the university, provoked because
Moses ben Abraham printed other works than those
issued by the university press, complained to the
king, but without effect. In 1714, however, the
university drew the king’s attention to the fact that
Moses had printed a prayer-book containing the
‘ALENU, which had recently been prohibited by
royal order. Moses and Berechiah Berak, the au-
thor of the last book printed in Moses’ office, were
arrested, and further printing was prohibited. In
1717 the university endeavored to obtain a grant for
the reopening of the establishment, but the king re-
fused to give it, Of special interest is the fact that
Halle
Hallel
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
176
Moses ben Abraham employed exclusively members
of his family, and that his daughter Gella, who was
an experienced typesetter, wrote little verses in
Judgo-German in which she invited people to pur-
chase her father’s books.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. iii., passim, quoted by
Steinschneider in Ersch and Gruber, Hneye. section ii.,
part 28, p.86; Freudenthal, dus der Heimat Moses Mendels-
sohn’s, pp. 175-188, 246-249, Berlin, 1900.
D.
HALLE, AARON BEN WOLF (called also
Wolfsohn): Translator and commentator of the
Bible; born 1754 at Halle; died at Firth March 20,
1835; son of Dr. Wolf of Firth. He was a follower
of Moses Mendelssohn; editor (1797) of the period-
ica] “ Ha-Meassef ” (in which he signed himself ‘q's
or 31); and professor at the Kénigliche Wilhelms-
schule at Breslau from 1792 to 1807. He was also
one of the founders of the Gesellschaft der Freunde
in Berlin (1792). Together with his friend Joel
Léwe he edited Mendelssohn’s German translation
of the Song of Solomon (Berlin, 1788). His transla-
tions of Lamentations, Ruth, and Esther were pub-
lished (Berlin, 1788) with a Hebrew commentary by
Joel Lowe and a Hebrew introduction. With Isaac
Euchel, Friedlander, and others, he made a transla-
tion of the Haftarot (2b. 1790); he also translated
Kings (Breslau, 1800); Job, which he provided witha
Hebrew commentary (Prague, 1791; Vienna, 1817-
1818); and the first two chapters of Habakkuk (“Je-
didja,” ii. 107). He further published: “ Abtalion,” a
Hebrew primer, containing the grammatical elements,
with a preface by David Friedlander (Berlin, 1790,
and frequently reprinted); “Exegetisch-Kritische
Anmerkungen iiber die Vision Habakuks” (Breslau,
1806); “Jeschurun,” a refutation of the newly made
charges against Judaism (edited, with Gotthold Sal-
omon, Breslau, 1804); “ Leichtsinn und Frémmelei,”
a family scene in three acts (Amsterdam, 1796-98).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Franz Delitzsch, Zur Gesch. der Jtidischen
Poesie, p. 107: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cois. 2782 et seq.;
Gratz, Gesch. ed. 1900, xi. 120, 289; First, Bibl. Jud. ili.
as eae Cat. Rosenthal. Bibl. p. 1152; Monatsschrift,
x .
8. M. K.
HALLEL (lit. “ praise”): The name given in the
Talmud and in rabbinical writings to Ps. cxiii.-
cxvili. considered as a single composition, which
they undoubtedly are. They are more distinctively
known as the “Hallel of Egypt,” as distinguished
from Ps. exxxvi., the “Great Hallel,” and from Ps.
cx] vi.-cxlviii. (in a baraita apparently designated
as a kind of Hallel: Shab, 118b).
These psalms were evidently written to be sung
publicly on some day of thanksgiving, as appears
from the verse: “This is the day which the Lord
hath made; we will rejoice and be glad in it” (Ps.
exvili. 24). The Aramaic word “tagmulohi” would
seem to indicate a late date; the thrice-repeated cry
“T shall cut them down,” with “the Lord hath cha-
stened me sore,” points to a bloody
war, at first unsuccessful; the words
“open to me the gates of righteous-
ness” point to the recovery of the
Temple: allthese together make it probable that the
“ Hallel” psalms were written for the Feast of Hanuk-
kah, during which they are still recited every morn-
ing. Hallel is also recited on the night of the Pass-
over as part of the family service, as it was in the
Late
Origin.
days of the Temple (Pes. x. 4); on the first day of
the Feast of Unleavened Bread; on Pentecost; and
on the Feast of Booths (see Suk. iv. 1). Of course,
where the festival days are doubled, one night and
three days are added (Ta‘an. 28b), making (aside from
the nights) twenty-one days on which Halle) is
deemed obligatory. But a Palestinian of the first
generation after the Mishnah speaks (Ber. 14a) of
certain days on which the entire Hallel is not recited,
and on which the recital is of lesser sanctity.
These days are: (1) the days of Unleavened Bread
after the first, or first and second; (2) all New-Moon
days other than the New Moon of Tishri, which is
kept as the Day of Memorial. On these days Ps.
exv, 1-11 and ecxviii, 1-11 are omitted to show fhe
later rise and the lesser sanctity of the custom of
saying Hallel upon them.
The early sages boldly undertook to give this
custom the foree of Scriptural command by prefix-
ing the benediction, “ Blessed . . . who has sancti-
fied us by His commandments and commanded us to
read the Hallel.” This, at least in the German ritual,
is the form used on all occasions, while with the
Sephardim it is used only before the
Benedic- incomplete “half-Hallel”; onthedays
tion of the “full Hallel” they bless Him
Preceding. “who commanded us to complete the
Hallel.” These, benedictions were in
general use during the eleventh and twelfth cen-
turies, and though both Rashi and Maimonides
(“ Yad,” Megillah, iii. 7), the greatest authorities on
Jewish law, protested against the use of such a ben-
ediction before half-Hallel as unauthorized, on the
ground that the recital of Hallel on New Moons,
etc., was not even a commandment of the scribes,
the benediction has kept its placein the prayer-book..
Ps. cxviii, opens and ends with a much older
verse: “O give thanks unto the Lord; for he is
good: for his mercy endureth for ever.” This
verse dates back not only to the days of Ezra, but
to the days of Jeremiah and to Solomon’s Temple.
Jt was well known even to those otherwise wholly
ignorant of the sacred tongue. Hence it grew to be
the custom when Hallel was recited in public for the
people to repeat after the leader only the first verse,
even when he gave out the second, third, and fourth
—‘“ Let the house of Israel,” etc., “Let the house of
Aaron,” etc., “Let them now that fear,” etc.—and
this usage is still in force (Suk. 88b).
Beginning with Ps. cxviti, 20, the reader gives out
every verse to the end of the chapter, the congrega-
tion repeating it after him; but in
‘¢ His countries where the Polish minhag is
Mercy En- usedevery one says each of these verses
dureth twice. The verse “We beseech thee,
for Ever.” O Lord, savenow,” etc. (Ps. cxviii. 25,
Hebr.), is cut up into its hemistichs,
each of which is given out separately.
On Sukkot the palm-branch is shaken in all direc-
tions while the first hemistich is chanted (“ Hoshi-
‘ahna ”),
Hallel is closed with this benediction: “O Lord,
our God, may all Thy works praise Thee, and Thy
saints who do Thy will, and all Thy people Israel,
in glad song, bless and honor... Thy glorious
name; for to thank Thee is proper, and pleasant is
177
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Halle
Hallel
it to play melodies to Thy glorious name, for from
everlasting to everlasting Thou art God: Blessed be
Thou, O Lord, the King praised in hymns!” For
the Hallel in the Passover night service see
HaGGADAH.
BIBLIOGRAPAY: Kohler, The Psalms and T heir Place in the
Liturgy, pp. 31 et seq. (Gratz College Publications, 1897) ;
Dembitz, Jewish Services, book ii., ch. 13; Maimonides, Yad,
ie cols iii; Caro, Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayytimn, 422,
— L. N. D.
All trace is lost of the chants to which the Hallel
was intoned before a comparatively modern date.
HALLEL
Allegro moderato.
Ps. cevii. 1. Ha - - Ia - ln et A -
. Ki ga - bar ‘A -
> pease ie
hu - hu kol ha - um - mim.
In consequence there is no general tradition: every
composer of synagogue music offers hisown setting.
In the medieval period the folk-song of the day was
reproduced in the Hale], where the contemporary
expression of joyousness always sup-
planted the older cantillatory intona-
tions, as Ps. cxvii. and exviii., at
least, were approached. Many such
melodies, often of marked beauty, have been pre-
served in the synagogues of the Sephardic ritual.
A rich store of them will be found in the collections
of De Sola and Aguilar (“ Ancient Melodies of the
Liturgy of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews”), and
Consolo (* Libro dei Canti d’Israel”),. Typical, and
of particular interest because of their use in many
Ashkenazic and Reform synagogues, are the two
VI.—12
Musical
Setting.
do - nai kol go ~-
well-contrasted old melodies here presented (comp.
De Sola and Aguilar, “ Ancient Melodies,” Nos. 42,
43; Salaman and Verrinder, “ Music of
the West London Synagogue of British
Jews,” i.; Cohen and Davis, “ Voice
of Prayer and Praise,” Nos. 62, 63;
Pauer and Cohen, “Traditional Hebrew Melodies,”
No. 12). The first of these is wide-spread among
the northern Jews as a tune for table-hymns (see
ZEMIROT),.
The earlier part of the Hallel was rarely chanted at
length, being usually read through in a rapid under-
Spanish
Tunes.
(Sephardic)
——— a = a
shab - be -
Dal Segno al Fine.
REF
eee has - do.
tone. Where the chant took a definite form it was
simple in outline and usually plaintive in character.
A good traditional example is given in Cohen and
Davis, “ Voice of Prayer and Praise” (No. 57); it is
reminiscent of the “Tonus Peregrinus” of the
Church, the irregular chant which, utilized princi-
pally for Ps. cxiv., is believed to be of French
origin and to date from about the ninth century.
The chief hymn-tune of each festival has now be-
come indissolubly associated with the first verses of
Ps, cxviii., and is often finely worked into the choral
setting of the preceding passages, as in the deserv-
edly esteemed Hallel settings by J. L. Mombach
(comp. Cohen and Davis, @.c. Nos. 64 [Hanukkah],
147 [Passover], 153 and 154 [Pentecost]).
In the case of the Feast of Tabernacles the wa-
Hallel
Halukkah
ving of the palm-branch (see LuLaB) is the most char-
acteristic feature of the celebration of the festival;
and consequently the chant associated
with the ceremony has been taken as
the “representative theme” for the
festival. As such it is employed for
the response M1-Kamoxau (Ex. xv. 11, 18) in the eve-
ning service, which is also chanted to the “ represent-
Festival
Themes.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
178
tion, often associated with the majestic old theme
(comp. Marksobhn and Wolf, “ Auswahl Alter Hebra-
ischen Synagogal-Melodien,” No. 8, and note; Baer,
“Ba‘al Tefillah,” No. 816a, b, c, d). In the theme
itself may be detected analogies withan old Proven-
cal strain utilized by Bizet in his music to “ L’Arlé-
sienne,” and with the melodies quoted in JEw. En-
cyc. s.c. ASHRE HA-‘AM and GESHEM.
HALLEL (‘‘Lulab Chant’’)
Lento muaestoso.
4——-|-|-o- te —
| = 4 — Sete =
Ps, cxviiti. 1. Ho -
to
(Sees
- du _ lado-
RESPONSES. 1 Ho
An
le - ‘o - - lam has - ~ - - do. 25. An ~ « =
Dales. ~Rlveeeetee tob, ki le-‘o - lam _ has - do.
na A-do - - nai, haz - li - hah... na.
i a a a
= sS ee ee aT
a 3 os =a oe Oe a i
ho - = 8 - - | ghi - :
Go ee
? ace Sa
Renee eatin (el Pee aN! bs cee
“Rirosse
A-do - -
ative eas according to the following general
scheme for days on which the Hallel is sung:
New Moon (no general tradition).
Feast of Dedication (Ma‘oz Zur).
Festival of Passover (ADDIR HU).
Festival of: Pentecost (AKDAMUT).
Festival of Tabernacles (lulab chant).
The last has been handed down in two forms, a
major and a minor, and exhibits traces of the inter-
vals smaller than a semitone, which, with its mys-
tical character, resulting from unenunciated vocal-
ization between the syllables of the text, seem to
point back to an original framework derived from the
Orient. In most incongruous juxtaposition, several
poor, jingling tunes are, in the North-German tradi-
bad bad na....
og _-e-#-| = 2 FF |S
os — | —— I
—~— Saas aa —S
ho = bead shi - = ‘oh na!
Among eminent modern composers, J. Meyerbeer
and F. Halévy have contributed settings for the
Hallel and other texts to S. Naumbourg’s “ Zemirot
Israel,” Paris, 1863. Halévy’s Hallel has become so
familiar to French Jews that it has furnished main
themes for a set of quadrilles founded by Henri
Cohen on festival melodies, and entitled “Zemannim
le-Sason” (“Le Temps de Rejouissances,” Paris,
1883). Similarly Mombach’s fine adaptation of the
Akdamut for the Pentecost Hallel found favor in
England as 2 pianoforte duet.
A. F, LL. ¢.
HALLELUIAH (79-4553 or mbbn, the dagesh
in the first 5 being dr opped according to the Maso-
179
retic rule by reason of the shewa and the second G
following it; ’AAAnAotvia in the Septuagint): A
doxological expression signifying “Praise ye the
Lord,” the sacred name being shortened to its first
two letters. Except in Ps. cxxxv. 3 it is found only
at the beginnings or ends of psalms; namely, civ.,
cv., end; cvi., beginning and end; cxiii., beginning;
CXV., CXVi., cxvii., end; cxxxv., cxlvi., cxlvii.,
cxlviii., cxlix., cl., beginning and end. Jn some of
these psalms, e.g., cxili., cxiviii., cl., this opening
phrase is developed in the words which follow it;
in others, such as cxi. and cxil., it does not run nat-
urally into the psalm, and seems to have been pre-
fixed by the authorities of the Temple to fit the
psalm into public worship. The Hebrew words
have been retained in the Vulgate, and through it
have come not only into Christian psalteries, but
also into modern hymns; the English versions, how-
ever (both A. V. and R. V.), render them always as
“Praise ye the Lord.”
E. G. H, L. N. D.
HALPERINE-KAMINSKY, ELY: Russian
writer; born at Vassilkof April 9, 1858. After
having completed his studies at the University of
Odessa he went (1880) to Paris, where he has since
resided. The French secretaries of state and of
commerce have on several occasions drawn upon
his knowledge of French and Russian affairs, and
entrusted him with important commissions, which
he has very successfully fulfilled. Since 1888 he
has been editor of the “Franco-Russe,” a Parisian
publication printed in both French and Russian. In
1888-85 he was secretary of the “Médecine Popu-
laire,” “Science Populaire,” and “Science Pour
Tous.”
Halperine-Kaminsky has translated into French
the works of many of the important Russian authors,
such as Pushkin, Gogol, Tolstoi, Turgenef, Dosto-
jevski, Nekrassov, Boborykin, and Stchedrin; he is
also a regular contributor to the foremost French
and Russian journals.
Among his works are the following: “Les Mam-
miféres Ovipares” (1885); “Pushkin et Sa Corre-
spondance” (1887); “Le Grand-Due Constantin,
Poétte ” (1892); “Chez Tolstoi ” (1898-1900).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Curinier, Dict. Nat.
H. R. F. T. H.
HALPHEN, FERNAND: French composer ;
born at Paris Feb. 18, 1872; pupil of J. Massenet,
G. Fauré, and André Gedalge. In 1895he won the
first “accessit” for fugue at the Conservatoire, and
in 1896 the second “Grand Prix de Rome ” for his
cantata “ Mélusine.” Hischief worksare: a Sicilian,
a suite for orchestra, 1896; asymphony, Monte Carlo,
1897; a sonata for piano and violin, 1899; “Le Cor
Fleuri,” lyric opera in one act, based on the play
by the late Ephraim Micaél. He has also composed
several songs, and pieces for the piano, violin, horn,
etc.
s, A. A. G.
HALPHEN, GEORGES-HENRI: French
army officer and mathematician; born at Rouen Oct.
30.1844; died at Versailles May 21,1889. He studied
at the Ecole Polytechnique, and afterward at the
Ecole de Metz, becoming lieutenant in 1866 and cap-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hallel
Halukkah
tain in 1870. He was decorated on the battle-field of
Pont-Noyelles, and fought also at Bapaume and
‘Saint-Quentin. In 1873 Halphen became tutor at the
Ecole Polytechnique, and in 1880 the Académie des
Sciences of the French Institute awarded him the
chief mathematical prize for his “Mémoire sur la
Reduction des Equations Différentielles Linéaires
aux Formes Intégrales.” In 1881 his work on the
classification of curves (“Journal de l’Ecole Poly-
technique,” lvii. 1) was crowned by the Academy of
Berlin. In 1886 Halphen was made a member of the
Académie des Sciences, Hereturned to active serv-
ice in 1887 as major. Of Halphen’s many mathe-
matical treatises may be mentioned: “Sur la Théorie
des Points Singuliers des Courbes”; “Sur les Con-
gruences”; “Sur les Equations Différentielles”;
“Sur les Courbes Gauches, les Fonctions Ellip-
tiques,” etc. He devoted the last three years of his
life to his “Traité des Fonctions Elliptiques et de
Leurs Applications” (Paris, 1886-89; the third vol-
ume posthumous). A full list of his works is given
in the “Journal des Mathématiques,” 1889.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: La Grande Encyclopédie; Nouveau La-
rousse Iltustré.
S. V. E.
HALTERN, JOSEPH: One of the Meassefim;
died in Berlin Sept. 5, 1818 (1817, according to
Philippson in “Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” ii. 216). He
wrote “Esther,” a Hebrew adaptation of Racine’s
drama of the same name.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zeitlin, Bibl. Hebr. pp. 234, 454; Allg. Zeit.
des Jud. ii. 216.
8. M. SEL.
HALUEKAH (lit. “division,” “distribution ”):
An organized collection of funds for distribution
among the indigent Jews in the Holy Land, and for
the aid of those who, moved by religious motives,
desire to journey thither. Sympathizing corelig-
ionists of almost every congregation in the “out-
land” (“huz la-arez ”) form a standing committee,
presided over by an officer variously called “ gab-
bai,” “amarkol,” or “ pakid” (chief, governor, or ap-
pointee), under whose supervision collections in his
city or district are made, the money being remitted
by him semiannually to the proper “menahalim ”
(leaders) in Jerusalem, who distribute it among the
needy—learned, elderly men, the destitute, and
widows and orphans taking precedence.
The history of the halukkah may perhaps be said
to date back to the earliest rabbinical periods, when
the academies in the Holy Land were supnorted
mainly by voluntary contributions from congrega-
tions elsewhere, and by the fees received for decisions
in Jewish civil suits and for the performance of re-
ligious offices, In the Middle Ages R. Jehiel (1257)
transferred his yeshibah from Paris to Jerusalem.
We was accompanied by his three hundred disciples,
consisting of Frenchand English Jews who had been
maltreated in their native countries. But Jehieland
his pupils soon found themselves with-
out means of support. Consequently
he sent R. Jacob of Paris as a repre-
sentative “meshullah” (messenger) to solicit relief
in Palestine and Turkey. R. Jacob appears to have
been the first Palestinian meshullah recorded, al-
though the term “messenger of Zion” (“sheliah Ziy-
Origin.
Halukkah
yon”) was applied in the period of the Amoraim
(4th cent.) to R. Hama b. Ada (Bezah 25b), who trav-
eled between Babylon and Palestine delivering de-
cisions and messages, and probably soliciting re-
lief. Another early feature throwing light on the
halukkah is the charity-box, the introduction of
which, though attributed to R. Meir Ba‘al ha-Nes
(“the miracle-worker ”), was due to meshullahim,
who toward the end of the seventeenth century used
it for the collection of the halukkah fund; such
boxes are placed in Orthodox Jewish dwellings and
synagogues all the world over, and are stated to ex-
ceed 250,000 in number at the present time, all bear-
ing the name of R. Meir Ba‘al ha-Nes. This R. Meir,
contrary to the popular notion, is not R. Meir the
Tanna, but R. Meir ha-Kazin (“the chief”), whom
R. Jacob of Paris, in describing his tomb at Tibe-
rias, called “ Ba‘al ha-Nes.”
Under Egyptian rule the Jews of Palestine in-
creased both in number and in prosperity. The
halukkah contributions until the fifteenth century
came mostly from Turkey, Egypt, and other coun-
tries in Asia and Africa. In the famine of 1441 the
Jewish community of Jerusalem, probably for the
first time, senta meshulah to European countries; the
meshullah’s name was ‘Esrim we-Arba‘ah (“twenty-
four ”)—a surname; not, as Gritz supposes, a title of
honor indicating his knowledge of the twenty-four
books of the Bible. The meshullah was directed to
go first to Constantinople, to obtain there the neces-
sary credentials from the central committee headed
by Moses Capsali, who, however, had to withhold his
sanction, the war between Turkey and the Egyptian
Mamelukes, who ruled Palestine, making the latter
a belligerent state, the exportation of money to which
was prohibited.
Under the Ottomans in the sixteenth century the
Jews of Palestine were settled mostly in Galilee,
toward which there set a stream of exiles from
Spain; and the halukkah contributions appear to
have come in regularly without the intervention of
meshullahim. About this time Joseph Caro of
Safed established a precedent in Jewish charity-
law, based on the verse, “If there be
Influence among youa poor man of one of thy
of Joseph brethren within any of thy gates in
Caro. thy land,” etc. (Deut. xv. 7). Accord-
ing to his interpretation, “thy gates”
refers to the city of Jerusalem, and “thy land” to
the Holy Land (Palestine), which, therefore, have a
prior claim upon Jewish charity (“Bet Yosef” to Tur
Yoreh De‘ah, 251, 3); formerly it had been held that
the passage referred to any residential city or
adopted country (Sifre, Deut. 116 [ed. Friedmann,
p. 98|). The reputation of Safed as the home of
famous Talmudists and cabalists, including Caro
and Luria, brought abundant support from abroad
for scholars in the Holy Land.
To provide for a permanent increase of the haluk-
kah, the communities of Palestine, early in the
seventeenth century, adopted an ordinance (“tak-
kanah ”) invalidating any will not made in the pres-
ence of the parnas ; this had the effect of reminding
testators of their duty toward the community of
Jerusalem (Lunez, “Jerusalem,” ii. 87). Another
takkanah was afterward issued which practically
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
180
amounted to a confiscation, for the benefit of the ha-
lukkah, of the chattels, money, and accounts of a de.
ceased Jew who left no resident heirs,
The There were many evasions, and in
Takkanah several instances the well-to-do, before
of 1625. taking up their residence in the Holy
Land, stipulated a certain sum which
was to be paid to the community upon their death in
place of the fulfilment of the decree. This so-called
“inheritance tax” was strenuously opposed by the
richer classes, and it was spasmodically abolished and
reenacted. Theincome from this tax, however, never
amounted to one-third of the halukkah, and to sup-
ply the deficiency there was no alternative but to
resort to the meshullahim, who as a result became
so numerous, and such frequent visitors in the Euro-
pean congregations, that they were regarded as
wandering tramps, a nuisance and a reproach.
Moses Hagiz, a typical meshullah, in his “Sefat
Emet” (Amsterdam, 1697), deplores the low estimate
of the meshullah entertained by the general public,
and in reply to a Spanish contributor, (1) shows why
the Holy Land is religiously superior to other coun-
tries, (2) urges the duty of settling there even prior
to the fulfilment of the prophecies, (8) speaks of the
calamities and tribulations of the Jews in Jerusalem,
and (4) explains why the funds contributed in all
parts of the world are insufficient. Referring tothe
meshullahim, he says: “They are sent abroad to ac-
quaint our people in foreign countries of Jewish
conditions in the Holy Land, and to enlist sympathy
and support for the standard-bearers of the Taber-
nacle of God, who keep alive Jewish hopes and in-
spirations in the Land of Israel.” He points out that
the fact that “Christians will remit thousands of
pounds annualiy for the maintenance of a Christian
settlement is a challenge to the Jews who neglect to
provide for the beloved sons of Zion.”
Hagiz estimated the appropriation of the haluk-
kah for 1,500 souls in Palestine, including 1,000 in
Jerusalem, to be 10,000 lire. Toward this sum
there was an income from communal taxes of 2,000
lire; from legacies 2,000 lire; collected by meshulla-
him 2,000 lire; leaving a deficiency of 4,000 lire;
Jewish indebtedness already amounted to sixty
thousand “shekalim ” (florins?).
Hagiz was aware of the fact that the meshullahim
were not liked, that they were abused no less than were
the “hakamim” in Jerusalem, who were suspected
and accused of “Jeading a luxurious life and spend-
ing the funds of the halukkah in drinking coffee and
smoking tobacco.” Nevertheless he was ready to
state under oath that the halukkah barely supplied
one-third of their actual necessaries of life. The
main sources of the halukkah at that timein Europe
were London, Amsterdam, Venice, and Leghorn.
To meet the drain on the halukkah, the Jerusalem
community borrowed from Gentiles at an enormous
rate of interest, up to 45 per cent per
Borrowing annum, mortgaging their communal
from property ; and when they failed to meet
Gentiles. the obligationsat maturity, the leaders
of the congregation were imprisoned
and held for ransom. R. David Melammed, a me-
shullah of Hebron, rendered a decision to the effect
that inasmuch as the representative Jews of He-
181
bron were held under bail for taxes and other indebt-
edness of the community, they came under the cat-
egory of “ captives held for ransom,” whose claims,
therefore, took precedence over all other charitable
matters having a special fund for disposal, and were
nota perversion of charity (his responsa, in Ezekiel
Silva’s “ Mayim Hayyim,” Amsterdam, 1718).
Till the middle of the eighteenth century the man-
agement of the halukkah was entirely in the hands
of the Sephardim, who were classed as (1) rich or
dependent on their own relatives, (2) working men
and employees, and (8) hakamim and scholars
of the yeshibot. The third class took one-third of
the halukkah; one-third was appropriated for poor
widows, orphans, and for temporary relief to helpless
men; one-third was used in defraying the communal
expenses. The distribution was made semiannu-
ally, before the Passover and the New-Year festi-
vals. The meshullahim kept up their work in the
Levant, in Italy, Germany, France, Holland, and
England, with occasional visits to Russia, Poland,
and America. A regular legal contract was drawn
up between the community and the meshullah. The
community undertook to provide for the meshullah’s
family during his absence and to advance his initial
traveling expenses. The meshullah on his part un-
dertook to devote his attention and
Contracts best endeavors to arousing the people
with the by lectures, to urging the gabbaim to
Meshullah. increase their remittances, and to open-
ing up new sources of income. The
commission was usually fixed at 45 per cent on all
contributions coming direct from him or that were
due to his influence, and 10 per cent on all income
from his territory during the ten years following his
return. It generally took the meshullah from
three to ten years or longer to complete his mission.
In an important city he sometimes accepted a
rabbinate or the position of a “maggid ”-preacher,
and held it forsome time. Occasionally he undertook
the promotion of.a business enterprise. He was
also useful as a news-gatherer before newspapers
came into existence. In short, the services of the
average old-style meshullahim were distinctly valua-
ble, in spite of the shortcomings of some among
them who thought chiefly of personal gain, and cared
little for the cause they represented. Pseudo-
meshullahim, who represented no community, but
traveled on their own behalf, also contributed largely
to bring discredit upon the office and duty they had
fraudulently assumed.
Among the early meshullahim to America were R.
Moses Malki of Safed, who visited the Newport con-
gregation in 1759, and R. Samuel Cohen of Jerusa-
lem (1775), An interesting meshullah was Raphael
Hayyim Isaac CarreGcaL of Hebron, who was in
Newport in 1771 and 1778, after visiting the West
Indies (Curacao, 1764). These meshullahim are
mentioned by Ezra Stiles in his Diary (“ Publications
Am. Jew. Hist. Soc.” No. 10, pp. 18-82). Carregal
refers to David Melammed as his teacher.
The Ashkenazim at that time formed but a small
minority of the Jewish settlers in Palestine. The
efforts of Jehiel of Paris to maintain a yeshibah in
Palestine in the thirteenth century, as already ob-
served, had failed; and a second attempt, by R.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Halukkah
Judah ha-Hasid of Siedlce, Poland, who with many
followers emigrated to the Holy Land in 1701,
was likewise futile. Not till the
Among’ middle of the eighteenth century was
the Ash- the presence of the Ashkenazim felt.
kenazim. They came from the ranks of the
Hasidim in Poland and South Russia;
using the same liturgy and ritual as the Sephardim,
they were easily assimilated with them, and received
a share of the halukkah. The share, however, they
asserted, was not in proportion to their numbers.
They complained to the Ashkenazic gabbaim in
Europe, and finally seceded from the Sephardim.
With the aid of the Council of the Four Lands, they
established headquarters for their separate haluk-
kah at Lublin, Poland. Later, R. Abraham Gershon
Kutawer, leader of the Hasidim in Hebron, sent
meshullahim to Metz and diverted the halukkah
revenue from that source to his own section of the
Holy Land. Ina letter of Aryeh Judah Meisels of
Apta, written in Jerusalem, the Ashkenazim accused
the Sephardim of bad faith, declaring that, in spite
of assurances to the contrary, the Ashkenazim were
discriminated against and compelled to rely entirely
upon their own resources (Luncz, “Jerusalem,” ii.
148-157).
While the Ashkenazim at Jerusalem and Hebron
separated from the Sephardim and managed their
own halukkah, the Ashkenazim at Safed were still
united with the Sephardim and drew from the general
halukkah, the headquarters for which were in Con-
stantinople. A letter dated 1778, and written from
Safed by Israel Perez Polotzker to the gabbaim of
Vitebsk, Russia, states that their meshullahim came
to the house of Baruch Ananio, the head gabbai of
the central committee at Constantinople, and re-
ceived 3,000 lire. Out of this sum they paid 2,000
lire to the pasha for taxes and 250 lire for expenses
of the meshullahim, the balance (750 lire) going to the
halukkah (MS. in New York Public Library). In
the credentials issued to R. Abraham ha-Kohen of
Lask, a Jerusalem meshullah sent to Poland in 1783,
the Sephardic central committee writes that Ashke-
nazim in the Holy Land were taken care of and given
a proportionate share of the halukkah (Schwarz,
“Tebu’at ha-Arez ”).
A section of the Hasidinn from South Russia set-
tled in Tiberias. Their leader was R. Menahem
Mendel of Vitebsk, who sent a meshul-
At lah regularly to Poland and Volhynia,
Tiberias. and ina businesslike manner rendered
receipts for past donations signed by
the leaders in Tiberias, with requests for further as-
sistance. Contributions poured in, and the only dif-
ficulty experienced by the meshullah was the safe
delivery of the funds at Tiberias and Jerusalem, as
the roads via Constantinople were infested by bands
of robbers. He had to wait sometimes for three or
four months for a protected vessel sailing from
Constantinople to Haifa or Acre; and thence a safe-
conduct with armed soldiers to Tiberias and Jerusa-
lem was necessary. Meanwhile, the halukkah being
exhausted, the Hasidim had to borrow money in
anticipation of the next remittances. The require-
ments of the halukkah at that time exceeded 700
ducats (“ Hibat ha-Arez,” p. 61).
Halukkah
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
182
A systematic propaganda for the halukkah was
introduced by R. Abraham Kalisker, leader of the
Hasidim in Tiberias. He secured the assistance of
R. Mordecai of Niesvizh, who issued a proclamation,
dated “22 Adar I., 5556 [1796],” and addressed to all
Jews of Poland, imploring every male and female,
adult and minor, whether living in cities or villages,
to subscribe a fixed sum every week for the support
of their countrymen who had settled in the Holy
Land. The amount was to be paid quarterly, in
addition to special donations at weddings, circum-
cisions, and other religious rejoicings. This proc-
lamation was approved by other rabbis in Poland,
and the result was a substantial increase in the
halukkah. Nowadays the halukkah is distributed
among the four cities Jerusalem, Hebron, Tiberias,
and Safed.
The Perushim-Ashkenazim, coming from Lithu-
ania, Russia, were then few in number and without
organization in the Holy Land, and consequently
were without an adequate share in the halukkah.
R. Menahem Mendel and R. Israel, both of Shklov,
together with twenty other Perushim (disciples of
R. Elijah of Wilna) left Russia and settled in Safed
in 1801. R. Israel, in order to establish a permanent
income for the halukkah of the Perushim congrega-
tion, constituted himself the meshullah for Lith-
uania and White Russia; he succeeded in his task
(introduction to his “Pe’at ha-Shulhan,” Safed,
1887). The halukkah of the Perushim was increased
by R. Aryeh Léb Katzenellenbogen of Brest-
Litovsk and by Hayyim of Volozhin, who issued
proclamations to the effect that the contributions
put in the boxes bearing the name of R. Meir Ba‘al
ha-Nes should not be used for candles in the syna-
gogues, as was the custom in some cases, nor for
any but the specific purpose of supporting the poor
in the Holy Land. This movement tended to trans-
fer all property rights in the Ba‘al ha-Nes boxes to
the halukkah fund. The headquarters for the
halukkah of the Perushim were then removed from
Shklov to Wilna. Similarly the headquarters of the
rest of the Continent were removed from Metz to
Amsterdam, where the central committee combined
the halukkah interests of the Sephardim and Peru-
shim (Luncz, “Jerusalem,” ii. 148-157).
After 1850 the Ashkenazic congregations, or
“kolelim,” at Jerusalem began to split into various
sections, beginning with the Hollandish-German
kolel, followed by the Warsaw and the Hungarian
kolelim, until now there exist no less than twenty-
five kolelim in Jerusalem. The motive for each sep-
aration has invariably been self-interest, to enlarge
the halukkah portion of that particular kolel] whose
menibers are few in comparison with the contribu-
tions derived from their native land. It can not
be denied, however, that the splitting up of the
Ashkenazic community into many small congrega-
tion-groups has stimulated the tendency to home
rule and aroused the spirit of emulation, and that
the result has been greater economy, a more effect-
ive and energetic management, and a general in-
crease of the halukkah.
Some kolelim give certain of their beneficiaries an
advance share over other members (“kedimah ”),
the privileged ones being men of learning and dis-
tinction. Children are generally allowed half a share,
The share of an individual is sometimes mortgaged
for several years in advance, the beneficiary assign-
ing his right through a regular form of contract
called “shi‘bud,” which is discounted at from 5 to
10 per cent, according to the reliability of the kolel
which recognizes the assignment.
The separation of the kolelim, each working for
itself and managed by its own committee in Jerusa-
lem, caused no little anxiety to those who had no
kolel to care for them, as, for instance, those from
foreign countries without a representative congrega-
tion in Palestine. The secession also gave the com-
munity much concern regarding general expenses,
such as the salaries of the rabbis, the
The Wa‘ad Turkish military taxes, and the
ha-Kelali. usual bakshish to the Turkish officials.
For these purposes the central com-
mittee, or “ wa‘ad ha-kelali,” was organized in 1866
in Jerusalem by Rabbi Meir Auerbach, who was suc-
ceeded by R. Samuel Salant in 1878. This commit-
tee represented the genera] interests of all the Ash-
kenazim in Palestine, while the Sephardim continued
the management of their affairs under the guidance
of the hakam bashi of Jerusalem. |
The wa‘ad ha-kelali employed special meshulla-
him, whom they sent to countries without a represent-
ative kolel in Palestine. This plan resulted in open-
ing up many new sources for the halukkah in South
Africa, Australia, England, and particularly in
America. Thus the meshullahim of the Sephardim
found themselves in direct competition with the
meshullahim of the Ashkenazim. The friction be-
tween the two sections increased their expenses and
tended to lessen the revenue. In 1871 the Sephar-
dim and Ashkenazim compromised on the following
basis of settlement regarding the American contribu-
tions: (1) Jerusalem to be the point for all remit-
tances; (2) the Ashkenazim in Jerusalem to re-
ceive from the halukkah fund an advance of $500
per annum; (3) 15 per cent of the remainder to
be advanced for the poor of both parties in Jerusa-
lem; (4) the remainder to be divided: 60 per cent
for both parties in Jerusalem and Hebron, and 40
per cent to Safed and Tiberias. The distribution by
the central committee, irrespective of the kolel affil-
iations, is knownasthe “minor halukkah ” (“haluk-
kah ketannah”), and averages about one dollar per
person.
R, Joseph Riwlin, as secretary of the central com-
mittee, reorganized it in 1885, introduced a modern
system of bookkeeping, and issued printed reports
of the receipts and expenditures of the haJukkah, thus
coming into touch with the gabbaim
Publica- and the contributors. These reports,
tion of knownas“shemesh zZedakah ” (the sun
Accounts. of righteousness), contain items of
historyrelative toalmostevery country
in the world. At the time of the earliest reports
the contributions intended for division between
the Sephardim and the Ashkenazim were usually
sent to Nathan Marcus Adler, chief rabbi of Eng-
land, who forwarded the proper amounts to the
hakam bashi, Raphael Meir Fanijil, and R. Samuel
Salant, in Jerusalem. The North-American Relief
Society for the indigent Jews of Jerusalem, whose
ve ut iy te
CONTRACT BETWEEN A SHELIAH AND THE SEPHARDIC CONGREGATION AT JERUSALEM.
(in the possession of J. D. Eisenstein, New York.)
Halukkah
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
184
members were Portuguese and German Jews, sent
about $750 per annum through the chief rabbi of Eng-
land, with instructions to divide the amount between
the two parties. Contributions in-
American tended for Ashkenazim only were sent
Con- to R. Samuel Salant. The New York
tributions. Society for the Relief of the Poor in
Palestine forwarded to him about
$1,250 yearly. Baltimore was the next best center,
sending about $500 yearly through the congrega-
tions Chizuk Emoonah and Shearith Israel. Alto-
gether the American contributions to the halukkah
did not exceed $5,000 per annum up to 1885. But
through the energetic work of Riwlin the increase of
the Ashkenazic halukkah from America was soon
apparent, and was largely due to the reports and
the activity of the
meshullahim, who
covered every state
from Maine to Cali-
fornia. The agree-
ment of 1871 with the
Sephardim had be-
come obsolete by
that time, and to
strengthen their posi-
tion in America the
Sephardim, folowing
the example of their
opponents, began to
issue, in 1891, similar
reports, entitled “ Ha-
Moreh 1i-Zedakah”
(The Guide for Char-
ity). The Sephardim,
tired of opposing the
Ashkenazim in North
- America, retired, and
confined their atten-
tion to Italy, the
Barbary States,
Turkey, Egypt, Ye-
men, Persia, India,
Turkestan, etc, The
result was that the
two factions entirely
Separated as regards
the halukkah, each working in its own sphere.
The American Jews in Palestine, following the
examples of the other kolelim, strove to organize
their own kolel. J. G. Wilson, the United States
consul at Jerusalem, in his approval of the project
dated Feb. 10, 1879, said that “a responsible agency
for the distribution of their charities may be the
means of great and lasting good,” and promised co-
operation to the best of his power. But the central
committee would not allow this new kolel to exist,
and, instead, satisfied the few American claimants for
assistance. After several other attempts the Amer-
icans finally succeeded in organizing their kolel
(Aug., 1895), and induced RabbiJoshua
L6b Diskin in Jerusalem to accept their
rabbinate and to receive all contribu-
tions for the American kolel. The
members in New York contributing to the Amer-
ican kolel were incorporated Dec. 17, 1897, as
‘¢ Kolel
America.”
Halukkab Box.
“The American Congregation, the Pride of Jerusa-
lem.” The receipts were, in 1898, $948; in 1899,
$1,255; in 1900, $1,762. The central committee,
fearing the consequence of the separation, effected
a settlement in 1901 on a basis of two-thirds for
themselves and one-third forthe Kole] America from
all collections made in the United States and Canada.
The two-thirds were to be used for gencral expenses,
and the balance divided into three parts, one part
for the Perushim, one part for the Hasidim, and the
remainder for Safed and Tiberias. The total
amount of the American collections for the halukkah
is now about $20,000 per annum, and the number of
American applicants in the Holy Land in 1902 was
nearly 800. After deducting the expenses of the me-
shullahim, etc., they receive about $5,500 yearly. In
the above-mentioned
incomes are included
those from certain
houses (see JERUSA-
LEM, MopERN).
A good deal has
been said and written
against the haluk-
kah. The Hebrew
and Jewish news-
papers and_ period-
icals are almost unan-
imous in criticizing
the method, princi-
pally for the reasons:
(1) that the halukkah
promotes mendican-
cy and pauperism;
(2) that it encourages
idleness and _ thrift-
lessness; (8) that it
fosters differences be-
tween the Sephardim
and Ashkenazim;
(4) that it gives to
the rabbis who con-
trol the distribution
too much power to
hamper and prevent
modern schools for
manual Jabor and
secular knowledge; (5) that the distributions are made
unjustly, many who do not need or deserve aid being
beneficiaries, while others, like the Ye-
Objections menites and the extremely poor, are
to the ignored. Itiseven claimed that the ha-
Halukkah. lukkah managers oppose the introduc-
tion of agriculture as a means of ame-
liorating the condition of the poor, and that they are
hostile to the Zionist movement for fear it might in-
terfere with them and end their power. All these
accusations may have some basis of fact. The
rabbis, however, disclaim any intention on their part
to oppose agriculture and industry for the young
and coming generation, so long as a proper religious
training is not neglected. They say that the purpose
of the halukkah is only to give aid to the helpless,
and especially to learned men. Indeed, the editor
of “Ha-Lebanon” defended the public support of
the halukkah for the settlers in the Holy Land on
185
the ground that the Christians support their clois-
ters and nunneries.
It is undeniable that the halukkah produces some
good results. It has centralized the thoughts of the
Jews in every part of the world; it preserves the tra-
ditional idealism of Jewish learning; it aids the
helpless, and in many cases assists the mechanic and
artisan to earn a living for his family; above all,
it is an inuducement to keep alive a Jewish settle-
ment in the Hely Land. Nevertheless, the problem
of organization is not entirely solved.
A list of the best-known meshullahim, with their
dates and spheres of activity, is given here:
1441, ‘Esrim we-Arba‘ah: Europe.
1600. Judah de Leon: Italy (Nepi-Ghirondi, ** Toledot Gedole
Yisrae},”’ p. 166).
1650. poses b. Reuben David Spiro: Italy and Germany (ib.
p. 61).
1659. Benjainin ha-Levi: the Levant and Italy (Michael, °° O
ha-Hayyim,”’ No. 598). ;
1676. Joseph b. Eliezer: Italy and Germany.
1676, Shallit Riqueti: Italy and Germany (with the preceding,
author of “‘Iggeret Mesapperet’’).
1690. Judah Saraf: the Levant and Italy (Michael, ic. No.
835).
1695. Abraham Yizhaki; Italy (Nepi-Ghirondi, l.c. p. 206).
1695. Samuel ha-Kohen: Italy, etc. (ib. p. 359).
1695. Abraham b. Levi Conque: Italy, Germany, and Poland
(Michael, l.c. No. 154).
1700. Hayyim Asael b. Benjamin: Smyrna (ib. No. 895).
1705. Gedaliah Hayyim: Italy (ib. No. 664).
1709. Nathan Mannheim: Germany and Poland.
1709. Jacob of Wilna: Germany and Poland (with the prece-
ding, author of ** Meorot Natan’’).
1710. David Melammed.
1712. Hayyim Hazzan (Michael, f.c. No. 871).
712. Abraham Rovigo (ib.).
1718. Hayyim Jacob b. Jacob David: the Levant and Europe
(ib. No, 877).
1720. Ephraim b. Aaron Nabon: Italy (ib. No. 518).
1730. David Capsoto : Holland (Nepi-Ghirondi, l.c. p. 76).
1730. Moses Hagiz: the Levant and Europe for a period of 50
years (Azulai, ‘* Shem ha-Gedolim,”’ i. 34).
1740. Baruch Gad: Media and Persia (Nepi-Ghirondi, lc. p.
58).
1750. Baruch of Austria (ib. p. 62).
1750. Hayyim Joseph David Azulai: the Levant and Europe, in-
cluding England, for 56 years. His ** Ma‘agal Yashar ”
contains part of his itinerary.
1750. Hayyim Abraham Zebi: Italy (ib. p. 115).
1750. Hayyim Mordecai Zebi: Italy, etc. (Michael, l.c. No. 886).
1750. Rahmim Nissim Mizrahi: the Levant and Italy (Nepi-Ghi-
rondi, U.c. p. 312).
1759. Moses Malki: America (*‘ Publications Am. Jew. Hist.
Soc.”’ p. 18).
760. Hayyim Nissim Jeroham of Wilna: Germany (‘ Kiryah
Ne’emanah,”’ p. 114, together with other meshulla-
him).
1760. Yom-Tob al-Ghazi: the Levant and Italy (Nepi-Ghirondi,
i.c. p. 167).
1765. Hayyim Moda‘: Holland (wrote approbation to ‘* Pe’er ha-
Dor’’).
1765. Jacob al-Yashar: Persia.
1767. Issachar Abulafia: Italy (wrote approbation to ‘Yad
Malachi ”’).
1770. Abraham Solomon Zalmon: Europe (Nepi-Ghirondi, l.c.
p. 61).
1772. Abraham Segre: Germany (Nepi-Ghirondi, lc. p. 25).
1773. Isaac Carregal: West Indies and the British Colonies of
North America.
1776, Jacob Raphael Saraval:
206).
1780. Judah Samuel Ashkenazi (i). p. 214). ;
1788. Abrabam ha-Kohen of Lask: Germany and Poland.
1790. David Hayyim Hazzan: Italy.
1796. Joseph Aben Samon: Tripoli (wrote approbation to
**Hayye Abraham ’’),
1800. Israel of Shklov: Lithuania and White Russia.
1804. Israel Raphael Segre (Nepi-Ghirondi, t.c. p. 25).
1807. Hayyim Baruch of Austria: Germany (wrote approbation
to “ Ozar ha-Hayyim ”’).
Holland and England (ib. p.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Halukkah
1810. Solomon David Hazzan: the Levant and Italy (Nepi-
Ghirondi, l.c. p. 348).
1830. Joseph Edels Ashkenazi: Italy (id. p. 212).
1848. Isaac Covo: Egypt.
1850. Isaac Farhi: Italy (ib. p. 220).
1850. Levi Nehemias: Italy (ib.).
1850. Joseph Schwarz: the United States (author of ‘ Te-
bu’at ha-Arez”’).
1856. Moses Hazzan: the Levant (author of ‘* Nahalah le-Yis-
rael*’).
1865. Raphael Meir Fanijil: Europe (bakam bashi and author
of ** Leb Marpe’’).
1885. Moses Riwlin: Australia.
1885. Nathan Natkin: the United States (d. 1888, in New
York).
1890. Abraham ibn Ephraim : Persia (Sephardic).
1908 (at present):
Shalom Hamadi: Yemen (Sephardic).
Benjamin ha-Kohen: Caueasia, Russia (Sephardic),
J. Meynhas: India (Sephardic).
Eliezer Zalman Grajewski: the United States.
Joshua Léb Siissenwein: the United States (author of
** Zir Ne’eman,”’ Jerusalem, 1898).
Solomon Joseph Eliach.
The following statistics, for the year 1902, give the
ast number of persons in each (Ashkena-
Statistics. zic) kolel, the amount of its halukkah,
and the average amount per capita:
TABLE OF THE HALUKKAH: 1902.
: so at
S | .s | os 3
KN ES os aa
Sem ro aes $3
+ va ar ms oO
Name of Kolel. bey o> S = a=
80 rs. oes _* =
& ar > <
Oo ee <4
RUSSIA.
1. Wilna-Samogitia ....... $5.4 $12,000
BARTON 7 5648s Kea eex es 4.55 7,500
Oi) MATIBE sou sau teas aoe en oes 2.49 2,500
4) EUSHGA i c3 feu teabeces 4.65 3,250
6: BION 2 bis meets 9,16 1,2
6. Suwalki-Lomza......... 11.35 7.0100
fae a 1d bl 1.07 750
Be WATSAW cccitin evens ees 14.17 18,600
DP PLE SLE: Fuse Sie tin ecet eos ieee Ry 3.68 7,000
Os CAV. Sea ca scutes stnciek 1875 368 2.05 750
TT: SOM a eae: aa ee wake place 304 2.30 7
As VOINVNIGs 6 66 ie SS ie satel! "aake 1,160 1,55 1,800
13. Bessarabia.............. 56 2.23 125
14, TADOBHOL 4 sce e ae escsans 50 3.D0 175
15. KOydenow......eseceeee 180 13.89 2,500
RUMANIA. |
103 MOG VIA, oxescda ae sdasy Tk 4 le 680
7. Wallachia ...........68. 600 | 2.00 1,200
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
1G Deere... 6. cariwsaccwns 7717 10.30 8,000
1D). ROBOW sciatica va cutee » 150 5.60 840
BE ERAT Ric she ware See nae oh 125 9.60 1,200
21. Bukowina...........00. ssa ge 160 8.75 1,400
22. Siebenbiirgen .......... 60 | 26.67 1,600
es dante bacstaecategts 1,300 80.76 40,000
ary pene 180 ! BS rw 6,080
292 {| 18.50 5,400
CES Ruewaet tees 15,506 | $8.56 | $182,750
average
Nos. 1-7, 22-25, are Perushim; Nos. 8-21 are Hasidim; No.1
includes Kovno, Couriand, and Finland ; No. 4includes a prov-
ince in White Russia and Shklov and Moghilef; No. 8, except
Suwalkiand Loiza ; No. 9, *' HaBaD,”’ initials of Hokmah, Bi-
nah, De‘ah, a cabalistic name symbolizing a society of Hasidim
who read the Zohar; Nos. 14 and 15, government of Minsk;
No. 24, “* HoD,” initials of Holland-Deutschland.
The following table shows the halukkah receipts
of the Sephardim and Ashkenazim from America in
1890-99:
Ham
Ha-Mabdil
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
186
a Pte, 4 | ax., -
ek .Sephar-' AshKe- : Sephar-| AshKe-
Year. | dim, | nazim. | Year dim. | nazim.
1800) ow ssccesss $5,095 | $21,320 '/1896.......... | S13.178 | $26,384
TROLS «25 tatoo 6,840 | 26.441 1800. eee + 12,768) 28,670
LBS oy greaeeua 8,221 | 24,644 1/1898-99....... 19,907 | 63,949
TBNGac aaa ats 9,327 | 24,363 | | —_——__——. —
TS nt ak sept | 14.159 | 20,070;| Average....) $10,263 $26,172
LeOsimde Peeee 4 | 13,147 | 25,981 |,
The receipts of the wa‘ad ha-kelali from 1885 to 1890 were as
follows : 1885, $10,276 ; 1886, $13,885 ; 1887, $15,550; 1888, $14,936 ;
1889, $20,032 ; showing a decided increase during the period.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kontres Emet Meha-Arez, Amsterdam, 1843-
844; Ot Emet, Nos. 1-8, Amsterdam, 1854-59; Reports
Shemesh Zedakah, Nos. 1-20, Jerusalem, 1885-1900; Re-
ports Ha-Moreh li-Zedakah, Nos. 1-9, Jerusalem, 1891-99;
Reports American Congregation, the Pride of Jerusalem,
Nos. 1-3, New York, 1898-1900; Report Kolel_ America, No.
1, Jerusalem, 1901; Ha-Zefirah, 1880, No. 41; Ha-Meliz, 1883,
No. 94; 1885, No. 16; 1888, No. 164; 1889, Nos. 82-88; Habaz-
zelet, 1889, No. 21: Jewish Comment, xiv., No. 17; comp.
Table of Halukkah with Eisenstein’s Report of Kolel_Amer-
ica, 1898, No. 1, p. 5, and with Lunez, Lach, 1901, vii. 168-171 ;
Jitid. Voikskalender, pp. 151 et sey., Briinn, 1903-04.
A, J. D. E.
HAM.—Biblical Data: Second son of Noah
(Gen. v. 32); mentioned second in the table of the
nations (Gen. x. 6), where his descendants are given.
In Gen. ix. 24 he appears as the youngest of Noah’s
sons, who treated his father with irreverence when
the latter was under the influence of drink. J.
In Rabbinical Literature: Ham is repre-
sented by the Talmudists as one of the three who
had intercourse with their wives in the Ark, being
punished therefor in that his descendants, the Ethi-
opians, are black (Sanh, 108b; Gen. R, xxxvi. 11).
Some explained the obscure passage Gen. ix. 22-24
as follows: Ham emasculated his father, saying,
“My father has three sons already; and now he
wishes a fourth son.” Therefore Noah cursed Ca-
naan, Ham’s fourth son, saying, “Thou hast hin-
dered me from having a fourth son; I will curse thy
own fourth son.” According to another opinion,
Ham defiled his father, and Noah cursed Canaan be-
cause Ham, with his father and his two brothers,
had been previously blessed by God (Sanh. 70a; Gen.
R. xxxvi. 4). Another opinion declares that the
mutilation of Noah was committed by Canaan, but
was really caused by Ham mentioning his father’s
nakedness in the presence of Ham’s youngest son (Ex.
R. xxx. 5). Possibly Ham saw Canaan’s deed and
did not condemn him for it (Yalk., Gen. 61; comp.
“Da‘at Zekenim” ad foc.). Ham was punished by
having his descendants led into captivity with their
buttocks uncovered (Isa, xx. 4; Gen. R. xxxvi. 8).
J. M. SEL.
—~—Critical View: The modern critics regard the
story narrated in Gen. ix, 24 as having been origi-
nally told of Canaan, “Ham father of [Canaan] ”
being a later insertion. The ethnographic coucep-
tions of the ancient Hebrews first divided the races
they knew into those related to them (Shem),
those inhabiting the land (Canaan), and those out-
side(Japheth). Later on this threefold division seems
to have been applied to all nations known to the
Israclites, and then, it being impossible to regard
Canaan as representative of the south, Egypt took
that place. “Ham” is, according to this view,
equivalent to “Egypt,” one of the names of which
was “Chemi” (black, referring to the dark color of
the soil of the Nile valley). Accordingly, in the
table of nations Ham is reported to have four chief
branches: Cush = Ethiopia, Mizraim = Egypt, Phut
= Libya, and Canaan. These four divisions were
then subdivided, among the descendants of Cush
being the Babylonians, Accadians, and Assyrians;
among those of Mizraim, the Philistines and the
Cypriotes (Caphtorim); among the Canaanites, Si-
don, Heth, and nine other smaller tribes like the
Jebusites, and the Amorites (Gen. x. 6-20). The
exact basis of this classification is not clear. It is
mainly geographical, all the nations south of Pales-
tine being included in the list of the descendants
of Ham; but this scarcely accounts for the presence
of Canaan among the sons of Ham, which may have
been due to the need of reconciling the legend of
Noah’s disgrace with the modern cosmogony. J.
HAMA: Babylonian scholar of the fourth amo-
raic generation; contemporary of Papa (Ket. 86a), —
and successor of Nahman b. Isaac in the rectorate of
the academy at Pumbedita (856-377 ; Gritz, “ Gesch.”
2d ed., iv. 866; comp. Sherira’s “Iggeret.”). Com-
ing from Nehardea (see B. B. 7b; Rashi ad loc.), he
became known as “the amora of Nehardea” (Sanh.
17b). As rector of an academy many undecided
cases were submitted to him, and his decisions have
been approved by later generations as good law (B.
B. 7b; Shebu. 48b). On one occasion, however, he
signally failed, and was severely criticized. King
Shabur inquired of him, “Where does your Law
prescribe burial for the dead?” Hama found no an-
swer. When Aha b. Jacob heard of Haima’s failure,
he exclaimed, “The world is ruled by fools! Why
did he not quote the verse (Deut. xxi. 23), ‘Thou
shalt in any wise bury him that day ’?” (Sanh. 46b).
Hama made his living by “ tarsha,” 7.e., selling goods
to venders on credit and at the prices prevailing in
the higher markets, but assuming the risks of trans-
portation (B. M. 65a; comp. 69b).
Jost (“Gesch. des Judenthums und Seiner Sekten,”
ii, 197) erroneously identifies him with Hama b.
Tobiah, who is said to have caused a _ priest’s
daughter to be burned for adultery (Sanh. 52b),
contrary to the Pharisaic mode of execution and
against the law abrogating capital punishment in
the absence of the Great Sanhedrin (see CAPITAL
PUNISHMENT). This Hama was a later Babylonian
amora, of whom nothing more is known.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Halévy, Dorot ha-Rishonim, ii. 252; Heil-
prin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.; Weiss, Dor, iii. 204.
Ss. s. S. M.
HAMA B. BISA (BISAI): Amora of the third
century, who formed the middle link of a schol-
arly trio, and who exceeded his predecessor, as his
successor in turn exceeded him, in the acquisition
of knowledge. Like many other students, he left
home and family, being gone twelve years. When
he returned, fearing to startle his family, he went first
to the local bet ha-midrash, whence he sent word to
them of his arrival. While there his young son
Hoshaiah soon engaged him in a discussion, neither
knowing the other. Hama, admiring the logical
bent of the young man’s mind, sorrowfully re-
flected on his long absence from home, where he
himself might have raised such a son. He at last
went to his house, and there, while seated beside his
187
wife, he saw enter his late interlocutor at the bet
ha-midrash. Surmising that he had come to con-
tinue the discussion, Hama rose to receive him,
whereupon his wife surprised him by exclaiming,
“Does a father ever rise before a son?” (Ket. 72a).
On another occasion father and son were discussing
a point of civil law. They disagreed and submitted
their views to Bisa, the father of Hama, who sided
with Hoshaiah. On this occasion Rami b. Hama
expressed the hope that in the learned trio would be
fulfilled the Scriptural saying, “A threefold cord is
not quickly broken ” (Eccl. iv. 12; B. B. 59a).
According to the tosafists (B. B. 59a, 8.0. “ Weha-
Hut”), the Hoshaiah here cited is identical with
HosHAIAH RABBAH, Bacher (“Ag. Pal. Amor.” i.
89) adopts this view, but Frankel (“ Mebo,” p. 85b)
rightly questions its tenability. There is no doubt
that Hosbaiah Rabbah’s father’sname was “ Hama,”
but it is cited with the addition of “Father of R.
Hoshaiah ” (Yer. Sheb. ii. 38d; Yer. Niddah iii. 50c),
Only once does the name “ Hama b. Bisa” appear so
as to leave no doubt of his being a contemporary of
Judah I., and, therefore, the father of Hoshaiah Rab-
bah (Niddah 14b). But the patronymic is an error,
and the parallel passage reads correctly: “Hama,
the father of Hoshaiah ” (Yer. Niddah ii. 49d). Itis
probable that Hama was the father of the younger
Hoshaiah, and flourished contemporaneously with
Rami b. Hama, the son-in-law of R. Hisda.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.
J. S. M.
HAMA B. HANINA: Palestinian amora of
the third century; contemporary of R. Johanan
(Shab. 147b). Like his father, Hanina b. Hama, he
directed a school at Sepphoris (Yer. Sanh. x. 28a),
and was well known in the circles of the halakists
(comp. Shab. Z.c.; Yer. Shab. v. 7c; Yer. Suk. ii.
52d; Yer. Meg. iii. 74b). He was distinguished as
a haggadist, in which field he occupied a high post-
tion, haggadists like Levi frequently quoting him
(comp. Pesik. iv. 3%a, vii. 67b, xvii. 182a, xxiii.
Andante.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ham
Ha-Mabdil
1538a, b, xxxi. 195a). Who his teachers were is no-
where stated. Possibly R. Hiyya the Great was
one of them (see Sanh. 29a: Hiyya’s patronymic is
doubtless a mistake).
In his homilies Hama sought to convey practical
lessons. Thus, commenting on the Scriptural com-
mand, “Ye shall walk after the Lord your God”
(Deut, xiii. 5[A. V. 4]), he asks, “ How can man walk
after God, of whom it is written, ‘ The Lord thy God
is aconsuming fire ’?” (2d, iv. 23 [[A. V. 24]). But, he
explains, the Bible means to teach that man should
follow in God’s ways, “As He ciothes the naked
(Gen. ili. 21) so do thou clothe the naked” (Sotah
14a). According to Hama death was inflicted upon
Adam not so much because of his sin as to prevent
wicked men in the future from proclaiming them-
selves immortal gods (Gen. R. ix. 5). Hama’s an-
cestors were wealthy, and built many synagogues.
On one occasion, while visiting, with his colleague
Hoshaiah II., the synagogues at Lydda, he proudly
exclaimed, “ What vast treasures have my ancestors
sunk in these walls!” To this Hoshaiah responded,
“How many lives have thy ancestors sunk here!
Were there no needy scholars whom that treasure
would have enabled to devote themselves entirely
to the study of the Law?” (Yer. Peah viii. 21b).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pat. Amor. i. 447 et seq;
Frankel, Mebo, 85b; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ed. Maski-
leison, ii. 188b ; Weiss, Dor, iii. 91.
E. C, S. M.
HA-MABDIL: Ahymn signed with the acros-
tic “Isaac ha-Katon” (Isaac ben Judah ibn Ghay-
yat, 1030-89), obviously written for the Nr‘ILAn
service of the Day of Atonement, but now used
in the HaspaLay at the close of the Sabbath.
Of its many musical settings the finest is the fol-
lowing old Spanish melody.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Literaturgesch. pp. 14, 554; De Sola
and Aguilar, Ancient Melodies of the Spanish and Portu-
guese Jews, No. 24; Young Israel, ii. 242 ; Pauer and Cohen,
pana Hebrew Melodies, No.7; Baer, Ba‘al Tefitlah,
0. A
A. F. L. C.
HA-MABDIL
1. He who part - eth sa-cred and pro - fane, To for - give our sins
2. Lord, on Thee I call, O save Thou me! And the path of life
3. In Thy hand, O Lord, are we but clay! Light or grave, our faults
may He deign, As the sands our
make me see; From the clutch of
do not weigh; Thenshall day pour
as the myr-iad stars.................5-
lead me forth to -~ day...................5-
night de-clare the truth.................6.
stock.. in - crease... a - gain, And
sick - ness set..... me free, And
forth.. the word... to - day, And
ee 2) night;
ee from...... night; 2
ais (Osh eossmee night; Then .. shall
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
188
sands our StOGK .scciiee sees in -
clutch of sick = - - ness
day pour FOLD ow once the
crease........... & - gain,....... And
BOG ck canes asa ees me TOO 0 oc e5e2 And
WOE Siinadu ie das to - day,....... And
Cc
== eee 2 ee et
aera 7 i a
as the myr- iad _ stars
lead me _ forth to - day
night de - clare the
HAMADAN: Persian city; 160 miles west-
southwest of Teheran. Hamadan is generally iden-
tified with the ancient Ecbatana, the Achmetha of
the Bible, capital of Media Magna. It seems that
the Jews settled there soon after its foundation and
prospered; but with its conquest by the Arabs (6384)
persecutions began. Benjamin of Tudela, who was
there in the middle of the twelfth century, makes
the statement that he found there fifty thousand
Jews. From the following remark of Edrisi, also,
it is evident that the city was inhabited by a great
number of Jews: “The commerce of this place was
very considerable, which accounts for the great num-
ber of Jewsit contained.” Later, under the Sufi and
Afghan dynasties (seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
turies), the Jews of Hamadan suffered heavily.
The Judeo-Persian poet Babai b, Lutaf of
Kashan described in verse the persecutions of the
Jews throughout Persia under Abbas I. (1595-1628),
Abbas II. (1639-66), and under the first kings of the
Afghan dynasty. The Jews of Hamadan suffered
especially at the hands of Mohammed Bey, the fanat-
ical vizier of Abbas II., who gave them the alterna-
tives of embracing Islam or of leaving the country
empty-handed. Those who refused to do either
were put to death. The offer of rich rewards for
apostasy occasioned a considerable number of con-
versions among the poor Jews. Mahmud Shah
(1725) massacred a great number of Jews, among
them being the rabbi of Hamadan, Mulley Musa.
Another massacre occurred by order of Tahmas Kuli
Khan, better known as “ Nadir Shah ” (1735-47).
In spite of these persecutions there was still a
considerable number of Jewish families at Hama-
dan at the beginning of the nineteenth century.
M. L. Dubeux says: “Hamadan in the year
1818 contained about nine thousand houses and
from forty to fifty thousand inhabitants, inclu-
ding six hundred Jewish families.” But this
number diminished considerably within twenty
years, for. Flandin, who was at Hamadan in 1839
and 1840, says: “The Jews fabricate an immense
quantity of imitation Greek and Sassanid coins.
They number about two hundred families, and I
think their predilection for Hamadan is due to the
tradition that Mordecai and Esther were buried
there.” Benjamin of Tudela mentions the sepul-
cher: “In front of one of the synagogues of Hama-
dan is the sepulcher of Mordecaiand Esther.” Ben-
jamin IT. speaks of it at greater length; he says that
the Jews bold it in great veneration, and visit it
at the end of every month and at Purim. They
even sacrificed there, and gave the sacrifices to
the poor, in order to win the protection of Mor-
decai and Esther. In his time (19th cent.) there were
at Hamadan three synagogues and three rabbis,
One of them, R. Elijah, had the title of “nasi”;
the second was R. Aaron. Dr. Polak, physician to
Nasir al-Din Shah from 1855 to 1860, had an oppor-
tunity to observe minutely the condition of the Jews
of Hamadan, as this town was the summer residence
of the king. He wrote as follows:
“The Jewish colony lives in aspecial quarter in the midst of
the town, in a ghetto. Their sanctuary is @ small monument,
built in the shape of a dome, and, according to tradition,
contains the tombs of Mordecai and Esther. The Jews earn
their living by all kinds of gola- and silyer-work, in which they
are as clever as the Caucasians; by glass-cutting, silk-weaving,
dealing in old clothes and in skins. Many of them are masons,
blacksmiths, tailors, and shoemakers; some practise medicine,
which they study according to the works of Avicenna, who is
buried at Hamadan. They live under great difficulties, because
they are considered as outcasts; they are constantly exposed to
the caprices of the governor, who uses every pretext to plun-
der them. . . . Should a Jew appear in the street dressed de-
cently, or on horseback, the spectators are indignant at him for
daring to appear Jike a true believer. Should he, on the econ-
trary, be dressed miserably, he is followed by a crowd of young
rascals, who throw mud and stones at him.”
_If the numbers given by Dubeux and Flandin
are exact, the Jews of Hamadan have increased re-
markably, in spite of persecutions; for, according
to the report of the director of the Alliance school
at Hamadan, there are in that town about 5,000
Jews.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Babai, Diwan (Paris MS. No. 1356): Barbier
de Meynard, Dictionnaire dela Perse ; Benjamin of Tudela,
Itinerary, ed. Asher, i. 127; Benjamin II... Mass‘e Yisrael, p.
91; Dubeux, La Perse, p. 26; Edrisi (Freneh transl. of Jau-
bert), ii. 162, 166; Flandin, Voyage en Perse, i. 383: Israel
Levi, in R. HB. J. xxxvi. 237 et seq.: Monatsschrift, xvii. 110:
Polak, in Arch. Isr. 1865, pp. 440 et seg.
G M. SEL.
HA-MAGGID. See PERIODICALS.
HAMAT (commonly called Hamai Gaon):
Pseudonym of a cabalist belonging, according to
Jellinek, to the school of Isaac the Blind. The
works which bear this name are: “Sefer ha-Yihud.”
probably on the Tetragrammaton, quoted by Meir
ibn Gabbai (“‘Abodat ha-Kodesh,” 9th ed., Cracow)
and Moses Cordovero (“ Pardes,” 65th ed., Korez);
“Sefer ha-‘Iyyun,” on the existence and unity of
God, and followed by a mystical prayer in the
style of the “Hekalot de Rabbi Nehunya ben ha-
Kanah,” arranged in the order of the Eighteen
189
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hamadan
Haman
Benedictions. The “Sefer ha-‘Tyyun” was pub-
lished at Warsaw in 1798, among the “ Likkutim ”
of Hai Gaon, the end of the “Sefer ha-‘Tyyun” bear-
ing the special title “Sha‘are Shamayim.” A small
fragment which was found embedded in R. Ga-
maliel’s prayer (“Sefer ha-Yihud”) was published
by Jellinek.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jellinek, Auswahl Kabbalistischer Mystik,
pp. 8 et seq.; idem, Bet ha-Midrash. iii, xxxix., note 4; Steip-
schneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 629; idem, Cat. Leyden, p. 1003
idem, Hebr. Bibl. iv. 47; idem, Jewish Literatare, pp. 111,
307, note 28a; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 437, No. 264.
K. I. Br.
HAMAN THE AGAGITE.—Biblical Data:
Son of Hammedatha; chief minister of King Ahas-
uerus (Hsth. iii. 1-2). As his name indicates, Haman
was a descendant of AaaG, the king of the Amalek-
ites. On account of his attempt to exterminate
the Jews in the kingdom of Ahasuerus, he is fre-
quently called “the persecutor of the Jews” (77¥
omiuwn; Esth. iii. 10; viii. 1; ix, 10, 24). His
machinations against the Jews and his downfall are
remembered during the Feast of Purim. Filled with
annoyance because Mordecai did not bow before
him, Haman resolved upon the extermination of
the Jews throughout the whole kingdom, He drew
lots to determine the day of the massacre, and the
lot fell on the 13th of Adar (Esth. iii. 4-7). He
offered the king ten thousand talents of silver for
permission to do with the Jews as he pleased. The
permission was granted, and he accordingly des-
patched letters to all parts of the Persian kingdom
to massacre the Jews on the 13th of Adar (iii. 8-15).
His intrigues, however, were baflied by EstuEr.
In order to throw him off his guard she invited him
to a banquet to which she had also asked the king.
Haman, looking upon this as an indication of special
favor, in his pride went so far as to prepare a gal-
lows whereon to hang Mordecai (v. 14), But in
that night a sudden change occurred in Haman’s
fortunes. His own answer to the king’s question
what should be done to him whom the king delighted
to honor, which Haman supposed referred to him-
self, obliged Haman to lead Mordecai, his mor-
tal enemy, clad in royal garments and seated on
the king’s horse, through the streets of Shushan and
to proclaim: “Thus shall it be done to the man
whom the king delighteth to honor” (vi. 9). After-
ward, while Haman was again drinking with the king
at a banquet prepared by Esther, the latter exposed
to the king Haman’s plot. The king, filled with
anger, ordered his officers to hang Haman on the
very gallows which he had prepared for Mordecai
(vii. 9). Ahasuerus bestowed upon Esther Haman’s
house (viii. 1); the ten sons of Haman were executed
on the 18th of Adar and then hanged (ix. 7-9, 14).
E.G. H. M. SEL.
——In Rabbinical Literature: Haman is identi-
fied by the Talmudists with Memucan, the last of
the seven princes “which saw the king’s face”
(Esth. i. 14), giving to “Memucan” the signification
of “prepared for punishment” (Targ. to Esth.;
Meg. 12b). Haman wasadirect descendant of Agag
in the sixteenth generation and consequently an
Amalekite (Targ. Sheni; Josephus, “Ant.” xi. 6,
& 5). The Septuagint, however, gives for “ha-
Agagi” 6 Maxedov in Esth. ix. 24, while in the pre-
ceding instances no translation whatever is given.
Having attempted to exterminate the Jews of Persia,
and rendering himself thereby their worst enemy,
Haman naturally became the center of many Tal-
mudic legends. Being at one time in extreme want,
he sold himself as a slave to Mordecai (Meg. 15a).
He was a barber at Kefar Karzum for the space of
twenty-two years (¢b. 16a). Haman had an idola-
trous image embroidered on his garments, so that
those who bowed to him at command of the king
bowed also to the image (Esth. R. vii.).
Haman was also an astrologer, and when he was
about to fix the fime for the massacre of the Jews
he first cast lots to ascertain which was the most
auspicious day of the week for that purpose. Each
day, however, proved to be under some influence
favorable to the Jews. He then sought to fix the
month, but found that the same was true of each
month; thus, Nisan was favorable to the Jews be-
cause of the Passover sacrifice; Iyyar, because of the
small Passover. But when he arrived at Adar he
found that its zodiacal sign was Pisces, and he said,
“Now I shall be able to swallow them as fish which
swallow one another ” (Esth. R. vii., Targ. Sheniiii.).
Haman had 365 counselors, but the advice of none
was so good as that of his wife, Zeresh. She it was
especially that induced Haman to build a gallows
for Mordecai, assuring him that this was the only
way in which he would be able to prevail over his
enemy, for hitherto the just had always been res-
cued from every other kind of death. As God fore-
saw that Haman himself would be hanged on the
gallows He asked which tree would volunteer to
serve asthe instrument of death. Each tree, declar-
ing that it was used for some holy purpose, objected
to being soiled by the unclean body of Haman.
Only the thorn-tree could find no excuse, and there-
fore offered itself for a gallows (Esth. R. ix.; Midr.
Abba Gorion vii., ed. Buber, Wilna, 1886; in Tar-
gum Sheni this is narrated somewhat differently).
Haman selected a thorn-tree in the king’s garden,
and, singing and rejoicing, set it up before his door,
and said to himself, “'To-morrow, in the morning, at
the time of the reading of the ‘Shema‘,’ I shall hang
Mordecai.” Then he measured the tree by compar-
ing it with his own person to see whether it was
suited to the purpose. Just then a “bat kot” came
from heaven saying, “The tree is suited to thee; it
is prepared for thee since the day of creation.” He
then went to the bet ha-midrash, where he found
Mordecai surrounded by his pupils to the number of
22.000, all with dust on their heads and clad in sack-
cloth. Haman placed chains upon their necks and
feet, and set guards over them, saying to himself,
“T will first massacre these, and then I will hang
Mordecai.” It was the cry of these pupils ascend-
ing to heaven that brought about the sudden change
in Haman’s fate (Esth. R. ix.; Midr. Abba Gorion v.).
Haman tried hard to avoid the humiliation of lead-
ing Mordecai through the streets of Shushan; he im-
plored the king to spare him that disgrace and offered
every kind of reparation to Mordecai, but the king
remained inflexible (Targ. Sheni vi.). Atthe time of
leading Mordecai through the streets of Shushan.
Haman performed the duties of four different call-
ings: barber, bath attendant, groom, and public crier.
Hamath
Hamburg
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
190
He was also compelled to bend forward that Mor-
decai might mount from his back on to the horse
(Meg. 16a), It is also said that when King Ahasue-
rus rose from the banquet in anger and went into
his garden he saw angels in the form of men felling
the trees, who said that they were ordered to do so
by Haman (72.). According to Esth. R. x., it was
the angel Michael that felled the trees and who af-
terward pushed Haman on to Esther’s couch.
Haman was hanged on the second day of the
Passover feast (Esth. R. and Meg. /.c.). The Tal-
mudists did not agree as to the number of Haman’s
sons; according to Rab there were thirty: ten had
died, ten were hanged, and ten became beggars. Ac-
cording to the Rabbis, the beggars were seventy in
number; according to Rami bar Abi, there were al-
together two hundred and eight (Meg. 15b). Pietro
Perreau published in Steinschneider’s “ Hebr. Bibl.”
(vii. 46-47) a supposed text of Haman’s circular
regarding the massacre of the Jews (comp. “ Midrash
Panim Aherim,” first text, ed. Buber). The manu-
script, which is found in the Parma Library (No. 924),
dates from the thirteenth century. See PURIM.
8. 8. M. Set.
HAMATH (nn): A city and district on the
northern frontier of Palestine (Num. xiii. 22, xxxiv.
8; I Kings viii. 65; and elsewhere), situated at the
foot of Mount Hermon (Josh. xiii. 5; Judges iii. 3).
It is once called RAN MAN = “the great Hamath”
(Amos vi. 2). The inhabitants, who were cailed
“ Hamathites ” (mMpnn), seem to have been a Hamitic
race included among the descendants of Canaan (Gen.
x. 18). There is no mention of the kingdom of
Hamath till the time of David, when, it is stated,
Toi, King of Hamath, warred with Hadadezer, King
of Zobah; and, on the defeat of the latter by David,
Toi sent his son to congratulate the Jewish king (II
Sam. viii. 10).
Hamath was certainly one of the tributary king-
doms of Solomon (I Kings v. 4), as is evidenced by
the fact that Solomon built store-cities there (II
Chron. viii. 4). After the death of Solomon, Ha-
math seems to have regained her independence; for
an inscription of Shalmaneser II. (860 B.c.) states
that Irhuleni, King of Hamath, made an alliance
with the Hittites, with Damascus under Ben-hadad,
with Ahab of Israel, and with others. It has been
inferred from II Kings xiv. 28 that Jeroboam II.
(c. 810 B.C.) recovered Hamath; but the reading of
the passage is doubtful, the text apparently being
corrupt. Amos, however, who prophesied in the
time of Jeroboam IT. (Amos f. 1), speaks of Hamath
as desolate (¢d. vi. 2).
In the Assyrian inscriptions it is stated that Eni-
Ilu, King of Hamath, brought tribute to Tiglath-
pileser IIT’ (730 n.c.), who distributed a part of it
among his generals, annexing nineteen districts to
Assyria and transporting 1,228 Hamathites to the
sources of the Tigris. Sargon, too, boasts of having
defeated the Hamathites and of having settled in
their country 4,300 Assyrians. The statement as
to the conquest of the Hamathites by the kings of
Assyria is confirmed by II Kings xviii. 34, xix. 18.
According to the Bible, Shalmaneser, King of As-
syria, transported some Hamathites to Samaria (2d.
xvii. 24). On the other hand, Isaiah speaks of
Hamath as one of the places containing exiled
Israelites (Isa. xi. 11). The people of Hamath made
an idol named “ Ashima” (2d. xvii. 30).
Hamath was known to the Greeksand Romans by
the name “Epiphaneia,” given to it by Antiochus
Epiphanes (Josephus, “Ant.” i. 6, § 2; Jerome,
“Qnomasticon,” s.r. “Aemath”). In the Midrash,
Hamath is called §'35°5 (= “Epiphaneia”; Gen. R.
xxxvil. 8). Still, Targ. pseudo-Jonathan to Num,
xiii. 22, Targ. Yer. to Num. xxxiv. 8, and the Syriac
version of I Chron. xviii. 16 render “ Hamath” by
“ Antiocheia,” which was the most important Syrian
town at the time of the Targumists. This place ig
now known by its ancient name, “Hamah.” Burck-
hardt visited it in 1812, and saw the Hittite inscrip-
tions in relief on stones. He describes the place as
situated on both sides of the Orontes, and as having
a population of 30,000.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Poecocke, Description of the East, i. 143;
Burckhardt, Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, p. 145;
Robinson, Biblical Researches, Appendix, p. 116; Bade-
ker-Sovin, Palestine, 8d ed., p. 424; Bubl, Geographie des
Alien Palistina, 1896.
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HAMATH-ZOBAH: A place mentioned in II
Chron. viii. 8, as having been taken by Solomon.
Some conjecture that Hamath-zobah is the same as
Hamath; but the rendering of the former as “ Bae-
soba” by the Greek translators indicates that the
two were distinct.
E. G. H. B. P.
HA-MAZKIR: A _ bibliographical magazine
published by M. Steinschneider, twenty-one volumes
of which, covering the years 1858-82, were issued,
Its full title reads: ““s330m: Hebrilische Biblio-
graphie: Blitter fir Neuere und Aeltere Literatur
des Judenthums.” It is an invaluable aid to the
student of Jewish literature and history, as it con-
tains, besides bibliographical information of the most
varied sort, many independent essays ancl researches
by Steinschneider himself and by the leading Jew-
ish scholars of the period. It was continued in 1890
by N. Brill, in Frankfort-on-the-Main, under the
title “Central-Anzciger fiir Jiidische Literatur.”
Brill died before the first volume was completed.
This was followed in 1896 by the “Zeitschrift fiir
Hebritische Bibliographie,” published by H. Brody
(Frankfort-on-the-Main); frem 1900 on in conjunc-
tion with A. Freimann,
HAMBERGER, C. H.: Physician in Leipsic;
died March 2, 1847, at an advanced age. He trans-
lated G. B. de Rossi’s “Dizionario Storico degli
Autori Ebrei” into German under the title “ Histo-
risches Worterbuch der Jiidischen Schriftsteller und
Ihrer Werke,” Leipsic, 1839. His “Nordische Gét-
terlehre,” which appeared in 1826 under the pseudo-
nym “H, A. M. Berger,” was republished with the
title “Nordische Mythologie,” and under his own
name, Zittau, 1835.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. i. 359; Steinschneider, Cat.
Bod. col. 1031.
S. M. K.
HAMBRO, JOSEPH: <Aulic councilor to the
King of Denmark; born at Copenhagen Nov. 2,
1780; died in London Oct. 8, 1848. He began his
191
career with a Hamburg firm, afterward, however,
devoting himself, as general agent, to the develop-
ment of his father’s business. In this he was success-
ful, establishing a branch in London, and extending
his trausactions throughout the northern countries
of Europe. Uambro became an aulic councilor
and Knight of the Dannebrog, and as early as 1820
“Hofraad Hambro” was spoken of as “the richest
man in Copenhagen.” Toward the end of his life
his health broke down, and he lived fora time in
Italy. Hemarried a Christian, and had his son bap-
tized. In 1831 with his entire family he took up his
permanent abode in London. He did not identify
himself very closely with the affairs of his congre-
gation. He remained, however, a member of the
synagogue to the last, and was buried in the ceme-
tery of the Great Synagogue.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jewish Chronicle, April 24, 1891.
J:
HAMBRO’ SYNAGOGUE: Founded in Lon-
don by Mordecai HAMBURGER in 1702, as a protest
against the tyranny of Abraham of Hamburg, the
parnas of the Great Synagogue. Its members met
at Hamburger's house, in Magpye alley, Fenchurch
street, the rabbi being Jochanan Holleschau. It
was the first attempt at an independent synagogue,
and the ecclesiastical authorities of both the Sephar-
dim and Ashkenazim combined to obtain an injunc-
tion against a place of public Jewish worship in St.
Mary Axe, so near to both Duke’s Place and Bevis
Marks. <A veto was obtained from the corporation ;
but notwithstanding this the synagogue was erected
in the garden attached to Hamburger’s house, the
foundation-stone being laid Siwan 3, 5485 (17285),
by Wolf Prager, after whom the synagogue was
sometimes called. Generally, however, it was
spoken of as “the Hambro’,” as it followed the
ritual of Hamburg. Holleschau was succeeded by
Meshullam Zalman, son of R. Jacob Emden, and he
by Hirschel Levin, father of Dr. Herschell. The
synagogue was pulled down in 1893 to make room
for city improvements, and its place in the United
Synagogue of London was taken by a new syna-
gogue erected in Union street, Commercial road.
See also LoNDON.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. Kaufmann, in Trans. Jew. Hist. Soc. Eng.
iii. 104-119: Harris, Jewish Year Book, 5663 (1902-03); Jew.
Chron. April 22, 1897.
ds
HAMBURG: German city on the right bank of
the Elbe, between Sleswick-Holstein and Hanover.
The first Jewish settlers were Portuguese Mara-
nos, who had fled from their own country under
Philip II. and Philip IU., at first concealing their
religion in their new place of residence. In 1603
the aldermen (“ Burgerschaft”) made complaints to
the senate about the growing influx of Portuguese
Jews. The senate asked the theological faculties
of Jenaand Frankfort-on-the-Oder for their opinions
in the matter, and in 1612, after many negotiations,
it was agreed that, in consideration of a payment
made for their protection, the Jews should be toler-
ated in the town as strangers, though they were not
to be allowed to practise their religion publicly.
According to a “rolla” or list of that time, they
numbered 125 adults, besides servants and chil-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hamath
Hamburg
dren. From 1611 they possessed a cemetery in Al-
tona, which was used until 1871 (see illustration s.z.
AxuTona). In 1617 they obtained the right to choose
four sworn brokers from among their own people;
and later on this number was increased to fifteen.
These Portuguese Jews, mainly engaged in the
wholesale trade, greatly helped the commerce of the
town. They were the first to open up trade with
Spain and Portugal; they imported from the colo-
nies sugar, tobacco, spices, cottons, etc., and they
took a prominent part in the foundation of the Bank
of Hamburg (1619). Of their eminent
Seventeenth- men the best known is the physician
Century Rodrigo de Casrro, who lived in
Sephardim. Hamburg from 1594 tillhisdeath. In
recognition of his valuable profes-
sional services the senate granted him the privilege
of owning real estate in the town. Other notables
were: Boccario Rosales, who distinguished himself
as an astronomer, the emperor conferring upon him
the title of “comes palatinus”; Joseph Frances, the
poet; Moses Gideon ABUDIENTE, the grammarian;
and Benjamin Mussafia, the physician, philosopher,
and linguist.
As early as the year 1627 the Portuguese Jews
possessed a small place of worship, styled “Talmud
Torah,” in the house of Elijah Aboab Cardoso. Em-
peror Ferdinand II. addressed bitter complaints to the
senate about this “synagogue,” the Catholics not
being allowed to build a church in Hamburg at that
time. But, in spite of this protest and the violent
attacks of the Protestant clergy, the senate continued
to protect the Jews. Their first hakam was Isaac
Athias of Venice, whose successor was Abraham .
Hayyim de Fonseca (d. Iyyar, 5411 = 1651), also ha-
kam of another synagogue, Keter Torah. In 1652
the Portuguese formally constituted themselves a
congregation with a large synagogue, Bet; Israel,
and chose as chief rabbi (“hakam de nacao”) the
learned David Cohen de Lara (d. 1674). With him
Hakam Moses Israel, and, a little later, Judah Carmi
were rabbis of the congregation (both died in 1678).
In 1656 Isaac Jesurun was called from Venice to
Hamburg, there to take the place of chief rabbi
(“hakam geral”)... “for the promotion of relig-
ion and the general welfare,” ...as the oldest
minute-book of the congregation says. Apparently
offended by this call, Cohen de Lara took leave for
a few months and afterward went to live at Amster-
dam. After the death of Jesurun (1665), De Lara
went back to Hamburg, where he died.
Among the early elders of the congregation was
Benedict de Castro, ason of Rodrigo, and, like his
father, a well-known physician. In 1668 the Se-
phardic congregation, at that time the only acknowl-
edged Jewish community at Hamburg, consisted of
about 120 families. Among these were several dis-
tinguished by wealth and political influence: Daniel
Abensur (d, 1711) was minister resident of the King
of Poland in Hamburg; Jacob Curiel (d. 1664) and
Nufiez da Costa acted in a similar capacity to the
King of Portugal; Diego (Abraham) Texeira (d.
1666) and his son Manuel (Isaac) Texeira, who ad-
ministered the fortune of Queen Christina of Sweden.
Manuel was the celebrated minister resident of
Queen Christina in Hamburg. Jacob Sasportas
Hamburg
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ef ae ET Ee RE Oe Meee ee es een RE en ee ee gre gg ee erg eo ee
192
taught from 1666 to 1672 at a bet ha-midrash
founded by Manuel Texeira, and was often called
upon, as hakam, to decide religious questions.
The Hamburg Sephardic Jews took great interest
in the movements of the false Messiah Shabbethai
Zebi. They arranged celebrations in his honor in
their principal synagogue, the young men wear-
ing trimmings and sashes of green silk, “the livery
of Shabbethai Zebi.” Sasportas tried in vain to damp
this enthusiasm, which was to be bitterly disap-
pointed a few years later. Other rabbis of the con-
gregation were Jacob ben Abraham Fidanque, Moses
Hayyim Jesurun (d. 1691), Samuel Abaz (d. 1692),
and Abraham ha-Kohen Pimentel (d. 1697).
In 1697 the freedom of religious practise which the
congregation had obtained was disturbeau by hostile
edicts of the aldermen, and the Jews were extortion-
ately taxed. On this account many of the rich and
important Portuguese Jews left Hamburg, some of
them laying the foundation of the Portuguese con-
gregation of Altona. Internal quarrels, and espe-
cially the withdrawal of Jacob Abensur (minister
resident of the King of Poland) and his followers,
were other causes of the decline of the Sephardic
congregation in Hamburg.
In the meantime the German Jews had been in-
creasing in importance and numbers, though they
were not yet publicly protected by the Hamburg
authorities. In 1583 twelve German-Jewish fam-
ilies had asked in vain for admission to the town;
in the second quarter of the seven-
Ashkenazim. teenth century several Jewish mer-
chants went to Hamburg, mostly
from Altona, where, through the tolerance of the
counts of Schaumburg, Jews had for some time
been admitted. In the Danish safe-conduct
(“Schutzbrief”) of 1641 granted to the Jews of Al-
tona, protected Jews (“Schutzjuden”) living in
Hamburg are mentioned. In 1648 the council of
aldermen issued an order expelling the German
Jews (“ Hochdeutsche Juden ”) fromthe town. They
moved to Altona, and were required to pay a
monthly tax for the privilege of transacting busi-
ness in Hamburg. In 1657 the Swedes invading
Altona drove them out, and they, together with
the other Jews of Altona, fled to Hamburg. At
this time fifteen Jewish families remained in Ham-
burg tacitly tolerated by the senate, and out of these
families, which lived under Danish protection, the
Altona congregation in Hamburg was formed. Other
German Jews were admitted after 1654, under the
protection of the privileged Portuguese congre-
gation—at first only as servants of the Portuguese—
and these founded the Hamburg cougregation,
which continued to be under the control of the
Portuguese till 1671. David Tebel is mentioned
as their first rabbi. Jn 1671 both the Hamburg
and the Altona congregation in Hamburg placed
themselves under the chief rabbi of Altona. Soon
afterward the Jewish congregation of Wandsbeck
with its branch congregation in Hamburg joined
this union, making one congregation known as
“The Three Communities” (see ALTONA), the first
chief rabbi being Solomon Mirels of Neumark (d.
1706).
The German Jews of Hamburg were principally
engaged in retail businesses, and they soon became
an important factor of the new town (“ Neustadt”),
founded in the first half of the seventeenth century.
But, having no right to live in Hamburg, they were
persecuted most violently by the clergy, and their
services were often disturbed. In 1697 the aldermen
forced the senate to exact a large sum of money from
the German Jews and to impose heavy restrictions
upon them. In spite of the state of suppression in
which the German Jews lived at this time there was
much spiritual life among them. As a writer
Glickel Hameln, who lived in Hamburg in 1700,
deserves mention here: she left a highly interesting
autobiography in Judzo-German.
In 1710 an imperial commission, which visited the
town for the purpose of making peace between
the senate and the aldermen, fixed the position of the
Hamburg Jews by certain regulations (“ Reglement
der Judenschaft in Hamburg Sowohl
Eighteenth Portugiesischer als Hochdeutscher Na-
Century. tion”), promulgated in the name of
Emperor Joseph J. This edict became
the fundamental law for the treatment of the Jews
in Hamburg during the ensuing century. The Ger-
man Jews were legally settled in Hamburg, and
they enjoyed almost the same rights as the Portu-
guese.
The Portuguese, proud of their noble lineage,
were very dissatisfied at being put on a level with the
German Jews, and segregated themselves more and
more from them. Asa result of this exclusiveness,
and for want of fresh accessions, their community
declined in the course of the eighteenth century and
lost its leading position among the Hamburg Jews.
Still, it had some well-known hakams; e.g., Jacob
de Abraham Basan, who wrote an order of prayers
(still extant) for a fast-day held after the earthquake
of Lisbon (1755) ; and Benjamin Benveniste (d. 1757).
But learning and interest in Jewish affairs waned in
the Portuguese community, and its institutions
were neglected. The shehitah, formerly under
its sole supervision, went over to the German
community, which in exchange had to pay to the
Portuguese one-fourth (since 1856 one-eighth) of the
total proceeds of the meat-tax. The principal syn-
agogue of the Portuguese congregation was burned
in the great fire of 1842; and since then they have
possessed a small place of worship only, the serv-
ice being maintained with all the old Spanish
rites and melodies. Since the beginning of the
nineteenth century they have had no hakam. Their
last preacher and spiritual chief was Judah Cassvro,
who officiated as hazzan from 1827 to 18938.
During the eighteenth century the three German
communities of Hamburg flourished in their union
with Altona and Wandsbeck. They had many emi-
nent rabbis, of whom the most important were Eze-
kiel Katzenellenbogen (1712-49), Jonathan Eybe-
schtitz (1749-64), and Raphael ha-Kohen (1776-99).
The last chief rabbi of the Three Communities was
Zebi Hirsch Zamosz (1808-07).
In 1811, Hamburg being incorporated in the
French empire, the Jews of that town were forced
by an order of Napoleon to withdraw from the con-
gregation of the Three Communities, and to form
of the three Hamburg congregations a new commu-
193
nity. The constitution of this new community was
established in the following year. At the same time
the old restrictions were abolished, and
Nineteenth full equality before the law was given
Century. to the Hamburg Jews, as to ail the
Jews in the French empire. During
Davoust’s terrorism in the winter of 1813-14 the Jew-
ish community had much to suffer through the ex-
pulsion of its poorer members. In 1814, the town
being freed from the French occupation, and the
senate reestablished, civil rights were again denied
to the Jews, although the latter had shown great
attachment to their native town. This injustice was
sanctioned by the Congress of Vienna (“ Deutsche
Bundesacte”), 1815. Of all the French institutions
there remained only the civil registers of births,
marriages, and deaths (these were kept separately
for the Jews until 1865). In 1818 the Tempel
was founded—a synagogue with an entirely modi-
fied service, and with an organ, a choir, and a
new and much abridged prayer-book. The Ortho-
dox party obtained a strong leader in Isaac KErR-
ways, who became chief rabbi or hakam of the Ger-
man-Jewish community in 1821. Though conserv-
ing the old forms of the service, he introduced the
sermonin German, and treated the old Jewish teach-
ings in a modern scientific spirit. He strongly op-
posed the Tempel, where Eduard Kley (1818-40) and
Gotthold Salomon (1818-57; d. 1868) preached;
their successors were N. Frankfurter (1840-66),
Max Singer (1867-82), and H. Jonas (1858~89).
After the sudden death of Bernays (1849), Anshel
Stern became chief rabbi of the German-Jewish
congregation (1851-88).
In 1848 the Revolution brought about the eman-
cipation of the Jews in Hamburg as in many other
states of the German Confederation. In 1849 all
members of the German-Jewish, as well as of
the Portuguese congregation were free to acquire
citizenship in the town. Every new Jewish
settler, however, Portuguese excepted, was obliged
to join the German-Jewish congregation, which
formed a separate political corporation in the
state. In 1864 this obligation was abolished. The
old German-Jewish congregation was now dissolved,
and again constituted itself a congregation in
which membership was voluntary. It retained
the exclusive care of all the institutions con-
nected with education, charity, and burial, The
management of affairs relating to public wor-
ship was transferred in 1867 to the Confedera-
tion of Synagogues for the Orthodox, and to the
Tempel-League for the Reform Jews. The Confed-
eration of Synagogues received at the same time the
two large synagogues belonging to the congrega-
tion, and in return undertook to pay the salaries of
the chief rabbi and other officials and to administer
all the other ritual institutions, especially the
shehitah. Since 1889 Marcus Hirsch (formerly at
Alt-Ofen and Prague) has officiated as chief rabbi.
The preachers of the Tempel-Verein or league are
D. Leimdorfer (since 1882), Paul Rieger (since 1902),
the latter’s predecessor in office having been C.
Seligmann (1889),
The German-Jewish congregation possesses two
principal synagogues—one, situated in the Elb-
VI.—13
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hamburg
strasse, built in 1788 after the designs of the architect
Sonnin; the other, on the Kohlhéfen, opened in
1859, and having 600 seats for men and 400 for
women. The Tempel-League has its
own house of worship, with about 400
seats for men and 250 for women.
Besides these there are several smaller
syhagogues maintained by societies, especially in
the part of the town “Vor Dem Dammthor,” with
its large Jewish population. The largest of these is
the Neue Dammthor-Synagoge, where Dr. Grun-
wald officiated as preacher until Aug., 1903, when he
was succeeded by Dr. Loewenthal. The hospital of
the German-Jewish congregation, founded in 1843 by
Salomon Heine in remembrance of his wife, and later
richly endowed by his son Karl Heine, possesses
accommodation for 120 patients in the main building,
and has an annex for smallpox and other infectious
diseases. The community has, besides, an orphan
asylum for boys, another for girls, a home for aged
people, and an infirmary.
The schools of the community are:
1. The Talmud Torah, founded in 1804 as a school
for the poor, and for the teaching of Hebrew only,
but wholly reorganized by Bernays in 1822 by the
addition of lessons in German and various elemen-
tary studies. After Bernays’ death it was conducted
by Chief Rabbi Stern and changed into a high school,
with lessons in French and English. Since 1889 it
has been conducted by Dr. Goldschmidt, with a
staff of 20 teachers and 500 pupils. 2. A high school
of Jewish foundation, for boys, which was changed
under Dr. Rée’s direction into an interdenomina-
tional school, called “Stiftungsschule of 1815,” and
is now attended mainly by Christian pupils. 3.
The Girls’ School, founded in 1818, now housed in
a building erected at the expense of Marcus Nord-
heim (d. 1899), where 600 girls are taught by 18 gov-
ernesses and 2 masters, the head mistress being Miss
Marcus. 4. Since 1893 there exists a high school
for girls, founded under the chief rabbi Hirsch.
The community possesses two ancient burying-
grounds, which are seldom used now: one at Otten-
sen, a@ suburb of Altona, the oldest part of which
was acquired in 1664, and another, “onthe Grindel,”
acquired in 1711, and which served as principal
cemetery for the community after that of Altona,
formerly common to both towns, was forbidden
(1834) to the Hamburg Jews. Since 1883 the com-
munity hasowned a large burial-place adjoining the
municipal cemetery at Ohlsdorf; but as the inviola-
bility of the graves was guaranteed for a certain
time only, Chief Rabbi Stern did not consider the
cemetery to be in accordance with the Jewish law.
He therefore induced a number of his followers to
buy a plot of land at Langenfelde, near Altona,
for use as a burial-ground.
There are three religious foundations (called
“Klaus ”), which maintain several) scholars who live
exclusively for the study of the Talmud and deliver
regular lectures thereon ; also a large number of char-
itable institutions of various kinds, including free
dwellings for the poor, and societies for loans, for the
distribution of food, fuel, and clothes, and for the as-
sistance of poor school-children, widows, strangers,
mourners, the sick, the aged, and lying-in women.
Institu-
tions.
Hamburg
Ha-Meliz
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
194
There are also provisions for free scholarships, for
the transportation of poor school-children to the
country (“ Feriencolonien ”), and for the promotion of
handicrafts. Hamburg possesses a society for Jew-
ish history and literature, another for Jewish folk-
lore, and a Jewish public library.
Besides the rabbis the following important Ham-
burg Jews deserve mention here: Salomon Heine
(1767-1844), a financial genius and most charitable
man, founder of the Jewish hospital; Gabriel Riesser
(1806-63), who fought for the emancipation of the
Jews, member of the Frankfort national assembly in
1848 and of the parliament of Erfurt in 1850, judge
in Hamburg (the first Jew in Germany to hold that
office) from 1860, and vice-president of the coun-
cil of aldermen; M. Isler, chief librarian of the
municipal library; Anton Rée (1815-91), peda-
gogue and member of the Reichstag; Isaac Wolff-
son (1817-95), lawyer and president of the coun-
cil of aldermen, member of the commission for the
new German civil code; M. W. Hinrichsen, mem-
ber of the Reichstag (d. 1902); Siegmund Hinrich-
sen, president of the council of aldermen (d. 1902);
B. Pollini, manager of the Hamburg Theater (d.
1897). The following were born at Hamburg: Sam-
son Raphael Hirsch (1808~88), the energetic leader
of modern Orthodox Judaism; Jacob Bernays, the
philologist (1824-81), professor at the University of
Bonn; Michael Bernays, his brother (1834-97), pro-
fessor in Munich.
The Jewish population at Hamburg, which in 1814
numbered about 7,000, was 17,300 out of a total
population of 626,000 in 1895, The number of con-
tributing members of the German congregation is
3,535; that of the Portuguese, about 400,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Protocol-Book and Acts of the Portuguese
Congregation (unpublished); Acts of the Municipal <Ar-
chives of Hamburg (unpublished); Memoiren der Gltickel
von Hameln, ed. D. Kaufmann, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1896;
A. Feilchenfeld, Anfang und Bliltezeit der Hamburyer Por-
tugiesengemeinde, Hamburg, 1898; idem, Aelteste Gesch. der
Deutschen Juden in Hamburg, in Monatsschrift, 1899; M.
M. Haarbleicher, Zwei Hpochen aus der Gesch. der Deutsch-
Israelitischen Gemeinde in Hamburg, Hamburg, 1867; M.
Grunwald, in Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft fiir Jud. Volks-
kunde, xii; idem, Hamburg’s Deutsche Juden bis zur
Auflisung der Dreigemeinde, 1811, 1908-04.
D. A, FE.
—Typography (including that of Altona): Ac-
cording to the Oppenheim Catalogue, which, how-
ever, is questioned by Steinschneider, the “‘Asarah
Ma’amarot ” was printed in 1680 at Hamburg. There
is no doubt concerning the fact that from 1686
Thomas Rose, a Christian bookseller of Hamburg,
was engaged in printing Hebrew books; the Earlier
Prophets, with the commentary of Abravanel and
the annotations of Jacob Fidanque, bear his imprint.
Samuel ben Jacob of Glogau, who, in 1689, printed,
in conjunction with a certain Gamaliel, the “Zera‘
Berek,” was a compositor in Rose’soffice. Between
1700 and 1708 no mention of Rose occurs; but his
establishment still existed in 1715. In 1708 he pub-
lished the “ Ta‘ame ha-Mizwot,” which had been, in
the previous year, edited at Amsterdam; in 1715 he
published the “ Miktab me-Eliyahu,” the last work
known to have come from his press.
His son Johann continued his establishment until
1721. Among his publications were the “ Leket ha-
Kemah” of Moses Hagiz (1711) and the “Sha‘are
Torah ” of Solomon Hanau (1719). From this press
came, according to Steinschneider, the “Zemirot
Purim ” (1715), a Purim parody with a Judeo-Ger-
man translation by Samuel ben Mordecai Poppert.
During 1710-11 Isaac Hezekiah di Cordova estab-
lished a press for which Isaac ben Joseph Benveniste
and Isaac ben Moses Hayyim Levi
Horwitz were compositors. Notypo-
graphical records exist for the years
between 1721 and 1780; but in the lat-
ter year a press was founded by Leser and Nathan
ben Moses Mai. It endured ten years; among its
compositors at various times were Jacob ben Judah
Léb ben Zerach (1788) and Mattathiah ben Judah
Léb Guttmann (1790).
The first printing establishment at Altona was
founded by the above-mentioned Samuel ben Mor-
decai Poppert in 1720, in which year he produced
the “ Megillat Antiokus”; but, his means being lim-
ited, his productions were few. Between 1721 and
1731 he issued the following: an index to the Tal-
mud entitled “Me‘orer ha-Zikkaron”; Jacob ben
Joel’s annotations on the Pentateuch entitled “She-
’erit Ya‘akob”; Ezekiel Katzenellenbogen’s direc-
tions for “Jahrzeit”; “Selihot”; “Abot de-Rabbi
Natan ”; dirges for the Ninth of Ab; “ Danielbuch,”
in Judeo-German rimes; anew edition of the above-
mentioned Purim parody; and, finally, “Spanische
Heiden,” in Judeo-German. A new printing-press,
which, however, had but a brief existence, was
founded in 1732 by Ephraim Heckscher witi the
“Zera’ Yisrael” of Israel ben Jacob as its first pub-
lication.
In 1735 Aaron ben Elijah Cohen opened a printing
establishment, which was still active in 1764. But
for the “ Adne Paz” of Ephraim ben Samuel Heck-
scher, published in 1748, nothing would be known
of the “ Ncue Druckerei” founded by Abraham ben
Israe] Halle. Owing to its proximity to Hamburg,
the printing-house in Altona was practically a
branch of that of the former city. Among the print-
ers of Altona may be counted Jacob ben Zebi Emden
Isaac di
Cordova.
(pay"), from whose press came the polemical works
against Jonathan Eybeschiitz. The most important
printing establishment of Altona was that founded
by Moses ben Mendel Bonn, which is s*‘ll active, the
most noteworthy of its later productions being the
catalogue of the manuscripts of the Hamburger
Stadtbibliothek, edited by Steinschneider (1878).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cassel and Steinschneider, Jtidische Typo-
graphie, in Ersch and Gruber, Hncyc. section ii., part 28, pp.
86-87; Steinschneider, in Ludwig Geiger’s Zeitschrift fur
die rete od Juden in Deutschland, i.; idem, Cat. Bodl.
s.v. Rose, ete.
Ji I. Br.
HAMBURGER, JACOB: German rabbi and
author; born at Loslau, Silesia, Nov. 10, 1826. He
received his early education in Ratibor. and then at-
tended the yeshibot of Hotzenplotz, Presburg, and
Nikolsburg, and the University of Breslau. In 1852
he was called as rabbi to Neustadt-bei-Pinne, and in
1859 went to Mecklenburg-Strelitz as “ Landesrab-
biner,” which position he still (1908) occupies. In
addition to various articles and sermons, he has pub-
lished “Geist der Hagada, Sammlung Hagadischer
Ausspriiche aus den Talmudim und Midraschim,”
195
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hamburg
Ha-Meliz
Leipsic, 1859. This work, published by the Insti-
tut zur Férderung der Israelitischen Literatur, was
intended as the first
of a series, but was
never continued. It
may be regarded as
the forerunner of the
Jewish encyclopedia
which he began to
publish in 1862, under
the title “ Realency-
clopidie des Juden-
thums,” of which three
volumes have ap-
peared. The first part
contains Biblical ar-
ticles, and the second
Talmudic articles, the
third being supple-
mentary. A second
edition appeared in
Leipsic in 1896. As
the work of one man it is a remarkable monu-
ment of the author’s industry and learning.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1896, No. 47.
Jacob Se bieee
D.
HAMBURGER (HAMBURG), JACOB BEN
MORDECAI WIENER: Chief rabbi of Prague;
died Nov. 12, 1753. Hamburger was one of the
rabbis who in 1725 signed the address to the Polish
Jews warning them against the Shabbethaians. He
was the author of a work entitled “Kol Kol Ya‘a-
kob,” containing novell on several treatises of the
Taimud, collectanea on the Shulhan ‘Aruk, and
homiletic notes on the Pentateuch arranged in the
order of the parashiyyot (Prague, 1802).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hock, Gal ‘Ed, p. 53, No. 101; Monatsschrift,
xxxvi. 214; Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. 1. 359.
K. M. S&t.
HAMBURGER, MORDECAI (known also as
Marcus Moses): English communal leader; born
in Hamburg about 1660; died in London about
1730 ; founder of the Hambro’ Synagogue. He wasa
son of R. Moses ben L6b, one of the founders of the
Altona community. He married Fradche, the
daughter of Gltickel von Hameln, and settled in
London at the beginning of the eighteenth century.
Having challenged the validity of a divorce granted
by R. Uri Phoebus (Aaron Hart) to Ascher Ensel
Cohen from his first wife on the ground that the
pressure of his creditors compelled him to emigrate
to the West Indies, Mordecai was put in “herem.”
His business was thus brought to a standstill, and
his offer of £500 as a guarantee for his future good
conduct was refused. Mordecai thereupon opened a
synagogue in his own house in Magpye alley, Fen-
church street, and engaged as rabbi Jochanan Holle-
schau, formerly his teacher, who had previously been
a member of the London bet din. Several distin-
guished Continental rabbis, including Zebi Ashke-
nazi, dissolved the decree of excommunication against
Mordecai, who then purchased a burial-ground in
Hoxton and a site for a new synagogue in St. Mary
Axe. Through the influence of Moses Hart, of the
Great Synagogue, brother of R. Uri Phoebus, the
city prohibited the erection of the synagogue in St.
Mary Axe. In 1711 pecuniary troubles. forced the
hitherto successful Mordecai to emigrate; but in 1721
he returned to London with a large fortune, and in
spite of the opposition of the Dukes Place and
Bevis Marks synagogues, he built his long-projected
synagogue in the garden adjoining his house in
Magpye alley (1725). The synagogue was styled
the HamsBro’ as conforming originally to the Ham-
burg minhag.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: I. Harris, in The Jewish Year Book, 5663, p.
; D. Kaufmann, in Transactions Jew. Hist. Soe. Eng. iii
109 et 8eq.; Lucien Wolf, in Jew. Chron. Nov. 18, 1892.
J. S. Le.
HAMBURGER, WOLF (ABRAHAM BEN-
JAMIN): Talmudical scholar and head of the yeshi-
bah in Firth; born Jan. 26,1770; died May 15, 1850.
He was a contemporary of R. Moses Sofer, and
is mentioned by the latter in his “Hatam Sofer.”
He wrote: (1) “Sha‘ar ha-Zekenim,” in two parts,
the first containing homilies, responsa, and ethics;
the second, responsa on civil law (Sulzbach, 1830);
(2) “Simlat Binyamin,” in three parts: (a) “Simlat
Binyamin,” responsa on the ritual laws of Orah
Hayyim and Yoreh De‘ah; (0) “ Nahalat Binyamin,”
responsa on the ritual laws of Eben _ha-‘Ezer,
Hoshen Mishpat, and Haggadot, followed by a
treatise on circumcision and by some homilies; (c)
“Sha‘ar Binyamin,” halakic novell on different sec-
tions of the Taimud (Firth, 1840-41); (3) “Kol Bo-
kim,” a funeral oration on the death of Meshullam
Zalman Cohen (2b. 1820); (4) “Allon Bakut,” fu-
neral orations on the death of Herz Scheuer and
others (2 vols., 2b. 1828); (5) a funeral oration on the
death of Maximilian Joseph I.,King of Bavaria (7d,
1825).
Hamburger was one of the last, if not the last,
head of a yeshibah in Germany who, without hold-
ing an official position in the congregation, devoted
his time to the teaching of the Talmud; his wife
carried on a business, and thus supported the
household. Hamburger was strictly Orthodox, al-
though opposed to religious ecstasy and mysticism
(““Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” 1846, pp. 266, 343). With
the beginning of the Reform movement, about 1880,
when the government aided the advocates of inno-
vations in the Jewish fold, he had to contend with
many adversities of which he bitterly complains in
his books (see especially preface to “Simlat Binya-
min”). His yeshibah was closed, and he was forced
to leave the city. A great many prominent rabbis
were his disciples, among them: Seligman Baer
BAMBERGER of Wirzburg, Isaac Léwy of Firth,
and David ErnHorn.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1081; First,
Bibl. Jud, i. 359; L. Lowenstein, in Geiger’s Jitid. Zeit. il.
88; Winter and Wiinsche, Die aes itteratur, iii. 728,
762: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 304; Allg. Zeit. des Jud.
1850, pp. 820, 359.
K. M. SEL.
HA-MEASSEF. See MEAaSSEFIM; PERIOD-
ICALS
HA-MEBASSER. See PERIODICALS.
HA-MEHAKKER. See PERIODICALR.
HA-MELIZ (lit. “the interpreter,” but used in
Neo-Hebrew in the sense of “advocate”): The old-
est Hebrew newspaper in Russia. It was founded
Ha-Meliz
Hammer
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
196
by Alexander ZEDERBAUM, in Odessa, in 1860, as a
weekly, and was transferred to St. Petersburg in
1871. Its publication was several times suspended
for lack of support or by order of the authorities;
but it was always revived by the resource and en-
ergy of Zederbaum. “ Ha-Meliz” began to appear
daily in 1886; it is the only Hebrew daily paper
published in the Russian capital. Leon Rabino-
witz, who succeeded Zederbaum in 1898, is the editor
(1903). “Ha-Meliz” has always been a represent-
ative of the progressive or “haskalah” movement,
and even so severe a critic as Kowner admits that
“it has been more useful to the Jews than have the
other Hebrew newspapers” (“ Heker Dabar,” pp. 52
et seqg., Warsaw, 1866). While it is not so literary
or scientific as some of its contemporaries, it usually
has more news and discussions of interest, and is
consequently more popular.
the middle of the following century (1841) a consid-
erable number of Jews lived there. They were ad-
mitted by the city council at moderate tax rates for
terms of ten, sometimes only six, years; on May
1, 13844, they were permitted to build “ene scole”
(synagogue); not long after, at the time of the
Black Death, they were expelled. Before 1557,
however, they had been readmitted, for in that year
Duke Henry the Younger decreed the expulsion of
all Jews living on Guelfic territory. On Jan. 6,
1590, his successor, Henry Juiius, issued a like decree.
The city council of Hameln, like those of Hanover
and Gottingen, pleaded for its Jewish inhabitants;
and when the Jews of Prague petitioned Emperor
Maximilian IT. for his intervention, upon the latter’s
advice the duke repealed the order.
At the end of the seventeenth century only a few
Jewish families lived in Hameln: Gliickel von Ha-
TITLE-HEADING OF THE FIRST NUMBER OF “ Ha-MELIZ.”
Dr. J. A. Goldenblum was for many years asso-
ciated with Zederbaum in its publication. A. 8.
Friedberg and J. L. Gordon are the best known of
its associate editors. Almost every prominent He-
brew writer of the last forty years has at one time
or another contributed toit. “Kohelet” (St. Peters-
burg, 1881), “Migdonot” (7. 1888), “Meliz Ahad
Minni Elef” (on the occasion of the appearance of
No. 1,000; 2d. 1884), “Leket Amarim” (zd. 1889),
and “Arba‘ah Ma’amarim” (2d. 1898) are collec-
tions of literary and scientific articles which appeared
as supplements to “Ha-Meliz” in Zederbaum’s
time. “Ha-Yekeb” (zd. 1894), “Ha-Osem ” and “ Ha-
Gat” (2b. 1897), and “Ha-Gan ” (26. 1899) are similar
publications issued by Zederbaum’s successor,
J. P. WI.
HAMELN (also known as Hamelin): Prus-
sian town on the Hamel and Weser. Jews are re-
corded as present in Hameln as early as 1277. About
meln, whose memoirs have made the place famous in
Jewish history, mentionstwo. Untilabout the middle
of the preceding century they had supported them-
selves by money-lending. Not until the political
transformation of Germany after 1848 did their social
position improve. At present about fifty Jewish
families live in Hameln.
The only prominent names in the history of the
Jewish congregation are those of Joseph Hamelin
and Joseph Gershon Spiegelberg. The former, who
was the father-in-law of Glickel, is mentioned in
some documents under the name of “ Jost ” or “ Jobst
Goldschmidt ”; inone of these documents the com-
plaint is made that “he is surrounded with such
pomp that it can scarcely be told.” In 1659 he be-
came the father-in-law of the famous court Jew
Liepmann Cohen, or Liffmann Behrens, of Han-
over, whose daughter Genendel married David OP-
PENHEIM. Joseph Gershon Spiegelberg (1802-44)
197
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ha-Meliz
Hammer
was the central figure in his community, which still
enjoys the fruits of his remarkable activity. He
was @ veterinary surgeon, who even in that reac-
tiovary period was honored with commissions from
the royal Hanoverian government; and he was very
active in congregational affairs. A benevolent
society has existed in Hameln for centuries.
The synagogue now in use was designed by the
architect Oppler (who built the synagogue at Han-
over also); it was dedicated July 2, 1879. The
present cemetery has been in use since 1742; of the
older cemeteries there is no trace. The following
among the rabbis of Hameln should be mentioned:
Eliezer Leser Langenzahn (d. 1749); Nathan ben
Léb Hamel (d. 1751); Joseph, son of Simeon Levi
(d. 1761); Moses Judah Selkeli (d. 1782). Joshua
Leszynsky (d. July 9, 1893) was “ official of the syn-
agogue” during the fifties and sixties of the last
century. He was succeeded by Abraham Rosen-
baum (1878-97). Hameln’s present population of
about 20,000 includes 243 Jews.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Stobbe, Die Juden in Deutschlana, p. 20,
Brunswick; Pufendorf, Observatt, ji. 268; Sprenger, Gesch.
der Stadt Hamelin, p. 31, Hanover, 1826: Wiener, in Jahr-
buch des Historischen Vereins fiir Niedersachse?, 1861, p.
258; Meinardus, Urkundenbuch des Stiftes und der Stadt
Hameln, 1887, Nos. 860, 861, 387; Kaufmann, Aus Heinrich
Heine’s Ahnensaal, p. 52, Breslau, 1896; idem, AR. Jair Cha-
jim Bacharach, Treves, 1894; idem, Samson Wertheimer,
Vienna, 1888; Memoiren der Glitckel von Hameln, 1896;
Lewinsky, Der Hildesheimer Rabbiner Samuel Hametn, in
Kaufmann Gedenkbuch, 1900.
D. S. Bac.
HAMELN, GLUCKEL OF (Gliickel von Ha-
meln): German diarist; born about 1646 in Hamburg ;
died 1724 at Metz. In 1649, when the German Jews
were expelled from Hamburg, Gliickel’s parents
moved to Altona; but in consequence of the Swe-
dish invasion of that city in 1657 they returned to
Hamburg. Glickel frequented the “heder” and
was made acquainted with the Holy Scriptures as
well as with the German-Jewish literature of the
time. When barely fourteen she was married to
Hayyim Hameln, and settled in the small town of
Hameln. After a year the young couple moved to
Hamburg, and lived there at first in modest circum-
stances, which by their industry were soon greatly
improved. For a time they were associated with
Jost Liebmann, afterward court jeweler to the
Great Elector.
Gliickel had six sons and as many daughters,
whom she brought up very carefully and married
to members of the best Jewish families in Germany,
Her eldest daughter was married toa son of the
wealthy court Jew Elias Gompertz at Cleve, and
the wedding (1674) was celebrated in the presence
of members of the electoral family of Brandenburg.
In 1689 Hayyim Hanneln died, and Glickel was
left with eight young children, the four others being
already married. Besides their education she had
to direct the large business left by her husband,
which she managed with great success. She had
planned, after she should have married all her chil-
dren, to spend the remainder of her life in Palestine,
but heavy losses in business changed her plans, and
at the age of fifty-four she married the wealthy
banker Cerf Levy of Metz (1700). Unfortunately,
one year after the marriage Levy lost both his own
fortune and that of his wife, and Gliickel, hitherto
accustomed to opulence, became dependent upon
her husband’s children. After the death of Levy
(1712) she settled in the home of her daughter
Esther, wife of Moses Krumbach-Schwab of Metz.
Here she passed the last years of her life, occupied
with the writing of her memoirs,
Glickelleft an autobiography consisting of seven
books written in Judso-German interspersed with
Hebrew, in which she relates her own varied expe-
riences and many important events of the time.
She often adds homiletic and moral stories of some
length, taken partly from Midrash and Talmud,
partly from Judeo-German books, which evidence
wide reading. Her son, Moses Hameln, rabbi of
Raiersdorf and son-in-law of the court Jew Samson
Baiersdorf, copied the whole work from his mother’s
manuscript, and from this copy David Kaufmann
edited it. The work contains most valuable infor-
mation about the life of the German Jews, especially
in Hamburg and Altona.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Die Memoiren der Glickel von Hameln,
edited, with an introduction, by D. Kaufmann, Frankfort-
on-the-Main, 1896; A. Feilchenfeld, Die Aelteste Gesch. der
Juden in Hamburg, Breslau, 1899.
D A. FE.
HAMEZ. See LEAVEN.
HAMMATH (“hot springs”): One of the forti-
fied cities of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 35). It is proba-
bly the same as Hammoth-dor, which was allotted
to the Levites in Naphtali (2d. xxi. 32), and which,
in the parallel list of I Chron. vi. 76, is called “ Ham-
mon.” For its geographical position see EMMAUS.
E. G, H. M. SEL.
HAMMEAH, TOWER OF (A. V. “tower of
Meah”): Tower near the sheep-gate of Jerusalem
(Neh. iii. f, xii. 39). The rendering of the Greek
version, “the tower of the hundred,” might be in-
terpreted to mean that the tower either was garri-
soned by one hundred men, or was one hundred
cubits high, or had one hundred steps.
BE. G. H. B. P.
HAMMEDATHA (xn qn): Father of Haman
(Esth. iii. 1,10; viii. 5; ix. 10,24). He is generally des-
ignated as the “ Agagite,” being referred to only once
(2b. ix. 10) without that epithet. The name, derived
from the Persian, signifies “ given by the moon.”
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HAMMER: The following designations for
“hammer” are found in the Hebrew Bible:
1. “Makkabah” (“makkebet”): A tool or im-
plement used by the stone-cutter for hewing stone
(I Kings vi. 7); by the smith in fashioning iron (Isa.
xliv. 12), or in fastening an idol “that it move not”
(Jer. x. 4); and by the Bedouin to drive his tent-pin
into the ground (Judges iv. 21).
2. “Pattish”: This word manifestly signifies a
larger implement than the makkabah. It was used
to smooth gold plates (Isa. xli. 7) and to break rocks
in pieces (Jer. xxiii. 29). In Jer. ]. 23 Nebuchad-
nezzar is called “the hammer [“pattish”} of the |
whole earth.”
3. “Halmut ‘amelim”: A term occurring in Judges
v. 26, and of which the meaning is very doubtful.
“ Halmut ” is usually translated “ hammer,” but the
grammatical construction of the word makes a con-
crete meaning improbable. It is also little likely
that “‘amelim,” which accompanies it, is a derisive
Hammerschlag
Hammurabi
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
198
“workmen.” Probably there is a
but it is difficult to see how it
designation for
mistake in the text;
might be improved.
4. “Kelappah”: A designation found in Ps. lxxiv.
6. Itis perhaps synonymous with the Assyrian “ ka-
labah ” and “kalapati,” and seems to designate a kind
of ax or hatchet rather than a hammer.
BE. G. H. W. N.
HAMMERSCHLAG, JOSEPH (NATHAN
NAT‘A HAZZAN BEN MOSES NAPHTALI
HIRSCH): Moravian cabalist; lived in the seven-
teenth century. He was the author of the follow-
ing: “Or ha-Ganuz,” commentary on part of the
Zohar (begun in 1648); “Sefer Mo‘ade ha-Shem,” a
treatise on the calendar, beginning with the year
1681 (written at Nikolsburg); cabalistic notes on
the prayers, written on the margins of printed copies
of the Psalmsand of the prayers for the first evening
of Rosh ha-Shanah. These three works are extant
in manuscript in the Bodleian Library.
deiner Neubauer, Cat. Bodl. ak MSS. Nos. 2168,
, 33 2277, 1; First, Bibl. Jud. i. 360; Wolf, Bibl.
Hebr. iii. 853.
Kk. M. Sc.
HAMMERSTEIN, OSCAR: American theat-
rical manager; born at Berlin May 8, 1848, where
he was educated. In March, 1868, he emigrated to
America and settled in New York city, where he
engaged in cigar-making. Turning to journalism,
he became editor of the “ United States Tobacco
Journal”; he also invented cigar-making machinery
which in some respects revolutionized the industry.
In 1888 Hammerstein entered the theatrical field as
manager of the old Thalia Theater, later becoming
connected with Neuendorff in the management of the
Germania Theater. Hammerstein subsequently
built and managed the following theaters in New
York: Harlem Opera House; Harlem Music Hall;
Columbus Theater; Manhattan Opera House; The
Olympia; Criterion Theater; Victoria Theater; and
Belasco Theater; he is now (1908) building the Drury
Lane Theater. Hammerstein has written a number
of musical productions, some of which have attained
wide popularity. Among the more important of
these are: “The Kohinor,” a musical comedy (1894);
“ Margarite,” an opera ballet (1895); “ War Bubbles,”
a musical comedy (1896); “Santa Maria,” an opera
(1896); and “Sweet Marie,” an opera (1901).
S. I. G. D.
HAMMON: 1. A place i in the territory of Asher,
mentioned in Josh, xix. 28, between Rehob and
Kanah, Jt is believed that the ruins now called
“Ummel-‘Amud” (or “‘Awamid”) occupy its site.
2. A city allotted to the Levites out of the tribe
of Naphtali, and assigned with its suburbs to
the descendants of Gershom (I Chron. vi. 61 [A. VY.
76}). B. P.
3. Name of a deity (on by) mentioned in two
Phenician inscriptions dedicated to “ El-Hammon”
and discovered by Ernest Renan in the ruins of
Hammon, the modern Umm al-‘Awamid, between
Tyre and Acre. One of these inscriptions is dated
2218B.c., under the government of Ptolemy III. The
Biblical place-names were possibly connected with
the name of this deity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For No. 3, C. I. S. i. (text) 38: G. Hoff-
mann, Veher Einige Phin. Insehriften, in Abhandhaigen
der Koéniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Gottingen, Xxxvi. 21; Baethgen, Beitrdge zur Semitischen
Religions-Geseh. p. 27.
E. G. H. M. Sc.
HAMMURABI: King of Shinar; perhaps iden-
tical with Abraham’s contemporary, Amraphel,
who is mentioned in Gen. xiv. 9; the sixth king in
the first dynasty of Babylon. Hammurabi was the
founder of the united Babylonian empire; he con-
quered Rim-Sin, King of Larsa and Sumer-Accad,
joined the northern and southern kingdoms, and thus
established the Babylonian empire, with its capital
at Babylon. It is supposed to have been Hammu-
rabi who laid the foundations of Babylon’s prosper-
ity, and made it the first city of the Orient, a position
which it maintained until the time of the Seleucids.
The direct traces of the connection between this first
dynasty of Babylon and the West are still scanty.
An inscription on a stone slab seems to represent
Hammurabi in the capacity of “ King of Amurru.”
Hammurabi ruled from 2267 to 2218 [2394-2339,
Oppert}. His father and predecessor was Sin-mubal-
lit. The later Babylonians regarded
His Reign. Hammurabi’s period as the golden age
of the Babylonian empire. After con-
quering the south Hammurabi improved its eco-
nomic conditions. In the preceding period the
canals, the efficient condition of which was essen-
tial to the cultivation of the land, had probably been
very much neglected. Hammurabi endeavored
to restore to the land its former fruitfulness by
building a new canal, which he named “Ham-
murabi Is the Blessing of the People.” Other ac-
counts in his inscriptions record his building opera-
tions in connection with the most important
sanctuaries of the land. Thus he continued the
work, already begun by his predecessor Rim-Sin,
on the temple of Ishtar at Zarilab in southern
Babylonia; he “made rich ” the city of Ur, the home
of Abraham; rebuilt the sun-temples at Larsa and
Sippar; and beautified and enlarged the temples of
Babylon (E-sagila) and Borsippa (H-zida). Ham-
murabi died after an unusually long reign (fifty-five
years), and left the newly founded Babylonian em-
pire, firmly established and unified, to hisson Samsu-
iluna (2209-2180 [2839-2304, Oppert]). The latter’s
policy, like that of his successors, seems to have
been the same as Hammurabi’s.
The most important of all the Hammurabi inscrip-
tions is without doubt that found at Susa, containing
hiscodeof laws. Thisinscription was
Ham- brought to light on the acropolis of
murabi’s Susaby J. de Morgan, at the head ofa
Code. French archeological expedition, as a
result of excavations carried on in
December and January, 1901-02. The laws are in-
scribed in forty-four linesona block of black diorite
2.25 meters in height, and constitute the most valu-
able known monument of Babylonian culture, the
oldest document of the kind in the history of human
progress. <A bas-relief on the monument shows the
king in a devout attitude before the sun-god Samas,
who, seated, instructs him in the law. The god
wears a crown, while in his right hand he holds a
style and a circular object ofsymbolicimport. This
monument stood originally in the sun-temple of
Ebabarra at Sippar. Thence it was carried to Susa
199
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hammerschiag
Hammurabi
by the Elamite conqueror Shutruk-Nahhunte in 1100
B.c. From a statement in the inscription it appears
that a duplicate of the stone codex was erected in
the temple of E-sagila at Babylon. Fragments of a
second copy have been found in 8usa itself, Four
fraginents of a copy in clay made for Assurbanipal’s
library are preserved in the British Museum, The
code is a collection of decrees, which, however, do
not constitute a legal system as generally under-
stood. Private and criminal law are not separated.
The transitions are arbitrary and lack any logical
principle of succession. Paragraphs 128-194 are es-
pecially noticeable, containing regulations concern-
ing marriage, family possessions, inheritance, and
adopted children.
The picture of civilization which these laws un-
roll compels a change in the traditional ideas of the
ancient Orient. A large number of regulations show
a wholly unsuspected
degree of culture.
Manual labor, archi-
tecture, ship-build-
ing, commerce, and
agriculture form the
subject-matter of the
code. There was a
decided advance over
the Bedouin civiliza-
tion, since the Baby-
lonians were under
the protection of a
prince who was like a
father to bis subjects.
Only the slave seems
to have been excluded
from this protection;
he was regarded as
a chattel, asin Mosaic
law, but with the
difference that the
“‘ebed ” in Israel was
protected by the
law against inhuman
treatment (Ex. xxi.
20), whereas the slave
in Babylonia, accord-
ing to paragraph
282, was exposed
to pitiless barbarity.
The degrees of the
social scale are not
shown very clearly.
The ranks of priest, king, free-born, and freed-
man were distinguished, as well as the class of
slaves. Artisans belonged to the lower classes; even
the physician was reckoned among them. Like them,
he receiveda “wage”; whereas the architect, like
the artist, received a “fee” (“kistu”). Paragraphs
198-214 contain the penal code; a free-born man
was about equivalent to two freedmen, and a freed-
man to about two slaves.
The laws concerning marriage and inheritance,
property and punishments, show much similarity
to the regulations of the Torah. Genesis xvi. 3 and
xxx. 8, where the relation of Sarah to Hagar, and
of Rachel to Bilhah, is spoken of, have light thrown
Hammurabi Before the Sun-God.
(From a stele found at Susa.)
upon them by paragraph 145 of Hammurabi’s code:
“Tf aman takes a wife and she bears him children
and he desires to take a concubine—if he takes the
concubine into his house, this concubine shall not be
equal to the wife.” In Lev. xx. 10 and Deut. xxii.
22 it is decreed that in case of adultery onthe part
of a wife both parties to the guilt shall be put to
death; paragraph 129 of Hammurabi’s
Parallels code corresponds to this: “If any
with man’s wife is found lying with another
Mosaic man, they shall both be bound and
Code. thrown into the water.” Exactly the
same law is found in Deut. xxii. 25-26
asin the code, paragraph 130: “If any one forces
the betrothed of another, who has not yet known a
man and is still living in her father’s house—if he is
found lying with her, he shall be put to death, but
the woman shall be guiltless.” An accusation
brought against a
woman by her hus-
band is decided by
appealing to God’s
judgment: the “ jeal-
ousy offering” in
Num. v. 11-81 is a
parallel, Paragraphs
@ and 122 treat of
the business of de-
positing goods
(comp. Ex. = xxii.
6~7); paragraph 176
assures to the public
steward the right
of holding property
(comp. Gen. xv. 32;
II Sam. ix. 2, 9, 10).
Paragraph 117 sheds
light on IT Kings iv,
1; Isa, xxvii. 2, 1. 1;
it shows that bond-
age for debt, which
could be made to in-
clude the whole fam-
ily, terminated in the
fourth year, as
against the seventh
according to Mosaic
law (comp. Ex. xxi.
2).
The lex tatlionis,
indicated in Ex. xxi.
23-25; Deut. xix.
21; Lev. xxiv. 19, is also met with in the code, in
fifteen places. But asin the Mosaic law (Ex. xxi.
26, 29-32; Lev. xxiv. 18; Num. xxxv.
The ‘‘Lex 31) the retaliatory punishment may be
Talionis.” commuted by substitution or by a
monetary satisfaction, so also in the
code of Hammurabi, which distinguishes many
cases in which a payment proportionate to the injury
committed may be exacted. There is another class
of punishments, found also in old Egyptian law,
which falls under the law of retaliation: “If a
physician wounds a man severely with the opera-
ting-knife and kills him, or if he opensa tumor with
the operating-knife and the eye is injured, one shall
Hammurabi
Hamon
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
200
chop off his hands” (§ 218). <A similar fate befell
the unskilful tattooer, according to paragraph 226.
The code classes the casting of spells (§§ 1 and 2)
as an offense against religion. The same verb,
“abaru,” appears in Deut. xviii. 11 as in paragraph
157, and with a like meaning: “If any one lies with
his mother after his father, they shall both be
burned,” a decree which recalls Lev. xx. 11. Bearing
false witness knowingly was punished with death,
according to $8 8 and 11 (comp. Deut. xix. 16~21).
Revenge, or private enforcement of justice, was
allowed in cases of burglary and stealing if (§§ 22,
26) the evil-doer was taken in flagrante delicto: Ex.
xxii. 2 has a similar regulation. The principle that
& man is responsible for damage caused by his care-
lessness is clearly brought out in the code. Among
others belonging to this class of regulations is para-
graph 229, to which Deut. xxii, 8 is comparable.
There is a parallel between paragraphs 251-252
of the code and Ex. xxi. 29-82, as regards the fine
which the owner of vicious oxen must pay in the
event of an accident if he has not taken proper pre-
cautions. If an animal is torn to pieces in the field
by a wild beast, the shepherd is not responsible, ac-
cording to paragraph 244 of the code (comp. Ex.
xxii. 12). Asin Ex. xxi. 28 the owner of an animal
that gores is not liable to confinement on account of
injury caused by his animal, so also in the code
(§ 250). The “elders” are named with the judges as
officers of the law, just as in Deut. xix. 12 the“ zikne
‘ir” appear as criminal magistrates. Bribing the
judge was forbidden. An oath of purgation was
accepted as proof in Ex. xxii. 7, 10-11: the same
conception is met with in various places in the code.
The Book of the Covenant makes a distinction in
Ex. xxi. 18 between actions with and without intent:
so does the code ($ 206). According to Ex. xxi, 22
the fine to be paid for injuring a pregnant woman
was fixed by the husband; according to paragraph
209 of Hammurabi’s code the fine was ten shekels.
The law in Ex. xxi. 26 gives freedom to a slave
whose eye is destroyed by his master: the code gives
the slave the half of his value (§ 199).
The fact that these laws are not arranged in log-
ical classifications gives ground for the supposition
that Hammurabi’s code originated in
Mode a collection of important decisions. It
of Composi- contains, therefore, only typical cases
tion. from legal practise. Hence one seeks
in vain in this code of Hammurabi
for norms in the juridical sense which has attached
to the term since Binding (“Handbuch des Straf-
rechts,” i. 159); it does not contain pure commands
of the lawgiver, like the Ten Commandments,
“where the commands are given in a short and im-
perative form.” However uncertain the interpreta-
tion, there is no manner of doubt that the Torah excels
Hammurabi’s code from an ethical-religious stand-
point. The code, indeed, contains humane regula-
tions, such as those clauses which treat
Superiority of freeing a captive; which excuse a
of Mosaic man from the payment of his taxes
Code. where the harvest has failed; which
protect one in bondage for debt against
ill treatment; which limit the right to dispose of
goods given in security fordebt. But the humanity
of these provisions is outweighed by regulations such
as those dealing with the legally organized system
of prostitution ($$ 178-180), or with the conditions in
the wine-shop in which evil people assembled (§ 109),
and by the typical cases mentioned of outrageous
cruelty toward animals ($$ 246-248), all which clauses
evidence a low plane of morality.
A law such as Ex. xx. 17; Deut. v. 21, “thou shalt
not covet” (which the Decalogue, with a perception
of the fact that covetousness is the root of all law-
breaking, places above all other earthly laws), is not
to be found anywhere in the code. Hence it follows
that the code does not recognize the law of neigh-
borly love, since self-restraint is wholly foreign to it.
The institutions of the Torah which protect those
who are weak economically, which set bounds to the
unlimited growth of wealth, and which care for the
poor are peculiar to itself. The law of love to one’s -
neighbor (Ex. xxiii. 4 e¢ seqg.), which takes account
of the stranger and even of the enemy, is nowhere
discernible in Hammurabi’s code. The law of retal-
iation, of cold, calculating equity, “as thou to me so I
to thee”; the revenge of the stronger on the weaker—
these form a broad foundation on which the love of
one’s neighbor finds no place.
Hammurabi’s service to religion consisted chiefly
in the fact that he opposed the use of spells and en-
chantments. A similar advance in this direction
had already been made by King Gudea. The dis-
covery of Hammurabi’s code completely disproves
one of the chief hy potheses of the Wellhausen school,
that a codification on the part of the Hebrews was
impossible before the ninth century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: V. Scheil, Délégation en Perse, Mémoires
Publiés sous la Direction de M. J. de Morgan, Délégué
Général, vol. iv.; Yeates Elamites-Sémitiques, 2d series,
Paris, 1902; H. Winckler, Die Gesetze Hammurahis, K6-
nigs von Babylon, in Der Alte Orient, vol. iv., part 4, Leip-
sic, 1902 (2d ed., 1903); Schrader, K. A. T. vol. i., Berlin,
1902; L. W. King, The Letters and Inscriptions of Ham-
murabi, London, 1898-1900; M. Montgomery, Briefe aus
Hammurabis Zeit, Berlin, 1901: C. H.W. Johns, Zhe Oldest
Code of Laws in the World, Promulgated by Hammurabi,
Edinburgh, 1908; The Independent (New York), Jan., 1903;
J. Jeremias, Moses und Hammurabi, Leipsic, 1908; G.
Cohn, Die Gesetze Hammurabis, Zurich, 1903; Winckler,
Gesch. Israels; Friedrich Delitzsch, Babel und Bibel, pp.
21 et seg., Leipsic, 1908; Kohler, in Zeitschrift ftir Ver-
gleichende Rechtswissenschaft, vol. vii.; R. Dareste, in Vou-
velle Revue Historique de Droit Francaiset Etranger, vol.
XxvVii.; S. Oettli, Das Gesetz Hammurabis und die Thora
Israels, Leipsic, 1908; Schwersahl, Das Aelteste Gesetzhuch
der Welt, in Deutsche Juristenzeitung, March 1, 1903;
Grimme, Das Gesetz Chammurabis und Moses, Cologne,
1903; Lagrange, in Revue Biblique, 1908; C. F. Lehmann,
Babyloniens Kulturmission Hinst und Jetzt, pp. 43 et seq.,
et 1903; G. Cohn, Die Gesetze Hammurabis, Zurich,
G. S. Fu.
HAMNUNA I.: Babylonian amora of the third
century; senior to Joseph b. Hiyya (Ket. 50b; Tosef.,
Ket. s.o. am‘). He was a disciple of Rab (Abba
Arika), from whom he received instruction not only
in the Halakah (B. K. 106a), but also in ethics (‘Er.
54a; comp. Ecclus. [Sirach] xiv. 11 e¢ seqg.). He
seems to have been prominent among his fellow
students, following Rab’sexample. What the mas-
ter directed others to do or to omit, he directed his
colleagues. “Charge your wives,” said he, “that
when standing by the dead they pluck not their
hair out {for grief], lest they transgress the inhibi-
tion, ‘ Ye shall not make any baldness between your
eyes for the dead’” (Deut. xiv. 1; Yer. Kid. i. 61c:
comp. Yer. Ma‘as, iv. 5le.; Yer. Suk. iv. 54b). He
201
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hammurabi
Hamon
honored Rab’s memory not only by citing him as an
authority (‘Er. 77b, e¢ ad.), but also by endeavoring
to prevent deviations from customs once established
by Rab. When a scholar came to Harta de-Argaz
and decided a ritualistic point contrary to the
opinion of Rab, Hamnuna excommunicated him,
arguing that the scholar should not have ventured
to act thus at Rab’s last residence (Shab. 19b). In
Haggadah heis not often met with. Once he quotes
a saying of Rab’s (‘Ab. Zarah 19b).
E. C S. M.
HAMNUNA II.: Babylonian amora of the third
and fourth centuries; in the Babylonian Talmud
sometimes referred to as Hamnuna Saba (“the
elder”), to distinguish him from a younger Ham-
nuna. He was a native of Harpania (Hipparenum ;
Neubauer, “G. T.” p. 352), but paid his poll-tax at
Pum-Nahara, to which place he was therefore as-
sumed to belong (Yeb. 17a). He sat at the feet of
the most prominent teachers of the latter half of the
third century, among whom were Adda b. Ahabah,
Judah b. Ezekiel, and ‘Ula; and by most of them he
was greatly respected for his talent (Git. 81b; Yeb.
1%a; Shebu. 84a). But he was most esteemed by
his teacher Hisda, under whom he rapidly rose from
the position of pupil to that of colleague (Shab. 97a;
‘Er. 68a; Yer. Hor. iii. 4%). Subsequently Huna
became his teacher; and as long as Huna lived
Hamnuna would not teach at Harta de-Argaz, the
place of Huna’s residence (‘Er. 68a), Hamnuna even-
tually became a recognized rabbinical authority, and
the foremost scholars of his generation, like Ze‘era I.,
applied to him for elucidations of obscure questions
(Ber. 24b). The “resh galuta” (exilarch) repeatedly
consulted him on scholastic points (Yer. Shab. xii.
18c; Shab. 119a). As a haggadist he strongly ad-
vocated the study of the Law, which, according to
him, should precede everything, even good deeds
(Kid. 40b). Providence decreed the destruction of
Jerusalem solely because children were not schooled
in the Law, as it is written, “I will pour it (fury]
out upon the children abroad” (Jer. vi. 11), which
is a reference to the fact that the children are
abroad, and not in the schools (Shab. 119b). There-
fore aS soon as a child learns to talk it must be
taught to say, “The Torah which Moses hath com-
manded us is the inheritance of the congregation of
Jacob” (Deut. xxxiii. 4, Hebr.; Suk. 42a).
In the numerical value of A7}n (“ Torah”) Hamnuna
finds Scriptural support for Simlai’s declaration that
the Israelites received at Sinai six hundred and thir-
teen commandments: To the people Moses commu-
nicated ANN (400 + 6-+ 200-5 = 611), and the first
two of the Decalogue were communicated to them
directly by God (Mak. 23b; comp. Ex. R. xxxiii. 7).
He declared that insolence is providentially punished
by absence of rain. This teaching he derives from
Jer. iii. 8: “The showers have been withholden, and
there hath been no latter rain”; because “thou hadst
a whore’s forehead, thou refusedst to be ashamed ”
(Ta‘an. 7b). Hamnuna was a considerable litur-
gical author. To him are ascribed five benedictions
which an Israelite should utter at the sight of differ-
ent Babylonian ruins (Ber. 57b), two to be spoken
on seeing large armies (Ber. 58a), and one before en-
gaging in the study of the Torah (Ber. 11b). The
last one has been universally adopted, and is still
recited at the public readings of the Torah. Vari-
ous other prayers are ascribed to him (Ber. 17a), one
of which isincorporated in the ritual (see HAMNUNA
Zuta). Hamnuna died at the same time as Rabbah
b. Huna, and their remains were transported to-
gether for burial in Palestine.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Bab. Amor. p. 73; Frankel,
Mebo, p. 7a; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.; Zacuto, Yu-
hasin, ed. Filipowski, pp. 180a et seq.
E. C. S. M.
HAMNUNA OF BABYLONIA: Teacher of
the Bible; junior of Hanina b. Hama and senior of
Jeremiah b. Abba, both of whom he consulted on an
exegetical question (Yer. B. B. vii. 15c; comp. Yer.
Ta‘an. iv. 68a; Eccl. R. vii. 7). He was the inno-
cent cause of great provocation to Judah I., and of
consequent neglect of Hanina. Judah lectured on
Ezek, vii. 16, and misquoted it. His pupil Hanina
publicly corrected him, and when the patriarch
asked him where he had learned Bible, he replied,
“From R. Hamnuna of Babylonia.” As Hamnuna
was Hanina’s junior, it appeared to the patriarch
that Hanina jested at his ex pense, as ifimplying that
mere tyros knew the Bible better than he. This so
angered him that he told Hanina, “If thou ever visit-
est Babylonia, tell the people that I have appointed
thee hakam” (“sage,” a title less honorable than
“rabbi”). By this Hanina understood that Judah
would never promote him to an academic rectorate
(Yer. Ta‘an. ¢.c. ; Eecl. R. 7.c.; see HANINA B. HAMA).
B.C. S. M.
HAMNUNA ZUTA: Babylonian amora of the
fourth century; junior and contemporary of Ham-
nuna IJ. (hence his cognomen “ Zuta” ). Hamnuna
II. had composed a penitential prayer beginning
“My God! Before I was formed I was worthless”
(see CONFESSION). This prayer Raba adopted and
recited daily, while Hamnuna Zuta appropriated it
for recitation on the Day of Atonement (Yoma 87b;
comp. Ber. 1%a).
E. C. S. M.
HA-MODIA‘ LA-HADASHIM. See PERiop-
ICALS.
HAMON : Ancient family, originally from Spain,
which settled in Turkey and produced several phy-
sicians, The following were among its more impor-
tant members:
1. Aaron b. Isaac Hamon: Physician at Con-
stantinople about 1720.
2. Joseph Hamon: A near relative of Isaac Ha-
mon; born, probably, at Granada, Spain. Expelled
from his home, he went at an advanced age to Con-
stantinople, where, according to “ Shalshelet ha-Kab-
balah” (p. 50b), he was physician to Sultan Salim I.
3. Joseph Hamon: Son of Moses Hamon (No.
5) and grandson of Joseph Hamon (No. 2); died
before 1578. Like his father, he was physician at
the court of the sultan, and a patron of Jewish
learning. He was also a member of a society at
Constantinople formed for the cultivation of Jewish
poetry, other members being Saadia Longo, who
addressed a poem to Hamon, and Judah Sarko, who
addressed to him a rhetorical composition on his
marriage. Hamon was one of those to whom the
Jews of Salonica were indebted for having their
Hamon
Hanan
ancient privileges restored: by Salim II. in 1568.
Hamon’s widow addressed a letter to Judah Abra-
vanel in January, 1578.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Carmoly, Dibre ha-Yamim it-Bene Yahya,
p. 39; Almosnino, Me’ammez Koah, p. 7a; Steinschneider,
Hebr. Bibl. ti. 84.
4. Judah Hamon: Physician at Adrianople;
died there May 17, 1678 (“El Progreso,” i. 194
et seq.).
5. Moses Hamon (Amon): Son of Joseph
Hamon (No. 2); born in Spain about 1490; died be-
fore 1567. Going with his father to Constantino-
ple, he became physician to Sultan Sulaiman J.
This “famous prince and great physician,” as he is
called by Judah ibn Verga, accompanied the mon-
arch on all his expeditions, enjoying great favor on
account of his knowledge and skill. He was a fine
linguist, versed in Arabic, Turkish, and Persian, and
was a patron of Jewish learning. He printed some
Hebrew works at Constantinople as early as 1515
and 1516. Healso built in thatcity, at his own cost,
a school which was presided over by the learned
Joseph Taitazak of Salonica. He did not, how-
ever, translate the Pentateuch into Persian, nor the
prayers of the Israelites into Turkish, as Manasseh
b. Israel records; but he had Jacob Tavus’ Persian
Pentateuch translation, together with Saadia’s
Arabic translation, printed at his own expense in
1546.
Hamon, who was everywhere highly respected on
account of his firm character and philanthropy,
was a fearless advocate of his coreligionists. When
about 1545 the Jews of Amasia were falsely accused
of having murdered a Christian for ritual purposes,
and the innocence of those that had been executed
was established soon after by the reappearance of
the missing man, Hamon induced the sultan to de-
cree that thenceforward no accusation of the kind
should be entertained by any judge of the country,
but should be referred to the royal court (see Danon
in “El Progreso,” i. 148 e¢ seg., where a legendary
account of the event is given, probably taken from
“Me’ora‘ot ‘Olam,” Constantinople, 1756).
Hamon was also called upon to decide communal
difficulties. After an affray which arose in the Jew-
ish community of Salonica Hamon summoned the
instigators to Constantinople and induced the sultan
to send a judge to Salonica to investigate the affair
and to punish the guilty ones (see Danon, /.c. i. 162
et seg., 178 et seg., where several of Hamon’s Hebrew
letters are reprinted). The sultan, at Hamon’s re-
quest, exempted the latte1’s descendants from all
taxes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, ed. Cassel, pp. 32b,
34b; Shebel Yehudah, pp. 33, 53, 111; Joseph ha-Kohen,
‘Emek ha-Baka, p. 105; Samuel Usque, Consolacao as Tri-
bulacoens de Yisrael, p. 208a; M. A. Levy, D. Joseph Nasi,
Herzog von Naxos, und Zwei Judische Diplomaten Seiner
Zeit, p. 6; Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl. ii. 67, 83; Carmoly,
Histoire des Médecins Juifs, p. 159; Gritz, Gesch. ix. 33,
339; AR. E. J. Xi. 230.
6. Moses Hamon: Physician at Constantinople;
nephew of Moses Hamon (No. 5). He was one of
the signers of the document drawn up by the Jew-
ish scholars of Constantinople in 1587, asking that
they be exempted from the communal taxes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Samuel de Avila, Keter Torah, p. 2a.
D. M. Ky.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
202
HAMON-GOG (more fully Valley of Hamon-
gog): Aglen at one time known as “the valley of
the passengers on the east of the sea,” so named
after the burial there of “Gog and all his multitude ”
(Ezek, xxxix. 11, 15).
E. G@. H, B. P.
HAMOR (“)19n): A Hivite prince; father of
Shechem, whose defilement of Dinah caused the de-
struction of a whole city, including his own family
(Gen. xxxiii. 19, xxxiv. 2, and passim). Hamor had
great influence over the Shechemites; for on his ad-
vice they circumcised all their males (Gen. xxxiv.
24). As the inhabitants of Shechem are called “the
children [sons] of Hamor” (#6. xxxiii. 19; Josh.
xxiv. 82), and “the men of Hamor” (Judges ix. 28),
it would seem that Hamor was the founder of
Sbhechem, and that the expression “the father of |
Shechem” is applied to him just as “the father
of Bethlehem” (I Chron. ii. 51) and “the father of
Tekoa” (¢b. iv. 5) are applied to the founders of
those cities respectively.
E. G. H.
HAMRAM. See HEMDAN.
HAMUEL (R. V. Hammuel; 5x39): The son
of Mishma, a descendant of Simeon (I Chron. iv. 26).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HAMUL (spn) : The younger son of Pharez,
Judah’s son by Tamar, and head of the family of
the Hamulites (Gen. xlvi. 12; Num. xxvi. 21; I
Chron. ii. 5).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HAMUL ELIEZER MAZLIAH B. ABRA-
HAM DE VITERBO: Roman rabbi and physi-
cian in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. He
was of a family of rabbis, physicians, and mer-
chants. In 1570 he appears as “fattore” or repre-
sentative of a Jewish congregation, but in 1587 he is
mentioned as occupying the Roman rabbinate. Heis
described as one of the most erudite rabbinical schol-
ars of hisage. Among his contemporaries were R.
Joseph b. Sabatai de Rieti of Sienna and R. Raphael
b. Benjamin di Modigliano. Besides many responsa,
he wrote a Latin essay defending his coreligionists
against the charge of falsifying the Scriptures. This
he addressed to Cardinal Sirleto, Protector of the
Neophytes in Rome. To the Italian reader he is
best known by his “Il Tempio di Oratori” (Venice,
1585), a translation of Moses Rieti’s o*osnwn YD,
which became one of the most popular devotional
works among the Italian Jews. This translation he
dedicated in Hebrew verse to Donna Corcos, daugh-
ter of Solomon Corcos, president of the congregation.
As does his letter to Sirleto, it bears his Italian name,
“Lazaro Hebreo da Viterbo.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in
Rom, ii. et seq.
E. C. 8. M.
HAMUTAL (Spin): Daughter of Jeremiah of
Libnah and mother of Kings Jehoahaz and Zedekiah
(If Kings xxiii. 81, xxiv. 18; Jer. lij. 1). In the last
two passages the more correct reading is “ Hamital,”
which is invariably adopted by the Septuagint.
K. G. H, M. Set.
M. SEL.
203
HANA (HUNA) B. BIZNA: Babylonian
scholar of the third and fourth centuries; judge at
Pumbedita (B. K. 12a). He especially cultivated
the tield of Haggadah, in which he became distin-
guished. R. Sheshet, who once attempted to criti-
cize Hana’s homiletic expositions, but was soon de-
feated, remarked, “I can not contend with Hana in
the field of the Haggadah” (Suk. 52b). As a hala-
kist Hana seems to have been an independent
thinker. In spite of criticism he allowed himself
to frequent pagan barber-shops in the suburbs of
Nehardea (‘Ab. Zarah 29a). To him belongs the
credit of preserving from oblivion the name and
teachings of Simon Hasida, a late tanna rarely men-
tioned by any other rabbi (Ber. 3b, 48b; Ket. 67b;
Yeb. 60b; e¢al.).
E, C. S. M.
HANA B. HANILAI: Babylonian scholar and
philanthropist of the third century; the junior of
Huna I, and Hisda (Bezah 21a, 40a). The Talmud
relates of him that he was wont to employ scores of
bakers in the preparation of bread for the poor, and
that his hand was ever in his purse, ready to extend
help to the needy. His house was provided with
entrances on all sides, that the wayfarer might the
easier find entry, and none ever left it hungry or
empty-handed. He would leave food outside the
house at night, that those who felt shame in solicit-
ing might help themselves under cover of darkness,
Eventually his house was destroyed. ‘Ula and
Hisda once saw the ruins; Hisda was much moved
at the sight, and when ‘Ula inquired the cause of
his emotion, Hisda acquainted him with its former
splendor and hospitality, adding, “Is not the sight
of its present condition sufficient to force sighs from
me?” ‘Ula, however, replied, “The servant should
not expect to fare better than his master: God’s
sanctuary was destroyed, and so was Hana’s house;
as the former, so will the latter be: God will restore
it” (Ber. 58b; comp. Meg. 27a). Notwithstanding
his learning and his wealth, Hana was extremely
modest and obliging, ready even to lift physical
burdens from the shoulders of the worthy. Huna
once carried a shovel across the street; Hana met
him and at once offered to relieve him. Huna, how-
ever, would not permit it. “ Unless,” said he, “thou
art accustomed to do such things at home, I can not
Jet thee do it here: I will not be honored through
thy degradation ” (Meg. 28a).
E. C, S. M.
HANAMEEL (bxpn; R. V. Hanamel).—
Biblical Data: Sonof Shallum and cousin of Jere-
miah. The latter purchased a field from him for
seventeen shekelsof silver in token of his belief that
the Israelites would return to their land (Jer. xxxii.
7-12).
E. G. H. M. SEt.
——In Rabbinical Literature: Hanameel was
the son of Shallum, the man who was miraculously
resurrected from the dead (Pirke R. El. xxxiii.).
His mother was the prophetess Huldah. Like his
parents, he was possessed of great piety and learning ;
he knew the names of the angels, and could conjure
them at will (see INcantTaTion), Thus when the
Chaldeans were besieging Jerusalem he conjured
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hamon
Hanan
angels, who, in obedience to his summons, came
down from heaven as warriors and put the enemies
of Israel to flight, Thereupon God changed the
names of the angels so that Hanameel’s conjurations
would be unavailing to prevent the destruction of
Jerusalem. Hanameel, however, summoned the
“Prince of the World ” (oder 34), an archangel in
charge of the government of the world (see MreTa-
TRON), who actually lifted Jerusalem up to heaven.
The city could not then be destroyed until God had
cast it down again, and had made it impossible for
the “Prince of the World” to come to its aid (Ekah
Zuta, ed. Buber, p. 62). A legend closely related to
this haggadah is found in Lam. R. ii. 2 (ed. Buber,
p. 110, end). On his father’s as well as his mother’s
side Hanameel was a descendant of Rahab by her
marriage with Joshua, being one of eight prophets
that resulted from this marriage (Sifre, U.c.; Meg.
l.c.; comp. Seder ‘Olam R. xx.).
J. L. G.
HANAMEEL THE EGYPTIAN: High
priest; flourished in the first century B.c. After
assuming the government of Palestine, Herod sur-
rounded himself with creatures of his own; from
among these he chose one Hanamee] to fill the office
of high priest made vacant by the ignominious death
of Antigonus (87 B.c.). Hanameel (Ananelus) was
an Egyptian according to the Mishnah (Parah iii. 5),
a Babylonian according to Josephus (“ Ant.” xv. 2,
§ 4); though of priestly descent, he was not of the
family of the high priests. But Hanameel’s incum-
bency was of short duration. Prudence compelled
Herod to remove him, and to fill his place with the
Hasmonean ARISTOBULUS (85 3B.c.). The youthful
Hasmonean, however, was too popular with the pa-
triotic party ; though he was a brother of Mariamne,
Herod’s beloved wife, he was treacherously drowned
at Herod’s instigation (35 B.c.), and Hanameel was re-
stored to the high position. How long he continued
in office historians do not state; but it could not
have been for many years, since after the execution
of Mariamne (29 B.c.) Herod remarried, and appointed
his second father-in-law, Simon b. Boethus, to the
high-priesthood, removing Joshua b. Fabi. Hana-
meel is credited with having prepared one of the
total of seven “red heifers” (see Num. xix.) which
were provided in all the centuries from Ezra’s
restoration to the final dispersion of the Jews
(Parah /.c.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Gesch. iii. 213 et seq.; Josephus, Ant.
Xv. 2, ; 8, $8 1, 3; Jost, Gesch. des Judenthums und
er Sekten, i. 320; see also Brill, Mebo ha-Mishnah, i.
E. C. S. M.
HANAN (j3n): 1. A Benjamite chief (I Chron.
viii. 23). 2. The sixth son of Azel, also a Benja-
mite, of the family of Saul (2d. viii. 88). 3. Son of
Maachah, one of David’s mighty men (2b. xi. 48).
4, Progenitor of a family of the Nethinim, who re-
turned from captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 46;
Neh, vii. 49). 5. Son of Igdaliahu, a man ef God,
whose sons had a chamber in the house of the Lord
(Jer, xxxv. 4). 6. One of the Levites who assisted
Ezra in the reading of the Law (Neh. viii. 7), and
who sealed the covenant (2). x. 10). 7%. One of
the chiefs who also sealed the covenant (2b. x. 22).
Hanan
Hananiah
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
204
8. Another signatory to the covenant (7). x. 26).
9. Son of Zaccur, and one of the storekeepers of
the provisions taken as tithes (7). xiii. 13).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HANAN (HANIN, HANINAN): Scholar of
the third amoraic generation (third century). He
was probably a Babylonian by birth anda late pupil
of Rab, in whose name he reports halakot and hag-
gadot (Yoma 41b; Suk. 15b et seg.; Ned. 7b); and is
found associating with Anan, who lived and died in
Babylonia (Kid. 39a). Frequently, however, he ap-
pears in Palestine, where he waged controversies
with the foremost scholars of his generation: Ela,
Hoshaiah II., Levi (Yer. Dem. vi. 25c; Gen. R.
xxix. 4; Num. R. xiii. 8). Hanan teaches: Whoso
invokes God’s retribution on his neighbor suffers
first. Thus, Sarah called on God to judge between
her and Abraham (Gen. xvi. 5), and soon thereafter,
it is written (Gen, xxiii. 2), “Sarah died . . . and
Abraham came to mourn for Sarah, and to weep for
her” (B. K. 93a). Israel’s enslavement in Egypt
was a divine retribution for selling Joseph. “The
Holy One, blessed be He! said to the [eponyms of
the] tribes, ‘Joseph was sold for a servant: as ye
live, ye shall annually repeat the statement, “We
were servants of Pharaoh in Egypt”’” (Midr. Teh.
x 2). The last verse forms part of the Seder serv-
ice. In the threefold threat conveyed in Deut.
xxviii. 66, Hanan finds foreshadowed the mental
anguish of him who possesses no land and is
obliged to buy provisions by the year or by the
week from the markets, or by the day from the
shopkeeper (Yer. Shab. viii. lla; see Besar L;
comp. AHAI B. JosIAH). Hanan married into the
patriarchal family, and for many years had no
children. When at last he was blessed with a son,
Hanan died. At his funeral this elegy was pro-
nounced: “Happiness to sorrow was changed;
mirth and mourning have met; joy was succeeded
by wailing; at the first caress died the caresser.”
The child was named Hanan after its father (M. K.
25h).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 86 et seqg.; Fran-
kel, Mebo, p. 86a.
S. M.
E. C,
HANAN (HANIN), ABBA: Tanna of the sec-
ond century; younger contemporary of Simon of
Shezur, Josiah, and Jonathan (Mek., Mishpatim, 8,
12, 20; Nazir 45a). Possibly he sat at the feet of
Eliezer b. Hyrcanus, in whose name he transmits
many halakic midrashim (seventeen in Sifre, Num.
4 [Hanin}, 7, 11, 28, 35, 52, 68, 72 [Hanin], 107 [five
times}, 118, 126, 188, and 187; and elsewhere). In-
deed, it may be said that Abba Hanan was simply
Eliezer’s mouthpiece. Only once (Sifre, Deut. 94)
does he appear independent of Eliezer, and Bacher
(“Ag. Tan.” i, 181) represents him here as opposing
his master (see Tosef., Sanh. xiv. 3); but a careful
comparison of the sources proves that there is no
antagonism. Eliezer’s harsh verdict refers to minors
who followed their elders in apostasy ((7)nw), while
his junior speaks of minors who were not guilty of
the crime. Occasionally Abba Hanan appears to
report also in the name of Eleazar (Mek., Mishpatim,
20), but the version is not authentic, and Weiss (“In-
troduction to the Mekilta,” p. xxx.) proves it to be
erroneous.
E. Cc, S. M.
HANAN B. ABISHALOM. See HaNan THE
EGYPTIAN.
HANAN THE EGYPTIAN: 1. (Hanan b.
Abishalom.) One of the police judges at Jerusalem
in the Jast decades of its independence (see ADMON
B. GADDAI). Several of his decisions have been pre-
served (Ket. xiii. 1 e¢ seg.), 2. Disciple of Akiba,
quoted among “those who argued before the sages”
(Sanh. 17b; comp. Yer. Ma‘as. Sh. ii. 53d). Only
one halakah is preserved in his name (Yoma 63b).
E. C. | S. M.
HANAN, ISAAC: Turkish rabbi; lived at
Salonica about the middle of the eighteenth century.
He was the author of a work called “ Bene Yizhak,”
homilies and responsa (Salonica, 1757).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. i. 407 (where Hanan occurs
as ‘* Honein”’); Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 612; Azulai, Shem
ha-Gedolim, p. 102.
K. M. SEt.
HANAN OF ISKIYA (ASIKIA): Rector of
the Talmudical academy at Pumbedita. Hormizd
IV. having disgraced the latter years of his reign by
cruel persecutions of the Christians and the Jews,
the Talmudical academies of Sura and Pumbedita
were closed, their masters removing to Firuz-Shabur,
in the neighborhood of Nehardea. The accession of
Hormizd’s general, Bahram Chobin, relieved the
Jews from persecution; the oppressive enactments
of Hormizd were repealed, and Hanan returned to
Pumbedita, reopened the academy, and assumed the
rectorate, which he held for nineteen years (589-
608).
Thus far almost all historians agree, but not in
regard to Hanan’s inauguration of the era of the
Geonim, Some, believing that the line of the Sabo-
raim covered several generations—from the death of
Rabina bar Huna (499) to the middle of the seventh
century—include Hanan in the list of the Sabo-
raim. Others, however (see Halevy, “Dorot ha-
Rishonim ”), following the tradition that Giza (‘Ena,
Gada) and Simuna were the last of the Saboraim (see
“ Seder Tanna’im we-Amora’im ”), and that Hanan of
Iskiya sat at the feet of the disciples of these masters,
begin the geonic period with the restoration of the
Pumbedita academy, and toits promoter they ascribe
the origination of the title “Gaon” (see Gaon). Be
this as it may, Hanan of Iskiya is remembered as the
restorer of the Pumbedita Talmudical academy, and
as the head of a line of teachers covering over four
hundred years (589-1038)—to the death of Hai Gaon
and the end of the geonic period.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gratz, Gesch. 2d ed., v. 10 et 8eq., 388 et 8eq.;
Halevy, Dorot ha-Rishonim, iii. 166 et seq.; Jost, Gesch. der
Juden und Seiner Sekten, ii. 252; Zacuto, Yuhasin, ed.
Filipowski, p. 204.
E. C. S. M.
HANANEEL: Babylonian scholar of the third
century; disciple of Rab (ApBA ARIKA) and col-
league of Beruna and Isaac b. Mahseiah (Yer. Ber,
vi. 10d; Pes. 108a). He was a great halakist, and
so familiar with his master’s opinions that once,
when an explanation of a certain current decision
205
was sought of Huna, the latter would not discuss
it until it had been ascertained of Hananeel that
Rab held the decision as law (Bek. 24b). By pro-
fession he was a scribe, and was so skilful and relia-
ble that Hisda declared that the whole Law might
be written out by Hananeel from memory were it
not that the sages forbade writing Scripture in that
manner (Meg. 18b; comp. Yer. Meg. iv. 74d).
Hananeel’s name appears quite frequently in the
Jerusalem, as well as in the Babylonian, Talmud,
Ze‘era I. having carried to Palestine many of his
teachings, particularly such as refer to the scribe’s
functions (Yer. Meg. i. T1c, et al.). But few hag-
gadot are connected with his name, and even these
are merely repetitions from Rab (Pes. 68a, et al.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Frankel, Mehe, p. 88a; Heilprin, Seder ha-Do-
TOU, VW.
E. . S. M.
HANANEEL BEN AMITTAI: Spiritual
leader of the Jewish community of Oria, Italy, in
the ninth century. Me issaid to have been descended
from a Jerusalem family, members of which were
taken to Italy by Titus. In the Ahimaaz Chronicle
Hananeel is credited with great learning and piety,
and is said to have been well versed in the secret
knowledge of Cabala, through which he performed
miracles. Ahimaaz also relates a disputation Hana-
neel had with the Archbishop of Oria.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Neubauer, M. J. C. ii. 119; Kaufmann, in Mo-
natsschrift, xl. 304.
G, I. Br.
HANANEEL IBN ASKARA. SeeSHEM-Toxs
BEN ABRAHAM GAON.
HANANEEL BEN HUSHIEL: Rabbi of Kair-
wan; Biblicaland Talmudical commentator; born at
Kairwan about 990; died, according to Abraham
Zacuto (“ Yuhasin,” 98b), in 1050. It seems that his
father, Hushiel, was his only master, but as by cor-
respondence he learned a great deal from Hai Gaon,
he was supposed by some French scholars, among
them the tosafists R. Tam and R. Isaac (RI), to
have been Hai’s pupil. After his father’s death,
Hananeel and his companion Nissim b. Jacob ibn
Shahin were named rabbis of Kairwan, and together
presided over the school. Hananeel had, besides, a
large business and was very rich, so that he left to
his nine daughters a fortune of ten thousand gold
pieces (Abraham ibn Daud, “Sefer ha-Kabbalah ”),
He was one of the first rabbis after the fall of
the geonic school, and he contributed greatly to
the spread of the study of the Talmud. Im sev-
eral places of Europe his name was well known,
but not his origin, so that he was called by some
scholars “Hananeel the Roman.” He contributed
largely to the revival of the Talmud of Jerusalem,
which had up to his time been neglected, supplanted
as it was by its younger companion, the Talmud of
Babylon. Through his commentary to the Talmud
he especially rendered great service in establishing
the correct text of that work, of which he had before
him the oldest manuscripts. Hananeel strictly
followed Hai Gaon in his commentaries, in so far
as the latter confined himself to plain interpreta-
tion and avoided mysticism. Of all the quotations
from Hananeel made by later commentators, there
is nota single one which is mystical in character.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hanan
Hananiah
Hananeel certainly knew Arabic and also Greek, as is
shown by his explanation of many Arabicand Greek
words. But, unlike his companion Nissim b. Jacob,
he wrote all his works in good Hebrew. He even
composed an elegy on Hai Gaon in Hebrew verse.
The works bearing Hananeel’s name are: (1) A com-
mentary on the Pentateuch, in which there is much di-
rected against the Karaites. It iscited by many later
Biblical commentators, chicfly by Bahya b. Asher.
Rapoport has gathered all the quotations from
Hananecl made by Bahya, and has published them
in the “ Bikkure ha-‘Ittim ” (xii. 34-55), and Berliner
has added to these extracts those made by other
commentators, and has published them, with Hana-
neel’s commentary to Ezekiel, in the “Migdal Hana-
ne’el.” (2) A commentary to the Talmud, which was
much utilized by Isaac Fasi (RIF), and Nathan b.
Jehiel, the author of the “‘Aruk,” both of whom
were supposed to have been Hananeel’s pupils. The
manuscripts of this commentary are to be found in
Munich MS. No, 227, and contain the treatises Pesa-
him ( published by Stern, Paris, 1868), ‘Ab. Zarah,
Shebu‘ot, Sanhedrin, Makkot (published by Berliner
in the “Migdal Hanane’el” in 1876), and Horayot.
The Vatican MS. No. 127 contains Yoma, Megillah,
Rosh ha-Shanah, Ta‘anit, SukKah, Bezah, and Mo‘ed
Katan; No. 128 contains Shabbat, ‘Erubin, Pesahim,
and Hagigah; and finally Codex Almanzi in London
contains Baba Kamma, Baba Mezi‘a, Sanhedrin,
Makkot, and Shebu‘ot. But 8. D. Luzzatto proved
in “Literaturblatt des Orients” (xi. 248) that the
commentary on ‘Erubin belongs to Hananeel b.
Samuel. A fragment of the commentary to Yoma
has been found by Schechter in the Genizah of
Cairo, and has been published by him in his
“Saadyana,” p. 116, Cambridge, 1908. It seems,
however, from the ‘‘‘Aruk” that Hananeel’s com-
mentary covered all the treatises of the Talmud.
(3) A collection of responsa, quoted in the “Shib-
bole ha-Leket” and in other responsa collections.
(4) “Sefer ha-Mikzo‘ot,” decisions on ritual laws,
quoted by Mordecai on Ketubot, No. 173, and on
Shebu‘ot, No. 756. (5) “Sefer Hefez,” decisions on
civil laws. Rapoport, however, proved (l.c. note
36) that the author of this work was Hefez b.
Yazliah. (6) “Seder Tefillah,” a prayer-book of
the same kind as that of. Saadia and Amram Gaon.
There is also a “pizmon” beginning “Hasadeka
tagbir,” signed “ Hananeel,” which may mean Hana-
neel b. Hushiel,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolini, s.v.; Rapoport, in
Bikkure ha-‘Tttim, xii. 1-33; Dukes, in Orient, Lit. ix. 209,
459; Berliner, Migdal Hanane’el, a monograph on Hananeel,
Berlin, 1876 ; Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., vi. 9-10; Michael, Or ha-
Hayyim, pp. 416, 417; Gross, in Berliner’s Magazin, ii. 26.
B.C. M. SEL.
HANANTIAH (7'33m): 1. A son of Heman the
singer, and chief of the sixteenth of the twenty-four
musical divisions into which the Levites were di-
vided by King David (I Chron. xxv. 4, 23). 2. One
of the captains of King Uzziah’s army (II Chron.
xxvi.11). 3. Father of Zedekiah, one of the princes
who sat in the house of King Jehoiakim (Jer. xxxvi.
12).
4. Son of Azur of Gibeon; a false prophet in the
reign of Zedekiah (23. xxviii. 1). He prophesied in
the fourth year of Zedekiah’s reign that two years
Hananiah
later Jeconiah and all the captives of Judah, together
with the vessels of the Lord’s house which had been
transported to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, would
be brought back to Jerusalem. Hananiah thereupon
took the yoke from Jeremiah’s neck and broke it as
a token that the yoke which had been imposed by
Nebuchadnezzar on Israel would also soon be broken
(¢®. xxviii. 2-10). Jeremiah, however, was com-
manded by God to tell Hananiah to replace the
wooden yoke by an iron one, as the yoke to be borne
by the Israelites would be still stronger than the
former one had been (23. xxviii. 18-14). Jeremiah
denounced Hananiah as a false prophet, and assured
him that he would die that same year for having
taught rebellion against the Lord. Hananiah died
three months later (¢b. xxviti. 17).
According to R. Joshua b. Levi (Yer. Sanh. xi. 7),
Hananiah b. Azur was not a false prophet, but he
used to repeat Jeremiah’s prophecies in different
places in Jerusalem, attributing them to himself. In
the above-mentioned case where Hananiah seemed to
contradict Jeremiah, it was by a miscalculation that
he announced the restoration of Israel within two
years. It is further said (2b.) that there is a discrep-
ancy in the passage where Hananiah’s death is re-
corded: “Hananiah the prophet died the same year
in the seventh month” (Jer. xxviii. 17); for as, ac-
cording to the Jewish reckoning, the seventh month
was the first of the year, it could not be “in the same
year.” The Talmudists inferred that Hananiah died
on the eve of New-Year’s Day, after commanding his
family to keep secret his death in order to prove
Jeremiah mistaken.
5. Grandfather of Irijah, captain of the ward at
the gate of Benjamin (Jer. xxxvii. 18). 6. Head of
a Benjamite family (I Chron. viii. 24). ‘7. The com-
panion of Daniel, Mishael, and Azariah. He was
named “Shadrach” by Nebuchadnezzar, and _ to-
gether with Mishael and Azariah (Meshach and Abed-
nego) was cast into the fire by command of Nebu-
chadnezzar (Dan. i. 6, 7, 11, 19; ii. 17; iti. 12-28). See
AZARIAH IN RABBINICAL LITERATURE. 8. Son of
Zerubbabel (I Chron, iii. 19), 9. Son of Bebai, who
returned with Ezra from Babylon (Ezra x. 28). 10.
One of the apothecaries who built a portion of the
wall of Jerusalem in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. iii.
8). 11. One of the chiefs of priestly families in
the days of Joiakim, the high priest (2. xii. 12).
12. Ruler of the palace at Jerusalem under Nehe-
miah; “a faithful man” (Neh. vii. 2). 18. A signa-
tory to the covenant in the time of Nehemiah (7d.
xX. 23).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HANANIAH (AHUNAI): Exilarch (761-
7717). He was a younger brother of ANAN BEN
Davin, the founder of Karaism; according to the
Karaites, whose contention was that Anan’s father
was the son of the exilarch Hasdai, he was a
nephew of Solomon ben Hasdai. The only source
for the nomination of Hananiah as exilarch after the
death of his uncle Solomon ben Hasdai is the Karaite
ELUAH BEN ABRABRAM (Pinsker, “Likkute Kad-
moniyyot,” Supplement, p. 103), who quotes an
anonymous Rabbinite author as follows: “ Anan
had a younger brother called Hananiah, and though
Anan was older and more learned than his brother,
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
206
he was not elected exilarch on account of his want
of religion; his brother Hananiah was preferred to
him.” As the exilarch who was elected in 771 was
called Zakkai ben Ahunai, Gratz (“ Geschichte,” v.
386) supposes Hananiah to be identical with Ahunai,
Zakkai’s father.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Gesch. 3d ed., v. 165, 385 et seq.; Flirst,
Gesch. des Kardert. section fi., note 8.
J. M. SEu.
HANANIAH (HANINA): Palestinian amora
of the third and fourth centuries; junior of Hivya
b. Abba and Ze‘era I. (Yer. Ber. vii. 11b). He was
frequently described as the “comrade of the Rabbis ”
(p3295 yan). Inthe Babylonian Talmud he is never
cited with his cognomen; and in the Jerusalem Tal-
mud also he is frequently quoted by his pranomen
alone. Thus he appearsin the report of a legal con-
troversy between him and Haggai, in which R. Ela
participated (Yer. Kid. iii. 68d). With the latter he
repeatedly had heated discussions, Ela exclaiming,
“God save us from such opinions!” and Hananiah
retorting, “ Rather may God save us from thy opin-
ions!” (Shab. 88b: Ket. 45b; B. K. 65b).
Hananiah was a Babylonian by birth, and was as-
sumed to have been the brother of Rabbah b. Nahmani
(“ Yuhasin,” 129a), a descendant of the priestly house
of Eli (R. H. 18a; Sanh. 14b); but he and another
brother, Hoshaiah (“Oshaiah” in the Babylonian
Talmud), emigrated at an early age to Palestine.
They settled at Tiberias, whither they ineffectually
urged Rabbah to follow them (Yer. Ta‘an. i. 64a;
Ket. 111a). Here they plied the shoemaker’s trade
foraliving. They established themselves on a street
inhabited by prostitutes, who patronized them.
Because they preserved their modesty and chastity,
in spite of their evil associations, even the women
learned to revere them and to swear “by the life
of the saintly rabbis of Palestine” (Pes. 113b). They
were also famous as workers of miracles, and when
they desired to prepare some savory meal in honor
of the Sabbath, legend says they were compelled
to resort to transcendental means in order to pro-
duce it (Sanh, 65b). Their exemplary life as well
as their scholarship prompted Johanan to ordain
them as teachers, but for reasons not stated—pos-
sibly because of the associations into which their
trade led them, or perhaps because of their youth—
he failed to carry out his intentions. This was a
source of regret to the venerable teacher, but the
brothers eased his mind by pointing out that, being
descendants from the house of Eli, they could not
expect to be promoted to “elderships,” since of that
house the Bible has said: “There shall not be an
old man in thine house forever” (I Sam. ii. 32;
Sanh. 14a). Hananiah died on a semi-festival, and,
as a mark of distinction and of general mourning,
his coffin was, contrary to custom on such days,
made on the public street (Yer. M. K. i. 80d).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 550; Frankel,
Mebo, p. 88a; Zacuto, Yuhasin, ed. Filipowski, p. 129a.
Ss.
E. C.
HANANIAH (HANINA): Palestinian scholar
of the fourth amoraic generation (fourth century);
nephew of R. Hoshaiah, junior of Ze‘era I., and con-
temporary of Jose II. (Yer. Ta‘an. i. 64a, where his
207
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hananiah
name is erroneously givenas “Hanaiah”). Once he
is represented as opposing “the rabbis of Csesarea ”
in halakic controversy (Yer. Shab. i. 8a). He is also
mentioned as having consulted Abba b. Zabda (Yer.
Meg. iii. 74d); but the text here is so mutilated as
to lose its reliability for chronological purposes (see
Frankel, “ Mebo,” p. 88b).
E. C. S. M.
HANANIAH (HANINA), Nephew of R.
Joshua: Tanna of the second century; contempo-
rary of Judah b. Bathyra, Matteya b. Heresh, and
Jonathan (Sifre, Deut. 80). Who his father was is
not stated; nor isanything known of his early years.
He was named after his grandfather, Hananiah, and
educated by his uncle, from whom he received his
cognomen. In some baraitot, however, he is cited
by his preenomen alone (Suk. 20b; Ket. 79b; see
HANANIAH B. ‘AKABIA). In the days of Gamaliel IT.
he once ventured to give a decision, for which he
was summoned before that patriarch; but his uncle,
by reporting that he himself had given Hananiah the
decision, mollified Gamaliel (Niddah 24b). It was
probably about that time that Hananiah fell in with
some sectaries at Capernaum. To remove him from
their influence his uncle ad vised him to leave the coun-
try, which he did, emigrating to Babylonia, where he
opened aschool that eventually acquired great fame
(Sanh. 32b; Eccl. R. i. 8, vii. 26). He returned to
his native country with ritualistic decisions which
had been communicated to him by a Babylonian
scholar, and which he submitted to his uncle (Suk.
20b). But during the evil days following the Bar
Kokba rebellion, seeing the noblest of his people
fall before the vengeance of the Romans, he again
emigrated to Babylonia, settling at Nehar-Pekod
(see Neubauer, *G. T.” pp. 3638 e¢ seg.). The ap-
pearance of Hananiah in Babylonia threatened to
produce a schism in Israel fraught with far-reaching
consequences: it created a movement toward the
secession of the Babylonian congregations from the
central authority hitherto exercised by the Palestin-
ian Sanhedrin. |
Believing that Roman tyranny had succeeded in
permanently suppressing the religious institutions
which, in spite of the Jewish disper-
Movement sion, had held the remnants of Israel
forIn- together, Hananiah attempted to es-
dependence tablish an authoritative body in his
of new home. To render the Babylo-
Babylonian nian schools independent of Palestine,
Schools. he arranged a calendar fixing the
Jewish festivals and bissextile years
on the principles that prevailed in Palestine. In the
meantime, however, Hadrian’s death had brought
about a favorable change in Judea. In March, 189
or 140, a message arrived from Rome announcing
the repeal cf the Hadrianic decrees (see Meg. Ta‘an.
xli.); soon thereafter the surviving rabbis, especially
the disciples of Akiba, convened at Usha, and re-
organized the Sanhedrin with Simon b. Gamaliel I.
as president (R. H. 31b e¢ seg.; see Rapoport, “ “Erek
Millin,” pp. 233b et seg.). They sought to reestablish
the central authority, and naturally would not
brook any rivals. Messengers were therefore des-
patched to Nehar-Pekod, instructed to urge Hana-
niah to acknowledge the authority of the parent
Sanhedrin, and to desist from disrupting the religious
unity of Israel.
The messengers at first approached him ina kindly
spirit, showing him great respect. This he recip-
rocated, and he presented them to his followers as
superior personages; but when he realized their real
mission he endeavored to discredit them. They, for
their part, contradicted him in his lectures; what
he declared pure they denounced as impure; and
when at last he asked them, “ Why do you always
oppose me?” they plainly told him, “ Because thou,
contrary to law, ordainest bissextile years in foreign
lands.” “But did not Akiba do so before me?”
asked .i1e; to which they replied, “ Cer-
Deputation tainly he did; but thou canst not com-
from pare thyself with Akiba, who left none
Palestine. like himin Palestine.” “Neither have
I left my equal in Palestine,” cried
Hananiah; and the messengers retorted, “The kids
thou hast left behind thee have since developed into
horned bucks, and these have deputed us to urge
thee to retrace thy steps, and, if thou resist, to ex-
communicate thee.” The Palestinian sources relate
that the deputies, to impress upon him the enormity
of secession from the parent authority, publicly
parodied Scriptural passages. One of them sub-
stituted “ Hananiah” for “the Lord” in “These are
the feasts of the Lord” (Lev. xxiii. 4). Another re-
cited, “Out of Babylonia shall go forth the Law,
and the word of the Lord from Nehar-Pekod,” in-
stead of “Out of Zion” and “from Jerusalem ” (Isa.
ii. 3). When the people corrected them by calling
out the proper readings, the deputies laconically re-
plied, ja) (= “ With us!” Yer. Ned. vi. 40a). They
also declared that the steps taken by Hananiah and
his followers were tantamount to building an altar
on unholy ground and serving it with illegitimate
priests. Altogether, they pointed out, his course
was a renunciation of the God of Israel.
The people recognized their error, and repented ;
but Hananiah held out. He appealed to Judah b.
Bathyra, then in Nisibis, for support; but the latter
not only refused to participate in the secession move-
ment, but prevailed on Hananiah to submit to the
orders emanating from the Judean Sanhedrin (Ber.
63a; Yer. Ned. é.c.). Hananiah ended his life peace-
fully in Babylonia (Eccl. R. i. 8).
Although Hananiah was a prominent figure in his
day, rivaling for a time the patriarch in Judea,
his name is connected with but few halakot, either
original (Tosef., Peah, iii. 3; Ket. 79b) or trans-
mitted (‘Er. 48a; Bezah 17b; Suk. 20b; Niddah
24b), and with still fewer halakic midrashim (Mek.,
Bo, 16; Sifre, Num. 49, 116; Hag. 10a; Shebu. 35b).
As to haggadot, only two or three originated with
him. Onedeclares that where Scripture says,“ King
Solomon loved many strange women” (I Kings xi.
1), it does not mean to impugn his chastity; but it
implies that he transgressed the Biblical inhibition,
“Thou shalt not make marriages with them” (Deut.
vii. 3; Yer. Sanh. ii. 20c), Another asserts that the
tables of the Decalogue (Deut. iv. 18) contained
after each command its scope in all its ramifica-
tions; that the Commandments were interwoven
with expositions as are the billows of the sea with
smaller waves (Yer. Shek. vi. 49d; Cant. R. v. 14).
Hananiah
Hanau
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
208
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Tan. i. 389; Frankel, Darke ha-
Mishnah, p. 187: Gritz, Gesch. iv. 202; Heilprin, Seder ha-
Dorot, ii.; Jost, Gesch, des Judenthums und Sener Sekten,
ii. 109: Kobak’s Jeschurun, vii. 14; Weiss, Dor, ii. 177; Za-
cuto, Yuhasin, ed. Filipowski, pp. 35a, 66h. SM
S. S.
HANANIAH (HANINA) B. ‘AKABYA
(AKIBA): Tanna of the second century; contem-
porary of Judah b. ‘lai (M. KX. 21a), and probably
one of the younger pupils of Gamaliel IT. (Ket. viii.
1). His name rarely appears in connection with
haggadot; but he was firmly grounded in the Hala-
kah. Rabexpresses great admiration for Hananiah’s
acumen (Shab. 88b). Notwithstanding his promi-
nence, his prenomen as well as his patronymic is
uncertain: “Hananiah” and “Hanina” for the
former, and “‘Akabia” and “Akiba” for the latter
appearing promiscuously in connection with one and
the same halakah (comp. ‘Ar. i. 8; Sifra, Behuk-
kotai, xii. 8; ‘Ar. 6b; Tosef., Parah, ix. [viii.] 9;
Hag. 23a; Yeb. 116b). However, there is reason to
believe that “‘Akabia” is his right patronymic, and
that he was the son of ‘AkaBIA B. MAHALALEEL (see
“R. E. J.” xii. 40, note 3). Hananiah was very
fearless in the expression of his opinions and also
opposed those of the leaders of academies, the
“nasi” and his deputy (Tosef., Pes. viii. 7; Shab.
50a). His residence was at Tiberias, where he abro-
gated many restrictions which had hampered the com-
fort of the people (‘Er. 87b, and parallel passages).
Sometimes Hananiah (or Hanina) is cited without
his patronymic (compare, forexample, Yer. ‘Er. viii.
25b and Shab. 88b), and one must be careful not to
mistake him for an elder tanna of the same name, or
vice versa (see HANANIAH [Hanina], nephew of R.
Joshua). To avoid such mistakes one must ob-
serve the associates cited in the debate or statement.
If these belong to the age of Meir, Jose, and Simon,
Hananiah, the subject of this article, is meant; if
they are of a former generation, R. Joshua’s nephew
is intended.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Tan. ii. 370; Brill, Mebo ha-
Mishnah, i. 211; Frankel, Darke ha-Mishnah, p. 186; Heil-
prin, Seder ha-Dorot, ib, 8.0.
KE. 6. S. M.
HANANIAH B.‘AKASHYAH: Tanna whose
name became very popular by reason of a single
homiletic remark, as follows: “The Holy One—
blessed be He!—desired to enlarge Jsrael’s merits;
therefore He multiplicd for them Torah and com-
mandments, as it is said [Isa. xlii. 21, Hebr.], ‘The
Lord was pleased, in order to render him [Tsrael—
read: 1pt¥] righteous, to magnify the Law and to
make it great’ ” (Mak. iii. 16). This mishnah is usu-
ally subjoined to each chapter of the treatise Abot
embodied in the rituals (see ABor). One halakah
also is ascribed to him (Tosef., Shek. iii. 18; anony-
mous in Shek. viii. 8). When he lived, and who his
teachers were, can not be ascertained. He probably
was a brother of the equally rarely cited Simon b.
‘Akashiah.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Tan. ii. 376; Brill, Mebo ha-
Mishnah, i. 212: Frankel, Darke ha-Mishnah, p. 187.
RE. ¢C. S. M.
HANANIAH (HANINA) B. HAKINAIT:
Tanna of the second century; contemporary of Ben
‘Azzai and Simon the Temanite (Tosef., Ber. iv.
18; see HaLAFTa). Sometimes he is cited without
his prenomen (Sifra, Emor, vii. 11; Shab. 147b).
Who his early teachers were is not certainly known.
From some versions of the Tosefta (/.c.) it appears
that Tarfon was one of them, but that his regular
teacher was Akiba. It is related that he took leave
of his wife and attended Akiba twelve or thirteen
years without communicating with his family,
whom he recovered in a remarkable way (Ket. 62b-:
Lev. R. xxi. 8). Hewasone of the few who, though
not regularly ordained, were permitted to “argue
cases before the sages” (D'D3N 9955 roy: Sanh. 17b;
comp. Yer. Ma‘as. Sh. ii. 58d). Several halakot have
been preserved in his name, owing their preservation
to Eleazar b. Jacob II. (Kil. iv. 8; Mak. iii. 9; Tosef.,
Toh. vi, 3; Kid. 55b); and healso left some halakic
midrashim (Sifra, Mezora‘, v. 16; Sifra, Emor, vii.
11, comp. Shab. 110b; Men. 62b, comp. Sifra, Emor,
xiii. 8).
Flananiah also delved into the “mysteries of the
Creation,” concerning which he consulted Akiba
(Hag. 14b); and he appears as the author of several
homiletic remarks. According to him, God’s relation
to distressed Israel is expressed in Solomon’s words
(Prov. xvii. 17): “A brother is born for adversity ”
by “brother” is understood “Israel,” for it is else-
where said (Ps. cxxil. 8): “For my brethren and
companions’ sakes, I will now say, Peace be within
thee” (Yalk., Ex. 233; comp. Mek., Beshallah, iii.).
With reference to Lev. v. 21 (vi. 2) (“If a soul sin,
and commit a trespass against the Lord, and lie unto
his neighbor,” etc.), he remarks, “ No man lies [acts
dishonestly] against his fellow man unless he frst
becomes faithless to God” (Tosef., Shebu. iii. 6).
From a comparatively late date comes the statement
that Hananiah b. Hakinai was one of the “ten mar-
tyrs” (see Zunz, “G. V.” 2d ed., p. 150; see also
“Masseket Azilut ”).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Tan. i. 436; Brill, Mebo ha-
Mishnoh, i. 148; Frankel, Darke ha-Mishnah, p. 1386; Heil-
prin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii; Zacuto, Yuhasin, ed. Filipowski,
pp. 65b.
E. S. M.
nina B. JUDAH: Tanna of the sec-
ond century; contemporary of Akiba. His name
appears only twice in rabbinic lore: once in connec-
tion with a halakic midrash, where he directs his re-
marks to Akiba (Sifra, Zaw, ii. 3), and once with a
homiletic remark on the baneful effect of anger.
With reference to Lev. x. 16 et seg., where it is re-
lated that Moses was angry with Eleazar and Itha-
mar for burning the goat of the sin-offering, R.
Judah (b. Hai) says: “ Hananiah b. Judah was wont
to say, ‘ Grievous is the result of passion: it caused
even Moses to err.’” Judah adds: “Now that
Hananiah is dead, I venture to controvert his state-
ment, ‘What provoked Moses to passion? It was
his error’” (Sifra, Shemini, ii. 12).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Tan. i. 441,
S. M.
HANANIAH (HANINA) OF ONO: Tanna
of the secondcentury. Hananiahis remembered for
a feat he accomplished in the interest of traditional
law. While Akiba was in prison, awaiting hisdoom
at the court of Tyrannus Rufus, an important mar-
ital question was debated in the academy, but with-
out a decision being reached. Hananiah therefore
209
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hananiah
Hanau
ventured to approach Akiba’s prison and to solicit
from the master a ruling. This he obtained and
brought tohis colleagues (Git. vi.7; see Rashi ad loc.).
In connection with this question the names of Meir
and Jose are cited with that of Hananiah (Git. 67a);
this places Hananiah with Akiba’s younger pupils,
about 189-165 c.E. He is reported to have testified
before (Simon b.) Gamaliel concerning the rule gov-
erning intercalations enacted in Galilee (Tosef., Sanh.
ii. 13; comp. Yer. Sanh. i. 18d e¢ seg.).
E. C. S. M.
HANANIAH (HANINA) B. TERADION :
Teacherand martyr in the third tannaitic generation
(second century); contemporary of ELEAZAR BEN
PEerata I. and of Hauarta, together with whom
he established certain ritualistic rules (Ta‘an. ii. 5).
His residence was at Siknin, where he directed relig-
ious affairs as well as a school. The latter came to
be numbered among the distinguished academies
with reference to which a baraita says: “The say-
ing [Deut. xvi, 20], ‘That which is altogether just
shalt thou follow,’ may be construed, ‘ Follow the
sages in their respective academies. . . . Follow R.
Hananiah b. Teradion in Siknin’” (Sanh. 32b). Ha-
naniah administered the communal! charity funds,
and so scrupulous was he in that office that once
when money of his own, designed for personal use
on Purim, chanced to get mixed with the charity
funcs, he distributed the whole amount among the
poor. Eleazar b. Jacob so admired Hananiah’s
honesty that he remarked, “ No one ought to con-
tribute to the charity treasury unless its administra-
tor is like Hanina b. Teradion” (B. B. 10b; ‘Ab.
Zarah 17b). Comparatively few halakot are pre-
served from him (Ta‘an. ii. 5, 16b; R. H. 27a;
Tosef., Mik. vi. 3; see also Yoma 78b; Men. 54a),
Hananiah ingeniously proved that the Shekinah rests
on those who study the Law (Ab. tii. 2).
Hananiah’s life proved that with him these were
not empty words. During the Hadrianic persecu-
tions decrees Were promulgated imposing the most
rigorous penalties on the observers of the Jewish
Law, and especially upon those who occupied them-
selves with the promulgation of that Law. Never-
theless Hananiah conscientiously followed his chosen
profession ; he convened public assemblicsand taught
the Law. Once he visited Jose b. Kisma, who ad-
vised extreme caution, if not submission. The lat-
ter said: “ Hanina, my brother, seest thou not that
this Roman people is upheld by God Himself? It
has destroyed His house and burned His Temple,
slaughtered His faithful, and exterminated His
nobles; yet it prospers! In spite of all this, I hear,
thon occupiest thyself with the Torah, even calling
assemblies and holding the scroll of the Law before
thee.” To all this Hananiah replied, “Heaven will
have mercy onus.” Jose became impatient on hear-
ing this, and rejoined, “Iam talking logic, and to
allmy arguments thou answerest, ‘ Heaven will have
mercy on us!’ I should not be surprised if they
burned thee together with the scroll.” Shortly
thereafter Hananiah was arrested at a public as-
sembly while teaching with a scroll before him.
Asked why he disregarded the imperial edict, he
frankly answered, “I do as my God commands me.”
For this he and his wife were condemned to death,
Vi.—14
and their daughter to degradation. His death was
terrible. Wrapped in the scroll, he was placed on
a pyre of green brush; fire was set to it,
Condemned and wet wool was placed on his chest
to Death to prolong the agonies of death. “Wo
for is me,” cried his daughter, “that I
the Law’s should see thee under such terrible
Sake. circumstances!” The martyr se-
renely replied, “I should indeed de-
spair were I alone burned; but since the scrojl of
the Torah is burning with me, the Power that will
avenge the offense against the Law will also avenge
the offense against me.” His heart-broken disciples
then asked: “ Master, what seest thou?” He an-
swered: “I see the parchment burning while the
letters of the Law soar upward.” “Open then thy
mouth, that the fire may enter and the sooner put
an end to thy sufferings,” advised his pupils; but
he said, “It is best that He who hath given the soul
should also take it away: no man may hasten his
death.” Thereupon the executioner removed the
wool and fanned the flame, thus accelerating the
end, and then himself plunged into the flames (‘Ab.
Zarah 17b et seq.).
It is reported that, on hearing his sentence, Hana-
niah quoted Deut. xxxii. 4, “He is the Rock, his
work is perfect: for all his ways are judgment”;
while his wife quoted the second hemistich, “A God
of truth and without inignity, just and right is he”;
and his daughter cited Jer. xxxii, 19, “Great in
counsel, and mighty in work: for thine eyes are
open upon all the ways of the sons of men: to give
every one according to his ways, and according to
the fruit of his doings” (Sifre, Deut. 307; ‘Ab.
Zarah t.c.; Sem. viii.).
Of the surviving members of Hananiah’s family
are mentioned two daughters: the learned BERU-
RIAH, who became the wife of R. Meir, and the one
marked for degradation, whom R. Meir succeeded
in rescuing (‘Ab. Zarah 18a). Hananiah had also a
learned son. It is related that Simon b. Hananiah
applied to this son for information on a point of
ritual, and that the latter and his sister, presuma-
bly Beruriah, furnished divergent opinions. When
Judah b. Baba heard of those opinions, he remarked,
“ Hananiah’s daughter teaches better than his son”
(Tosef., Kelim, B. K. iv. 17). Elsewhere it is re-
ported of that son that he became a degenerate, as-
sociating with bandits. Subsequently he betrayed
his criminal associates, wherefore they killed him
and filled his mouth with sand and gravel. Having
discovered his remains, the people would have eulo-
gized him out of respect for his father, but the
latter would not permit it. “I myself shall speak,”
said he; and he did, quoting Prov. v. 11 ef seg.
The mother quoted Prov. xvii. 25; the sister, Prov.
xx. 17 (Lam. R. iii. 16; comp. Sem. xii.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Tan. i, 397; Brill, Mebo ha-
Mishnah, i. 140; Frankel, Darke ha-Mishnah, p. 133; Ham-
burger, R. B. T. ii. 132; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. Za-
cuto, Yuhasin, ed. Filipowski, p. 32a.
8. 8. S. M.
HANASIA, AHUB B. MEIR. See Inn Mt-
HAJAR AHUB,
HANAU: Town in the province of Hesse-Nas-
sau, Prussia. Jews settled in the territory of the
counts of Hanau in the first half of the thirteenth
Hanau
Hand
century. Reinhard of Hanau was one of the princes
who pledged the king’s peace in 1265, probably in-
tending thereby to protect the Jews living within
his domain. In 1277 and 1286 King Rudolph made
assignments of the Jews of Hanau, and pawned the
Jews of Assenheim, Miinzenberg, and Nidda; in
13800 King Albert disposed similarly of the Jews of
Hanau, Windecken, Babenhausen, and Steinau; and
in 1810 King Henry VII. also concluded some trans-
actions of a similar nature. In 1285 Jews of Wet-
terau emigrated with R. Meir of Rothenburg in
order to escape from their German oppressors, The
Jews of Hanau also suffered in the general perse-
cutions of 1837 and 1849. In 1592 they were expelled
from the territory. Until 1608 there are only occa-
sional references to Jews in the county of Hanau.
When Count Philipp Ludwig II. came into power
he invited many wealthy Jews to his city (1603),
permitted them to build a synagogue, and gave
them a definite legal status. In spite of the intol-
erance of the Christian clergy the condition of the
Jews was favorable, and continued so under the suc-
cessive governments of the Landgraf of Hesse (17886),
of France (1803), of the grand duchy of Frankfort
(1810), of Hesse (1818), and of Prussia (1866). The
community had a synagogue, cemetery, bakehouse,
slaughter-house, hospital, and shelter for the home-
less (“hekdesh ”), and its own fire-engine and night-
watchman.
In 1608 the community numbered 10 persons; in
1707, 111 families; in 1805, 540 persons; in 1900, 657
persons. In 1903 there were 670 Jews there, the total
population being 29,846. The town is the seat of the
provincial rabbinate of Hanau, which includes 40
communities, the most important of which are
Hanau, Bergen, Birstein, Bockenheim, Gelnhausen,
Hochstadt, Langenselbold, Lichenroth, Schliichtern,
Sterbfritz, and Wachenbuchen. The district is sub-
ject to the Kénigliche Vorsteheramt der Israeliten,
under the presidency of the provincial rabbi. Most
of these communities, especially Hanau, have burial
and philanthropic societies and memorial foundations.
The following scholars and rabbis of Hanau may
be mentioned, some of whom directed the yeshibah:
Naphtali b. Aaron Mordecai Schnaittach (** Cat. Rosenthal.”
p. 548).
David Cohn (‘‘ Monatssehrift fiir Gesch. und Wissenschaft
des Judenthums,”’ 1897, p. 428).
Menahem b. Elhanan (d. 1636),
Jacob Simon Bunems (d. 1677).
Haggai Enoch Frinkel (d. 1690).
Maier Elsass (d. 1704).
Moses Brod (c. 1720).
Israel b. Naphtali (a. 1791).
Moses Tobias Sondheim (d. 1830).
Samson Felsenstein (d. 1882).
Dr. Koref (suecessor of the preceding).
Dr. S. Bamberger (successor of the preceding).
The grammarian Solomon Hanau was born at
Hanau (1687).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Aronius, Regesten ; Salfeld, Martyrologium ;
E. I. Zimmermann, Hanan, Stadt und Land, Kulturgesch.
und Chronik, pp. 476-521, Hanau, 1908 (contains bibliography
of public records and printed works: p. 515): Statistisches
Jahrbuch des Deutsch-Israel.-Gemetndehbundes, 1903.
Dz S. Sa.
HANAU, SOLOMON BEN JUDAH: Ger-
man grammarian; born at Hanau (whence his sur-
naine) in 1687; died at Hanover Sept. 4, 1746.
When but twenty-one he published at Frank fort-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
210
on-the-Main, where he had settled, a Hebrew gram-
mar in which theancient grammarians were severely
criticized. These criticisms, coming from so young
a man, caused much resentment, and he was forced
to write a retractation, which was attached to each
copy of bis grammar. In spite of this his position
at Frankfort became untenable, and he went to
Hamburg, where he taught for seventeen years.
Tlanau criticized likewise the daily prayer-book
published by Elijah and Azriel Wilna, though it
had received the approbation of the most prominent
rabbis of that time; and he was forced to leave
Hamburg also. He went to Amsterdam, where he
stayed several years; on his return to Germany he
settled at Fiirth. There he found an adversary in
Seligman Grieshaber, who had written, in collabora-
tion with Meir of Prague, two pamphlets against
two of Hanau’s works. After many polemical
bouts Hanau removed to Berlin, and later to Han-
over, where he died. He wrote the following works:
**Binyan Shelomoh,”? a Hebrew grammar, Frankfort-on-the-
Main, 1708; "* Yesod ha-Nikkud,” on the Hebrew yowels, Am-
sterdam, 1730; ‘* Perush,”’ a commentary, dealing with vocabu-
lary and grammar, on the Midrash Rabbah to the Pentateuch,
and the Five Scrolls, 1777; ** Zohar ha-Tebab,”’ a comprehensive
grammar, with emendations entitled ‘* Mikseh ha-Tebah,”’ pub-
lished at Berlin, 1733; ‘* Kure ‘Akkabish,” in reply to the attacks
of Grieshaber and Meir of Prague upon his ** Zohar ha-Tebah,”
Fiirth, 1744; “*Sha‘are Torah,” a comprehensive grammar,
Hamburg, 1718; ‘*Sha‘are Zimrah,” on the Hebrew accents and
vowels, issued together with the preceding work; ‘*Sha‘are
Tefillah,” grammatical annotations on the prayer-book, Jessnitz,
1725. The last-named work was severely criticized by Jacob
Emden in his ** Luah Erez,”? and by Mordecai of Diisseldorf in
**Kontres Hassagot ‘al Siddur Sha‘are Tefillah.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Rossi, Dizinnario, p. 122: Bloge, Sefer
ha-Hayyim, p. 312; Luzzatto, Prolegomena, p. 61; Carmoly,
in Revue Orientale, iii. 808; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodt. col.
2389; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. pp. 722-723.
Ji I. Br.
HANAU, ZEBI HIRSH HA-LEVI BEN
HAGGAI ENOCH (with the family name Frén-
kel): German rabbi; born at Vienna in 1662; died
at Gemund, Bavaria, in 1740. He resided for many
years at Frankfort-on-the-Main, where he assisted
Jair Hayyim Bacharach in preparing his responsa,
“Hawwot Ya’ir,” for publication, and edited the
works of Gershon Ashkenazi—“ ‘Abodat ha-Ger-
shuni,” responsa, and “ Tif’eret ha-Gershuni,” homi-
lies, 1699. Hanau was for a time rabbi of Idstein,
while living in Frankfort. In 1702 he was made
district rabbi of the Palatinate, and took up his
residence at Heidelberg. Seven years later, owing
to the great influence which his brother Elhanan
had with the margrave Wilhelm Friedrich, he was
appointed district rabbi of Ansbach. Elhanan, how-
ever, soon fell into disgrace, and both brothers were
thrown into prison; Hanau was accused of witch-
craft on account of his cabalistic studies. For
twenty-four years Hanau remained in jail, until an
inundation threatened the safety of the prison, and
the prisoners were removed. The city councilors,
moved with compassion at the sight of the old man,
obtained from the margrave his liberation.
During hisstay in prison Hanau wrote anabstract of
the first 189 sectionsof the Yoreh De‘ah ; acommentary
on Psalm cxix. and Hallel, entitled “ Dodi li-Zebi”;
and a poem of thirty-two verses describing his life in
prison. Hanau was antagonized by David Oppen-
211
heim, who, in his “ Nish‘al Dawid,” severely criticized
several of Hanau’s decisions given at Heidelberg.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Carmoly, in [sraelit, 1868; Leopold Léwen-
stein, Gesch. der Juden in der Kurpfalz, p. 150; Kaufmann,
in Ha-Goren, i, 72.
D. I. Br.
HANBURY, LILY: English actress; educated
in London. She married Herbert Guedella. Her
début was made in 1888 at a revival of W. S. Gil-
bert’s “Pygmalion and Galatea” at the Savoy
Theater in that city. She appeared on most of the
leading stages of the English metropolis. Her
repertory Was a most extensive one, and included
the following réles: Countess Winitersen in “The
Stranger”; ITetty Preene in G, R. Sims’s “ Lights o’
London”; Petra in Ibsen’s “Enemy of the People”;
Nelite Denver in “The Silver King”; and Juda in
“The Rivals.” She played also in “The Prisoner
of Zenda,” “The Dancing Girl,” “The Red Lamp,”
and “A Bunch of Violets.” Her chief successes
were in Shakespearian plays, mainly under the
management of Wilson Barrett and Beerbohm Tree,
respectively; the characters presented by her hav-
ing been: Ophelia and the Player Queen in “ Ham-
let”; Portia in “The Merchant of Venice”; Cal-
purnia in “Julius Cesar”; and Chorus in “ Henry
_V.” She was very successful in the part of Penel-
ope in “Ulysses,” Lady Blessington in “Last of the
Dandies,” and Marita in “Royal Rival,” She died
March 5, 1908.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who’s Who, 1908; The Era, London, March
6, :
J. Aa iP,
HAND: Traces of the custom of tattooing are
found in the expression “to inscribe the hands for
some one” (Isa. xliv. 5, xlix. 16; comp. Gal. vi. 17;
see Grunwald, “Cultur- und Kunstgesch. Entwick-
lung der Schriftzeichen,” p. 1). The phrases “the
hand of Absalom” (II Sam. xviii. 18), for Absalom’s
tomb, and “ will I give in mine house and within my
walls a memorial and aname” (Isa. lvi. 5, R. V.), re-
call the custom of tattooing the hands with the token
of the sun-god Baal, which at that time wasa symbol
of strength (Judges ix. 24; Isa. xxxv.8; Ps. xxxvi.
12, Ixxi, 4, xcvii. 10). To lay the hand on the mouth
(Prov. xxx. 82) indicates silence; to “take one’s soul
in one’s hand ” (Hebr.) is the English to “take one’s
life in one’s hand ” (comp. Job xiii. 14; Judges xii. 3;
I Sam. xix. 5; Ps. cxix. 109). To open the hand is
a sign of generosity (Deut. xv. 11). In Derek Erez
Zuta iv. 7 it is said: “The reward for thy hands
which thou hast restrained from unlawful goods
shall be that the mean shall have no hold upon thee;
the reward for thy hands which thou hast not closed
against the needy shall be that the lords of silver and
gold can do thee no harm.”
God lifts His hand and swears by it (Deut. xxxii.
40). It is an expression of His power (Ex. iii. 20,
xiii. 3, et al.). It comes upon the Prophets and fills
them with His spirit (Ezek. i. 3). An
ancient midrash in the Pesah Hagga-
dah concludes, from the fact that
Israel saw the “hand” of God at the
Red Sea, that there must have been many more than
ten plagues in Egypt, since one finger alone had
caused ten (Mek, 33b). Each of the five fingers of
Hand of
God.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hanau
Hand
God’s right hand has a special function (Low, “ Die
Finger,” vi. et seg.). A hand protruding from the
clouds isa Christian symbol for God (Léw, fe. viii.).
The hand of anangel at Abraham’s sacrifice is found
on tombstones in Altona and Ouderkerk (Grunwald,
in “Mittheilungen der Gesellschaft fiir Jiidische
Volkskunde,” x. 126). According to the Haggadah,
man was originally created with undivided hands,
and Noah was the first to have fingers (see FINGER).
It was a custom to place the left hand on a tomb
and quote Isa, viii. 11 (Low, Ze. xi.). On the use
of the hand and fingers in sorcery see Grunwald,
lec. v. 16, 35, 40, 66. For the spirits of the thumb
see Steinschneider, “ Hebr. Bibl.” vi. 120, x. 84. On
gesticulation see Léw, f.¢. xix.
The wedding-ring is placed on the index-finger of
the right hand (7b. xx.). There is a trace of tinger-
counting in the “ Hekalot” (Jellinek, “B. H.” iii,
22, No. 94). The five fingers are considered as the
appointed ministers of the five senses (Gershom b.
Solomon and others; D. Kaufmann, “ Die Sinne,” p.
76). The tip of the index-finger has the most acute
sense of touch (7). p. 179).
To clap the hands together was a sign of joy (II
Kingsii. 2, etal.). To “strike hands” (* teki‘at kaf”)
was to go surety for some one (Prov. vi. 1, xi. 15,
xvii. 18, xxii. 26; Job xvii. 3); in rabbinical law
it was a token of giving and taking at the conclu-
sion of a sale (Maimonides, “Yad,” Mekirah, 111. ;
Caro, Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 198, 11).
The acquisition of movable goods was established by
seizing the object with the hands. The hand of the
priest js filled when he is installed in office (Ex.
xxix. 24; Lev. viii. 27).
The laying of hands (“samak ”) on the head as a
sign of dedication is found in the Bible, where one
gives up one’sown right to something and transfers
it to God (comp. Ex. xxix. 5, 19; II
Laying on Chron. xxix. 23). Here the hands are
of Hands. placed on the head of the animal whose
blood is to be used for the consecra-
tion of priests or for the atonement of the sins of the
people. Thesame ceremony was used in transferring
the sins of the people to the scapegoat (Lev. xvi.
20-22), and with all burnt offerings except the sin-of-
ferings (Lev. i. 4; iii. 2,18; iv. 4, ef a@l.). The laying
of hands on the head of a blasphemer (Lev. xxiv.
14) should also be noted here. Jacob on his death-
bed placed his right hand on the head of Ephraim
(Gen. xviii. 14). The Levites were consecrated
through the laying on of hands by the heads of the
tribes (Num. viii. 10). The time-honored prototype
of ORDINATION through laying on of hands is the
consecration of Joshua as successor to Moses (Num.
xxvii. 18; Deut. xxxiv. 9). This rite is found in the
New Testament (Acts vi. 3, xiii. 3) and in the Tal-
mud (“semikah ”), and was observed at the appoint-
ment of members of the Sanhedrin (Sanh. iv.). It
was gradually discontinued in practise, however, al-
though it was preserved nominally. The semikah,
moreover, could take place only in Palestine (Sanh.
14a; see Hamburger, “R. B. T.” 8.2. “Ordinirung ”).
The laying of hands on the heads of children to bless
them (Gen. xlviii. 14; Mark x. 16; Matt. xix. 138
et seg.) has been continued to this day. According
to Jobix. 33, the judge placed his hands on the heads
Hand
Hanina b. Adda
of the disputing parties. To place one’s hand on
one’s own head was a token of grief (II Sam. xiii.
19). The act of placing the hands or fingers on
some one to heal him, and that of touching some one
to obtain healing, are often referred to in the New
Testament (Mark v. 28, vii, 32, e¢ al.; see also OrR-
DINATION). The act of placing the hand under the
hip to emphasize an oath is spoken of in Gen. xxiv.
2, xlvii. 29, where, according to the reckoning of the
cabalists, the letters in the words JT &) have the nu-
merical value 7, and are interpreted as referring
to placing the hands on the genitals, which interpre-
tation is corroborated by other expositors (see Winer,
“B. R.” s.¢. “Hid ”). Later the hand was placed on
a roll of the Torah in taking an oath, or on the
tefillin, or else the Torah was taken
Hand in the hand or arm (“nekitat hefez ”).
in Taking In certain localities the one taking the
Oath. oath put his right hand on the page
containing the Decalogue in a printed
copy of the Pentateuch. The hands were lifted in
taking an oath (Gen. xiv, 22); the hands were also
lifted at the announcement of the “end” in Rev. x.
5-7; in praying (Ps. xxviii. 2: later in Christian com-
munities ; comp. Clement’s “ Epistle,” Corinth, i. cap.
2); in praising God (Ps. xliv. 21 [A. V. 20], cxxxiv.
2); in benediction (Lev. ix. 22; comp. Num. vi. 22
et seqg.). Jesus took leave of his disciples with lifted
hands (Luke xxiv. 50). According to the Zohar (ii.
67a, ili, 145a), the ten fingers should be raised only
in praying and for the priestly benediction. For
washing of hands see ABLUTION.
Kissing the hand is unknown to the Old Testa-
ment. Job xxxi. 27 does not refer to kissing the
hand, but to holding it before the
Kissing mouth in token of respect. In Ecclus.
the Hand. (Sirach) xxix. 5 reference is made to
kissing the hand on receiving a pres-
ent; but the Talmud knows it only as a foreign
custom. Akiba thinks it strange that the Medes
kiss the hand (Ber. 8b). Simon ben Gamaliel speaks
of it as a universal Oriental custom (Gen. R. Ixxiv.,
beginning). Simeon ben Lakish (8d cent.) relates
that when two athletes have wrestled, the conquered
oue kisses the hand of the victor (Tan., Wayig-
gash, beginning). The Zohar, in like manner, has
Eleazar and Abba kiss the hand of their master,
Simeon ben Yohai (i. 83b; in i. 250b all who hear him
do the same; comp. ii. 21b, 62a, 68a, 87a; iii. 3la,
65b, 73b). In Idra Zuta iii. 2906 Eleazar kisses his
master’s hands at the latter’s death. Gavison, also,
in “ ‘Omer ha-Shikhah” on Prov. xvii. 6, relates that
when Isaac Alfasi was about to die, Maimonides (read
instead “ Josephibn Migash ”) kissed his hand, where-
upon the teacher’s spirit fell on him (Bacher, in “R.
E. J.” xxii. and xxiii. : “ Le Baisement des Mains dans
le Zohar”; comp. Dunash ben Labrat’s introductory
poem to his “ teshubot ” against Menahem ben Saruk ;
Judah ha-Levi, “Diwan,” ed. Brody, p. 149, Nos.
98 et seg.; Azulai, “Shem ha-Gedolim,” 8.0. “ Eli-
yahu ha-Kohen ” [{“ we-nashak yadaw ”]; see K1ss).
In pronouncing a benediction the priest raises his
hands with his little and ring fingers and middle and
index fingers pressed together. This custom is not
found in the Talmud. According to Pesik. 49a,
Cant. ii. 9 is thus illustrated, the “ windows” being
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
212
represented by the priest’s shoulders, and the “ lat-
tice” by his fingers.
A priest’s hands represented as in benediction on
a tombstone indicate that the deceased was de-
scended from the family of Aaron; on
Mis- the title-page of a book they indicate
cellaneous that the printer was descended from
Uses. the family of Aaron (Low, é.¢. viii.).
The hand is also represented on the
walls of synagogues and on mirrors (see Grunwald,
le. X. 127). A hand is generally used as a pointer
for the Torah (see Yap). A hand with two ears of
grain and two poppy-heads is seen on coins (Levy,
* Jiid. Miinzen,” p. 82). Two hands joined together
are often represented on ketubah blanks, and on the
so-called “siflones-tefillah ” there is a hand hewing
a tree or mowing down flowers. On physicians’
tombstones in Altona and Ouderkerk is represented
a band witha bundle of herbs, and other stones have
a hand with a pen (2b.; Grunwald, “ Portugiesen-
griiber ”; dem, in “ Mittheilungen,” x.).
There are specialrules for the use of the rightand
left hands respectively in putting on the “ tefillin,” in
taking the “etrog,” and in some details of the toilet
(Ber. 62a; see RIGHT AND LEFT).
According to the Haggadah, Adam’s hands—in-
deed, his whole body—were covered with a horny
skin up to the time of his fall (Léw, J.¢. xxi.). Cut-
ting the nails is governed by superstitious regula-
tions. At the Habdalah one looks at one’s hand in
front of a lighted candle, possibly because one must
make some use of the light over which
The Nails. the blessing is to be spoken, and also
perhaps to distinguish the nails from
the flesh (Léw, i.c. xxi.; see HaABDALAH; NAILS).
Palmistry (“hokmat ha-yad ”), which has been traced
back to the time of Job, still forms a theme for the
writing of books (e.g., one edited by Natan Schrift-
giesser, Warsaw, 1882; comp. Rubin, “Gesch. des
Aberglaubens,” p. 75). A hand, either inscribed or
cast in metal, was often used as an amulet.
_ The custom of staining the hands with henna
was perhaps known and practised among the an-
cient Jews (Hartmann, “ Hebrierin am
Staining Putztisch,” ii. 356 e¢ seg.). Jewish
the Hand. sources of later times speak of it (see
Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 198, 17).
Dyed hands, except where such dyeing was the uni-
versal custom, or where the owner was a dyer by
trade, prevented the priest from giving his blessing,
as the sight of them disturbed his devotions (Meg.
24b, et al.).
On the night of Hosha‘na Rabbah any one who
tries to read his future from his shadow (Moses
TIsserles on Orah Hayyim, 664, 1) and does not see
the right hand, will lose a son during the year; if he
fails to.see the left hand, he will lose a daughter; if
a finger, he will lose a friend (Buxtorf, “Synagoga
Judaica,” p. 464). -
J. M. Gr.
HANDICRAFTS: Since the article ARTISANS
was written, the preliminary results of an inquiry
made during the years 1898-99 by the Jewish Colo-
nization Association as to the occupations of the Jews
of Russia have been published, giving the classes of
213
handicrafts in which over half a million Russian
Jews are engaged, as follows:
|
5 mp vi a ow
Be ee 8 5 |3 8
a a rom . > aU
Industries. i) eS Industries. & =as
a as 2, = oS "2
= Ss £ me &
Food .......4. 43,665 | 57,887 ||Chemicals....| 2,764) 3,617
Clothing ..... 84,915 | 193,954 ||Building......} 19,791 | 31,590
Leather ....../ 40,522 | 85,306 {/Textiles...... 10,589 | 18,428
Wood.........| 25,633 | 49,588 ||Miscellaneaus; 5,998 | 11,695
Metal-mining | 13,296 | 28,3938 || -———————- -
Metal - manu- | . Totals...... 259,396 | 500,986
facturing...)/ 12,203 | 20,528
|
Besides this some details have been given as to the
occupations of Jewesses. It is impossible to state
whether they are included in the above numbers or
not,
‘ D mo be, : a eo
Occupations. £ 28S || Occupations. A= =As
e |E*e e | EWE
Tailoresses...| 9,191 | 38,419 |/Cigarette-ma-
Seamstresses..| 7,161 | 17,331 |) kers........ 991 1,732
Hose-knitters.| 3,626 5,739 |'Glove-makers 182! = 481
Modistes......} 1,686 4,062 |}Others ....... ... | 18,808
76,567
| Totals...... 22,837 |
For further details see PoLAND; Russia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nossig, Jiidische Statistik, pp. 178-179; Die
Welt, Aug. 29, 1902. J
HANDWRITING. Sce WRITING.
HANES (03n): City in Egypt (Isa. xxx. 4);
identified by Jonathan b. Uzziel and by the modern
critics with Tahpanhes or Taphne (see Cheyne and
Black, “Encyc. Bibl.” 8.2.).
E. G. H.
HA-NESHER. See PERIODICALS.
HANGING. See CAprtaL PUNISHMENT.
HANINA TI. See Hanina B. HAMA.
HANINA (HANANIAH) II.: Amora of the
fifth century ; contemporary of the Palestinian Mani
II., and of Rabina, one of the compilers of the Baby-
lonian Talmud (Yer. Ber. iii. 6a; Niddah 66b).
Hanina attended the schools of Palestine, his native
country, and concluded his pupilage under Mani
II. (Yer. Pes. i. 27d; Yer. M. K. iii. 82c). He grad-
ually rose to his master’s level and discussed with
him as a “fellow student” many halakic questions
(Yer. Sanh. ii. 19d; Yer. Shebu. vi. 37b). Eventu-
ally he removed to Sepphoris, where he became the
religious head of the community; herce he is some-
times cited as Hanina of Sepphoris (Yer. Ned. ix.
41b). When, in consequence of Roman persecutions
at Tiberias, Mani also removed to Sepphoris, Hanina
resigned the leadership in his favor—an act of self-
abnegation extolled by the Rabbis as having few
parallels (Yer. Pes. vi. 38a). Hanina, however, did
not long remain in Palestine. As the persecutions
became general and intolerable, he emigrated to
Babylonia, where Asui frequently sought informa-
tion from him (B. B. 25b; Hul. 189b). Hanina’s
M. SEL.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hand
Hanina b. Adda
family accompanied him, and were highly respected
in their adopted country. There Hanina’s daugh-
ter married the son of Rabina (Niddah 66b),
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Halévy, Dorot ha-Rishonim, ii. 576.
J. S. M.
HANINA (HANANIAH) B. ABBAHU:
Palestinian amora of the fourth generation, some-
times cited as Hanina of Ceesarea (Cant. R. i. 2).
The Talmud relates that his father, R. Abbahu, sent
him to the academies at Tiberias to study, but that
he devoted himself instead to pious deeds, such as
attending the dead. Abbahu thereupon wrote to
him, “Is it because there are no graves in Caesarea
that Ihave sent thee to Tiberias?” (sce ABBA).
In the Halakah several precedents of his father’s
are reported by Hanina (Yer. Yeb.iv. 6a; Yer. Ket.
iv. 29b; Yer. Hal. iii. 62c). He also reports a hala-
kic midrash in the name of ABDIMA oF HAIFA
(Kid. 38b); occasionally he endeavors to account for
a predecessor’s opinion (Yer. Niddah iii. 50c); but
nothing original from him in the domain of Halakah
is preserved. In the province of the Haggadah,
on the contrary, he has left some original though
hyperbolic remarks. Thus, commenting on Jer. ix.
9 (A. V. 10), where the prophet declares, “Both the
fowl of the heavens and the beast are fled; they are
gone,” Hanina says, “Seven hundred species of fish,
eight hundred species of locust, and countless spe-
cies of fowl accompanied the Israelites from Pales-
tine into their Babylonian exile; and when the latter
returned all the creatures returnal with them, ex-
cept the fish called ‘shibbuta’ [mullet]” (Yer.
Ta‘an. iv. 69b; see Jastrow, “ Dict.”).
In his lectures Hanina occasionally uses homely
illustrations. Speaking on Lam. ii. 1, he says: “A
king had a child: the child cried, and the king took
it on his lap; it continued crying, and he raised it in
his arms; still it cried, wherefore he raised it upon
his shoulders. Then the child soiled him, and the
king at once put it down on the floor. How differ-
ent was the child’s ascent from its descent! The
former was gradual, the latter sudden. Thus it went
with Israel. At first God took him by the arms
(Hosea xi. 3), then He caused him to ride (Hosea
x. 11); but when he sinned ‘He cast down from
heaven unto the earth the beauty of Israel’ ” (Lam.
R. ii. 1). Hanina also makes use of the numerical
values of letters in his endeavor to reconcile bag-
gadic differences. One rabbi advances the opinion
that the name of Israel’s Messiah will be “ Zemah ”
(nDoy = “sprout”; comp. Zech. ii. 8); another, that
it will be “Menahem” (= “comforter”). Hanina
thereupon observes, “There is no difference of opin-
ion between them; the total value of the letters in
the name suggested by the one is the same as that
of the letters in the name suggested by the other.”
mos (90 + 40-+ 8 = 188) corresponds with pmo (40
+ 50+ 8-+40 = 1388; Yer. Ber. ii. 5a).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 676; Frankel,
Meho, p. 87b; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 149a, 154a, War-
saw, 1897.
J S. M.
HANINA (HANANIAH; HINENA) B.
ADDA (IDDA): Babylonian scholar of the third
century. He was skilled in both Halakah and
Haggadah; Appa B. AHABAH appears to have been
Hanina b. ‘Agul
Hanina b. Dosa
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
214
his teacher in the former (Pes. 75a; ‘Ab. Zarah 40a);
in the latter he seems to have beena pupil of Tanhum
b. Hiyya. From Tanhum, Hanina received the fol-
lowing illustration of the relative positions of the
prophet and the elder (teacher, sage): “ A king dele-
gated two commissioners; with respect to one he
wrote, ‘ Unless he exhibits to you my signature and
my seal, credit him not’; with reference to the
other he wrote, ‘Even if he shows you neither my
signature nor my seal, credit him.’ So it is said re-
garding the prophet: ‘.. . and giveth thee a sign
or a wonder’ (Deut. xiii. 2(A.V. 1)]: while of the
sages it is said: ‘According to the sentence of the
law which they shall teach thee, and according to
the judgment which they shall tell thee, thou shalt
do’” (Deut. xvii.11; Yer. Ber. i. 3b; Yer. Sanh. xi.
30b; Yer. ‘Ab. Zarah ii. 41c; Cant. R. i. 2). In the
Book of Isaiah 3x! (the future: “ will say ”), instead
of the usual qx (“saith ”), is used eight times (i. 11,
18; xxxiii. 10; xl. 1, 25; xli. 21, twice; Ixvi. 9).
This peculiarity, according to Hanina, contains an
allusion to the corresponding number of prophets
that were to appear after the destruction of the
(first) Temple: Joel, Amos, Zephaniah, Haggai,
Zechariah, Malachi, Ezekiel, and Jeremiah (Pesik.
xvi. 128b; see Buber ad loc.). An elder namesake
of Hanina was a tanna, contemporary of AHAI B.
JOSIAH, with whom he discussed a halakic midrash
(Mek., Mishpatim, v.; comp. Sifra, Kedoshim, ix.
6, 14).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 553; idem, Ag.
Tan. ii. 553; Frankel, Mebo, p. 89a; Heilprin, Seder ha-Do-
rot, ti. 148a, 148b, Warsaw, 1897.
J. S. M.
HANINA B.‘AGUL: Palestinian scholar of
the third century ; junior contemporary of Hiyya b.
Abba and Tanhum b. Hanilai. Hanina applied to
Hiyya to explain why the expression “that it may .
go well with thee,” contained in the second version
of the Decalogue (Deut. v. 16), was not embodied
in the first version (Ex. xx. 12). Hiyya thereupon
gave him this remarkable answer: “Instead of ask-
ing me that, ask me whether the expression is em-
bodied in either version: I do not even know it is
there! However, apply to Tanhum b. Hanilai,
who has frequented the school of the expert hag-
gadist Joshua b. Levi.” Hanina did so, and was
told that the promise was omitted from the first ver-
sion because the first tablets of the Decalogue were
destined to be broken (see Ex. xxxii. 19). This is
explained by a later haggadist, who stated that the
inclusion of the promise in the tablets that were
destined to be broken would have been very dis-
couraging to the people, who would have seen in
the breaking of them a foreshadowing of the cessa-
tion of God’s goodness (B. K. 54b e¢ seq.). With
reference to Isa. Ixiv. 3 (A. V. 4: “ Neither hath the
eye seen, O God, beside thee, what he hath prepared
for him that waiteth for him”), Hanina remarks:
“The Jews who attended the banquet given by
Ahasuerus [Esth. i.] were asked whether God would
ever provide better entertainment for them; to
which they replied, ‘Should God furnish us the like
of this we should protest, since we have had such
viands at the board of Ahasuerus’” (Esth. R. i. 5,
where 5333) is corrupted to b»y). His name appears
also in connection with a halakah which he reports
as having originated with Hezekiah, probably the
son of Hiyya (Yer. Yeb. vi. 7c).
J. S. M.
HANINA (HANANIAH) B. ANTIGONUS :
Tanna of priestly descent; coutemporary of Akiba
and Ishmael (Bek. vii. 5). It is supposed that in his
youth he had witnessed the service of the Temple of
Jerusalem, since he knew the fluters that played be-
fore the altar (Tosef., ‘Ar. i. 15; comp. ‘Ar. ii. 4).
If this were so, Hanina must have enjoyed unusual
longevity, as he often appears in halakic controversy
with Akiba’s latest disciples. Be this as it may, he
was learned in the laws relating to the priests, and
many such laws are preserved in his name (Kid. iv.
5: Bek. vi. 3, 10, 11; vii.2,5; Tem. vi. 5), while
precedents reported by him regarding the services
and appurtenances of the Temple influenced later .
rabbinical opinions. On marital questions also he
is often cited as an authority (Yeb. xiii. 2; Niddah
vi. 18 [comp. 7b. Gem. 52b], viii. 2), as well as on
other matters (Sheb. vi. 8; ‘Er. iv. 8). Some hala-
kic midrashim also have come down from him (Bek.
vii. 2, 5; Mek., Vitro, Bahodesh, 6); but of hag-
gadot there is only one under his name. He says:
“Whosoever practises the precept concerning the
fringes on the borders of (*533) garments (Num.
xv. 38 ef seg.) will realize the promise: ‘Ten men
. shall take hold of the skirt of [}353) him that
isa Jew, saying, We will go with you: for we have
heard that God is with you’” (Zech. viii. 23). “On
the other hand,” continues Hanina, “he who violates
the precept concerning the skirt [433] is included
in the verse ‘take hold of the ends of [m15333] the
earth, that the wicked might be shaken out of it’”
(Job xxxviii. 18; Sifre, Num. 115). According to
him, when an aged man dies after not more than
three days’ sickness, his death may be termed “ ex-
cision” (nD = “cutting off”; see JEw Encyc. iv.
484, s.v. DEATH), a visitation for secret violations of
the Sabbath or of the dietary laws (Sem. iii. 10).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Tan. i. 378; Briill, Mebo ha-
Mishnah, i. 181; Frankel, Darke ha-Mishnah, p. 128; Weiss,
Dor, ii. 121.
J. S. M.
HANINA B. DOSA: Scholar and miracle-
worker of the first century; pupil of Johanan b.
Zakkai (Ber. 84b). While he is reckoned among
the Tannaim and is quoted in connection with a
school and its disciples, no halakot and but few
haggadot are preserved as from him (Baraita of R.
Eliezer xxix., xxxi.; Midr. Mishle x. 2). His pop-
ularity, however, which he enjoyed throughout his
life, and which rendered him immortal among the
mystics, rests not on his scholarship, but on his
saintliness and thaumaturgic powers. From the
several maxims attributed to him it may be seen
that he was a member of the Hasidim: “ Whosoever’s
fear of sin precedes his learning, his learning will
endure; but where learning precedes fear of sin,
learning will not endure”; “ Where a man’s works
are greater than his learning, his learning will stand;
but where his learning is greater than his works, his
learning will not stand”; “Whosoever earns the
good-will of humanity is loved of God; but whoso
is not beloved of man is not beloved of God” (Ab.
215
ili. 9, 10; Ab. R. N. xxii. 1 [ed. Schechter, p. 35a];
for the corresponding Hasidean principles see JEw.
Encyc. v. 225, s.¢. ESsENEs). There are, also, other
teachings which betray his Hasidic schooling. Ha-
nina, like all the ancient Hasidim, prayed much,
and by his prayers he is said to have effected many
miracles.
It is related that when the son of Johanan b. Zak-
Kai was very sick, the father solicited the prayers of
Hanina. Hanina readily complied, and the child
recovered. The overjoyed father could not refrain
from expressing his admiration for his wonderful
pupil, stating that he himself might have prayed
the whole day without doing any good. His wife,
astonished at such self-abasement on the part of her
famous husband, inquired, “Is Hanina greater than
thou?” To this he replied, “There is this differ-
ence between us: he is like the body-servant of a
king, having at all times free access to the august
presence, without even having to await permission
to reach his ears; while J, like a lord
Influence before a king, must await an oppor-
of His tune moment” (Ber. 34b), Similarly,
Prayers. at the solicitation of Gamaliel IL.,
Hanina entreated mercy for that patri-
arch’s son, and at the conclusion of his prayers
assured Gamaliel’s messengers that the patient’s
fever had left him. This assurance created doubt
in the minds of the messengers, who promptly asked,
“Art thoua prophet?” To this he replied, “I am
neither a prophet nor the son of a prophet; but ex-
perience has taught me that whenever my prayer
flows freely it is granted ; otherwise, it is rejected.”
The messengers thereupon noted down Hanina’s
declaration, and the exact time when it was made;
on reaching the patriarch’s residence they found
that Hanina had spoken truly (¢.; comp. Ber. v.
5; Yer. Ber. v. 9d).
Hanina never permitted anything to turn him
from his devotions. Once, while thus engaged, a
lizard bit him, but he did not interrupt his prayers.
To his disciples’ anxious inquiries he answered that
he had been so preoccupied in prayer as not even to
feel the bite. When the people found the reptile,
dead, they exclaimed, “ Wo tothe man whom a lizard
bites, and wo to the lizard that bites R. Hanina b.
Dosa!” His wonderful escape is accounted for by
the assertion that the result of a lizard’s bite de-
pends upon which reaches water first, the man or
the lizard; if the former, the latter dies: if the lat-
ter, the former dies. In Hanina’s case a spring
miraculously opened under his very feet (Yer. Ber.
v. 9a). The Babylonian Gemara (Ber. 33a) has a
different version of this miracle.
Hanina’s prayers were efficacious in other direc-
tions also.. While traveling he was caught in a
shower and prayed “Master of the universe, the
whole world is pleased, while Hanina alone is an-
noyed.” The rain immediately ceased.
Arriving home, he altered his prayer:
“ Master of the universe, shall all the
world be grieved while Hanina en-
joys his comfort?” Thereupon copious showers
descended. With reference to his rain-governing
powers it was said, “ Beside Ben Dosa's prayers those
of the high priest himself are of no avail” (Ta‘an.
As Rain-
Producer.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
anne b. ‘Agul]
Hanina b. Dosa
24b). When, one Sabbath eve, his daughter filled
the lamp with vinegar instead of oil, and then sadly
told him of her mistake, he remarked, “He who
hath endowed oi] with the power of burning may
endow vinegar with the same power”; and the lamp
burned on throughout the whole of the next day
(Ta‘an, 25a). |
Notwithstanding his wonder-working powers,
Hanina was very poor. Indeed, it became prover-
bial that, while the whole world was provided for
through Hanina’s great merits, he himself sustained
life from one Sabbath eve to another on a basket of
carob-beans. For some time the outside world had
been kept in ignorance of his privations; his wife
did all that was possible to maintain au appearance of
comfort, and though she had no flour with which to
make dough, she would put fuel into the oven every
Friday and cause columns of smoke to rise, thus
making her neighbors believe that, like them, she
was baking the Sabbath meals. In time, however,
one woman’s suspicion was aroused, and she deter-
mined to surprise Hanina’s wife and discover the
truth. Buta miracle prevented exposure. When
the woman appeared at Hanina’s house and looked
into the smoking oven it was full of loaves. In
spite of the miracle, Hanina’s wife induced him to
collect from heaven an advance portion of his fu-
ture lot. Hanina complied with her request, and,
in answer to his prayer, a golden table-leg was
miraculously sent him. Husband and wife were
happy; but that night the wife had a
The vision of heaven in which she saw the
Miracle of saints feasting at three-legged tables
the Golden while her husband’s table had only
Table-Leg. twolegs. She awoke full of regret at
the importunity which had deprived
his table of a leg, and insisted that he pray for the
withdrawal of the treasure. This he did, and the
golden leg disappeared. Of thismiracle the Talmud
says: “It was greater than the former, since heaven
gives, but never takes” (Ta‘an. 24b et seq.).
By a miracle Hanina was once prevented from
partaking of untithed food. One eve of Sabbath he
sat down to his frugal meal, when suddenly the
table receded from him. After thinking a while he
recollected that he had borrowed some spices from
a neighbor and that he had not separated the re-
quired tithe (See Haber). He thereupon adjusted
the matter, and the table returned to him (Yer.
Dem. i. 22a). It is stated that Hanina’s donkey
would not eat untithed food. Thieves had stolen
the animal and confined it in their yard, furnishing
it with the necessary provender; but the donkey
would neither eat nor drink. As this continued for
several days, the thieves concluded to free the ani-
mal, lest it starve to death and render their premises
noisome. Qn its release it went straight home, none
the worse for its long fast (Ab. R. N. viii. 8 (ed.
Schechter, p. 19b]; comp. Yer. Dem. i. 21d; Shab.
112b).
Once Hanina was greatly grieved at not being
able, with other pious people, to present something
to the Temple. In his despondency he walked out
of town, and, seeing a huge rock, he vowed to carry
it to Jerusalem as a gift to the Holy City. He
smoothed and polished it, and then looked around
anina b. Gamaliel
anina b. Ika
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
216
for help to transport it. Five laborers appeared,
and offered to carry the rock to its destined place
for one hundred gold pieces. Hanina, who did not
possess half that amount, turned away in despair.
Soon, however, other laborers appeared and de-
manded only five “sela‘im,” but they stipulated
that Hanina himself should aid in the transporta-
tion. The agreement concluded, they all seized the
rock, and in an instant stood before Jerusalem.
When Hanina turned to pay the laborers they were
nowhere to be found. He repaired to the Sanhedrin
to inquire what disposition he should make of the
uncollected wages. The Sanhedrin heard his tale
and concluded that the laborers were ministering
angels, not human laborers, and that Hanina was
therefore at liberty to apply the money to his own
use. He, however, presented it to the Temple
(Cant. R. 3.1; Eccl. R. i.).
Thus was Hanina’s life a succession of miracles
(see Pes. 112b; B. K. 50a). A comparatively late
mishnah remarks, “ With the death of Hanina b.
Dosa wonder-workers {‘anshe ma‘aseh’] ceased to
exist” (Sotah ix. 15). His general character was
likewise extolled, A contemporary rabbi, ELEAZAR
oF Mop1‘m, lecturing on Ex. xviii. 21, cited Hanina
b. Dosa and his colleagues as illustrations of the
scope of the expression “men of truth” (Mek., Yitro,
Amalek, 1). Two centuries later a haggadist, com-
menting on Isa. iii. 3, said, “ By the term ‘ honorable
man’ is meant one through whose merits Heaven
respects [is favorable to] his generation; such a one
was Hanina b. Dosa” (Hag. 14a). Nor was Hanina’s
wife soon forgotten; long after her death, legend
relates, a party of seafarers espied a work-basket
studded with diamonds and pearls. <A diver at-
tempted to seize it, but was deterred by a “ bat kol”
which said that the precious basket was designed
for the wife of Hanina b. Dosa, who would eventu-
ally fill it with blue wool (“tekelet”; Num. xv.
88) for the saints of the future (B. B. 74a).
Hanina lived at ‘Arab, in Galilee, whither he was
first attracted by the fame of Johanan b, Zakkai
(Ber, 34b). There he served as an example of Sab-
bath observance (Yer. Ber. iv. 7c), and there he
and his wife were buried.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.
Ss. S. M.
HANINA (HANANIAH) B. GAMALIEL
II.: Tanna of the first and second centuries; wit-
ness, and perhaps victim, of the Roman persecu-
tions, when, of thousands of scholars at Bethar, only
his younger brother Simon b. Gamaliel IT. is said to
have escaped (Yer. Ta‘an. iv. 69a; comp. Lam. R.
ii. 2). A baraita records a halakic controversy be-
tween Hanjna and Akiba, though the opinion of
neither was adopted as Jaw (Niddah 8a); anda mish-
nah cites an exegetical discussion between Hanina
and Jose the Galilean, in which the opinion of the
former was adopted by the Rabbis (Men. v. 8).
His brother Simon reports as from Hunina a halakah
opposed to his own views, but which he admits as the
more reasonable (Tosef., Niddah, vii. 5); and Jose b.
Halafta points out that a statement made by Simeon
b. Yohai had previously been made by Hanina(Tosef.,
Neg. ii. 11). Hanina never quotes as authorities
his predecessors or contemporaries, not even his
own father, and only once cites an opinion held suc-
cessively by anumber of his own house (Niddah 8b).
It may be assumed that Tarfon was one of his
teachers, for Hanina mentions some more or less
private matters in connection with Tarfon’s life, and
speaks of him in reverential terms (Ned. 62b; Kid.
8ib). At least fifteen halakot are preserved under
Hanina’s name (Weiss, “ Dor,” ii. 144). As a hag-
gadist he appears inclined to adhere to the plain
sense of the Scriptural texts.
The following is a specimen of Hanina’s homi-
letics: “Of the Decalogue, tive commandments were
engraved on one tablet, and five on the other [comp.
Deut. iv. 13]. The first commandment, ‘I am the
Lord thy God,’ is therefore on a line with the sixth,
‘Thou shalt not kill,’ for whoso sheddeth human
blood defies the Lord in whose image man was cre-
ated. The second, ‘Thou shalt have no other gods
before me,’ isin line with the seventh, ‘ Thou shalt
not commit adultery,’ for whoso serves other gods
is necessarily faithless to the Lord” (comp. Ezek.
Xvi. 32; Hosea iii. 1); similarly with the rest of the
commandments, taken in pairs (Mek., Yitro, Baho-
desh, 8). Hisrespect for the judiciary and his sym-
pathy with his fellow man, even when fallen, is
shown in a remark on Deut. xxv., according to
which the administration of legal punishment by
a human tribunal exempts the sinner from deserved
heavenly retribution. He further says: “ Before the
sinner submits to the sentence of the court he is
spoken of as ‘the wicked man’; but having sub-
mitted to the verdict he must again be acknowledged
as ‘thy brother’” (7b, 2~8; Mak. iii. 15; Sifre, Deut.
286). In his own house he was exceedingly strict,
causing his domestics to stand in great awe of him.
To avoid his displeasure they were once on the point
of putting before him forbidden food in place of
some that had been lost. Anamoraof the third cen-
tury cites this as a warning to all men not to be
domineering in their homes, lest in fear of the
master’s displeasure the domestics commit a wrong
(Git. Za).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Tan. i. 438; Britill, Mebo ha-
Mishnah, i. 1384; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.
S. S. M.
HANINA B. HAMA: Palestinian halakist and
haggadist; died about 250; frequently quoted in
the Babylonian and the Palestinian Gemara, and in
the Midrashim. He is generally cited by his pre-
nomen alone (R. Hanina), but sometimes with his
patronymic (Hanina b. Hama), and occasionally with
the cognomen “ the Great ” (““ha-Gadol” ; Ta‘an. 27b;
Pesik. R. v. 15a). Whether he was a Palestinian
by birth and had only visited Babylonia, or whether
he was a Babylonian immigrant in Palestine, can not
be clearly established. In the only passage in which
he himself mentions his arrival in Palestine he refers
also to his son's accompanying him (Yer. Sotah i.
17b), and from this some argue that Babylonia was
his native land. It is certain, however, that he
spent most of his life in Palestine, where he attended
for a time the lectures of Bar Kappara and Hiyya
the Great (Yer. Sheb. vi. 85c; Yer. Niddah i. 50a)
and eventually attached himself to the academy of
Judah I. Under the last-named he acquired great
217
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
anina b. Gamaliel
anina b. Ika
stores of practical and theoretical knowledge (Yer.
Niddah ii. 50b), and so developed his dialectical
powers that once in the heat of debate with his
senior and former teacher Hiyya he ventured the
assertion that were some law forgotten, he could
himself reestablish it by argumentation (Ket. 103b).
Judah loved him, and chose him in preference
to any other of his disciples to share his privacy.
Thus when Antoninus once visited Judah, he was
surprised to find Hanina in the chamber, though the
patriarch had been requested not to permit any one
to attend their interview. The patriarch soothed
his august visitor by the assurance that the third
party was not an ordinary man (‘Ab. Zarah 10a).
No doubt Hanina would have been early promoted
to an honorable office had he not offended the pa-
triarch by an ill-judged exhibition of his own supe-
rior familiarity with Scriptural phrase-
Relations ology (see HAMNUNA OF BABYLONIA),.
with However, the patriarch, on his death-
Judah I. bed, instructed Gamatliel, his son and
prospective successor, to put Hanina
at the head of all other candidates (Yer. Ta‘an. iv.
68a; comp. Ket. 108a). Hanina modestly declined
advancement at the expense of his senior Eres, and
even resolved to permit another worthy colleague,
Levi b. Sisi, to take precedence. Efes was actually
principal of the academy for several years, but Sisi
withdrew from the country, when Hanina assumed
the long-delayed honors (76.; Shab. 59b). He con-
tinued his residence at Sepphoris, where he became
the acknowledged authority in Halakah (Yer. Shek.
i. 46a; Yer. Bezah i. 60a; Yer. Git. iv. 46b), and
where also he practised as a physician (Yoma 49a;
comp. Yer. Ta‘an. i. 64a).
According to Hanina, 99 per cent of fatal diseases
result from colds, and only t per cent from other
troubles (Yer. Shab. xiv. 14c). He therefore would
impress mankind with the necessity of warding off
colds, the power to do so, he teaches, having been
bestowed upon man by Providence (B. M. 107b).
But neither his rabbinical learning nor his medical
skill gained him popularity at Sepphoris. Whena
pestilence raged there, the populace blamed Hanina
for failing to stamp it out. Hanina heard their
murmurs and resolved to silence them. In the
course of a lecture, he remarked, “Once there lived
one Zimri, in consequence of whose sin twenty-four
thousand Israelites lost their lives (see Num. xxv.
6-15); in our days there are many Zimris among us,
and yet ye murmur!” Onanother oc-
His Un- casion, when drought prevailed, the
popularity. murmurs of the Sepphorites again be-
caine loud. A day was devoted to
fasting and praying, but no rain came, though at
another place, where Joshua b. Levi was among the
suppliants, rain descended; the Sepphorites there-
fore made this circumstance also to reflect on the
piety of their great townsman, Another fast being
appointed, Hanina invited Joshua b. Levi to join him
in prayer. Joshua did so; butnorain came. Then
Hanina addressed the people: “Joshua b. Levi does
not bring rain down for the Southerners, neither
does Hanina Keep rain away from the Sepphorites:
the Southerners are soft-hearted, and when they
hear the word of the Law, they humble themselves;
while the Sepphorites are obdurate and never re-
pent” (Yer. Ta‘an. iii. 66c).
As a haggadist Hanina was prolific and resource-
ful—often, indeed, epigrammatic. Among his eth-
ical aphorisms are the following: “Everything is in
the power of Heaven, except the fear of Heaven.”
He bases this doctrine of free will on the Scriptural
dictum, “ And now, Israel, what doth the Lord thy
God require [Hebr. Say = “request” ] of thee, but
to fear the Lord thy God” (Deut. x. 12; Ber. 33b).
With reference to Ps. Ixxiii. 9, “They set their
mouth against the heavens, and their tongue walk-
eth through the earth,” he says, “In genera], man
sins either against the sojourner on earth or against
Heaven, but the evii-tongued sins against both”
(Eccl. R. ix. 12; comp. Yer. Peah i. 16a), “ Whoso
avers that God is indulgent [that is, leaves sin un-
punished] will find the reverse in his own life’s ex-
perience; God is long-suffering, but ‘his work is
perfect: for all his ways are judgment’” (Deut.
xxxii, 4; B. K. 50a). He predicts everlasting pun-
ishment for him who seduces a married woman, or
who publicly puts his neighbor to shame, or who
calls his neighbor by a nickname (B. M. 58b).
Of Hanina’s family, one son, Shibhat, or Shikhat,
died young (B. K. 91b); but another, Hama, inherited
his father’s talentsand became prominent in his gen-
eration (see HAMA RB. Hanina), Oneof
His Family his daughters was the wife of ascholar,
and Pupils. Samue! b. Nadab by name (‘Ar. 16b);
another died during Hanina’s life-
time, but he shed no tears at her death, and when
his wife expressed astonishment at his composure he
told her that he feared the effects of tears on his sight
(Shab. 151b). He lived to be very old, and retained
his youthful vigor to the last. He attributed his ex-
traordinary vitality to the hot baths and the oil with
which his mother had treated him in his youth (Hul.
24b). In his longevity he recognized a reward for the
respect he had shown his learned elders (Eccl. R. vii.
7). Among his pupils were such men as JOHANAN B.
NaAppana and ELEAZAR II., both of whom became
rabbinical authorities in their generation, and in
whose distinction he lived to rejoice. One morning,
while walking, leaning on the arm of an attendant,
Hanina noticed throngs of people hurrying toward
a certain place. In answer to his inquiry, he was
informed that R. Johanan was to lecture at the
academy of R. Benaiah, and that the people were
flocking thither to hear him. Hanina thereupon
exclaimed, “ Praised be the Lord for permitting me
to see the fruit of my labors before I die” (Yer.
Hot. ii. 48b).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. i. 1 et seq.; Frankel,
Mebho, p. 86b; Gratz, Gesch. 2d ed., iv. 254 et seq.; Heilprin,
Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 74d, Warsaw, 1897; Halévy, Dorot ha-
Rishonim, ii. 129b et seq.; Weiss, Dor, iii. 44 et seq.; Zacuto,
Yuhasin, ed. Filipowski, pp. 141b et seq. Soa
8. Ss. MM.
HANINA B. IDDI. See Hanna B. ADDA.
HANINA (HINENA) B. IKA (YAKE:
with the appositive “bar” = “son of” Beroka, or
Berika; comp. Yer. Shab. vii. 10b, xx. 17c): Scholar
of the tourth century; contemporary with Pappa
and Zebid (Ber. 25b; Niddah 52a). That he wasa
Babylonian by birth is evidenced by his report.
anina b. Isaac
annah
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
218
ing halakot of Judah b. Ezekiel, who never visited
Palestine (Ber. 25b, 43b, where the prenomen is
“Wuna”; but comp. Rabbinovicz, “Dikduke So-
ferim,” ad loc.). Of his last days the Gemara re-
lates: R. Pappa and R. Huna b. Joshua were trav-
eling and met R. Hanina b. Ika. Not having seen
him for at least thirty days, they, according to cus-
tom, pronounced the benediction: “Blessed be He
who endoweth with wisdom those who fear Him.”
They also thanked God for permitting them to see
Hanina once more. Hanina returned their compli-
ments, and thereupon died (Ber. 58b).
s. S. M.
HANINA (HINENA) B. ISAAC: Palestinian
haggadist of the fourth century; contemporary of
Samuel b. Ammi, with whom he engaged in an exe-
getical controversy (Yer. Ber. ii. 10a; Gen. R. xv. 7:
“Hinena”). Huna the Younger cites as Hanina’s
the following comment on the significance of the
movements of the ram which Abraham offered in the
place of Isaac (Gen. xxii. 18): “Abraham noticed
the ram caught in a thicket, and escaping only to be
caught in another thicket. The Lord thereupon said:
‘Abraham, thus will thy descendants be entangled
by their sins and come in conflict with various king-
doms: freed from Babylonian oppression, they will
fall under Media; from Media, under Greece; from
Greece, under Edom [Rome].’ Abraham then in-
quired, ‘Lord of the Universe, will this be their
lot forever?’ The Lord answered, ‘ They will ulti-
mately be delivered at the sound of the ram’s horn.’
Therefore the Biblical saying, ‘The Lord God shall
blow the trumpet,’” etc. (Zech. ix. 14; Yer. Ta‘an.
ii, 65d; comp. Gen. R. lvi. 9). Hanina believed that
the impatience of Israel’s progenitors was less irri-
tating than the patience of their descendants. He
cites as an example Jacob’s impatient remonstrance
with Laban for searching through his household
goods (Gen. xxxi, 33 et seq.). On the other hand,
where patience was called for, stinging language
was used, aS shown in David’s appeal to Jonathan
({ Sam, xx. 1; Gen. R. lxxiv. 10; Yalk., I Sam. xx.
1; comp. Pesik. xiv. 116b).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Agadader Paldstinensischen Amo-
rder, iii, 681 et seq.
8. S. M.
HANINA KATOBA: Palestinian scribe or no-
tary, who acquired some familiarity with law. Only
one halakah, which he learned from Aha, is con-
nected with his name (Yer. Sanh. ii. 19c; Yer. Hor.
iii. 47a).
S. S. M.
HANINA B. PAPA: Palestinian amora, hala-
kist, and haggadist; flourished in the third and
fourth centuries; a younger contemporary of Sam-
uel b. Nahman (Yer. Sheb. v. 36a). His name is
variously written Hanina, Hananiah, and Hi-
nena (comp. Yer. Ber. i. 4b; Yer. M. K. iii. 88¢;
Cant. R. i.2; Yalk., Cant. i. 2). That he possessed
great stores of learning is shown by the frequency
with which he is cited in both Talmud and Midrash;
and he enjoyed the companionship of the foremost
teachers of his generation. With Simon (Shimeon)
b. Pazzi he discussed exegetics, and he was associ-
ated with Abbahu and Isaac Nappaha on the judici-
ary (Git. 29b; B. K. 11%b). Legend has surrounded
his name with supernatural incidents (see JEW.
Excyc. i. 361, s.c. ALEXANDRI),
Hanina was very charitable, and distributed his
gifts at night so as not to expose the recipients to
shame. But as the night is assigned to the evil
spirits, his procedure displeased the latter. Once
the chief of the spirits met him and
Legends asked, “ Do you not teach the Biblical
About = inhibition, ‘Thoushalt not remove thy
Him. neighbor’s landmark’? Why then do
you invade my province?” Hanina
answered, “ Does not the Bible also teach, ‘A gift in
secret pacifieth anger’?” thus reminding the spirit
that no evil could befall him. On hearing this the
spirit became disheartened and fled (Deut. xix. 14;
Prov. xxi. 14; Yer. Peah viii. 21b [“ Hananiah ”];
Yer. Shek. v. 49b [“ Hinena”]). Once Hanina was
tempted by a matron, but at his word his body be-
came repulsive with sores; when, by the aid of witch-
craft, the temptress removed them, he ran away and
hid in a haunted bath-house. There he spent the
night, and escaped at daybreak (Kid. 39b, 81a).
Hanina is reputed to have been providentially
guarded against errors of judgment. On one occa-
sion he made a mistake in connection with a mourn-
ing, and in the succeeding night was corrected by a
dream in which he heard the message, “ Thou hast
disobeyed the mouth of the Lord ” (I Kings xiii, 21;
Yer. M. K. iii. 83a). In his public lectures Hanina
frequently illustrated God’s wisdom as manifested
in nature (Hul. 60a; Niddah 31a), and expressed
many eschatological thoughts. Starting with Isa.
xliii. 9 (“ Let all the nations be gathered together,
and let the people be assembled: who among them
can declare this, and show us former things? let
them bring forth their witnesses, that they may be
justified ”), he delivered the following homily, per-
haps the longest and most connected of all haggadot:
**In the future the Holy One—blessed be He!—will take a
scroll of the Law, and invite all who have observed its behests
to appear and receive their due reward. All nations will come
promiscuously, but the Lord will say, ‘Let each nation with its
historians come in singly.’ Edom [Rome] will then appear,
when the Lord will ask, ‘ Wherewith have ye occupied your-
selves?’ Edom will answer, ‘Lord of the Universe, we have
erected many market-places, built many baths, amassed silver
and gold: all this we did that the children of Israel might de-
vote themselves to the practise of the Law.’ Thereupon God
will say, ‘Consummate Knaves, whatever ye have accomplished
ye have done from self-interest ; ye have erected market-places
to people them with prostitutes; builé baths to benefit your-
selves; and as for the silver and the gold, that is Mine [see
Hag. ii. 8). But is there one among you that can tell about
this [Law]?’ As soon as they hear they will depart crestfallen,
and Persia will enter. To the question as to their occupation
the Persians will answer that they have built bridges, conquered
cities, and waged wars, all to afford Israel opportunities for
keeping the Law. However, they too will be rebuked by the
Lord, who will point out that whatever they have done has been
prompted by selfish motives; they in turn will be asked, *‘ Who
of you can declare this [Law]?’ Persia will then retire in con-
fusion; so it will go with every other nation except Israel.
‘At last the nations will protest, ‘Lord of the Universe,
didst Thou ever offer us the Law, and we fail to receive it ?°
To which the Lord will rejoin: ‘Show us former things; I have
offered you seven precepts, which you accepted; did you keep
them?’ Whereupon they will ask, “And did Israel keep the
Law?’ Then the Lord will say, ‘I Myself bear witness that
Israel did.’ The nations: *Mayafather bear witness for a son?
Thou hast said [Ex. iv. 22], “Israel is my son, even my first-
born.’ Tbe Lord: *Then heaven and earth will testify.’ The
nations: *‘Heayen and earth are interested witnesses, for the
219
Bible says [Jer. xxxiii. 25, Hebr.], **‘ Were it not for My cove-
nant to be kept day and night, I should not have appointed the
ordinances of heaven and earth.”*’ The Lor@: * From among
yourselves witnesses will come and testify that Israel has faith-
fully kept the Law. Nitmrod can testify that Abraham did not
worship idols ; Laban can testify that there was no ground for
suspecting Jacob of misappropriation ; Potiphar’s wife can tes-
tify that Joseph could not be suspected of immorality ; Nebu-
chadnezzar can testify that Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah
never bowed tu an image; Darius can testify that Daniel never
neglected prayer; Bildad the Shuhite, and Zophar the Naama-
thite, and Eliphaz the Temanite can testify that Israel has kept
the Law.’ Then the nations will propose: * Give us the reward
in advance, and we will keep the Law.’ Thereunto the Lord
will answer," Whoso toiled on the eve of the Sabbath [1.e., stored
up good deeds against the time when nothing more could be
done] may feast on the Sabbath-day ; but whoso did not toil on
the eve of the Sabbath, whereon shall he feast during the Sab-
bath ?’”? CAb. Zarah 2a et seq.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. ii. 513 et seq.; Heil-
prin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.
s. S. M.
HANINA (HANIN) B. PAZZI: Palestinian
haggadist of the third and fourth centuries. His
teachings are confined to the midrashic literature.
It is suggested that he may have been the brother of
the better-known amora Simon b. Pazzi; but if so,
he never cites that brother. Among the compara-
tively few sayings known to be his is the follow-
ing: “To the office of designer of the Tabernacle
God appointed Bezaleel and Aholiab [Ex. xxxi. 2,
6|— the first being a member of Judah, the largest
of the tribes; the second, of Dan, the smallest of the
tribes—that people may learn not to slight the small,
and that the greater should not be proud; great and
small are alike before God ” (Ex. R. xl. 4; Tan., Ki
Tissa, 13). Speaking of the early motherhood of
Hagar (Gen. xvi. 4) and of Lot’s daughters (2b. xix.
23 et seqg.), and comparing them with the long barren-
ness of Sarah, Hanina says, “ Weeds require neither
hoeing nor sowing; they spring up of themselves,
and grow and thrive; while to produce wheat, how
much trouble and anxiety must be endured!” (Gen.
R. xlv. 4).
S. S. M.
HANINA OF SEPPHORIS. See Hanrtna
(HaANANIAH) IT.
HANINA (HANANTAH) OF SHALKA:
Palestinian haggadist of the fourth century ; a con-
temporary of Joshua of Siknin. He has left no
original haggadot. In the few instances in which
his name appears in the midrashim, it is joined with
that of Joshua, the two haggadists reporting inter-
pretations of their predecessors, Johanan and Levi
(Tan., Ki Teze, 9: “Shakla”; 7d., ed. Buber, p. 10;
Pesik. iii. 25b; Esther R. ii. 2; Midr. Shemuel xiv. :
“ Hania b. Shalda”). He is probably identical with
the Salcha mentioned in Deut. x. 8, or with the
Seleucia of Josephus (“B. J.” iv. i. $1; see Neu-
bauer, “G. T.” p. 271; Hastings, “ Dict. Bible,” iv
s.v. “Salecah ”).
8. S. M.
HANINA OF SURA: Babylonian scholar of
the fifth century; the junior of Mar Zutra, who re-
ports to Ashi a halakic objection raised by Hanina
(Niddah 52a). It is said that at one time Hanina’s
mother had such an aversion for her husband that
she would not live with him. Mar Zutra succeeded
in bringing them together again; and Hanina was
the offspring of the reunion (Ket. 68b). In the hag-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
anina b. Isaac
annah
gadic literature he does not appear, but in halakah
he is quoted as an authority (Sotah 25b; Kid. 79a).
He endeavors to reconcile conflicting opinions of
others (Ber. 52b; Shab, 28b; see Rabbinovicz,
“ Dikduke Soferim,” ad doc.). According to Hanina,
since there is no “bitter water” (see Num. v.) to
prove @ woman's fidelity, a man must not so readily
suspect his wife of unfaithfulness, as it may lead
to forced yet gratuitous separation (Sotah 2b).
S. S. M.
HANINA B. TERADION. See HAaNAnIAH B.
TERADION.
HANINA (HINENA) B. TORTA: Pales-
tinjan scholar of the third century; disciple of Joha-
nan and contemporary of Ammi and Isaac Nappaha
(Tem. 29a, 3la; Ned. 57b; comp. Yer. Ter. vii. 45a).
He was born in Tirna, or Torta, identified by Neu-
bauer (“G. T.” p. 267; comp. p. 368) with Turia
in Palestine, or Be-Torta in Babylonia. If the lat-
ter identification is correct, Hanina was a Palestinian
immigrant from Babylonia. One halakic midrash,
by Jannai, is cited by him (Ned. 57b); he reports
halakot in the name of Hezekiah b. Hiyya (Yer.
Peah iii. 17d) and Hoshaiah (Yer. Ter. x. 47b);
while Hiyya b. Abba cites Hanina himself as an au-
thority (Yer. Ber. iii. 6d).
S. Ss. M.
HANINAI (HANINA) KAHANA B.
ABRAHAM: Principal (gaon) of the academy at
Pumbedita (782-786). Nothing is known of his life
and labors except that he displeased the exilarch,
and was therefore removed from office, Huna Mar ha-
Levi being installed in his place.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Geschichte der Juden, v. sar
S.
M.
HANINAI (HANINA) KAHANA B.
HUNA: Gaon of Sura (765-775) ; contemporary of
Malka b. Aha, principal of the academy at Pumbedita.
Haninai was a pupil of the gaon Judah, who pre-
vented the election of Anan, the founder of the Karaite
sect, to the exilarchate, and succeeded to the
gaonate. Haninai united with his brother gaon at
Pumbedita to remove the exilarch, Natronai b.
Habibai (Zebinai), electing Zakkai b. Ahunai instead.
Haninai left several responsa, and to him is ascribed
a midrash on Num. xi. 16, extracts from which are
preserved in the Yalkut (see Yalk., Num. 636).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gratz, Gesch. v. 184; Halévy, Dorot begpitg
shonim, iii. 92b, 105a; Weiss, Dor, iv. 41; Zunz, G. V. p. 292
S. S. M.
HANNAH (79m): One of the two wives of El-
kanah and mother of the prophet Samuel. The first
chapter of I Samuel and the first half of the second
are almost entirely devoted to her.
Hannah was considered as a prophetess by Jona-
than b. Uzziel. In his targum he thus explains the
first five verses of I Sam. ij. as being a prophecy:
Verses 1, 2: These indicate that her son Samuel
would be a prophet, and that her great-grandson,
Heman, the singer, would stand with his fourteen
sons among the musicians in the Temple. Verses
3-5: These foretell the rout of Sennacherib; the
fall of Nebuchadnezzar and that of the Macedonian
kingdom; the fatal end of Haman’s sons; and the
Hannathon
Hanover
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
220
return of Israel from Babylon to Jerusalem. Hannah
is likewise counted among the seven prophetesses
in Meg. 14a.
It is further said that the silent prayer of Han-
nah ought to be taken as an example by every one
(Ber. 3la). Hannah, it is also said, was the first who
called God by the name “Zebaoth” (2b. 31b). She
was remembered by God on New-Year’s Day (R. H.
11a), and for this reason I Sam i. is read as the hat-
tarah on that day. The expression “And Hannah
prayed” (I Sam. ii. 1), though the following pas-
sages contain no prayer, is explained (Ber. 31b) as
meaning that, independently of the following pas-
sages, Hannah really addressed a prayer to God for
having spoken bitter words against Him before she
bore Samuel.
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HANNATHON: City of Zebulun, apparently on
the northern boundary, about midway between the
Sea of Galilee and the valley of Jiphthah-el (Josh.
xix. 14).
E. G. H. B. P.
HANNAUX, EMMANUEL: French sculp-
tor; bornat Metz in 1855. He began to study at the
industrial school at Strasburg, but returned to Metz
on the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian war in 1870.
Wishing to remain in France, he then went to Nancy,
where he continued his studies at the Ecole de
Modelage et de Sculpture, supporting himself by
carving pipes. Going to Paris in 1876, he was ad-
mitted to the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, entering the
classes of Dumont, Thomas, and Bonassieux. At
the Salon of 1889 Hannaux was awarded a third
medal] for his “Le Bficheron”; in the same year he
received a second medal for his patriotic group “Le
Drapeau,” now in the Draguignan Museum; and in
1894 he received the first medal for his “ Orphée
Mourant,” now at the museum of Luxembourg.
His “Fleur du Sommeil” was bought by the French
government for the museum of Puy. Among Han-
naux’s best-known busts are those of the Bishop of
Metz, Dupont des Loges, Dr. Pinel, Ambroise
Thomas, the academicians Henri Weil and Joseph
Derenbourg, Mme. Coralie Cahen, and the Baroness
de Hirsch.
In 1900 Hannaux was made a chevalier of the Le-
gion of Honor. He was commissioned to execute
the bas-reliefs for the Chateau d’Eau at the exposi-
tion of that year. In the Salon of 1908 Hannaux
received the “ Médaille d’Honneur.”
S. M. Bu.
HANNELES (HANELES), JUDAH LOB
BEN METIR (named “Hanneles” after his mother,
Hannah): Rabbinical author of the sixteenth cen-
tury. He wrote “ Wayiggash Yehudah” (Lublin,
1599), a commentary on Jacob ben Asher’s “Tur
Orah Hayyim,” printed together with the text of
the “Tur.” In an eighteenth-century Dyhernfurth
edition it is printed with the “Bet Yosef” and other
commentaries.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Boal. col. 1807; Azulat,
Shem ha-Gedolim, ii. 38; First, Bibl. Jud. i. 164.
HANNIEL or HANIEL (5y'3n): 1. Son of
Ephod; prince of the tribe of Manasseh; appointed
by God to assist Joshua in the division of the
promised land (Num. xxxiv. 23). 2. Son of Ullah,
of the tribe of Asher; a chief prince and a hero
(I Chron. vii. 39).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HANNO, RAPHAEL: German writer; bornin
Hanau 1791; died in Heidelberg 1871. He embraced
Christianity and became professor (1824) of Oriental
languages at the University of Heidelberg, which
position he filled till his death. He wrote: “ Die He-
braéische Sprache fiir den Anfang auf Schulen und
Akademien” (in two parts, Heidelberg, 1825-28);
“ Gedichte ” (7b. 1825); “ Das Schloss im Abendroth ”
(Carlsruhe, 1828); “ Vorreden Meines Vetters” (Hei-
delberg, 1828). “Liebe und Weisheit” is the title
of a volume of selectious from his writings (Jena,
1876).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bihl. Jud. 1. 361; Steinschneider, Bibli-
ographisches Handbuch, p. 58; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books
Brit. Mus.; Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, p. 374.
8. M. Sc.
HANNOVER, NATHAN (NATA) BEN
MOSES: Russian historian, Talmudist, and caba-
list; died, according to Zunz (“ Kalender,” 5623, p.
18), at Ungarisch-Brod, Moravia, July 14, 1663.
Jacob Aboab, however, in a letter to Unger (Wolf,
“ Bib). Hebr.” iii., No. 1728), gives Pieve di Sacco,
Italy, as the place of Hannover’s death, without in-
dicating the date. The place of his birth is equally
uncertain. According to Nepi-Ghirondi (“Toledot
Gedole Yisrael,” p. 270) he was born at Cracow,
but Steinschneider says that Nathan Hannover and
Nathan of Cracow were two different persons.
Hannover lived for a time at Zaslav, Volhynia;
and when this town was attacked by the Cossacks
he fled from Russia. He went first to Prague, then
to Venice, where he studied Cabala under Hayyim
Cohen, Moses Zacuto, and Samuel Aboab. Later he
became rabbi of Jassy, Moldavia, and afterward, ac-
cording to Jacob Aboab, he returned toItaly. Han-
nover is chiefly Known for his work entitled * Yewen
Mezulah ” (Venice, 1653), a complete history of the
persecutions of the Jews in Russia and Poland under
Bogdan CuMIELNICKI in 1648 and 1649. Hannover
in this work gives a brief description of the Polish
government of the time and of its relations to the
Cossacks, and thus indirectly indicates the causes
which led to the Cossack outbreak. He also gives
avery vivid picture of Jewish life in Poland and
of the yeshibot.
This work, owing to its historical value, was
translated into Judx#o-German (1687), into German
(1720), and into French by Daniel Levy (published
by Benjamin II., Tlemcen, 1855). This last trans-
lation was revised by the historian J. Lelewel, and
served as a basis for Kayserling’s German translation
(also published by Benjamin II., Hanover, 1868).
The “Yewen Mezulah” certainly places Hannover
among the best historians of the seventeenth cen-
tury. Kostomarov, utilizing Mandelkern’s Russian
translation, gives many extracts from it in his“ Bog-
dan Chmielnicki ” (iii. 283-806).
Hannover’s other works are: “Ta‘ame Sukkah,”
a homiletic explanation of the Feast of Tabernacles
(Amsterdam, 1652); “Safah Berurah,” a dictionary
of the Hebrew, German, Italian, and Latin lan-
221
guages, and arranged in Hebrew alphabetical order
(Prague, 1660)—in a second edition, by Jacob Kop-
pel b. Wolf (Amsterdam, 1701), French was in-
cluded; “Sha‘are Ziyyon,” a collection of mystical
prayers, religious customs, and ascetic reflections;
it was taken chiefly from cabalistic works, and was
very popular among the Eastern Jews. Itappeared
first in Prague in 1662, and enjoyed such popularity
that it was several times reedited (see Benjacob,
“Ozar ha-Sefarim,” p. 604). Reference is also made
by Hannover in his books to the following three un-
published works: (1) “ Neta‘ Sha‘ashu‘im,” homilies
on the Pentateuch; (2) “ Neta‘ Ne’eman,” a cabalis-
tic work; and (3) a commentary onthe “ Otiyyot de
R. ‘Akiba.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hannover, Sha‘are Ziyyon, Preface; Stein-
schneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 2044-2047; First, Bibl. Jud. i. 361.
s. 8. M. SEL.
HANNOVER, RAPHAEL LEVI: Mathe-
matician and astronomer; son of Jacob Joseph;
born at Weikersheim, Franconia, 1685; died at Han-
over May 17, 1779. He was educated at the Jew-
ish school of Hanover and at the yeshibah of Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, and became bookkeeper in the
house of Oppenheimer of Hanover. Here he at-
tracted the attention of Leibnitz, and for a number
of years was one of his most distinguished pupils,
and afterward teacher of mathematics, astronomy,
and natural philosophy. He wrote: “Luhot ha-
‘Ibbur,” astronomical tables for the Jewish calendar
(Leyden-Hanover, 1756); “Tekunat ha-Shamayim,”
on astronomy and calendar-making, especially com-
menting onthe Talmudical passages on these topics,
with glosses of Moses Tiktin (Amsterdam, 1756). An
enlarged revision of the latter work, with two other
astronomical works of his, is in manuscript. The
“Luhot ha-‘Ibbur” has been published with M. E.
Firth’s “ Yir’at Shamayim,” on Maimonides’ “ Yad,”
Kiddush ha-Hodesh (Dessau, 1820-21).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. i. 362; Steinsechneider, Cat.
Boal. col. 2127; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 135: Orient,
1846, pp. 256 et seq.; Blogg, Sefer ha-Hayyim, ». 324, Han-
over, 1867, where a copy of Hannover’s epitaph is given.
J S. Man.
HANOCH (433m): 1. Third son of Midian, the
son of Abraham by Keturah (Gen. xxv. 4; I Chron.
i. 33). 2. Eldest son of Reuben and founder of the
family of the Hanochites (Gen. xlvi. 9; Ex. vi. 14;
Num. xxvi. 5; I Chron. v. 3). Compare Enocn.
E. G. H. M. SE.
HANOVER: Capital of the Prussian province
of the same name. Jews lived there as early as the
first half of the fourteenth century, and they were
well treated by the authorities. The municipal law
(“Stadtrecht”) of 1803 contained a clause, revoked
later, to the effect that no one was to offend the
Jews either in word or in deed. In 1840 the Jews
were allowed to slaughter their own cattle, notwith-
standing the opposition of the regular butchers. In
a document of 13842 mention is made of a Jew
named Dustman in connection with a commercial
transaction.
According to an inscription in the vestry of the
Markt-Kirche dated 1350, after the Black Death,
the Jews of Hanover, who had been accused of poi-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hannathon
Hanover
soning wells, were banished from the city. It is
probable that at this time the municipal law referred
to above was erased from the burgher
Expulsion. roll. Not until two decades later did
a Jew again live in Hanover; and he
was expelled (June 1, 1371) by an edict of Dukes
Weuceslaus and Albert of Saxony and Liineburg.
Although by this same edict the citizens were as-
sured that henceforth and forever no Jews would be
allowed to livein Hanover, the dukes just mentioned
granted to the city council a few years later (June
8, 1875) the privilege of admitting Jews (“ Privi-
legium de Judeis Recipiendis ”) and of retaining the
taxes payable by them. The dukes, on their part,
undertook to protect the Jews, who were granted
the privilege, among others, of fishing in the “Ju-
denteich ” at Castle Lauenrode.
Documents of the years 1403, 1407, and 1415, hav-
ing reference to the collection of “ Opfer-pfennige,”
taxes, interest, and rents from the Jews of Lower
Saxony, mention Jews of the city of Hanover.
From 1489, regulations are met with referring di-
rectly to the Jews of Hanover, as, for example, in
matters of suretyship (1489) and residence. In 1445
it was forbidden, under a penalty of 5 Bremen marks,
for a Jew or a linen-weaver to live on the dike in the
“Brith!” of Hanover (nowLange Strasse). On Aug.
4, 1451, Bishop Nicholas of Minden, to whose dio-
cese Hlanover belonged, issued an order compelling
the Jews to wear the badge—for the men yellow
rings on the breast of the overcoat or mantle, and
for the women two bluish stripes on the upper gar-
ments. Two years later (July 20, 1453) the council
of Hanover addressed two Jetters to the council of
Hildesheim requesting the discontinuance of the suit
brought before the ecclesiastical court by a citizen
against the Jew Nachtman of Hanover.
On June 5, 1499, an agreement was entered into
by the city council and some Jews, among whom
were Lauwe, Samson, and Solomon van Aschersle-
ben, by which the council agreed to receive the Jews
into the city for a term of eight years,
Admission together with Solomon, their rabbiand
for Eight precentor, and his son Humprecht, as
Years. well as their families, and to accom-
modate them with lodgings in certain
houses situated on the Zwinger and belonging to the
council. For this privilege the Jews were to make an
immediate payment of 20 Rhenish gulden and an an-
nual one of 150 gulden, Permission was also given
them to kill their own cattle.
Thirty years later (July 25, 1529) the council, by
order of Duke Erich, gave permission to the Jew
Michael of Derneburg to build for himself and fam-
ily a dwelling-house in the new town (“ Neustadt”),
where also the Jews Fibes and Menneke had resided
(letter of the duke, Oct. 18, 1516). Michael was
promised protection by the magistrate in consider-
ation of an annual payment of 8 Rhenish gulden.
Among other Jews who lived in Hanover in the middle of the
sixteenth century were the following: Nachmann (mentioned
in a letter of Jan. 5, 1549, from Heinrich of Steinberge, Oelbis-
felde, to the council); Isaac; Sander, his son-in-law ; Isaac’s
two sons, Fibes and Abraham, to whom the couneil in 1450 issued
a letter of protection (charging 12 gulden yearly or 200 in a lump
sum); Menlynn: Lazarus; Feibelmann; David Meyer; and
Simon (of the Neustadt), who, together with the above-men-
Hanover
Hanukkah
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
222
tioned Isaac, Sander, and Fibes, became surety for Abraham of
Peine (July 2, 1553) on bis release from prison, to which he bad
been committed on a charge of fraud.
In 1564 several Hanoverian Jews sojourned in
Constantinople, where they transacted
Hano- important business with the Turks
verian and assisted in securing the release
Jews in from prison of a Hanoverian noble-
Constanti- man, Lebant von Reden.
nople. Duke Erich the Younger issued an
edict on Jan. 8, 1558, by which he ban-
ished all Jews from his territory, and an order dated
Nov. 28, 1574, refused the Jews in Hanover protec-
.
longed), Jews were again permitted to reside in those
provinces. They had, however, to contend with
the hostility of the populace, which was especially
incited by the clergy of Hanover, so that the mag-
istrates in 1587 found it necessary to solicit the opin-
ions of the faculties of Leipsic, Wittenberg, and
Helmstedt as to whether rights guaranteed to the
Jews were bound to be respected. The answer of the
universities was to the effect that the promises given
to the Jews must. be kept.
On May 8, 1588, it was ordered by the council that
business connections between Christians and Jews
must cease, and the authorities of the old town
SYNAGOGUE AT HANOVER.
(From a photograph.)
tion and safety. It appears, however, that those
Jews who stood under the direct protection of the
council remained in Hanover for some time longer.
Moreover, the magistracy interposed occasionally in
behalf of its Jews, as when, in 1554, it addressed a
letter to the council of the principality of Calenberg
on behalf of Isaac and his son Fibes, whom the gov-
ernor Alfen had imprisoned. Fibes afterward ob-
tained the duke’s favor, and in 1563 transacted some
business for him; he also purchased in 1580. accord-
ing to the register of apothecaries, a silver mug
weighing 80 half-ounces (at 1 thaler per ounce) for
use in the dispensary. In the same year (Nov. 4)
the council granted a letter of protection to the Jew
Levi, son of Michael, for which he had to pay 100
Rhenish gold florins, besides a yearly tax of 20 florins.
After 1584, when Duke Julius of Brunswick
took possession of the principalities of Géttingen
and Calenberg (to the latter of which Hanover be-
(“ Altstadt ”) also decided that only adherents of the
Augsburg confession should be tolerated. After
this several Jews left the city and settled in neigh-
boring places, particularly in Wunstorf.
Tn 1608 Jews again settled in the Neustadt, at the
invitation of the prefect, Fritz Molins, who had
houses erected for their accommodation and one for
their synagogue; the latter, however, was torn
down in 1618 by order of the ruling prince, A syn-
agogue had formerly existed in the Judenstrasse
(previously the Schuhstrasse, now the Ballhofstrasse),
and here the court preacher, Dr. Urbauus Rhegius,
preached (1588), attempting to convert the Jews to
Christianity.
Although in the seventeenth century the province
of Calenberg at each session of the Landtag voted
against the admission of Jews, it seems that the
princes, like Duke Johann Friedrich and Elector
Ernst August, admitted several well-to-do Jewish
223
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hanover
Hanukkah
families in order to promote the growth of the Neu-
stadt, which had been enlarged and built up. Of the
Jews of Hanover at this period who
In frequented the Leipsic fairs (1688-99)
the Seven- may be mentioned Liepmann Cohen
teenth (Leffmann BEHRENDS), who stood in
Century. high favor at the Guelfic court.
He succeeded in obtaining permis-
sion (renewed Oct. 9, 1697, by Georg Ludwig) to
appoint a district rabbi, to whom also the Jews of
Liineburg, Hoya, and Diepholz had to subordinate
themselves. In 1673 he caused to be issued a rigor-
ous edict for the protection of the bodies reposing
in the Jewish cemetery in Hanover. In 1688 asmall
synagogue was established in the house of Levin
Goldschmidt (L6b Hannover), and in 1703-04 a new
synagogue building was erected by Liepmann Cohen
and his son, Naphtali Hirz, on the site of the old one,
torn down in 1618. The new synagogue belonged
to the bankrupt estate of the Behrends Brothers, and
was sold in 1748 to the highest bidder. Court agent
Michael David and the philanthropist Solomon Gott-
schalk were the purchasers; and they presented it to
the Jewish community.
During the Seven Years’ war the Jews of Han-
over had in 1757 to provide 2,000 sheets and 1,000
shirts for the soldiers, besides paying in common
with the other Jews of the country the war-tax of
one thaler per head and 10 percent on personal prop-
erty, no distinction being made regarding sex. On
the twenty-seventh of Tebet, 5522 (Jan. 1, 1762), the
may mas p’n benevolent society was founded in
Hanover. It is still in existence. On Jan. 1, 1802,
on the declaration of peace between England and
France, a thanksgiving service was held in the
synagogue by the Jewish community.
Under Franco- Westphalian rule (1806-13) matters
pertaining to the Jewish cult were regulated by the
consistory, and the celebration of divine service
was allowed, through the intercession of Count von
Hardenberg, to continue in the established form.
In 1821 the community welcomed George IV. of
Great Britain and Hanover with a Hebrew poem
with German translation. In 1831 the elders and
deacons of the congregation sent to the government
a petition asking for full rights of citi-
Under zenship for all the Israelites of the
British kingdom of Hanover, which was sup-
Rule. ported by Councilor Schlegel in the
lower house. The laws of 1842 and
1844, which regulated the synagogue, school, and
charities of the community, are still in force. Dur-
ing the years 1864-70 a new synagogue was built
from designs by the architect Oppler.
The congregation at present numbers more than
4,000. Since 1848 it has supported a seminary for
Jewish teachers, the present director being Dr.
Knoller. The following district rabbis have offici-
ated in Hanover:
Joseph b. Meshullam Cohen (d. 1708).
Joseph Meyer b. Abraham Moses (d. 1738).
Isaac Selig Kara (d. 1755).
Abraham Meir Cohen (qd. 1758).
Aryeh Léb (Leibusch) b. Jacob Joshua Falk
(also known as ‘** Levin Joshua’; d. March 6,
1789).
Issachar Bar (Berisch), son of the foregoing Aryeh Lob (d.
Nov., 1803).
Rabbis.
Marcus (Mordecai) Ader.
Nathan Marcus ADLER, son of Marcus Adler (died in England
in 1890).
Samuel E. Meyer (d. July 6, (1882 ys
The present rabbi (1903) is S. Gronemann.
Of other distinguished men of learning who have
lived in Hanover may be mentioned: Joseph OPPEN-
HEIM (formerly rabbi in Holleschau, and a son of R.
David Oppenheim of Prague); Solomon Hanau (d.
Sept. 15, 1746); Raphael Levy (d. May 17, 1779);
Abraham Oppenheim (d. Nov., 1786); Abraham b.
Hayyim Lisker (d. 1784); M. Wiener, school-director
(d. March 81, 1880); and Prof. 8. Frensdorff (d.
March 24, 1880).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Doebner, Saree ald te Herzog Otto des
Kindes, etc., 1882, p. 35; idem, Urkundenbuch der Stadt
Hildesheim, vii. 80, No. 131, note 1; Sudendorf, CUriewinden-
buch der Herzoge von Br ‘qunschweig und Linebur g, iv.
128; Zeitschr ift cles Histor. Vereins fiir Niedersachsen,
1861, p. 244; 1870, pp. 2, ¥; 1876, p. 24; 1892, p. 224; 1893, p.
1753; 1894, p. 305: Wiener, in Jahrb. fiir die Gesch. der
Juden und des Judenthums, i. 169; idem,in Monatssehrifi,
1861, x. 121, 161, ee 231; xiii. 161; Hannoversche Geschichts-
bliitter, 1900, p. : 1901, p. 23, note 1; p. 358; 1903, p. 21;
Salfeld, Martyr hoeriee p. 83, note 9; p. 285, note i le Kaut-
mann, ‘Menoiren der Glitekel von Hameln, passim 3 Gratz,
Gesch. vii. 399; Cohen, Ucber die Lage der Juden ... des
KoOnigreichs Hannover, 1832, p. 17; Bodemeyer, Die Jude,
pp. 5, 12, Géttingen, 1855; P. P. Heldberg, De Officio et Po-
testate Rabbint Provincialis in Terris Brunsvico Lune-
burgieis, ib. 1751; Schlegel, Rede, Geh. den 14 April, 1831,
Hanover, 1831; Meyer, Gesch. des W ohlthiitigkcits-Vereins
der Synagogen- Gemeinde in Hannover, 1862; 'Thimme, Die
Inneren Zustdinde des Kurfiirstenthums Hanover Unter
der Franzisisch-Westfiilischen Herrschaft, 1895, i. 283, 398 ;
ii. 229 ; Horwitz, Die Israeliten Unter dem EKénigreich West-
falen, passim; Lewinsky, in Kaufmann Gedenkbuch, ii.
3826, note 2; idem, in Lowenstern’s Blitter fiir Jtidische
Gesch. und Literatur, i. 387, 46; idem, in Monatsschrift,
1900, p. 367 and notes ; Freudenthal, in Monatsschrift, 1901, p.
487; Isractitische W ‘ochenschrift, 1871, Nos. 10, 11; Allg.
Zeit. des Jud. 1879, No. 23; Mitiheilungen der Geselise haft
fttr Jitdische Volkskunde, xi. 84; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefa-
rim, p. 577; Kohut, Gesch. der Deutschen Juden, p. 4533
Twan Meyer, Sammilung der Gesetze ... tiberdas Jiidische
Synagogen-, Schul- und Gemeindewesen in der Provinz
Hannover, 1899.
G. A. Lew.
HANUKKAH: The Feast of Dedication, also
called “ Feast of the Maccabees,” celebrated during
eight days from the twenty-fifth day of Kislew (De-
cember), chiefly as a festival of lights. It was insti-
tuted by Judas Maccabeus, his brothers, and the
elders of the congregation of Israel, in the year 165
B.c., to be celebrated annually with mirth and joy
as a memorial of the dedication of the altar (I
Macc. iv. 59) or of the purification of the sanctuary
(II Macc. i. 18). Three years earlier, on the same
day, Antiochus Epiphanes had caused a pagan altar
to be set up at the altar of burnt offerings in the
Temple at Jerusalem, and sacrifices to be offered to
his idol (I Macc. i. 41-64; II Macc. vi. 2). The idol
called “Zeus Olympius” was probably also called
“Ba‘al Shamayim,” of which pow yPw seems to be
a cacophemy (Dan. xi. 31, xii. 11; IJ Macc. i, 54;
see Hoffmann, “Ueber Einige Phinizische Inschrif-
ten,” 1889, p. 29).
After having recovered the Holy City and the
Temple, Judas ordered the latter to be cleansed, a
new altar to be built in place of the one polluted,
and new holy vessels to be made. When the fire
had been kindled anew upon the altar and the lamps
of the candlestick lit, the dedication of the altar was
celebrated for eight days amid sacrifices and songs (I
Macc. iv. 36), similarly to the Feast of Tabernacles (II
Macc. x. 6; comp. 73. i. 9), which also lasts for eight
days, and at which during the Second Temple (Suk,
Hanukkah
v. 2-4) the lighting of lamps and torches formed a
prominent part. Lights were also kindled in the
household, and the popular name of the festival
was, therefore, according to Josephus (“ Ant.” xii.
7, 8 7), Gora = “ Festival of Lights.”
In the Talmud it is principally known as the
“Feast of Illumination,” and it was usual either
to display eight lamps on the first
Supposed night of the festival, and to reduce
Origin. the number on each successive night,
or to begin with one lamp the first
night, increasing the number till the eighth
night. The Shammaites, usually representatives
of the older tradi-
tions, favored the
former custom; the
Hillelites advocated
the latter (Shab.
21b). Josephus
thinks that the lights
were symbolical of
the liberty obtained
by the Jews on the
day of which Ha-
nukkah is the cele-
bration. The Tal-
mudic sources (Meg.
eodem; Meg. Ta‘an.
23; comp. the dif-
ferent version Pes.
R. 2) ascribe the
origin of the eight
days’ festival, with
its custom of illu-
minating the houses,
to the miracle said
to have occurred at
the dedication of the
purified Temple.
This was that the
one small cruse of
consecrated oil found
unpolluted by the
Hasmeonean priests
when they entered
the Temple, it hav-
ing been sealed and
hidden away, lasted
for eight days until
new oil could be
prepared for the
lamps of the holy
candlestick. A legend similar in character, and
obviously older in date, is that alluded toin II Macc.
i. 18 e¢ seg., according to which the relighting of the
altar-fire by Nehemiah was due to a miracle which
occurred on the twenty-fifth of Kislew, and which
appears to be given as the reason for the selection
of the same date for the rededication of the altar
by Judas Maccabeus (comp. Hag. iii. 10, 18, 20;
Num. R. xiii. 4).
The actual reason for the selection of the twenty-
fifth of Kislew by Judas Maccabeus for the dedica-
tion of the altar is stated to have been, as mentioned
above, that on the very same day three years earlier
Antiochus Epiphanes had a pagan altar set up at
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hanukkah Lamp Found in Jerusalem Excavations.
(In the possession of J. D, Eisenstein.)
224
the altar of burnt offerings in the Temple of Jerusa-
lem and sacrifices offered to his idol (I Macc. i. 41-
64; comp. II Macc. vi. 2, where the heathen god is
called “Zeus Olympius”). Thetwenty-fifth of Kis-
lew was accordingly aday sacred also to the heathen
before it became a Jewish festival. According to
Ewald (“Gesch. des Volkes Israel,” 3d ed., iv. 407)
and Wellhausen (“ Israelitische und Jitdische Gesch.”
p. 210; comp. Paulus Cassel, “ Weilnachten,” pp.
57, 97, and p. lii., notes), it had been celebrated as
the winter solstice feast by the Jewish people be-
fore it became a historical festival associated with
the great Maccabean victory. Regarding the his-
torical data con-
nected with the Ha-
nukkah feast see
MaccaBees; Macca-
BEES, Books OF.
In Pharisaic circles
the political achieve-
ments of the Has-
moneans were pushed
into the background,
and the very name
of Judas Maccabeus
fell into oblivion.
For some time Ps.
xxx.—which, accord-
ing to verse 1 (A. VY.
heading), was sung
by the Levites in
the Temple “at the
dedication of the
House ” (of God), that
is, Hanukkah — was
also recited in the
synagogue (Masseket
Soferim xviii. 2;
comp. Pesik R. 2).
Later on only the
HALLEL was recited,
as on any other fes-
tival of thanksgiving ;
and in the “ hoda’ah”
(thanksgiving) bene-
diction “Shemoneh
‘Esreh” the — litur-
gical formula “‘AI
ha-Nissim” was
inserted, referring
briefly to the vic-
tory achieved over
the Syrians by the Hasmonean Mattathias and
his sons. The erroneous designation of Mattathias
aS son of Johanan the high priest
In the Syn- seems to rest upon the late Hebrew
agogue. apocryphal “Megillat Antyokus”
or “Megillat Hanukkah,” which has
other names and dates strangely mixed. The
liturgical part inserted reads as follows:
** [We thank Thee] also for the miraculous deeds and for the
redemption and for the mighty deeds and the saving acts
wrought by Thee, as well as for the wars which Thou didst
wage for our fathers in days of yore at this season.
* In the days of the Hasmonean Mattathias, son of Johanan the
high priest, and his sons, when the iniquitous kingdom of
Greece [Syria] rose up against Thy people Israel, to make them
‘(qIOA MON ‘UUBULUOLL GLNB JO UOTSsessod ot UI) Uepoul ‘AeATI§ “¢ *(UOpuoT ‘ydesor ‘S ‘N JO Wolssessod 04) Ul) “3UE0 TILT ‘BquIaINN ‘IOATIS "fF ‘(MOpuoy] ‘UlTAURIA "Yq a Lene et}
Ul) *yU99 TI9] *(4) USIBUY “OATIS “Eg “(TOPUOT ‘WUNESN] JoqTy PUB BLIOJO]A OY} UT) “JU99 TIGT ‘UB]IBI] ‘ezUOIg *g "(Mow eg ‘plozg UlUElUag [qqVYy 972] BI JO WOTa[[O0 94} WIJ) ULEPOU “OATIS *T
"SdNHVT HVNWONVE
anukkah
apax Legomena
forget Thy Law and to turn them away from the ordinances of
Thy will, then didst Thou in Thine abundant mercy rise up for
them in the time of their trouble, plead their cause, execute
their judgment, avenge their wrong, and deliver the strong
into the hands of the weak, many into the hands of few, the im-
pure into the hands of the pure, the wicked into the hands of
the righteous, and insolent ones into the hands of such as are
occupied with Thy Law. Both unto Thyself Thou didst make a
great and holy name in Thy world, and unto Thy people didst
Thou achieve a great deliverance and redemption as at this day.
Whereupon Thy children entered the sanctuary of Thy house,
cleansed Thy temple, purified Thy sanctuary, kindled lights in
Thy holy courts, and appointed these eight days of Hanukkah
in order to give thanks and praises unto Thy holy name.”
The Pentateuch readings for the eight Hanukkah
days are taken successively from Num. vii., the
chapter relating to the gifts of the
Scriptural twelve princes of Israel on the occa-
Readings. sion of the dedication of the altar of
the tabernacle in the wilderness. On
the eighth day the verses Num. vii. 54—viii. 4 are read,
the last four verses referring to the kindling of the
lights of the holy candlestick (Meg. iii. 6; Bab. 31a).
The twenty-fifth of Kislew was taken by tradition
to have been also the date of the dedication of the
altar in the time of Moses (Pesik. R. 6; Ex. R. lii.;
Num. R. xiii. 4).
Chief importance is attached by rabbinical law to
the kindling of the Hanukkah lamp, the sole object
of which, however, was originally not the lighting
of the house within, but the illumination of the
house without, so that passers-by should see it.
Accordingly lamps were set up near the door
leading to the street; and when a house had doors
on several sides, lamps were placed in front of each
door. As many lights were kindled as there were
persons in the house. Only when there was danger
of persecution, as was the case in Persia under
the rule of the fire-worshipers, were the lamps
placed indoors. As the lights were intended only
for illumination in honor of the feast, reading by
them was prohibited (Shab. 21b-23a).
He who lights the Hanukkah lamp and those who
see it kindled recite the benedictions, “Blessed be
the Lord our God, King of the Uni-
Kindling verse, who hast sanctitied us by Thy
the Lights. commandments and enjoined us to
kindle the Hanukkah lamp,” and
“Blessed . . . who has done wondrous things to our
fathers in days of yore at this season.” See also
SHE-HEHEYANU (Shab. 23a; comp. Yer. Suk. iil.
53d, and “ Tanya,” xxxv.).
Women also are enjoined to kindle the Hanukkah
lamp (Shab. 28a). In fact, Jewish legend loved to
connect the heroic deed of Judith with the Maccabean
story (see JUDITH).
The kindling of the Hanukkah lights is solemnized
also by songs extolling God as Israel’s Deliverer
(see Ma‘oz Zur). In view of the fact that work
ought not to be done by the Hanukkah light—espe-
cially by women (“ Tanya,” @.c.; Tur Orah Hayyim,
670)—games, riddles, and other pastimes were in-
dulged in on Hanukkah evenings (Bodenschatz,
“Kirchliche Verfassung der Juden,” ii. 8, 4, 6; Ber-
liner, “ Ausdem Inneren Leben der Deutschen Juden
im Mittelalter,” 1900, p. 82; Briill’s “Jahrb.” ix. 18,
Abrahams, “Jewish Life in the Middle Ages,” pp.
385, 396; Tendlau, “Sprichworter und Redens.
arten,” 1866, p. 52).
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
226
-
Hanukkah is mentioned in John x. 22 as “the
feast of the dedication.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Schiirer, Geseh. 3d ed.. 1. 209, where the whole
literature is given; Hamburger, R. B.T. ii. s.v. Weihfert ;
Cheyne and Black. Eneyec. Bibl. s.v. Dedication, Feast of.
HANUKKAH TRENDEL. See Games.
HANUN (pon): 1. Son of Nahash, King of
Ammon. Having dishonored David’s messengers,
Hanun involved the Ammonites in a war with David
which proved disastrous to them (II Sam. x, 1-14).
2. One who, with the people of Zanoah, repaired
the valley gate in the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii.
13). 3. The sixth son of Zalaph, who also assisted
in the repairing of the wall (2d. ili. 30).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HAPAX LEGOMENA.— Biblical Data:
Words or forms of words that occur once only.
There are about 1,500 of these in the Old Testa-
ment; but only 400are, strictly, “ hapax legomena” ;
?.e., are either absolutely new coinages of roots, or
can not be derived in their formation or in their
specific meaning from other occurring stems. The
remaining 1,100, while appearing once only asa form,
can easily be connected with other existing words;
as, for instance, YX (Job xvii. 9) and MypN (Zech.
xii. 5); mow (Amos ix. 11) and mown (Isa. xlix.
19); mypwn (Ezek. xxiv. 26); Jay (Job xxxiv.
25); and 3p (Ps. lxix. 8); these one would ob-
viously refer to the verbs YON, DIT, pow, etc.,
which are of frequent occurrence in the Bible.
Some of the hapax legomena are ordinary words,
and their non-recurrence is merely an accident, there
having been no need of using them again. In some
portions they are due to the subject-matter being
somewhat removed from the usual trend of thought
in the Old Testament; as, for example, in the Book
of Job, where the wealth of ideas is paralleled by a
corresponding richness of language. SBesides, in
portions of the Bible composed in the north of Pal-
estine many words may have been used which were
not in voguein the south. In passages dealing with
technical or individual things, as, for instance, Lev.
xi. and Deut. xiv. (lists of animals), or Ezek. xxvii.
(enumeration of articles of merchandise), a compara-
tively large number of hapax legomena may be ex-
pected. Some are introduced for the sake of asso-
nance (comp. I. M. Casanowicz, “ Paronomasia in
the Old Testament,” p. 42), and a few are loan-
words.
The following is an alphabetical list of the abso-
lute or strict hapax legomena of each book. The
verbal forms are quoted in the third person singular
perfect of the conjugation or voice in which they
occur:
GENESIS.
xii. 43(an exclamation), 3728 xv. 2, possession, pwn
Xliii. 11, pistachio-nuts, 0°02 —- xxviii. 12, ladder, obo
vi. 14, gopher-wood, "52 xti. 23, blasted, O38
xxi. 16, shoot, mmo = x. 11, press out, bmw
xxxvi. 24, hot springs, or xxiv. 21, gaze, con-
xxy. 30, feed, Myon template, ANNwA
xlvii. 13, faint, anb sx lix. 17, species of ser-
xxx. 37, almond, 15 pent, yip'ae
Xlix. 3, sword, M930
EXODCS.
{x. 31, in bloom, byaa xvi. 33, pot, Nyyox
xxx. 34, galbanum, myasn xvi. 31, wafer. meray
xxi. 10, conjugal duty, “Ay xxx. 34, onycha, ndnw
“CYIOA WON CUS CH Goons Jo Worssoksod OU, UT) Me UL, Coxztoig pur waays @ (ATR ‘enprd 7 onsoseuds ogi Gl) Udapow “1addod MOTBA “Ph 7 (BUNLOLA UOPSlA Weary “Aq, Jo
UOTSsossodl ay UL) TRAOTPATE (2) OATES “ge CRISSTIAT “ATOYSIqaLao gd 7 onsoFeaAs ayI UY wtapout ‘vaddoo Mola °gZ “CSL(V gd AUN ap aasn it att] TT) “9do UIST OF PAT enyye “TL, AZ UaugE "]
"SdWVT HYMANANVH
POPU, PUL yO wan LURMUOL: SPEAR yy YP PUNT Lq “EOGL IMPAasdag "TA “JOA ‘BIpadoposxougg Ust Moe omy
Hosted by Google
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
227
LEVITICUS.
xi. 30, ferret, MpaX xi. 30, species of lizard, aud
xxi. 20, testes, yw xxvi. 16, pining, mya
xili. 39, tetter, pa2a si. 16, erop (of bird), AND
xxi. 20, crookbacked, 331 Xi. 22, cricket, ayoo
xi. 29, weasel, non ___itii. 9, spine, a3
xi. 30, species of lizard, wnn Xi. 29, species of lizard, = ay
xi. 22, bald locust, Sian xix. 28, cutting, yPEP
xxii. 22, swelling, nb> xiv. 37, hollows, nyaaypw
xi. 30, chameleon, n> xxi. 20. blemish, bSs3n
xi. 35, range (for pots), DVD ~——-vi. 14, (?) robe hy >a
NUMBERS.
xi. 5, melons, onvanx —-vi. 4, (7) DysAN
xxi. 15, slope, WN xx, 24, path, ‘yen
xi. 5, onions, ooya xi. 5, cucumbers, DINwD
vi. 4, (2) av xi. 5, garlic, ow
DEUTERONOMY.
xxxiii. 14, shovel, TN XxXxil. 34, store up, D5
xiv. 5, wild goat, ?we xXxxii. 15, be fat, mw
xxxiii, 25, security, Nos OXXxii. 24, wasted, md
xiv. 5, pygarg, pws xvi. 10, measure, mon
i. 41, be light-hearted, 7 =. xxvii. 9, Keep silence, ms0
xxxiii. 22, leap forth, pat Xxxii. 26, scatter, SND
xiv. 5, chamois, 03 0s XVili. 3, maw, map
xxviii. 22, flery heat, nan xxxii. 18, neglect, my
xxv. 18, be in the rear, byna xxxiii. 3, (?) son
JUDGES.
xvi. 16, press, urge, por iii. 23, (?) pyrv7twwy
fii. 16, cubit, qmail. 22, (?) pywrp
Vv. 28, Cry, a3) iy, 18, rug, aow
I SAMUEL.
ii. 33, grieve, 24N7 ‘xiii. 21, point, pep
xix. 20, company, npn y. 9, break out, nw)
Xxi. 9, press, urge, 7m) ~=—s- Xv. 33, tearin pieces, Dw
xiii. 21, (?) AVSD
II SAMUEL.
xxi. 20, length, yD = Xxi. 16, spear, rp
xiii. 9, pan, naw i. 9, giddiness, yaw
xxiii. 8, lance, sy xvii. 29, kind of cheese, mpw
I KINGS.
v. 3, (2) onana)=—s xXx. 33, ascertain, mona
v. 23, rafts, nat Vii. 33, spokes, DpwN
II KINGS.
vi. 25, dove’s dung, oI xX. 22, wardrobe, annbn
iv. 35, sneeze, a1 _siv. 42, sack, dps
xxiii. 5, planets, moi _—rvi.. 25, a measure, 3p
ISAIAH.
ix. 17, roll upward, J2xnq _ tlvi. 10, bark, nm)
xix. 10, grieved, DIN XXxiii. 1, accomplish, abn
xiii. 21, screech-owl, mS xxx. 30, tempest, yb)
xli. 24, naught, YON = xii. 14, gasp, Dw)
liv. 12, carbuncle, MIPN xxviii. 25, appointed, q2D)
xiv. 15, larch, 7 si. 8, moth, DD
lix. 10, magnates, DOWN lv. 13, brier, Paat®)
xlvi. 8, show manliness, Ixiv. 5, uncleanliness, op
firmness, WONT 1. 4, sustain, my
v. 6, waste, desolation, 1N3 vy. 2, dig, pry
vii. 19, rugged height, an3 xi. 15, heat or might, ay
xxvii. 9, chalkstone, “2s xxxii. 4, stammerer, avy
xvii. 6, berry, Ws xiii. 22, ensnare, mon
xxx, 6,herdofcamels, Nw35 ii, 24, (2) byynp
xlvii. 13, astrologer, 937 Xxxiii. 20, wander, ys
lvi. 10, dream, mA xxii. 24, offspring, mip py
Ixiv. 1, brushwood, 0009 xxxiv.15,arrow-snake, pp
xviii. 5, sprig, bros sxliv. 8, tremble, ans
1. 6, press out, “vt xl. 4, rugged country, o9°055
xlviii. 9, restrain, oom ij, 19, veil, mys
i. 17, oppress, YON ivi. 20, mire, wD
xxx. 24, salted, y°on —sifi. 16, look wantonly, pw
iii. 16, mince one’s steps, HO x)jiv. 13, pencil, Tw
xxxiii. 19, impudent, sta) xix. 9, combed (flax), p°aw
Ixi. 10, clothe, Oy = iii. 18, cauls, poly
xxii. 18, ball, 2 ~—sxivii. 2, train (of dress), baw
lxvi. 20, dromedaries, my255 xxxvi. 12, urine, py
xxxiv. 14, (?) n> tiv. 8, overflowing, nsw
1, 22, mix, bap xxviii. 5, cut off, Inn
xvii. 1, beap of ruins, yo xliv. 14, holm-tree, man
xl. 15, drop, D
anukkah
apax Legomena
JEREMIAH.
1. 15, bulwark, mw Xv. 8, anguish, yp
xiv. 9, be astounded, anny =—s- Xxix. 26, shackles, pyy
XXXVi. 18, ink, yas XI vi. 20, gadfly, yy
xiii, 28, stripes, nyAa33an Xlix. 24, terror, pos
xxxvii, 16, stores, nvin —s ii, 23, roam, traverse, 47%”
X. 7, appertain, PIN? v. &, roam, Ow
li. 34, belly, wr =e xIvii. 3, stamping (of
x. 17, bundle, mypaD horse), mOpe
li. 38, growl, D3 xliii. 10, ornament, WA Dw
Xlviii. 9, fly, RS) ii. 24, desire, TINT
EZEKIEL.
xxi. 20, (?) AMIN ANI (7) xxi, 20, sharpened, oyn
i. 14, lightning, pra —s«aX vi. 4, cleansing, Ww
xxvii. 24, (?) pana vii. 11, (2) m3
xvi. 40, cut down, pn li. 6, brier, a0
v. 1, barber, 35) Xlvii. 2, trickle, 3p
xxvii. 11, (?) ovina (?) «- ¥xvii. 17, (7) BB)
iv. 9, millet, yn —siv. 15, dung, Dy Dy
Xxvii. 15, ebony, py2n «-: Xvi. 5, willow-tree, MIDSD¥
xiii. 12, (?) nyan —-Xivi. 22, join, bind, wp
xxiii. 24, kind of weapon, yy —s-XVii. 9, cut off, DDI)
xiii. 10, wall, yon vii. 25, terror, App
xxvii. 20, cover, won xivi. 14, sprinkle, DDT
Xxiii. 15, turbans, prdiay xH, 16, panel-work, apni
xiii. 12, daubing, m9 Xxxix. 2, lead on, Nww
xiii. 10, lead astray, mpon xivii. 12, healing, MDI
HOSEA.
li. 15, jewels, mbm xiii. 1, trembling, nn
iii, 2, measure, qn viii. 6, splinters, D.IY
xi. 9, wrath, yp ov. 2, (?) mynw
ix. 14, be dry, withered, pny xiii. 5, drought, naywdn
xiii, 14, destruction, up
JOEL.
i. 17, shrivel, way if. 20, stench, MAY
iv. 11, hasten, wip
AMOS.
ili. 12, piece, baa vii. 14, dress, po2
JONAH.
iv. 8 sultry, mywosn i. 5, ship, ADD
MICAH.
vi. 14, emptiness, mew» vii. 3, weave together, nay
iv. 7, cast off, AN7n) ~—s i. 18, bind, ons
NAHUM.
ili. 17, species of locust, 21 ~—=sOiii. 17, princes, ohbal BTA
li. 4, spear, wins ii. 4, something pertain-
ing to war-chariots, noiwbp
HABAKKOK.
ii. 11, beam, Dp). 14, (2) rohit ial >)
i. 9, (?) mdap —s iii. 17, stalls, OND»
ZEPHANIAH.
ii. 9, possession, pwn i.11, laden, ordoy;
ZECHARIAH.
ii. 12, apple (of theeye), 23 iv. 12, spouts, NWI
ix. 12, stronghold, Asa —s xiv. 6, (7) NDP
i. 8, sorrel, Dp Ww
MALACHI.
111.21, tread down, obpdy
PSALMS.
xxi. 3, desire, nwvax —exiv. 1, be an alien, rp>
xxxi. 23, be cut off, 7733s @Xliv. 13, garners, DvD
xlv. 9, cassia, MysP —_ cxix. 108, pleasant, yond
xcili. 3, noise, ‘327 viii. 7, fangs, mynn
ate een Sina mee Dy eke a
Ixxii. 6, heavy drops, =" ar oo ane
Ixxviii. 47, hailstones, Soin es) 4. adder, wy
xviii, 46, come forth, WN civ, 12, branches, DINDY
Ixviii. 3%, magnates, BIDWN ix xxviii, 16, faint, Np
exix. 70, be covered up, ___-xlviii. 14, traverse, DD
stupid, wb xxii. 16, abundance, MDD
exix. 131, crave, JX xii. 2, vanish, oDp
ly. 23, burden, 37° x. 4, break, split, DYD
x. 10, helpless, OND OM — Lxviii, 28, throng, ateP |
Ixxiv. 6, ax, ripo> = xxxi. 21, conspiracy, Od°DS"%
\xili. 2, long, Mp5 = Ix viii. 31, piece, ya
Ixxx. 14, uproot, ravage, 5075
)xxiv. 6, hatchet, Sw
Ixviii. 17, look askance,
lviii. 9, snail,
Hapax Legomena
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
PROVERBS.
vii. 16, yarn, pox iv. 24, sinfulness, nib
xxx. 31, (?) TION XXiii. 2, throat, pd
xxv. 11, occasion, oype =—s- Xxx. 21, scion, WP
x. 3, desire, mn = xxx. 15, (?) apby
xxi. 8, straight, a) Xxviil. 22, pestle, wy
Xxx. 31, well girt, swift, -7I7 xvi. 30, compress, myy
vii. 16, stripe, pa tab XxXix. 21, spoil by indul-
xii. 27, urge, qn gence, pap
xxxi. 19, distaff, wd Xxiii. 2, knife, yaw
xxi. 14, bend, mp2
xxvi. 18, hurl about, ababna
XXx. 28, kind of lizard, monw
Xxiii. 7, reckon, calculate, "pw
JOB.
ix. 26, cane, MIN Xxxviii. 31, bands, nws3yr
xxxiyv. 36, O that, YIN Xxxviii. 83, dominion, 0wD
XxXxviii. 28, drop, TIN XXXviii. 10, spring, 333
Xxv. 5, be bright, INN iii. 4, daylight, m3
Xxx. 24, prayer, ‘ya Gy+37) — xi, 12, nostrils, on}
x. 10, cheese, Wai xxx. 13, tear up, on3
erie ta gre iv. 10, be torn out, pra
aie ’ X. 22, order, he ba {2
x1. 12 Meat down ee AX 22) VIEDLY. Teeke
ange ‘ am XXx. 25, be bowed down, o2y
xix. 3, be impudent, TN ei 24 ailortrouch wt
xxxiii. 20, be loathsome, om? ne 0. P Bh Pop
XxViii. 17, glass, maar xii. 1 , sneezing, ; ied
xvii. 1, extinguish, qyrr- &xxix. 30, suck, sip, yoy
vi. 17, be burning, 3r0 X¥¥xXix. 5, wild ass, Wy
xxxi. 33, bosom, Qn xxxiii. 24, deliver, pap
xxix. 18, phenix, ins Xv. 27, fat, PDD
vi. 6, white of anegg, mipbn = x xvi. 9, spread, TWD
Xxxiii. 9, clean, Am = x xxv. 15, arrogance, wp
ix. 26, swoop, ww Xviii. 2, chase, Os)
Xviii. 3, be foolish, M00) XXvi. 11, sway, tremble, 7514
xxi. 20, destruction, 375 xv. 12, wink, or
xi. fe spark, nb ba bP) XXxxili. 25, be green,
xy. 24, attack, ba bbe be fresh, WDA
a ae eae xl. 31, er has as nay
XXVili. 32, niin XXXxviii. 36, (?) ow
XXXxvii. 9, (?) or =—Ss xl. 16, muuscies, ay aw
xl. 18, hammered stave, byw iv. 18, error, aban
xxx. 4, sea-purslane, mbd — xii. 21, club, ann
xv. 29, possession, noon sx vii. 6, spitting, npn
CANTICLES.
vi. 11, walnut, 1QN ~—sr vil. 3, roundness, snp
ili. 9, palanquin, VADN vii. 9, branches of palm-
vii. 10, glide down, 334 tree, 0°)D)D
1. 10, strings, oan ii. 11, winter, yale)
fi. 9, lattice, oan i. 17, rafters, oA
v. 3, defile, nw iv. 4, (2) nivpon
iv. 14, saffron, o995~—sé-- 112, (?) oronbn
RUTH.
: fe oneself, py ii. 16, bundles, osnay
, give, a
LAMENTATIONS.
lij. 16, cover over, wr aa iti. oe — into pieces, mvp
iv. 2, be weighed, sop _—sily.. 8. shrivel, “py
ii. 1, cloud, ay i. 14, be bound, IPws
tii. 59, oppression, any
ECCLESIASTES,
xii. 3, cease, by. xi. 12, study, and
x. 8, diteh, you viii. 1, interpretation, ‘wp
ESTHER.
vili. 10, (?) Dyanwne vii. 4, damage, pr
: ; ee ers : DNs. 6, io marble, nano
. 6, mother-of-pear V4 viii. 10, (7 DOD}
i, 6 ales cloth, vin ——s viii. 15, robe, aan
i, 6, cotton, Dp
DANIEL.
xi. 45, palace, TIHN ~—s- Xi. 43, treasures, hb ta palal
ix, 24, decreed, nn) —s«X.. 21, inscribe, ows
228
EZRA.
i. 9, knife, nbn iii. 7, permission, Wor
NEHEMIAH.
vii. 3, shut, abe) iii. 15, cover, bby
I CHRONICLES.
xv. 27, be clothed, Say2 xxix. 2, precious stone, 7Dp5
xix. 4, nates, Mpwod xxix. 2, marble or ala-
xxix. %, precious stone, 4D baster, ww
II CHRONICLES,
xxxvi. 16, woke, anyon ii. 15, need, y7
iii. 15, capital (Of column), mos ii. 15, floats, nywpy
The following table gives the number of the abso-
lute hapax legomena and the total number of unique
forms, not including those of the Aramaic portions
of the Old Testament:
D oS o a
Ssesl B38] _.
Book. SaS/8 Book. cag g
2m %| 8) 25% | 2
oe | bs
Genesis.......... 14 49 |Habakkuk........ 4 1
EXOGUS. ssi bs ces 6 29 | Zephaniah ....... 2 6
Leviticus. ....... 20 51 ||Haggai......... 6 oe 1
Numbers........ 8 21 ||Zechariah ........ 5 19
Deuteronomy... 20 48 ||Maldachi .......... 1 5
JOSHUA......-0.. eet 6 |} Psalms... ccc sceecs 37 182
JUAZES..... aces 6 27 ||Proverbs ........ ; 21 63
I Samueél........ 7 EB LIGi od al itn acctecs 60 145
II Samuel....... 6 17 )|Canticles......... li 30
1 iS ee 4 ey CH son Sy ear es 3 3
II Kings......... 6 27 }|Lamentations..... 7 26
FSATHITS : Sieetes asa 60 201 ||Eeclesiastes ...... 4 19
Jeremiah......-.. 19 7D ||ESther .....0000. ; g 14
Ezekiel..... Seezel “20 109 |) Daniel (Hebr. por-
HOSO8s c55 06 oe00s 9 41 TOR) Vixiieeaacnaies 5 13
JOGL wastaiees 3 Si/Ezra (Hebr. por-
AMOS.....-- 2 1i TOD) si.0seveess 2 6
Obadiah .... or 4 ||/Nehemiah........ 2 9
SOT: éc:a ued aa 2 3/{I Chronieles...... 5 11
Micah, .c.s0ese: : 4 6 ||II Chronicles..... 4 21
Nahuni.......e0. 4 9 fae ee PL ose a
T6tals's ocex civel 444. |E30h
E. G. H. I. M. C.
—In Rabbinical Literature: A large number
of the dificult words which are lexically treated in
the Talmud and Midrash are hapax legomena. In
the exegesis of the Talmud and Midrash, however,
the hapax legomena are treated in no way differently
from the other rare and difficult words which occur
in the Scriptures, and a special term does not even
exist for them. They by no means receive a con-
sciously systematic treatment, though an examina-
tion of a number of examples reveals the use of
various methods, which may be classified as follows:
1. Traditional interpretation; that is, when the
interpretation of a hapax legomenon is based on
tradition. In this case the meaning is, of course,
more easily preserved when the context justifies or
indicates it. Palestinian tradition, e.g., explained
the hapax legomenon many (in Judges iv. 18)
which, from the context, might mean either “cloth”
or “vessel,” to mean “cloth” (“sudra”), while that
of Babylon regarded it as equivalent
Methods of to “vessel” (“mesiklah”; Lev. R.
Interpreta- xxiii. 10). Rabina, one of the last
tion. Babylonian amoraim, at the end of the
fifth century, in discussing DSANWNS
(Esth. viii. 10), stated that at times tradition fajled
and the meaning of a hapax legomenon was avow-
edly lost (Meg. 18a).
2. Interpretation by means of a parallel passage
229
in the Mishnah. Thus, for example, an amora of
the fourth century, R. Ze‘era, explains the hapax
legomenon Evo (Gen. xxv. 80) according to Shab.
Xxiv. 3 (MIN serpy, “They stuff the camel with
food”; Gen. R. Ixiii. 12).
3. Interpretation by derivation from a foreign
language. Thus Jose, a tanna of the middle of the
second century, detected in the word J 728 (Gen.
xli. 48) a Hebrew form of the Greek ’A2a3dp yx7e (see
ABRECH); and Samuel, a Babylonian amora of the
third century, explained 4 in Esth. i. 6 as being
identical with the precious stone called “darra”
(Arabic “durra,” pl. “durr” =“ pearl”), found in
the cities on the coast.
4. Interpretation on the basis of etymological
analogy, with a homiletic-midrashic exposition of
the word. The derivation of words from biliteral
roots was stilla grammatical principle in the Tal-
mudic period; pw, for example, is given as the
stem of the hapax legomenon pw
Midrashic (Gen. xv. 2; see Gen. R. xliv. 9), con-
Method. sequently a haggadist of the third cen-
tury connected pwr with ppy (like-
wise frem root pw), “to long for,” and explained the
expression “ben meshek beti” (Gen. xv. 2) according
to this etymology. In these words, he said, Abraham
meant to indicate Lot, who longed (“she-nafsho
shokeket ”) to become his heir (Gen. R. xliv. 9). In
like manner, R. Ishmael connects the hapax lego-
menon 49 (Esth. i. 6) with WW (“liberty ”). Alhasu-
erus, he explains, granted to all traders “liberty,”
that is, the right to trade (Meg. 12a). Another exam-
ple of this kind is furnished by the midrashic treat-
ment of the hapax legomenon pip*Dy (Gen. xlix. 17).
The word ‘win the phrase ‘sy son (Num. xxiii. 3;
generally translated “ hill”) having been interpreted
by the Midrash to mean “lameness,” }{5°5w was con-
sidered as a form derived from it by reduplication,
and, in the case of Samson, as denoting “lameness
on both sides of the body.” In these and similar
cases it is not easy to decide whether etymology has
produced the Midrash, or the Midrash has produced
the etymologic comparison.
5. The interpretation of a hapax legomenon as a
composite of, or contraction from, two words. The
solution of a composite form into its component
parts is held by Resh Lakish to be the ultima ratio;
for, after reading through the whole Bible to ex-
plain the hapax legomenon ADHw (Judges iv. 18)
and finding no object with this name, he was com-
pelled to explain it as a composite of ‘ow -—+- Aa (=
“my name here,” or “my name like this”). This,
he says, may prove that the wicked Sisera did not
touch Jael (Lev. R. d.c.). The hapax legomenon
pSID (Esth. i. 6) is explained as a composite of
55 -+ DD (D°DD Ops p33 = “curtains of colored
stuffs”; see also the explanations of ABRECH).
The method of explaining Biblical hapax lego-
mena from parallels in the vocabulary of the Tal-
mud was adopted by Saadia in a little Arabic com-
position, the only extant manuscript of which exists
at Oxford (Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No.
1448, 2); it is entitled “Tafsir al-Sab‘in Lafzah
al-Faradah.” It was published four times in 1844:
by L. Dukes, in * Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des Mor-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hapax Legomena
genlandes,” v. 115 et seg., and in Ewald and Dukes,
“Beitrige zur Gesch. der Aeltesten Auslegung
und Spracherklérung des Alten Testa-
mentes,” ii. 110 e¢ seg.; by A. Geiger,
from a copy of Derenbourg, in his
“Wiss. Zeit. Jiid. Theol.” v. 317 et seq. ;
and by A. Jellinek, under the title “Pitron Tish‘im
Millot Bodedot,” in Benjacob’s “ Sefer Debarim ‘Atti-
kim,” i. Later it was published by Solomon Buber
in “Bet Ozar ha-Sifrut,” i. 33 e¢ seg., Yaroslav, 1887,
In this small work ninety, or, according to Dukes’s
and Steinschneider’s reckoning, ninety-one difficult
or rare words of the Bible, are treated; not all of
them, however, are hapax legomena. It is curious
that the Arabic title speaks of only seventy words;
but Dukes and, after him, Bacher and Buber,
explain this discrepancy by the fact that in early
times “sab‘in” (seventy) was incorrectly written for
“tis‘in” (ninety). Wowever, as an old authority
like Jepheth ben ‘Ali cites the title “Sab‘in,” and as
it is not even certain that the number ninety is ac-
curate, and in view of the construction of the little
work, Geiger suggested that it is not complete and
independent, but merely a fragment of an anti-
Karaite production, in which Saadia endeavored to
convince the Karaites of the value of tradition from a
linguistic standpoint. Therefore it must be supposed
that this fragment of seventy words was later sup-
plemented by others. This manuscript has no alpha-
betic nor other methodical arrangement; Steinschnei-
der has endeavored to remedy this by supplying an
index to the Biblical passages (“‘ Cat. Bod.” col. 2197).
The work is especially valuable as being the oldest
example of Hebrew lexicography. In using the
lexical material scattered through the Talmud and
Midrash, in adducing parallels from rabbinical
literature and sometimes from the Arabic, Saadia
has contributed largely to an understanding of the
hapax legomena. Saadia’s method of treating these
may best be seen from a few examples—No, 1: 437¥
(II Chron. ii. 15), according to the Mishnah word
js (“it isnecessary”; “he must”); No. 15: modn
(Job vi. 6), according to yinayd joen (‘Ab. Zarah
40a, “If the yolk (of the egg] is outside”); No. 18:
p°p3) (Hab. ii. 11), from paya, oad, pYD*D>, mn
(B. B. 2a, “[Where it is customary to build] with
hewn stone, with half bricks, with whole bricks,”
etc.); No. 75: spw3 (Lam. i. 14), from “pwa nabs
(read NPT; B. K. 22a, “The dog [injured itself]
in jumping ”).
Saadia’s work is cited by s1ch early writers as
Dunash ben Labrat, Jepheth ben ‘Ali, Jonah ibn
Janah, Jacob ben Reuben, etc., and was used by the
Jewish lexicographers of the Middle Ages, some-
times with, and sometimes without, mention of the
source (see Jellinek in “Orient, Lit.” vii. 139).
Special investigations and monographs on hapax
legomena are not found in the literature of the
Middle Ages; but they have been included in the
general field of lexicography, where they occupy
no independent position (see LEXICOGRAPHY).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dukes, in Ewald and Dukes, Beitriige zur
Gesch. der Aeltesten Auslegung und Spracherkidrung des
Alten Testamentes, ii. 39 et seg.; Steinschneider, Die Ara-
bische Litteratur der Juden, p. 60: Bacher, in Winter and
Wiinsche, Die Jtidische Litteratur, ii. 141.
J. M. Se.
Saadia’s
Treatise.
Haphraim
Harburg
HAPHRAIM (pg 5n): City of Issachar, between
Shunem and Shihon (Josh, xix. 18, 19). In the “ Ono-
mastica Sacra,” s.v. “ Aphraim,” it is spoken of as
still known under the name of “ Affarea,” six miles
from Legio (Lajjun), to the north. About that dis-
tance from Lajjun and two miles west of Sulata (the
ancient Shunem) stands the village of Al-‘Afulah,
which may be the representative of Haphraim (Bae-
deker-Socin, “ Palestine,” 2d ed., p. 238). Haphraim
is possibly identical with Aphzrema mentioned in
I Macc. xi. 34.
E.G. H.
HA-PISGAH. See PERIODICALS,
HAPPINESS (“Wk, IWN).—Biblical Data:
Everywhere in the Old Testament the joyous and
harmonious notes of Jife are accentuated. Life is
synonymous with good and blessing. This predom-
inant note of happiness was undoubtedly the out-
come of faith and of a complete dependence upon
and trustin God the Creator of all. Happiness is to
be found in the personal relation between man and
his Maker: the closer this relation, the greater the
happiness, “Blessed is the nation whose God is
Yuwui (Ps. xxxiii. 12a). “In thy presence is ful-
ness of joy” (2). xvi. 11b; comp. 7d. iv. 6 et segq.).
Love of God and obedience to His Law are also
conducive to happiness, “ Hear therefore, O Israel,
and observe to do it; that it may be well with thee,
. . and thou shalt love Yuwn thy God with all
thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy
might ” (Deut. vi. 3 et seg.). “Blessed is every one
who feareth YuwuH; that walketh in his ways”
(Ps. cxxviii. 1). “She [Wisdom] is a tree of life to
them that lay hold upon her; and happy is every
one that retaineth her” (Prov. iii. 18).
Trust and confidence in God lead also to hap-
piness. “Whoso trusteth in YHwu, happy is
he” (Prov. xvi. 20). “C taste and see that Yuwu
is good; blessed is the man that trusteth in him”
(Ps. xxxiv. 8).
The joyous strain of existence bursts forth every-
where. The cult is also marked by a character of
joy and cheer, for it signifies union between the
Creator and His creation, man. “ Hail Yuwu, thou
whole earth, with rejoicings; Serve YHwuH with
delight; come before him with songs of gladness.
. . . Enter his gates with thanks, and his courts
with rejoicing ” (Ps. c. 1-4). “ Rejoice in thy feast ”
(Deut. xvi. 14).
Nowhere does joy degenerate into frivolity or
immorality. In his most joyful mood man’s depend-
ence upon YHWH is never lost sight of. Nor does
joy ever become wholly selfish; it is consecrated by
making others participate in it. The commandment
that enjoins the celebration of the Festival of Weeks
closes with the injunction, “Thou sbalt rejoice be-
fore Yowu, thy God, thou and thy son, and thy
daughter, and thy manservant, and thy maidserv-
ant, and the Levite, . . . and the stranger, and the
fatherless, and the widow that are within thy gates”
(Deut. xvi. 9-11; comp. 22. xiv. 26).
ASCETICISM is not only discouraged, but is looked
upon as being sinful. Man should seek for joy in
his daily work and rejoice while young. “Rejoice,
O young man, in thy youth” (Eccl. xi. 9a). “Re-
B. P.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
230
joicein a]! that ye put your hand unto” (Deut. xii,
7). “Go thy way, eat thy bread with joy ” (Eccl.
ix. 7a).
——-In Rabbinical Literature: The joy of liv-
ing, so clearly discernible through Biblical ages, is
somewhat marred in rabbinical literature by changed
political and religious conditions. The sad present
contrasted with the past made the lot of the people
seem hard and cruel. Besides the loss of political
freedom, the disappointment of Messianic hopes
made life dreary. Still, the optimistic view of life
prevailed on the whole. Faithin God dissipated all
despair and darkness and made life worth living.
Thus one reads: “He who made the day will pro-
vide daily sustenance” (Mck., Beshallah). “All
that God has created is of use” (Shab. 77b). “ He
who still has some bread in his basket and asks,
‘What shall I eat on the morrow?’ has little faith ”
(Sotah 48b). The discouragement of asceticism no-
ticed in the Bibleis evident in the following Talmud-
ical sayings: “Ifthou hast the means to enjoy life,
enjoy it” (‘Er. 54a). “The whole world has been
created that man may find pleasure ” (Shab. 380b).
The many benedictions ordained by the Rabbis to
be pronounced over whatever one enjoys in eating
or drinking, or over some pleasing or remarkable
sight, show their attitude toward the enjoyment
of life. Marriage, which Christianity considered a
concession to the flesh and as something to be dis-
couraged, the Rabbis, equally with the Bible, con-
sidered to be man’s duty. “It is a religious duty
for man to marry ” (Kid. 2b). “To be unmarried is
to live without joy, without blessing, kindness, re-
ligion, or peace” (Yeb. 62a). [Quite characteristic
are the following sayings of the Rabbis: “The She-
kinah rests on man, not when he is troubled and
grieved, but when he is filled with joy and enthu-
siasm over the performance of a good deed ” (Shab.
30b). Accordingly, “men should put themselves
into the attitude of prayer, not after grief, but after
the experience of a holy joy over a good deed per-
formed ” (Ber. 31a). “Since the destruction of the
Temple God Himself lacks complete happiness”
(‘Ab. Zarah 3b); therefore, “man should not open his
mouth fully to laughter” (Ber. 81a). Nevertheless,
legend tells of jesters who were deemed worthy of
paradise because they cheered the cheerless (Ta‘an.
22a; comp. Yer. Ta‘an. i. 64b, the story of Pentakaka
the Jester).—k. |
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Goitein, Der Optimismus und Pessimismus,
Berlin, 1890; idem, Das Problem der T heodicee, ib. 1890;
Gass, Optimismus und Pessimismus, pp. 7-15, ib. 1876; Phil-
ippson, Welthbewegende Fragen, i. 134-188, Leipsic, 1869;
Ewald, Die Poetischen Blicher des <A. T, ii. 45, GOttingen,
1835; Wiinsche, Die Freude in den Schriften des Alten
Bundes, p. 441. Weimar, 1896; Smend, Religionsgesch. 2d
ed., p. 125, Freiburg, 1893; Pfeiffer, Die Religids-Sittliche
Weltanschauung des Buches der Spritiche, p. 232, Munich,
1897; Wellhausen, [sraelitische und Jiidische Gesch. 4th ed.,
p. 215, Berlin, 1901; A. Guttmacher, Optimism and Pessi-
mism, Baltimore, 1903.
K. A. G.
HARA: District mentioned in I Chron. v. 26 as
one of those to which Tiglath-pileser brought the
Reubenites, Gadites, and the half tribe of Manasseh.
Like the other places with which it is associated, Hara
must have been situated in western Assyria. In the
Septuagint the place is not mentioned, nor does it oc-
cur in the parallel passage, II Kings xviii. 11, which
231
has the addition “and in the cities of the Medes.”
Though omitted by the Septuagint in I Chron. v.
26, there can be no doubt that “ Hara” appeared in
the original Hebrew, for Jerome transliterates it by
.3) Ara. ”
E. G. H. B. P.
HARADAH (79n): One of the stations of the
Israelites during their wanderings in the desert
(Num. xxxiii. 24, 28).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HARAN: 1. Third son of Terah and conse-
quently the youngest brother of Abraham; he was
born in Ur of the Chaldees, where he died while his
father was still living. He had three children, Lot
and two daughters, Milcah and Iscah. Milcah be-
came the wife of her uncle Nahor (Gen. xi. 27-29).
Josephus mentions that Haran’s monument was
shown in his time; and that there was also a Haran,
son of Nahor, Terah’s father, begotten when Nahor
was one hundred and twenty years old (“ Ant.” i. 6,
§ 5). According to the Rabbis, who interpreted “Ur”
to mean “ fire,” Haran was thrown after Abraham into
the furnace by Nimrod. Haran had no firm belief
inGod. Hesaid to himself: “Should Abraham per-
ish in the furnace, I will side with Nimrod; if he
come out alive, I will be with Abraham.” There-
fore he perished in the flames (Gen. R. xxxviii.;
Yalk., Gen. 62). .
2. A Levite in the time of David; one of the fam-
ily of Shimei (I Chron. xxiii..9).
J. M. SEL.
HARAN (n="“road”; compare Assyrian
“harranu ”); City to which Terah went from Ur of
the Chaldees, and where Terah died (Gen. xi. 31,
32). It was situated in ARAM-NAHARAIM, generally
translated “Mesopotamia” (Gen. xxiv. 10), and is
definitely indicated as in Padan-aram (Gen. xxv. 20;
xxviii. 2, 5-7). As Nahor was the only son of Terah
who settled at Haran, it was called “the city of Na-
hor” (comp. Gen. xxiv. 10, xxvii. 48). Haran was
the birthplace of Rebekah, and it was thither that Eli-
ezer went to meet her (Gen. xxiv. 10). Thither, also,
Jacob fled from before his brother Esau ; there he mar-
ried his uncle Laban’s daughters, and there he ac-
quired his great wealth (Gen. xxviii. 10, xxix.—-xxxi.
passim), Haran occursagain tn the Bible in connec-
tion with auch later period. Itismentioned as be-
ing taken by the Assyrian kings (II Kings xix. 12),
and as having had commercial intercourse with Tyre
(Ezek. xxvii. 23). Thestatement of II Kings xix. 12
is confirmed by Assyrian inscriptions in which Haran
is very frequently mentioned. The inscriptions also
affirm that Assurbanipal (Sardanapalus) was crowned
at Haran, and that Nabunaid restored the temple of
Sin at Haran (Schrader, “K. B,” i. 89, ti. 52, e¢ al.).
The general opinion is that the Biblical Haran is
identical with the Carrhe, in Mesopotamia, famous
for the defeat of Crassus by the Parthians and
known to the Arabs as “ Harran,” the abode of the
Sabeans. Joseph Halévy, however, concluded that
Haran must be sought for in Syria and not in Meso-
potamia. Halévy, translating “Haran” as “hollow
place,” is inclined to identify it with a place named
“Spelunca” by Ptolemy, not far from Damascus.
The Arabian geographers certainly identify the
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Haphraim
Harburg
Harran of the Sabeans with the Biblical Haran.
Yakut (“Mu‘jam al-Buldan”) says that according
to some the city was built by Haran, the brother of
Abraham, and that it was then called pn, but that
according to others Haran was the first city built
after the Flood. Haran (Carrhe) is in the territory
of Mudar, a day’s journey southeast of Edessa.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mez, Gesch. der Stadt Harran, 1892; Joseph
Halévy, Mélanges dEpigraphie et d@’Archéologie Sémi-
tiques, pp. 72-85, Paris, 1874; idem, in Rev. Sém. 1894, pp.
193-198 ; Ndldeke, in Zeit. fiir Assyr. xi. 107-109.
J. M. SEL.
HARARI, JUDAH (ARYEH): Liturgical
poet; lived at Montpellier in the second half of the
thirteenth century. He is highly praised by Abra-
ham Bedersiin the poem entitled “ Hereb ha-Mithap-
peket.” Several of his piyyutim have been pre-
served in the ritual of Carpentras and in Mahzor
manuscripts. Thesurname “ Harari” (of the moun-
tain) was given in the Middle Ages to Jacob ben
Makir ibn Tibbon, of Montpellier, to Aaron ben
Abraham ben Jacob, of Marseilles, to Abraham ben
Solomon, of Bagnoles, and later to several Jews of
Italy and the East.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. pp. 463, 469; idem, Literatur-
gesch. p. 495; idem, Nachtrag zur Literaturgesch. p. 42;
Luzzatto, in Berliner’s Magazin, Hebr. part, vii. 17.
K, 8. K.
HARARITE: Epithet applied to some of
David’s heroes. Owing to the discrepancy which
exists generally between the books of Samuel and
the Chronicles, it is uncertain whether the appella-
tion refersto two orto threemen. InII Sam. xxiii.
11, there is mentioned Shammah, son of Agee, a
“ Hararite” (997), and in verse 33 of the same chap-
ter, “Shammah the Hararite” (9797); but in the
corresponding list of I Chron. xi. the latter is
called “Shammoth the Harorite” (77), and the
former, “Jonathan the son of Shage the Hararite”
(id. xi. 84). This epithet is also applied to Ahiam
“the son of Sharar the Hararite” (9x; II Sam.
xxiii, 83), or “the son of Sacar the Hararite” (I
Chron. xi. 35),
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HARBONA, HARBONAH (s3139n, ANA4IN):
One of the seven eunuchs who served Ahasuerus
and to whom the order was given to bring Queen
Vashti before the king (Esth. i. 10). He suggested
that Haman should be hanged on his own gallows
(2b. vii. 9). According to R. Eleazar (Meg. 16a),
Harbona had first been in league with Haman, but,
seeing that his plot had failed, abandoned him.
It is further said (Esther R. x.) that it was the
prophet Elijah who appeared before Ahasuerus in
the guise of Harbona, and that therefore Harbona
should be remembered for good. A liturgical piece
for Purim beginning “Shoshannat Ya‘akob” ends
with the words, “and let Harbona, too, be remem-
bered for good.”
E, G. H. M. SEL,
HARBURG: City on the Elbe, six miles south
of Hamburg, in the Prussian province of Hanover.
Jews were not admitted to Harburg until the seven-
teenth century, when Duke William August (1603-
1642) established a mint there which he leased in
1621 to the Jews Benedictus Bock of Itzehoe and
Harburg
Hare
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
232
the brothers Meyer and Joseph Moyses of Altona.
These three Jews with their families he took under
his protection, allowing them not only to travel freely
in his territory and to engage in trading, but also
to settle in “ Harborgk” (Harburg). The Harburg
Jews remained under ducal jurisdiction and were
not placed under municipal authority. Those Jews,
also, who had business relations with the mint were
granted safe-conducts. The duke issued to his He-
brew subjects patents freeing them from the poll-
tax and state taxes. In March, 1622, the mint-
farmers, who were in debt, fled from Harburg,
whereupon the duke had them arrested at Altona;
and before being set at liberty they
were required to pay the costs of their
confinement, and to swear that they
would pay their debts and that they
would never return. The same duke, on Nov. 22,
1621, i.ad entered into a contract with Magnus Isaac
of Wandsbeck and Marcus Jost of Harburg for
minting at Moisburg, but they also soon became
bankrupt and fled, leaving unpaid a debt of 1,400
thalers.
A privilege of Feb. 26, 1708, stated expressly that
Jews would be tolerated in Harburg. A list dated
Aug. 29, 1722, records 9 Jewish households aggre-
gating 51 persons. In 1725 there was in Harburg
a Jewish schoolmaster named Magnus Breslauer.
In 1755 the city contained but 8 Hebrew families.
In consequence of complaints made by the retail
dealers against the Jews of Hamburg and those of
Altona who came to Harburg with their wares, non-
resident Jews were prohibited from trading in the
city (July 28, 1719), and on Jan. 3, 1721, it was de-
creed that no Jew who had moved to Harburg should
be allowed to employ help if he had grown sons “fit
to engage in trade.” A strict edict was also issued
against peddling by Jews, which was
Jew
Minters.
Edicts followed (Ang. 18, 1781) by a renewal
Against of a regulation of Jan. 5, 1708, for-
Jews. bidding Jews to acquire houses or
other real estate. In 1764 Simon
Behrens, who had lent the city the sum of 1,500
thalers with which to pay the indemnity demanded
by the French troops in 1757, received permission
to buy the house which he was occupying; but in
1773, when twenty-two houses were for sale, he was
not allowed, although supported by the city council,
to purchase a second one. In 1690 the princely gov-
ernment of Celle, with the acquiescence of the Har-
burg city council, assigned a burial-ground to the
Jews of Harburg. On Aug. 10, 1776, the Hanove-
rian government, in response to a petition of Simon
Behrens, granted permission for the establishment
of a synagogue in a house which was to be bought
by the Jews for the purpose. It was officially de-
creed on July 16, 1787, that every Jewish family en-
joying, for a certain tax, the privilege of citizenship
in Harburg, should in addition pay annually into
the city treasury 1 thaler, 18 Marien-groschen, if it
had a whole house to itself, or 18 groschen in case
it occupied an apartment merely. This payment
was in lieu of the surplice-fees (“loco jurium
stole ”),
At the beginning of the nineteenth century there
was a Portuguese Jew living in Harburg named
Moses Levy Nimenes, alias Moses Ximenes Pereira.
In 1851 the community consisted of 15 individuals.
At present (1903) it numbers about 50 families, ag-
gregating about 800 persons.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ludewig, Geach. der Stadt und des Schlosses
Harburg. 1845. pp. 61, 108, 119, 128, 131, 137, 194, 199, 247 ;
idem, in VaterlUindisches Arehiv fittr Hannoversch-Braun-
schweig. Gesch. ed, Spilcker and Bronnenberg, 1883, p. 410;
1834, p. 109; comp. Vaterldndisehcs Archiv, ed. Spiel, iv. 126,
Hanover, 1821; Hannoversche Gesehichtsbldtter, 1901. p.
2; Schudt, Jiidische Merckwilrdigheiten, part i., p. 385;
Bodemeyer, Die Juden, pp. 62, 68, note 4, Géttingen, 1855;
Grunwald, Poriugiesengriiber auf Deutscher Erde, p. 10,
note 1, Hamburg, 1902; Mittheilungen aus dem Verein zur
Abwehr des Antise mitismius, 19038, p. 287.
D. A. Lew.
HARBURGER, HEINRICH: German jurist;
born at Bayreuth, Bavaria, Oct. 2, 1851. He re-
ceived his education at the gymnasium of his native
town and at the University of Munich, whence he
was graduated as doctor of law. After being ad-
mitted to the bar he became, in 1878, privat-docent
of the juridical faculty of his alma mater. In the
following year he was appointed judge (“ Amts-
richter ”) of one of the district courts in Munich,
and in 1885 second attorney (“ zweiter Staatsanwalt ”)
of the Munich circuit court, where in 1890 he be-
came one of the senior judges (“ Landgerichtsrath ”).
In 1896 he was made honorary professor at Munich
University. In 1897 he was transferred to the court
of appeals at Munich as attorney (“Staatsanwalt ”),
and in 1899 was appointed one of the senior judges
(“ Oberlandgerichtsrath ”) at this court.
Harburger is one of tne few jurists of Germany
who are at the same time judgesand university pro-
fessors. He has also the distinction of being the
first Jew in Germany to become attorney at a court
of appeals. He isa contributor to the leading law
journals and a member of the Institute of Interna-
tional Law. Among his works may be mentioned:
“ Die Renumeratorische Schenkung,” Munich, 1875;
“Der Strafrechtliche Begriff ‘Inlaad’ und Seine
Beziehungen zu Voélkerrecht und Staatsrecht,” 70.
1882; “Strafrechtspracticum,” 7b, 1892.
8. Fo. Hy,
HARBY: American family, resident in the
southern part of the United States.
Solomon Harby: First of the family in North
America; son of Isaac Harby, lapidary to the em-
peror of Morocco. He settled at Charleston, S. C.,
where his son, Isaac Harby, was born.
Isaac Harby: Journalist; born 1788; died in
New York 1828; studied law, but subsequently
opened a school on Edisto Island, 8. C. Heafterward
edited the “ Quiver,” the “Investigator” (later
known as the “Southern Patriot”), the “City Ga-
zette” (1822), and the “Charleston Mercury.” He
was also distinguished as an author and play wright.
His first play, “The Gordian Knot,” was written in
1807; it was followed by “ Alexander Severus” and
by “ Alberti” (1819), his best-known play, at the first
performance of which President Monroe was present.
As a political writer he became widely known by bis
“ Letters on the Presidency ” (1824). Harby was the
originator of the first Reform movement in the
United States. In 1825 he, with others, founded the
Reform Society of Israelites, the principal objects
of which were abridgment of the liturgy and the
283
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Harburg
Hare
introduction of English into the service. An ac-
count of his work in this connection may be found
in the “North American Review,” xxiii. Harby
included among his friends Thomas Jefferson, Ed-
ward Livingston, and Sir Walter Scott. Jn 1828 he
removed to New York, where he established a school
and contributed to the “Evening Post.” His re-
Inains are interred in the old cemetery on Eleventh
street, New York.
Levi Myers Harby: Captain in the United
States navy. Brother of Isaac Harby; born in
Georgetown, 8S. C., 1793; died at Galveston, Texas,
1870. At nineteen he became a midshipman in the
United States navy, and during the War of 1812 was
taken prisoner by the British, and was confined in
Dartmoor Prison until the close of the war. In 1823
he was sailing-master on the U. 8. vessel “Beagle.”
He subsequently became a captain in the Revenue
Marine Service, and also served under Commodore
Porter in the antipiratical squadron. Captain Harby
took part in the Texan war of independence, and
served in the Mexican war, the Seminole war,
and the Bolivian war of independence. His name
is frequently given as “ Captain Levi Charles Harby ”
or “Captain Charles Levi Harby.” He served the
United States government for half acentury. At
the outbreak of the Civil war he resigned his com-
mission and joined the Southern cause as captain
of artillery in the Confederatearmy. Subsequently
he was put in command of the fleet at Sabine Pass.
He distinguished himself in the defense of Galves-
ton, and was in command of Galveston harbor at the
close of the war.
Captain Harby married Leonora De Lyon of Sa-
vannah. His sons are H. J. and J. D. Harby.
Washington Harby: Brother of Isaac Harby ;
educator and author of several plays, one of which,
“ Nick of the Woods,” became popular.
Henry J. Harby: Brother of Isaac Harby.
He took an active part in the Nullification move-
ment in South Carolina.
Caroline de Litchfield Harby: Sister of Isaac
Harby; born about 1800; died 1876. She was a
writer of verse, and was associated with Isaac Harby
in his educational work in New York.
Samuel Harby: Physician; son of Isaac Harby.
He settled in New Orleans, La., where he became
editor of the “ New Orleans Bee.”
Leah Cohen Harby (Mrs.): Granddaughter of
Isaac Harby ; born at Charleston Sept. 7, 1849; known
also as Lee C. Harby. She is a member of the
New York, the Texas, and the South Carolina his-
torical societies, and of many other learned associa-
tions, and has written on historical subjects. She has
been an officer of Sorosis and of the Daughters of the
American Revolution, and adirector of the Daughters
of the Confederacy and of the Memorial Association
of Charleston. During the West-Indian Exposition
in Charleston (1901) she was a member of the wom-
en’s executive committee and one of the editors of
the “Interlude,” the women’s paper issued during
the exposition. Among her writings are: “The
City of a Prince”; “Texan Types and Contrasts” ;
“ Land of the Tejas” ; “ Earliest Texas” ; “ Judy Rob-
inson—Milliner”; and a number of poems, short
stories, and magazine articles. Mrs. Harby was
the successful competitor for the prize offered for
a “Flag Song” for the state of Texas.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : The New York Mirror, Dec., 1828; Selections
from the Miscellancous Writings of Isaac Harby, Charles-
ton, 1829; Simon Wolf, The American Jew as Patrivt, Sol-
dier, and Citizen, Philadelphia, 1895; Daly, Settlement of
the Jews in North America, New York, 1893; Publications
Am. Jew. Hist. Soe. ii. 146-147; iv. 15, 221; Appleton’s Cy-
clopedia of Am. Biog.; Dunlap, History of the American
Theatre, New York, 1832; Isaac Markens, The Hebrews in
America, ib. 1888; Who’s Who in America, 1902; Duyek-
inck’s Cyc. of American Literature, i.; Drake’s Dict. of
American Biography, Boston, 1872; Allen’s American
Biog. Dict. Boston, 1857; Allibone’s Critical Dict. of HMng-
lish Literature, Philade)phia, 1871.
A. L. Ht.
HARDEN, MAXIMILIAN: German author;
born at Berlin Oct. 20, 1861. Educated in the Ger-
man capital, where he still resides, he became well
known through his political and social articlesin the
“Nation,” “Frankfurter Zeitung,” and especially in
the “Gegenwart,” written over the nom de plume
of “Apostata”; they were collected and published
under that name in Berlinin 1892, In the same year
he founded the “Zukunft,” one of the leading Ger-
man journals, which he is still (1903) editing. He
was recently arrested and imprisoned by the gov-
ernment under the charge of lese-majesty. Harden
embraced Christianity when a mere boy. His orig-
inal name was Witkowski (see his “Zukunft,” Oct.,
1903).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon; Brock-
haus’ Konversations-Lexikon.
Ss F. T. H.
HARDT, HERMANN VON DER: German
Protestant theologian and philologist; born at Melle,
Westphalia, Nov. 15, 1660; died Feb. 28, 1746.
He studied at Osnabriick, Jena, and Hamburg, and
became professor of Oriental languages at the Uni-
versity of Helmstiidt (1690). He was a prolific au-
thor. Among his works dealing with Hebrew litera-
ture are: “ Dissertatio de Fructu, Quem ex Libro-
rum Judaicorum Lectione Percipiunt Christiani ”
(Jena, 1683); “De Accentuatione Hebreorum”
(Leipsic, 1692); “Programma Quo ad Philologicam
Hoses et Commentatorum Rabbinicorum Publicam
Enarrationem,” etc. (Helmstidt, 1704); “ Aunigmata
Judxorum Religiosissima” (7d. 1705); “ Programma
in Aben Esram Publice Recensendum, Jeremia Re-
censito et Jobo Exspectato ” (¢d. 1712); “Programma
in Rashium, Publice Recensendum” (2). n.d.); “ Ho-
seas Historie et Antiquitati Redditus” (72. n.d.);
“Versio Latina Tract. Mischnici Taanit” (2d. 1712);
“Commentarius in Pirke Abot ” (26. 1728).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: JOcher, Allgemeines Gelehrtenlexikon, ii. 1413
McClintock and Strong, Cye. iv. 204; Furst, Bibl. Jud. i. 362 ;
Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. No. 5190; idem, Bibliographisches
Handbuch, No. 805.
J. M. Sc.
HARE (n2358): Animal mentioned in Lev. xi.
6 and Deut. xiv. 7 among the unclean animals, “ be-
cause he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the
hoof.” The idea that the hare chews the cud prob-
ably arose from the constant moving of its jawsand
lips. With the Arabs the flesh of the hare is consid-
ereda delicacy. There are at present five species of
hare in Palestine, of which the Lepus syriacus and
the Lepus egyptiacus are the most common. The
rabbit (Lepus cuntculus) is not found in Syria. The
Talmud speaks of the hare as a ruminant (Hul.,
Harfidil
Harkavy
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
234
59a). The fur of the hare, termed “ wool” (“ zemer ”),
was used in weaving (Men. 39b).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tristram, Natural History of the Bible, p.
98; Lewysohn, Zovlogie des Talmuds, p. 109.
J. I. M. C.
HARFIDIL: Name of a Gothic Jew occurring
ina Hebrew epitaph found near Parthenit. Chwol-
son places the inscription in the fifth century; and
the change from the Wulfianic name “ Harjafrithila ”
(“th” asin Eng. “this ”) to “ Harfidil” (“ fidil ” from
“frithila”) he attributes to the local Jewish jargon,
just asin another epitaph of that class “Benike”
is given for “ Berenike” (with omission of “r”).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Richard Léwe, Die Reste der Germanen am
Schwarzen Meere, Halle, 1896
T: H. R.
HARIF MOSES PHINEHAS BEN
ISRAEL: Polish rabbi and author; died in Lem-
berg 1722. Te was the grandson of Moses Harif
the Elder and the father of Israel and Hirsch Harif,
the latter of whom became rabbi of Yaborow, Gali-
cia. In 1684 he occupied the position of rabbi at
Lemberg, where he remained till his death. He was
one of the most influential members of the Council
of Four Lands. His approbations, dated at the
meeting of the council at Yaroslav in 1685, are
found inthe “Nahalat Azriel” (1687), in the “ Tole-
dot Yizhak,” and in the collection of responsa en-
titled “ Bet Ya‘akob” (1693). Asauthor heis known
by his responsa relating to the spelling of the names
in documents of divorce, and by additions to the list
of names in the book written on that subject by
Solomon Luria. He is frequently mentioned in
“Tib .Gittin” by Solomon Margolioth, in “‘Emek
Halakah we-Ta‘am Man ” (p. 10b) by Menahem Man-
nele, and in R. Alexander’s “ Behor Shor,” p. 65.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Buber, Anshe Shem, pp. 160-162,
K, N. T. I.
HARIF, ZEBI HIXSCH. See CouRLAnn,
HARIPH (A°4n): The children of Hariph, to the
number of one hundred and twelve, returned from
captivity with Zerubbabel (Neh. vii. 24). Hariph
was one of the chiefs who sealed the covenant
with Nehemiah (25. x. 20). In the parallel list of
Ezra (ii. 18) this name is replaced by “Jorah.” The
ethnical form of “ Hariph” is “ Hariphite” CaInA;
according to the “ketib” ‘|\;mn; I Chron. xii. 5).
Akin to “Hariph” is “ Hareph ” (2. ii. 51).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HARITH IBN ‘AMR: Yemenite king who
embraced Judaism; born about 260; ascended the
throne about 820; died about 330. Nothing is known
of this king’s history, as he is mentioned only by
Abu al-Fida (“ Historia Anteislamica,” ed. Fleischer,
p. 118), .and by Ahmad Dimishki in his “Sharh
‘Utba al-Yamani.” He was the great-grandson of
Abu Karib, who is known as the first Yemenite
king who embraced Judaism. According to the
list of the Yemenite kings given by Abu al-Fida,
Harith was the thirty-seventh king from Kah-
tan, the Arabic Yoktan, founder of the dynasty ; but
Caussin de Perceval] makes him the forty-sixth. He
is not to be confounded with Harith ibn ‘Amr, the
Kindite prince (as is done by Gritz, “Gesch.” 8d
ed., v. 77, 868), who lived two centuries later.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Pococke, Specimen Historiw Arabum, p. 4273
Caussin de Perceval, Essai sur V Histoire des Arabes, i. 111,
and table i.
G. M. SEL.
HARIZI, JUDAH B. SOLOMON. See AL-
Hanizi, JUDAH B. SOLOMON.
HARKAVY: Russo-Jewish family. It origi-
nated, according to a tradition current in the family,
with Mordecai JAFFE, author of the “ Lebushim.”
The immediate ancestor was Joseph of Turetz (d.
1778), Turetz being a town near Nowogrudok, in
the province of Minsk. The first member of the
family to assume the name “ Harkavy ” was Gershon
of Nowogrudok (d. 1824), son of Joseph of Turetz,
Abraham Harkavy: Son of Jacob Harkavy.
See Harkavy, ALBERT. A. Ha.
Alexander Harkavy: Russian-American writer
and linguist; born at Nowogrudok, Minsk govern-
ment, May 5, 1863. Alexander was educated pri-
vately, and at an early age evinced a predilection
for philology. In 1879 he went to Wilna, where
he worked in the printing-office of the Romm Bros.
In 1882 he went to America, in 1885 to Paris; he
subsequently returned to America, and settled in
New York, where he now (1908) resides.
{tis partly due to Harkavy that Yiddish is now
recognized as a language. His Yiddish dictionaries
show that its vocabulary is as ample as that of the
average modern language, and that, if lacking in
technical terms, it is richer in idiomatic and char-
acteristic expressions.
Alexander Harkavy’s most important works are:
“Complete English-Jewish Dictionary” (1891);
“Dictionary of the Yiddish Language: Yiddish-
English ” (1898); pocket editions of English-Yiddish
and Yiddish-English dictionaries; “ Amerikanischer
Briefsteller” (English and Judzo-German, 1899);
“ Ollendorf’s Method of English: in Yiddish ” (1898);
“Uchebnik Angliskavo Yazyka” (1892); “Torat
Leshon Anglit,” an English grammar in Hebrew
(1894); “Ha-Yesh Mishpat Lashon li-Sefat Yehu-
dit?” (1896), in which he shows that Yiddish has
the essential elements and forms of a living lan-
guage; “Don Kichot,” a Judeo-German translation
(1897-98).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Harkavy, Dor Yesharim, New York, 1902;
Fisenstadt, Hakme Yisrael be-Amerika, p. 33; Ha-Leom
(Harkavy’s autobiography), vol. ii.. New York, 1903.
J. D. E.
Alexander Siisskind Harkavy: Scholar and
merchant; third son of Gershon Harkavy; born
1785; died 1841, In1827 he became rabbi of Nowo-
grudok, which office he retained until his death.
Deborah Romm: Daughter of Joseph Bezaleel
Harkavy, and head of the Hebrew publishing firm
of Widow & Brothers Romm, of Wilna.
Elhanan Harkavy: Eldest son of Gershon Har-
kavy; died at Jerusalem in 1838. He devoted his
life to study, and in his later years settled in Jeru-
salem. On the tombstone over his grave, on the
Mount of Olives, he is designated as “ Elhanan Ash-
kenazi.” —
Elhanan Harkavy : Brother of Alexander Har-
kavy; born at Nowogrudok; author of “Dor Ye-
sharim.”
Elijah Harkavy: Scholar and merchant; died
1827; second son of Gershon Harkavy.
235
Gershon Harkavy: Talmudist; son of Moses
Solomon Harkavy; born 1823; died 1875.
Gershon Harkavy: Son of Joseph of Turetz.
He was a disciple of Elijah of Wilna. In his decli-
ning years he settled in Safed, Palestine, where he
foundeda Talmudical academy, and maintained it by
the proceeds of vineyards bought for the purpose.
He had four sons, Elhanan, Elijah, Alexander Siiss-
kind, and Moses Solomon.
Jacob Harkavy: Son of Elhanan Harkavy;
born 1799; died 1894. He was at the head of a Tal-
mudical academy at Jerusalem for forty-three years.
Jacob Harkavy: Son of Gershon Harkavy;
author of a brochure in Russian on Jewish educa-
tion (Wilna, 1902).
Joseph Bezalee] Harkavy: Talmudist; son of
Elhanan Harkavy; died 1878, He was the son-in-
law of Rabbi Samuel Strashun of Wilna.
Joseph Moses Harkavy: Talmudist; son of
Rabbi Alexander Stisskind; born 1812; died 1881.
Moses Solomon Harkavy: Merchant and phi-
lanthropist; fourth son of Gershon Harkavy; born
at Nowogrudok 1805; died 1872.
Vladimir (Wolf) Harkavy: Jurist at Moscow;
son of Joseph Bezaleel Harkavy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Harkavy, Dor Yesharim, New York, 19038.
H. R. A. FHA.
HARKAVY, ALBERT (ABRAHAM YA-
KOVLEVICH):. Russian Orientalist and historian ;
born at Novogrudok, government of Minsk, Oct. 27,
1839. His father, Jacob Harkavy, was a wealthy
merchant and a prominent Talmudic scholar, con-
nected by descent with the Jaffe family. At the age
of fifteen Harkavy was
sent to the yeshibah of
Volozhin; and on the
completion of his
course there he took
up secular studies, in-
cluding German and
French.
In 1858 he entered
the rabbinical school
of Wilna; in 1863 the
University of St. Pe-
tersburg, where he
studied Oriental lan-
guages, and from
which he graduated
with the degree of mas-
ter of history (1868),
his graduating thesis
being “SkKazaniya Mus-
sulmanskikh Pisatelei o Slavyanakh i Russkikh ” (St.
Petersburg, 1870). This work presents a collection
of narratives by Mohammedan writers upon the Slavs
and Russians. Harkavy was then sent abroad by
the university to qualify for the chair of Semitic
history; he continued his studies at Berlin under
Rédiger and Diimichen, and in Paris under Oppert
(1868-70); but in consequence of a misunderstanding
with one of the faculty his appointment was not
approved. In 1872 Harkavy graduated as doctor
of history, his thesis being “O Pervonachalnom
Obitalishchye Semitov,” etc., a study of the origins
Albert Harkavy.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Harfidil
Harkavy
of the Semites, Aryans, and Hamites (7. 1872). In
the previous year he had published “ Ob Istoriches-
kom Znachenii,” etc., an essay on the importance of
the Moabite inscription. After graduation he was
attached to the Ministry of Public Instruction.
This date marks the beginning of his work on the
Hebrew and Arabic manuscripts in the Imperial
Public Library of St. Petersburg, where he devoted
himself particularly to the critical examination of
the Firkovich manuscripts. In 1877 Harkavy re-
ceived the appointment of librarian, which office he
still (1903) occupies. Since 1873 he has been repeat-
edly sent abroad in the interest of historical and
archeological research—to examine Biblical manu-
scripts (1873), as delegate to the congress of Oriental-
ists (1877), to examine Palestinian and other Oriental
monuments (1886). For his achievements in histor-
ical research the orders of Saint Stanislas (8d and 2d
degrees) and Saint Anne have been conferred upon
him by the Russian government, and he has also
been raised to the rank of councilor of state. The
labors of Harkavy have continued unremittingly for
a period of more than forty years, and have opened
up the ficld of early Russo-Jewish history. He has
made accessible extensive collections hitherto but
little known, and has thereby shed new light on
obscure periods in Russian as well as Russo-Jewish
history. His methods are best illustrated by his
treatises on the Jewish history of southern Russia,
the Caucasus, the Crimea, Chazaria, and ancient
Kiev. Nota little of his time has been devoted to
investigations in the history of the Polish-Lithua-
nian Jews and of the Karaites, and he deserves
great credit for his exposure of Firkovich’s falsifica-
tions.
Apart from his work as a historian, he has ren-
dered important services to the Jews of Russia by
participation in their communal life. Beginning in
1864, Harkavy acted for a number of years as secre-
tary of the Society for the Promotion of Culture
Among the Jews of Russia, and since 1873 he has
been one of the directors of the Jewish community
of St. Petersburg.
Among his numerous works in Russian, Hebrew,
German, and French, there should be mentioned
his “Ha-Yehudim u-Sefat ha-Slawim,” studies
in the early history of the Jews of
Russia, first published in Russian by
the Imperial Russian Archeological
Society under the title “Ob Yazykye Yevreyev,”
etc. (St. Petersburg, 1865). Harkavy’s aim here was
to prove that the first Jews who settled in South
Russia did not come from Germany, as was sup-
posed by Gratz and other historians, but from Greece
through the Black Seca region and the Crimea, and
from the Orient by way of the Caucasus. He fur-
thermore showed that Slavonic was the language
spoken by the Jews in the Slavonic countries until
the arrival of German Jews in great numbers dur-
ing the Crusades. He proved that the Jewish writers
in Russia and other Slavonic countries used Slavonic
words and phrases in their Biblical and Talmudic
commentaries. The Slavonic names among the Sla-
vonic Jews, the Slavonic inscriptions in Hebrew
characters on Polish coins, the tradition among the
Russian Jews that their ancestors spoke Slavonic,
Works.
Harkavy
Harp
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
236
and the testimony of carly writers, are effectively
cited by him in support of his contention.
Besides this work he has published:
Skazaniya Yevreiskikh Pisatelei, o Chazarskom Tzarstvye. St.
Petersburg, 1874.
Chazarskiya Pisma (in * Yevreiskaya Biblioteka,”’ 1881-2).
Rus i Russkiye vy Srednevyekovoi Yevreiskoi Literaturye (in
** Voskhod,” 1881-82).
Istoricheski Ocherk Sinoda Chetyriokh Stran (in ‘‘ Voskhod,”’
1884).
Les Mots Egyptiens de la Bible (reprint from ‘* Journal Asia-
tique,”’ Paris, 1870).
Zikkaron la-Rishonim we-gam la-Aharonim. Studien und Mit-
theilungen aus der St. Petersburg Kaiserlichen Bibliothek. 5
vols. St. Petersburg, 1879-82. Contains biographies and works of
Samuel ha-Nagid, Samuel ben Hophni, Saadia Gaon, Hai Gaon,
and other geonim, frorn manuscripts in the St. Petersburg
library, annotated by Harkavy.
Neuaufgefundene Hebriische Bibelhandschriften (paper read
before the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg,
April, 1884; published in “* Zapiski . . . Akademii,” series vii.,
vol. 32, No. 8).
O Yazykye Yevreyev Zhivshikh v Drevneye Vremya na Russi.
St. Petersburg, 1886,
Notes to the Russian translation of Gritz’s ‘‘Geschichte.”? 2
vols., 1889-1902.
Notes to the Russian translation of Karpeles’ ‘‘ History of Jew-
ish Literature.”? St. Petersburg, 1889-90.
Notes and additions to P. Rabinovich’s Hebrew transl. of
Gritz’s “* Geschichte,” vols. iii.-viii. Warsaw. 1893-99.
Harkavy has contributed many valuable articles
on the early history of the Jews in Russia to: “ Me-
assef Niddahim” (supplement to “Ha-Meliz,”
parts i. and ii.); “Ha-Karmel,” 1862 e¢ seg.; “ Mo-
natsschrift,” 1883 e¢ seg.; “Russko-Yevreiski Ar-
khiv,” 1883; Briill’s “ Jahrbiicher,” 1876; “ Voskhod,”
1881-84; “Ben ‘Ammi,” parti., St. Petersburg, 1887;
“Hadashim gam Yeshanim,” in “Ha-Mizpah,” vol.
i.; “Ha-Asif,” vol. i.; “Keneset Yisrael,” i. and tit. ;
“Ha-Karmel” (Russian), 1865, etc. He has also
written many articles on other subjects in Hebrew
and Oriental literature in Steinschneider’s “ Hebr.
Bibl.”; Berliner’s “Magazin”; °Z. D. M. G.”;
“Yevreiskoye Obozreniye”; “Russki Yevrei”;
“Golos”; “Journal Asiatique”; “ Revue Critique”;
“R, E. J.”; the publications of the Russian Im-
perial Academy of Sciences and of the Russian
Imperial Archeological Society; the Journal of the
Ministry of Public Instruction; ete.
Harkavy is a member of the Russian Imperial
Archeological Society; the Russian Imperial Geo-
graphical Society; the St. Petersburg Philological
Society; the Moscow Society for the Promotion of
Natural Sciences, Anthropology, and Ethnography ;
the Odessa Society of History and Antiquities; the
Société Asiatique of Paris; the Société des Etudes
Juives; the Deutsche Morgenlindische Gesellschaft;
and the Madrid Academy of Sciences (corresponding
member). The medal of Isabella the Catholic was
conferred upon him by the Spanish government in
1889. He was also the first Jew and the first Rus-
sian to be made a corresponding member of the
learned Oriental Society Sullogos of Constantinople.
On Feb. 18, 1902, Harkavy’s friends celebrated the
fortieth anniversary of his literary and historical ac-
tivity, his first article having appeared Feb. 18, 1861,
in the earliest Russo-Jewish organ, “ Razsvyet.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gubernatis, Ecrivainsdu Jour; Schaff, Dict.
of Living Divines; Reines, Dor we-Hakamaw, Cracow,
1890. A complete bibliography of Harkavy’s writings is now in
course of publication by David Maggid of St. Peers
HARLAND, HENRY (pseudonym, Sydney
Luska): American author; born at St. Petersburg
March, 1861; educated at the College of the City of
New York and at Harvard. From 1883 to 1886 he
was in the office of the surrogate of New York, after
which he removed to London and became editor of
the “Yellow Book,” to which many well-known
authors contributed. He is the author of the fol-
lowing novels dealing with Jewish subjects: “Mrs.
Peixada”; “As It Was Written”; and “The Yoke
of the Thorah ” (1900).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who’s Who in America. A.
HARLOT. See PROSTITUTION.
HARO: City in La Rioja, in the diocese of Cala-
horra, Spain. In the fifteenth century it contained
a Jewish community, the members of which were
engaged in agricultural, commercial, and industrial
pursuits, particularly in tanning, and lived in the
De Ja Mota quarter. The Jewsas well as the Moors
of Haro were forbidden to sell or to exchange real
estate owned by Christians. When, owing to op-
pressive war-taxes, the population of Haro became
impoverished and was forced to dispose of its real
estate, the city council, by a decree issued Sept. 8,
1458, forbade Christians to sell or to pledge their
houses, gardens, or vineyards to Jews, whether na-
tive or foreign. In cases where this decree was vio-
lated the sale was declared void, and both buyer
and seller, if they had given or received anything
asa pledge, were sentenced to pay a fine of 2,000
maravedis each. In 1474 the Jews of Haro and of
Pefiacerrada & Laja paid 2,500 maravedis in faxes.
Before the expulsion of 1492 Jews owned fifty-five
houses in Haro.
BIE POpREE EE: Boletin Acad. Hist. xxvi. 467; R. HB. J. xxxi.
G. M. K.
HAROD: Name of a well beside which Gideon
and his army encamped on the morning of the day
which ended in the rout of the Midianites (Judges
vii. 1), and where the test of the people by their
mode of drinking apparently took place (75, 4-8).
Harod was situated south of the Hill of Moreh (the
present Jabal Dahi), where the Midianites were en-
camped in the valley of Jezreel. It is now called
‘Ain Jalud.
E.G. H. B. P.
HAROSHETH (HAROSHETH OF THE
GENTILES): City supposed to have stood near
Hazor, in the northern part of Canaan, afterward
known as Upper Galilee, or Galilee of the Gentiles.
It was so called on account of the cosmopolitan
character of its inhabitants. Harosheth was the
home of Sisera, general of the armies of Jabin, King
of Canaan, whose seat was Hazor (Judges iv. 2).
Here Sisecra mobilized the forces (verse 13) that
were defeated in the ensuing battle on the banks of
the Kishon. Barak and his victorious troops fol-
lowed the defeated army to Harosheth; “and there
was not a man left” (verse 16).
E. G. If. | 5 ae fae
HARP AND LYRE: The ancient Hebrews had
two stringed instruments, the “kinnor” (9)395) and
the “nebel” (S29). In the English versions of the
Old Testament the former word is wrongly translated
237 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Herkevy
“harp.” In both instruments the strings were set | Greek, Egyptian, and Babylonian instruments. The
in vibration by the fingers, or perhaps by a little
stick, the plectrum (as Josephus says). Bow instru-
ments were unknown to the ancients. The strings
were made of gut, metal strings not being used in
olden times. The body of the instrument was gen-
erally made of cypress (II Sam. vi. 5) or, in very
precious instruments, of sandalwood (I Kings x. 11;
A. V. “almug”).
The kinnor and nebel are often mentioned to-
gether. As in the case of all instrumental music
among the Hebrews, they were used principally as
an accompaniment to the voice (see Music). In-
struments were used on joyous occa-
sions, such as banquets and festive
processions (Gen. xxxi. 27; I Sam.
x. 5; II Sam. vi. 5; Isa. v. 12), and
especially in the Temple service (Ps. xxxili. 2, xiii.
4; Neh. xii. 27; I Chron. xvi. 5); here also in ac-
companiment to songs of praise and thanksgiving
(I Chron. xvi. 16; II Chron. v. 12; Ps. xxxiii. 2,
lvii. 9, Ixxi. 22). They
Were never used on occa-
sions of mourning (Isa.
xxiv. 8; Ezek. xxvi. 13;
Lam. v.14; Ps. exxxvii.
2; Job xxx. 81). The
more popular of the two
instruments was the kin-
nor, which is much more
frequently mentioned in
the Old Testament than
When
Used.
Coin of Bar Kokba Bearing thenebel. Itsinvention
Lyre with Three Strings. is ascribed to Jubal
(After Madden.) (Gen. iv. 21). It was
used on family occa-
sions and at popular festivals (Gen. xxxi. 27; Job
xxi, 12), and was played upon both by the noble and
by the lowly. David, the shepherd-boy, was a noted
player (I Sam. xvi. 16). The nebel, on the other
hand, seems to have been
reserved exclusively for
religious occasions
(Amos v. 23; Ps. cxliv.
9). In connection with
secular events (Amos vi.
5; Isa. xiv. 11), its use
appears to have been
regarded as unseemly
and profane. Regarding
the form of the two in-
struments, it is evident
from the Old Testament
that they could be
played while the performer was walking (I Sam.
x. 56; II Sam. vi. 5; Isa. xxiti. 16); hence they must
have been easy to carry.
From the name “nebel” it has been inferred that
the shape of this instrument, or of its sounding-
board, was similar to that of the bulging vessel of
the same name in which wine was kept, or that the
sounding-board was made of some animal membrane
(33 = “skin”). This, however, is a very ques-
tionable explanation.
Reliance must therefore be placed upon tradi-
tion and the analogies furnished by the ancient
Coin of Simon Nasi Bearing
Lyre with Six Strings.
(After Madden.)
translation of “kinnor” by «@dpa presupposes a
similarity between the Hebrew and
Similarity the Greek instruments, a supposition
to Greek that is confirmed by the illustra-
In- tions of the kinnor found on Jew-
struments. ish coins (see illustration), which is
very similar to both the Greek
lyre and cithara. If these had been foreign in-
struments derived from the Greeks, they would not
have been represented as
emblems on coins. On
the other hand, the He-
brew cithara, the kin-
nor, is not found in its
original form, but in the
modified form it as-
sumed under Greek in-
fluence. The _ earliest
shape of this instrument,
which readily explains
that on the coins in-
tended as ornaments, is
perhaps represented on
an Egyptian tomb at
Bent Hassan (see illustra-
tion). Here the instru-
ment consists of a long,
rectangular board, the
upper half of which is
cut out so as to form a
kind of frame; andabove
this opening the strings,
running parallel to one
another, are strung lengthwise across the board.
The player holds the instrument in a horizontal posi-
tion against his chest,
and touches the strings
with his left hand, while
his right holds a little
stick serving as a plec-
trum. The illustration
furthermore shows that
the instrument did not
originate in Egypt, but
with the Asiatic Semites ;
for it is carried by Asi-
atic Bedouins praying
for admission into
Egypt. Theinstrument
was subsequently intro-
duced into Egypt,
where it was modified
in form.
The same instrument
is again found in its
primitive form on an
Assyrian relief, here also
played by Semitic pris-
oners, from the western
districts. The represen-
tations on Jewish coins,
mentioned above, appear in comparison with these
primitive forms as further developments under the
influence of Greek taste. In one of the instruments
there is under the strings a curious sounding-board
Bedouin Playing a Harp,
(After an Egyptian painting in the tombs of
the Beni Hassan.)
Harper; on a Rabylonian Bas-
Relief, About 8000 B.c.
(After Ball, “ Light from tie East.’’)
Harp
Hart
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
238
like a kettle-drum; such a sounding-board is men-
tioned by the Church Fathers in describing the
instrument. As it appears from the foregoing that
the instrument was widely used among the Semites,
and as the Biblical references, as well as those found
in Josephus, seem to apply best to the cithara, it may
be assumed that this instrument corresponds to the
kinnor. The number of strings evidently varied.
In the old Egyptian illustration there are eight
strings; the later Egyptian cithara has from three
to nine strings; the instruments on the coins have
from three to six strings; and Josephus says that the
cithara had ten and the nebel twelve strings.
Regarding the nebel there are different views, of
which the principal two may be mentioned here.
According to one opinion the nebel was identical
with the harp. Among the ancient Egyptians there
is found, in addition to the large, upright harp, a
small portable
instrument of
that class,
which, like the
nebel of the
Old Testament,
the harpist
could play while
walking. This
harp consistsofa
wide, flat board,
with another
board fastened
atright angles at
one end, Across
this frame are
stretched strings
decreasing in
length from the
center to the
sides. A seme-
what different
Assyrian harp
is pictured in a
Kuyunjik relief, where a band of musicians going
to meet the victorious Assurbanipal is represented,
An illustration of a Babylonian harp
The Nebel. is again somewhat different, showing
but five strings. Although Josephus
mentions twelve strings, it must be remembered
that the instrument underwent various changes of
form in the course of time.
According to another view the nebel is to be com-
pared with the “ santir ” (still used among the Arabs),
perhaps in view of the Septuagint rendering of
the word by “psalterion” (= 703D5; Dan. iii. 5).
The santir consists of a longish, shallow box across
which the strings are fixed, the player holding it on
‘ his lap. The earliest form of the instrument is
found, together with the harp, in the above-men-
tioned illustration from Kuyunjik. The strings
here are strung parallel across the box; the player
holds the plectrum in his right hand; it is not
clear whether he touches the strings with his
left hand also. It is said in reference to the last-
named instrument that the name “nebel” would
apply very well to it, whether one imagines a bul-
ging sounding-board or one made of an animal mem-
Egyptian Harpers.
(rom a wall-painting in the tomb of Rameses III.)
brane. The words “ pi ha-nebel ” (Amos vi. 5) would
in this case refer to the opening in the sounding-
board. But, as stated above, this interpretation is
very questionable. Jerome’s statement that the ne-
bel had the delta form (A) argues in favor of a harp-
like instrument, as does also the statement of Jose-
phus (“ Ant.” vii. 12, § 3) that the nebel was played
with the fingers, which seems hardly possible in the
case of the cymbals.
Finally, there is the tradition that the nebel, unlike
the kinnor, was an instrument that stood upright.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benzinger, Arch.: Nowack, Lehrbuch der
Hebritischen Archdologie, 1. 278 et Seq.3 Riehm, Handwor-
terb. des Bibltischen Altertums, pp. 1043 et seq.; Cheyne and
Black, Bneye. Bibl. s.v. Music; Wellhausen, in S. B. O. T.
Eng. transl. of Psalms (Polycha rome Bible); Benzinger,
Protestantische Realencyclopddie, s.v. Music; and the
bibliographies cited in these works.
KE. G, H. I. Bg.
HARRIS, SIR AUGUSTUS GLOSSOP:
English actor,
playwright, and
theatrical man-
ager; born in
Paris 1852; died
at Folkestone,
England, June
22, 1896. Harris
made _ possible
the renascence
in London of
grand opera,
which had
lapsed for want
of support. Ed-
ucated in Paris
and Hanover, he
nv aaa tO ame
i
1
$
'
?
md
Y
UY
a
<< Was
o)
DL Z, forsook a mer-
i cantile life to
appear (Dec.,
1873) at the
Theater Royal,
Manchester, as
Matcolm in
“Macbeth.” Subsequently he supported Barry
Sullivan, and then became stage-manager for Colonel
Mapleson at Covent Garden.
In 1879 he became manager of Drury Lane Thea-
ter—previously a graveyard for theatrical tortunes
—where his shrewd management and improved
methods of staging laid the foundation of his suc-
cess. Plays written by Harris, some in collabora-
tion with Petit and Hamilton, were: “The World”
(his first productiono), “Youth,” “Human Nature,”
“A Run of Luck,” “The Spanish Armada,” “A
Million of Money,” “The Prodigal Daughter,” “A
Life of Pleasure,” and “The Derby Winner.” The
last-named was produced in the United States un-
der the title “The Sporting Duchess.”
Harris gave his first season of grand opera at Drury
Lane in 1887, and so successful was it that he en-
gaged Covent Garden Theater for the following
year. The greatest musical artists in the world
came under his management. A feature of Harris’
Drury Lane management was the elaborate scale on
which he produced the Christmas pantomime each
year.
Despite his arduous and incessant labors, Harris
239
on
found time to devote to politics, and became a mem-
ber of the London County Council, representing the
Strand division. He was appointed sheriff in 1891
and deputy lieutenant of the city of London. It
wasat this time that Harris was knighted.
In 1894 Harris went to the United States, where
he and Augustin Daly produced “ Hansel und Grae-
tel.” On his return to London the strain of work
broke down his health, and he died shortly after-
ward.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: New York Tribune, June 23 and July 13,
1896; New York Herald, June 23, 1896. EM
J. ; 8.
HARRIS, DAVID: English soldier and mine-
director; born in London 1852. He arrived at the
Kimberley diamond fields about 1873, and in deal-
ing in diamonds and claims met with great prosper-
ity. While engaging in business he became an
ardent soldier. In 1878 he fought under Sir Charles
Warren as an officer in the Diamond Fields Horse
throughout the Kaffir war and the Griqualand West
rebellion, and was mentioned in despatches for gal-
lantry in the field. In 1896 he successfully led 600
of the Kimberley Rifles against a savage native force
at Poquana, a place about 80 miles from Kimberley.
Harris was for some time parnas of the Kimberley
synagogue. On the death of Barney Barnato (his
first cousin) in 1897, Harris was elected unopposed
as member for Kimberley in the Cape Assembly.
Although Colonel Harris had retired from the serv-
ice, at the outbreak of war with the Boers in 1899
he assisted in the defense of Kimberley in conjunc-
tion with the imperial forces, being at the head of
2,000 men until the town was relieved by General
French. He is now (1903) the representative of the
firm of Barnato Brothers in Kimberley.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jew. Chron. June 21, 1895; Oct. 20, pit
J. :
HARRIS, MARE: English surveyor and sol-
dier; born March 15, 1869; killedin action in Bechu-
analand April 6, 1897. He was a son of Ephraim
Harris, head master of the Jews’ School at Manches-
ter, where he was educated; afterward he was arti-
cled to anarchitect and surveyor. Later on he went
to South Africa, and at Port Elizabeth acted as bor-
ough surveyor. He joined the Prince Albert’s
Guards, and, working his way up from the ranks,
obtained his commission as lieutenant. Harris was
next engaged in mapping out Pondoland. In 1896 he
was employed in the public works department at
Port Elizabeth. He then exchanged for the Duke
of Edinburgh’s Own Volunteer Rifles with his former
rank. On Feb. 24, 1897, this column, about 1,000
strong, started for Bechuanaland. A hattle was
fought on March 15 at Kuruman, and desultory
fighting continued till April 6, when a second en-
gagement with Galishwe took place at Mamssepe,
which was captured with the loss of Harris.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. April 16, 1897.
J. G. L.
HARRIS, MAURICE HENRY: American
rabbi; born Nov. 9, 1859, in London, England;
educated in London and at Columbia College, New
York city, graduating in 1887 (M.A., Ph.D.), and at
the Emanu-El Theological Seminary of New York
city.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Harp
Hart
In 1883 Harris was elected rabbi of Temple Israel
of Harlem, New York, a position he still holds
(1904). He is vice-president of the Society for the
Aid of Jewish Prisoners, second vice-president of
the New York Board of Jewish Ministers, and a
director of the Jewish Protectory.
Among his works are the following: “The Peo-
ple of the Book: a Biblical History ” (8 vols.); “Se-
lected Addresses ” (8 vols.); two Chautauqua syllabi
of Jewish history and literature from the Cabala to
Mendelssohn, Harris has also contributed to the
“Jewish Quarterly Review” and to the “North
American Review.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who’s Who in America, 1903-04,
A. F. H. V.
HARRISBURG. See PENNSYLVANIA.
HARROW. See AGRICULTURE.
HARRWITZ, DANIEL: German chess mas-
ter; born 1823 in Breslau, Silesia; died Jan. 9, 1884,
at Botzen, Tyrol; received most of his chess-training
from Anderssen. Harrwitz lived for some time in
France, and atintervalsin England. His chess career
may be said to have begun in Paris in 1845. In the
following year he lost a match with Staunton at the
odds of a pawn and two moves, but won another at
pawn at move. He then defeated Horwitz and
Léwenthal in England and De Riviére in Paris. In
1858 he lost a match with Morphy by 2 games to 5;
but before the match he won an additional game,
thus gaining the rare distinction of winning three
games from that distinguished player. In 1862, ow-
ing to il] health, Harrwitz was compelled to relin-
quish active participation in the game. Asa giver
of odds, he was perhaps the most successful of all
chess-players.
In 1858-54 Harrwitz published “The British
Chess Review.” He was also the author of “ Lehr-
buch des Schachspiels,” Berlin, 1862.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Berger, Schach-Jahrhuch, Leipsic, 1892-
93 5 A. MacDonnell, Chess Life-Pictures, pp. ;
London, 1883 (with portrait); Steinschneider, Schach bei den
Juden, p. 42, Berlin, 1873. AP
8. 2 ;
HARSELANI, ABRAHAM AL-: Karaite
scholar; flourished in Babylonia in the tenth cen-
tury. He is cited in Al-Hiti’s chronicle as having
disputed with the rabbinical authorities of his time.
He is also quoted by Mordecai ben Nissim in the
“Dod Mordekai” (p. 11b) as a Karaite authority.
None of Harselani’s works is extant.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Margoliouth, in J. Q. R. ix. 441.
G. I. Br.
HARSITH: One of the gates of Jerusalem, men-
tioned in Jer. xix. 2 (R. V.); it led into the Valley
of Hinnom. The meaning of the name can not be
ascertained. The Authorized Version gives “east
gate,” evidently connecting it with “heres” (the
sun).
E. G. H. B. P.
HART (Hebr. “ayyal,” the female or hind: also
“ayyalah ” and “ayyelet ”): One of the clean animals
enumerated in Deut. xiv. 5 (comp. xii. 15, 22; xv.
22), and among those provided for the table of Solo-
mon (I Kings v. 8[A. V. iv. 23]). It is certain that
one of the Cervide is intended by “ayyal,” but the par-
Hart
ticular species common in Palestine in Biblical times
can not now be determined; the fallow deer (Cervus
dama) is still met, though rarely, in the neighborhood
of Sidon. The Septuagint renders “ayyal” by é2ago¢,
which would suggest the Cervus elaphus. Some
also (comp. Winer, “B. R.” s.o. “ Hirsch”) regard
“vahmur,” mentioned with “ayyal” (A. V. “ fallow
deer”; R. V. “roebuck”), as a species of hart, per-
haps the Cerrus platyceros, smalier than the common
hart and surpassing it In swiftness. The swiftness
and gentleness characteristic of the hart render it an
image of agility as wellas of feminine grace and ten-
derness (Gen. xlix. 21; IL Sam. xxii. 34; Ps. xviii.
33; Isa. xxxv. 6; Hab. iii. 19; Prov. v. 19; Cant.
ii. 1%, viii. 14). Its maternal affection is alluded to
in Jer. xiv. 8; its timidity in Job xxxix. 1; Ps.
Xxix, 9; its eager panting for water in Ps. xii. 1.
These frequent references to the qualities and habits
of the hart, the localities deriving their names from
it (Josh. x, 12, xxi. 24; Judges xii. 12), and the fact
that it was used for food, show that it was at one
time quite common in Palestine.
In the Talmud “ayyal” (“ayyalah,” “ayyalta”)
and “zebi” are used as generic names for the whole
deer family. The hart is caught with nets; its skin
is used to make parchment (Ket. 103b); its flesh
tastes like that of the heifer (Bek. 29b). The male
has branched antlers (Hul. 59b), adding every year
one tine (Yoma 29a); and the frequent shedding of
the antlers gave rise to the proverbial expression,
“ He placed his money upon the horn of a hart,” that
is, he lost it in a bad enterprise (Ket. 107b). On the
difficulties which the female experiences in copula-
tion and in the bearing of young see ‘Er. 54b; Bek.
7b; B. B. 16b; Yoma 29a (comp. Aristotle, “On Gen-
eration of Animals,” v. 2, 3, and Pliny, “Historia
Naturalis,” x. 63, 83); and on the generation of the
“yahmurta ” (female of the “ yahmur”) see Bek. 7b.
The hart is the swiftest of all animals (Ket. 112a), and
it is therefore used as an example of alertness in doing
the “ willof the Fatherin heaven” (Ab. v. 20). For
a hart to cross one’s path was considered a bad omen
(Sanh. 65a),
BiB OG nape Tristram, The Natural History oe the Bible,
p. 98; Lewysohn, Die Zoologie des Talmuds, p. ae
. M. C.
E.G. H.
HART: Several families of this name, of Anglo-
Jewish origin, settled early in the English posses-
sions in America, including Canada.
Isaac Hart: One of the earliest Jewish residents
of Newport, R. I. He settled there as early as 1750,
and soon became known as a successful merchant.
On June 13, 1756, he was one of several who pur-
chased the land for the first synagogue of New port..
During the War of Independence Isaac Hart favored
the British cause, and it is related that he met his
death in 1780 by being “inhumanely fired upon and
bayoneted ” by the American soldiers (“ Rivington’s
Gazette,” Dec, 2, 1780). In New York a Moses
Hart acquired burgher rights as early as June 22,
17138 or 1714; a Solomon Hart, Jr., took the oath
of allegiance under the Act of 1740.
Ephraim Hart: Merchant; born in Firth, Ba-
varia, in 1747; died in New York July 16, 1825.
The original name of his family was “Hirz.” It is
not known in what year he came to America, but in
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
240
1782 he was residing as a merchant in Philadelphia,
and in that year he joined the Mickveé Israel congre-
gation. He married in 1783 Frances Noah, a sister
of Manuel Noah. Later he removed to New York and
engaged in the commission and brokerage business.
On April 2, 1787, he was registered as an elector
of the Shearith Israel congregation. By 1792 he
had become one of the most successful merchants in
the city, and at this time he helped to organize the
Board of Stock-Brokers, now known as the “ New
York Stock Exchange.” His name occurs in 1799 in
a “list of ownersof houses and lots valued at £2,000
or more.” He was one of the founders, in 1802, of
the Hebra Hesed Veemet, a charitable organization
connected with the Shearith Israel congregation. He
was a state senator in 1810, and it is said that at the
time of his death he was a partner of John Jacob
Astor.
Joel Hart: Physician; the only son of the fore-
going; born in Philadelphia in 1784; died in New
York June 14, 1842. He received the degree of
M.D. from the Royal College of Physicians and Sur-
geons, London. He was one of the charter members
of the Medical Society of the County of New York.
He married, May 2, 1810, in London, Louisa Levien,
and hadissue. On Feb. 7, 1817, he was appointed
by President Madison United States consul at
Leith, Scotland, and remained there in that capacity
until 1832, when he returned to New York and
resumed the practise of medicine. He was well
known in masonic circles in New York city.
Myer Hart: First merchant of Easton, Pa.; his
original name was “ Myer Hart de Shira.” He went
to America at an early age, and at once engaged in
trade. He is classed among the founders of Easton
(1750), and was the first shopkeeper there; his name
occurs in a list (1752) of the eleven original families
of Easton. From the tax-lists of Northampton
county it is evident that he was one of its richest
merchants. On April 8, 1764, Myer Hart took the
oath of allegiance to the colonial government. Dur-
ing the Revolutionary war he was the agent at
Kaston of David Franks, for the “care of Prisoners
in the British Service”; on March 19, 1778, he re-
futed a charge of cruelty and insult to the prisoners.
In August, 1779, he petitioned the “Supreme Exec-
utive Council” in regard to the removal of a tenant.
About 1782 he must have removed to Philadelphia,
for in that year his name occurs among the original
members of the Mickvé Israel congregation; in 1785
it occurs in the first Philadelphia directory. In Sep-
tember, 1786, owing to failure in business his estate
was sold by the sheriff. The exact date of his death
is unknown, although it has been stated that he
lived to near the close of the century. He married
a daughter of Abraham and Esther de Leon, and had
issue.
Michael Hart: Another early resident of
Easton; not related to the foregoing; born in 1788;
died March 23, 1818. He removed to Pennsylvania
early in life, soon becoming one of the wealthiest
residents of Easton, according to the assessments
on his property. He was (1782) one of the original
members of the Mickvé Israel congregation, Phila-
delphia. He was a member of the first fire-com-
pany of Easton. His first wife, Leah, died July 4,
241
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hart
1786, aged 82; his second wife, Esther, was a daugh-
ter of the Rev. Jacob Raphael Cohen. One of the
children by the second marriage was Louisa B.
Hart, well known in the Jewish community of
Philadelphia.
Abraham Hart: American publisher; born in
Philadelphia, Pa., Dec. 15, 1810; died at Long
Branch, N. J., July 22, 1885, At an early age he
secured a position in the firm of Carey & Lea, pub-
lishers, and continued in their employ until 1829,
when he engaged in business with Edward L. Carey
under the firm name of Carey & Hart. Many fa-
mous books were issued by them. Among the pro-
ductions of their press were Griswold’s “ Poets and
Poetry of America ” (1842), and Longfellow’s “ Poets
and Poetry of Europe” and his “Poems” (1845).
They were the first to collectand publish separately
the fugitive pieces of Macaulay, Jeffrey, and other
well-known English essayists. The most celebrated
book issued by Carey & Hart was the now very rare
“Yellowplush Correspondence” (1888), the first
book of Thackeray’s ever published, preceding by
several years the first English edition of any of his
works. In 1845 Carey withdrew from the firm, and
Henry Carey Baird was associated with Abraham
Hart under the name of Hart & Baird. Four years
later Baird withdrew, and Hart continued the pub-
lishing business until 1854, when he retired. The
firm had become one of the best-known publishing-
houses in America.
Abraham Hart was greatly interested in the Jew-
ish charitable and educational societies of Philadel-
phia. He was president of the board of managers
of the Jewish Foster Home, the (first) Jewish Pub-
lication Society, the board of trustees of Maimonides
College, and the Mickvé Israel congregation. He
was for many years treasurer of the Hebrew Educa-
tion Society (1848-75), and was interested in the es-
tablishment of the Jewish Hospital and the Young
Men’s Hebrew Association.
Bernard Hart: Merchant; born in England in
1764; died in New York in 1855. He went to Can-
ada in 1777, and removed to New York in 1780,
where he engaged in business, keeping up the trade
connections he had formed in Canada, During the
yellow-fever epidemic of 1795 he was unceasing in
his devotion to the afflicted. In 1797 Hart was
quartermaster of a brigade of state militia, of which
James M. Hughes was brigadier-general. He mar-
ried in 1806 Rebecca (b. 1788; died 1868), daughter
of Benjamin Mendez Seixas, and by her had several
children, one of whom was Emanuel Harr,
In 1802 he had associated himself with Leonard
Lispenard under the firm name of Lispenard & Hart,
and conducted a general commission business. Hart
withdrew from the firm in 1813, and then contin-
ued in business alone. In 1831 he succceded Jacob
Tsaaes as secretary of the New York Stock Exchange,
and continued in office until 1858. Hart was inter-
ested in the formation of some of the earliest social
organizations of New York city, and his name fre-
quently occurs in the records of the Congregation
Shearith Israel.
Charles Henry Hart: Son of Samuel Hart;
born in Philadelphia Feb. 4, 1847; graduated from
the University of Pennsylvania in 1869 (A.M.,
VI.—16
LL.B.); admitted to the bar Nov. 14, 1868. On Feb.
17, 1894, Hart met with a severe railroad accident,
in consequence of which he gave up the practise of
law. He then devoted himself to the study of the
history of American art. He has been a director of
the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, and
was appointed chairman of the committee on retro-
spective American art at the World's Columbian
Exposition, Chicago, 1898. Heisamember of many
learned societies, and has been corresponding secre-
tary of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society.
Hart is a recognized authority on early American
painters and engravers, and is a constant contributor
to the magazines on this subject. He has published:
“ Historical Sketch of National Medals,” New York,
1866; “Turner, the Dream Painter,” New York,
1879; “ Memoir of William Hickling Prescott,” 1868;
*Bibliographia Lincolniana,” Albany, 1870; “ Bro-
were’s Life Masks of Great Americans,” New York,
1899; “Gilbert Stuart’s Portraits of Women,” New
York, 1902; “ Hints on Portraits and How to Cata-
logue Them,” Philadelphia; ete.
A. A. 5. W. R.
John Isaac Hart: American dental surgeon;
born in New York city Aug. 7, 1865; son of Benja-
min I. Hart and grandson of John I. Hart. He was
educated at the Columbia Grammar School (New
York city) and at the New York College of Den-
tistry, graduating as doctor of dental surgery in
1886, in which year he began to practise. In 1895 he
became professor of operative dentistry, dental pa-
thology, and therapcutics at the New York Den-
tal School, which position he still occupies (1908).
Hart has filled several important positions: in
1899 he was vice-president of the National Dental
Association; in 1902 vice-president of the Odonto-
logical Society of New York; in 1900-02 president
of the New York State Dental Society. He also
takes an active interest in communal affairs.
Hart has contributed several essays to the dental
journals, among them being “Minute Structure of
Deutine,” in “ Dental Cosmos,” 1891, and “ The Care
of the Teeth from the Second to the Twelfth Year,”
in “Information,” 1900.
A. F. T. H.
The following were among the representatives of
the family in Canada:
Aaron Hart: Founder of the Hart family in
Canada; born in London, England, in 1724; died at
Three Rivers, province of Quebec, Canada, in 1800.
He crossed the Atlantic with Sir Frederick Haldi-
mand when that general went to take part in the
war in which England wrested Canada from the
grasp of France. After being a short time in New
York, Hart was appointed commissary officer in
Amherst’s army, and he was one of those who rode
with the staff of that general when he entered Mon-
treal in 1760. Subsequently he was attached to
Haldimand’s command at Three Rivers. At the
close of the war he took up his residence at the lat-
ter place, where he entered into extensive mercan-
tile operations and acquired large estates. He be-
came seignior of Becancourt and of Ste. Marguerite
and owner of the Fief Marquisat Dusable. At his
residence in Three Rivers he received a visit from
Hart
Hart, Moses
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
242
Edward, Duke of Kent, the father of Queen Vic-
toria. He assisted inrepelling Montgomery’s inva-
sion in the winter of 1775, and took an active part in
the military operations of that period. He married
Dorothea Judah, whose brother. Uriah Judah, was
prothonotary of Three Rivers.
Aaron Hart left foursons, Moses, Ezekiel, Ben-
jamin, and Alexander, and four daughters: Cath-
arine married Dr. Bernard Samuel Judah of New
York, whose son, Samuel Judah, became attorney-
general of Indiana; Charlotte married Moses David
of Montreal ; Elizabeth remained unmarried ; Sarah
married Samuel David of Montreal. Moses Hart,
the eldest son of Aaron Hart, received the seigniory
of Ste. Marguerite and the Fief Marquisat Dusable
from his father, and became also seignior of Cour-
val. His descendants are still prominent in Jewish
communal affairs in Montreal, notably Dr. David
A. Hart, born at Three Rivers in 1844, and Lewis
A. Hart, born at Three Riversin 1847. The latter
was president of the Spanish and Portuguese con-
gregation of Montreal in 1891. He was for some
years lecturer on notarial practise at McGill Univer-
sity, and was the author of “On Christian Attempts
to Convert Jews” and “Some Questions Answered,”
two ably written works of a controversial character.
Ezekiel Hart: Second son of Aaron Hart; born
at Three Riversin 1767; diedin 1848. Hesucceeded
his father as seignior of Becancourt. He was the first
Jew elected to the Canadian Parliament, and distin-
guished himself by the leading part he took in the
struggle of 1807-09 to obtain full civil rights for
his coreligionists in Canada (see CANADA). During
the War of 1812-14 he served with distinction as an
officer of militia. He was survived by seven chil-
dren, one of whom, Samuel Becancourt Hart, took
a leading part in securing the passage of the Act of
William IV. which conceded political equality to
the Jews in Canada. Aaron E. Hart and Adol-
phus M. Hart, also sons of Ezekiel Hart, were
prominent members of the legal profession. Adol-
phus M. Hart was the author of a history of the
Mississippi Valley. He married Constance, a daugh-
ter of Benjamin Hart, and one of their sons, Gerald
E. Hart, of Montreal, was the author of “The Fall
of New France,” recognized as one of the best works
on one of the most important epochs in Canadian
history.
Benjamin Hart: Third son of Aaron Hart; born
in 1779 at Montreal; died in 1855. He resided with
his parents at Three Rivers, removing some years
after his father’s death to Montreal. He took a lead-
ing partin Jewish communal work in the latter city
during the earlier half of the last century (see Can-
ADA). He was also identified with many Montreal
non-sectarian institutions, and was one of the found-
ers of the Montreal General Hospital. He married
Harriot Judith Hart, a daughter of Ephraim Hart
of New York, who was one of the founders of the
New York Stock Exchange. He left numerous off-
spring.
Aaron Philip Hart, eldest son of Benjamin
Hart, was distinguished as a learned member of
the Montreal bar. He actively engaged in po-
litical life, and during the rebellion of 1837-38
raised a company of loyalist militia.. Other members
of the family were active in helping to preserve peace
in the district of Three Rivers. Wellington Hart,
the second son of Benjamin Hart, died in Montreal
in 1891. He resided fora time in the United States,
where he became colonel of a Michigan regiment.
He was later attached to the War Department at
Washington. Returning afterward to Canada, he
became manager of the Metropolitan Bank at Coati-
cook. Frederick Hart, third son of Benjamin
Hart, was adjutant-general of Louisiana.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Publications Am. Jew. Hist. Soe. ii. 483 iv.
88-89, 215-218; vi. 101-103; viii, 127-133; H. P. Rosenbach,
The Jews of Philadelphia Pr tor to 1800; Memorial H: istory
of New York City, iii. 151; Pennsylvania archives; Ap-
pleton’s Cyclopoedia of American Biog.: J. C. Derby, Fifty
Years Among Authors, Books, and Publishers : Morais,
The Jews of Philadelphia, pp. 5458: Who's Whoin_Amer-
tea, 1901-02; Daly, The Settlement of the Jews-in North
America, pp. 55-56: Scoville, The Olt Merchants of New
York City, ii. 119- 129.
Canadian Branch: Records of the Hart Family; Minutes
and Correspondence of the Corporation of Spanish and
Portuguese Jews, Shearith Israel, Montreal; Joseph Tassé,
Droits Politiques des Juifs en Canada, in La Revue Cana-
dienne, Montreal, June, 1870: Catalogue Raisonné of Loan
Exhibition of Canadian Historical Portraits, ete., of the
Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Montreal: C. 1.
de Sola, The Histor y of the Spanish and Portuguese Syna-
gogue, in Borthwick’s Gazetteer of Montreal, 1892; idem,
in The Star (Montreal), Dec. 30, 1893; Occident, vol. i., No.
8, Philadelphia, 1843.
A. C. I. ps S.
HART, AARON (known also as Uri Phoebus):
First chief rabbi of the Ashkenazic Jews in Eng-
land; born at Breslau in 1670; died in the year 1756.
After studying ata yeshibah in Poland, he married
the daughter of R. Samuel ben Phoebus of Firth,
author of a commentary on Eben ha-‘Ezer. It was
probably through the influence of his wealthy
brother, Moses Hart, founder of the Great Syna-
gogue, Duke’s place, London, that he was appointed
rabbi of the first Ashkenazic synagogue in that city.
This was opened in Broad street, Miter square, in
1692.
Hart published in 1707 a small work entitled
“Urim we-Tummim,” which is of interest as being
the first Hebrew book printed in London.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Adler, Chief Rabbis of England, 1887;
Cat. Anglo-Jew. Hist. Exh. 1887.
J. G. I.
HART, EMANUEL B.: American congress-
man; born in New York Oct. 29, 1809; died Aug. 29,
1897. When twenty years old he joined the volun-
teer fire department of New York, as a member of
engine company No. 9, and continued in active serv-
ice five years. Hart was a Jackson Democrat, and
one of the challengers at the polls in the exciting
election of 18382. In 1845 he was elected alderman
of the fifth ward, and was reelected the following
year, but refused a third nomination. Subsequently
he was appointed a delegate to the Democratic state
convention, and as a member of Tammany Hall was
elected chairman of the Tammany general committee
in 1849. Jn 1851 Hart was elected to Congress by a
heavy majority. Under President Buchanan’s ad-
ministration he was appointed surveyor of the port
of New York, and on the expiration of his term
served for a year in the same office at President Lin-
coln’s request.
Hart was sent to Europe by the United States
Treasury in 1860 for the purpose of investigating
frauds in the revenue. To his report a number of
243
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hart
Hart, Moses
important reforms have been attributed. In 1867 he
was offered the nomination of the sixth congressional
district of New York, but refused; in 1868 he was a
presidential elector. Hart was made a commissioner
of emigration in 1869, and two years later was elected
member of the board of aldermen. He served as
excise commissioner under Mayor Cooper in 1879,
and on the election of President Cleveland was ap-
pointed disbursing agent at the custom-house, New
York. Later Gen. Daniel E. Sickles, then sheriff,
appointed him cashier of his office. For years Hart
held the presidency of the Mount Sinai Hospital,
and the office of treasurer to the Hebrew Relief
Society, as well as the presidency of the Home for
the Aged and Infirm.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: American Jews’ Annual for 5647 (1886-87),
pp. 112--138.
A. F. H. Y.
HART, ERNEST ABRAHAM: English phy-
sician and editor; born in London 1886; died there
Jan. 7, 1898. He was educated at the City of
London School and Queen’s College, Cambridge.
Choosing medicine as a profession, he was entered
at St. George’s Hospital, where he had a distin-
guished career as a student. In 1856 he became a
member of the Royal College of Surgeons of Eng-
land. He took up asa specialty diseases of the eye,
and acquired an extensive consulting practise in
London.
In 1858 Hart began to publish editorial articles in
the “ Lancet,” and two years later he was appointed
coeditor of that journal. In 1866 he became editor
of the “ British Medical Journal,” the organ of the
British Medical Association, aud the subsequent
growth of that association and of the “ Journal” was
largely due to his labors. His next appointment
was as surgeon to the West London Hospital; and
while attached there he devised a method of treating
a special form of aneurism, which proved of great
service. In 1864 he was appointed ophthalmic sur-
geon to St. Mary’s Hospital, and a few years later
became aural surgeon and dean of the medical school —
attached to the hospital. During this period he con-
tributed various practical papers to the transactions
of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society and to
the reports of the Moorfields Ophthalmic Hospital.
Dr. Hart, in his public capacity, originated many
beneficent schemes for the alleviation of public evils
which his position as chairman of the Parliamentary
Bills Committee of the British Medical Association,
to which he was elected in 1871, enabled him to
carry through. He caused the appointment of a
commission to inquire into the state of the London
workhouse infirmaries, which led to the establish-
ment of the Metropolitan Asylums Board; and he
embarked on acampaign against baby-farming, which
resulted in the Infant Life Protection Act. Hart
was chairman of the National Health Society, and
was an active member of the executive committee
of the International Health Exhibition of 1885. The
record of his public work covers nearly the whole
field of sanitary legislation in England during the
thirty years which preceded his death.
Under the title of “The Eternal Gullible,” Hart
published a series of articles exposing the shams of
hypnotism. mesmerism, etc.; and at the time of his
death he was engaged in editing “Masters of
Medicine,” a series of lives of eminent medical
men. He also contributed to the “ Nineteenth
Century,” the “Century,” and the “ Forum.”
Hart took great pride in his race, and when quite
young wrote articles in “ Frazer's Magazine,” stren-
uously urging the emancipation of the Jews. In
1877 he published “ The Mosaic Code,” an exposition
of Pentateuchal sanitation.
In 1893 the University of Durham conferred on
him the degree of D.C.L., “honoris causa.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Jan. 14, 1898; The Times (Lon-
don), Jan. 8, 1898; British Medical Journal, Jan. 15, 1898.
G. L.
J
HART, HENRY JOHN: Australian magis-
trate; born in New York May 7, 1820; died 1884.
Educated at Columbia College, New York, he was
destined for the legal profession; but, evincing a
distaste for the law, he left New York and went to
Sydney in 1839. In 1841 he took up his abode in
Melbourne, and for some years engaged in commer-
cial pursuits. He took a prominent part in the
search for gold-fields in Victoria. In 1854 he was
appointed a commissioner of the supreme court.
In January, 1855, he left Victoria for Europe, but
returned to the colony in 1857 and was gazetted a
territorial magistrate. Afterward he was thrice
elected by the citizens of Melbourne auditor of that
city.
Through Hart’s exertions a grant of land was
obtained forasynagogue. Hart was honorary secre-
tary of the East Melbourne congregation and its
president for six years. He was for upward of
twenty years on the board of management of the
Melbourne Hospital, the Lying-in Hospital, and the
Sick Children’s Hospital, and was vice-president of
the Eye and Ear Hospital.
In 1866 Hart was acting consul of the United
States of America, and later was appointed vice-
consul of Italy. He was also one of the royal com-
missioners of the International Exhibition at Mel-
bourne in 1881.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jewish World, June 20, 1884.
J. G. L.
HART, SIR ISRAEL: Ex-mayor of Leicester,
England; born 1835. Chairman of the Hart and
Levy Company, wholesale clothing manufacturers,
he was prominently identified with the municipal
life of Leicester from the year 1874, when he was
elected to the town council, In 1884 he was elevated
to the bench of aldermen, and elected mayor, being
reclected in 1885, 1886, and 1898. In 1885 he became
high bailiff of the borough of Leicester.
Hart presented Leicester with a free library and
an ornamental fountain. He contested Central
Hackney in 1900, and died March 24, 1911.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who’s Who, 1908; Jew. Chron. ae ras
J. as
HART, MOSES: Founder of Duke’s Place Syn-
agogue, London; born in Breslau; died in London
1756; brother of Rabbi Uri Phoebus (Aaron Harr),
chief rabbi of the Ashkenazic Jews of England.
During the high-treasurership of Lord Godolphin in
the reign of Queen Anne, a government appoint-
ment was conferred upon Hart, and thereby he
Hart
Hartog
attained to great affluence. In 1722, being actu-
ated by religious zeal and by the fact that the London
Jewish community had outgrown its temporary
house of prayer, Hart contributed a liberal sum,
which covered the cost of erecting a permanent
edifice. This was the first building of the Great
Synagogue, London; it was inaugurated on New-
Year’s eve, 1722.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Picciotto, Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History ;
Cat. Anglo-Jew. Hist. Exh, 1887.
J. G,...G;
HART, SOLOMON ALEXANDER: Artist,
and librarian at the Royal Academy, London; born
at Plymouth April, 1806; died in London June 11,
1881. In 1828 he was entered at the Royal Acad-
emy as a student of painting. His earliest work
was a portrait miniature of his father, which was
exhibited in 1826. He continued fora time to paint
Miniatures, and exhibited his first oil-painting, enti-
tled “ Instruction,” at the British Institution in 1828.
In 1830 he exhibited “The Elevation of the Law”
at the Suffolk Street Gallery. He was elected an
A.R.A. in 1835 and a R.A. in 1840, and from 1854 to
1863 acted as professor of painting at the Royal
Academy, in 1864 becoming librarian to that insti-
tution. During 1841-42 Hart visited Italy, and made
an elaborate series of drawings of architectural in-
teriors and of sites famous in history, which he in-
tended for publication. Hesubsequently abandoned
this intention, and made use of these drawings in sev-
eral scenic and historical Italian pictures. Hart was
curator of the Painted Hall at Greenwich, and fre-
quently gave his services to the British and South
Kensington museums,
Among Hart’s Jewish works are: “Hannah, the
Mother of Samuel”; and “ The Conference Between
Manasseh ben Israel and Oliver Cromwell,” which
was bought by F. D. Mocatta, who subsequently
presented it to Jews’ College.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. and Jew. World, June, 1881;
The Times (London), June 13,1881; Memoirs of S.A. Hart,
privately printed 1881; Boase, Modern English Biography.
J. G. L.
HARTFORD. Sce ConnECTICUT.
HARTMANN, ANTON THEODOR: German
author; born at Diisseldorf June 25, 1774; died at
Rostock April 20, 1888. At Gottingen, Eichhorn
led him to turn his attention to the study of the Old
Testament and of Oriental languages. He taught
for fifteen years, and was then called to Rostock
(1811) as professor of Old Testament theology. His
many works were for the most part of a belletristic
character. The following two deserve special men-
tion: “Die Hebrierin am Putztische und als Braut:
Vorbereitet Durch eine Uebersicht der Wichtigsten
Erfindungen in dem Reiche der Moden bei den He-
brierinnen von den Rohesten Anfingen bis zur Uep-
pigsten Pracht” (8vols., Amsterdam, 1809-10), on
which De Quincey wrote one of his essays; “ His-
torisch-Kritische Forschungen tiber die Bildung, das
Zeitalter und den Plan der Fiinf Biicher Mose’s, Nebst
einer Beurtheilenden Einleitung und einer Genauen
Charakteristik der Hebriischen Sagen und Mythen,”
his principal work (1831). The latter book presents
the most consistent development of the so-called
“fragment-theory.” About 1835 he wrote several
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
244
pamphlets against the emancipation of the Jews, to
which Gotthold Salomon replied.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, x. 680 et
Te K. H. ©.
HARTMANN, MORITZ: Austrian poet; born
at Przibram, Bohemia, Oct., 1821; died at Ober-
débling, near Vienna, May 13, 1872. He was edu-
cated at the gymnasiums at Jung-Bunzlau and
Prague, and at the universities of Prague and
Vienna. After traveling in Italy, Switzerland, Ger-
many, and France he went to Vienna (1842). He
revisited Germany in 1844, and lived for some time
after in Brussels. In
1847 he returned to
Prague. He took
part in the Revolu-
tion of 1848, and was
elected representative
to the Parliament
at Frankfort-on-the-
Main. He went with
Blum and Froébel to
Vienna, escaping to
Frankfort when the
troops under Win-
dischgraétz were vic-
torious. When the
revolution in Baden
broke out (1849) he
again sided with the
revolutionists, and
when this revolution
also failed he was compelled to flee from Germany.
In 1858 he was sent to the Crimea as war corre-
spondent for the “Kélnische Zeitung.” Expelled
from Constantinople in 1854, he went to France.
In 1860 he settled in Geneva, where he became
teacher of German literatureand language. In 1862
he became editor of the “Freya” in Stuttgart; in
1867 one of the editors of the “ Aligemeine Zeitung ” ;
in 1868 he went to Vienna as editor of the “ Neue
Freie Presse.”
Among Hartmann’s works are: “Kelch und
Schwert,” Leipsic, 1845; “Reimchronik des Pfaffen
Mauritius,” Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1849; “Der
Krieg um den Wald,” 70. 1850; “Adam und Eva,”
Leipsic, 1851; “Schatten,” Darmstadt, 1851; “ Neu-
ere Gedichte,” Leipsic, 1851; “ Tagebuch aus Lan-
guedoc und Provence,” Darmstadt, 18538; “ Novel-
len,” Berlin, 1858; “Die Diamanten der Barvunin,”
tb. 1873; “Gedichte in Neuer Auswahl,” Stuttgart,
1874. He translated from the Hungarian Petdfi’s
poems “Gedichte,” Darmstadt, 1851, and edited
“ Bretonische Volkslieder” (with L. Pfau), Cologne,
1859.
His collected works appeared in ten volumes in
Stuttgart, 1873-75.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Briimmer, Deutsches Dichter-Lexikon, 1876;
Brandes, Das Junge Deutschland, Leipsic, 1892.
s F. T. H.
HARTOG, CECILE: English composer and
pianist; born in London. She studied music under
C. K. Salaman, and afterward at the Royal Acad-
emy of Music, London, also receiving instruction
from F. H. Cowen, Bargiel, Oscar Beringer, and
Moritz Hartmann.
245
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hart
Hartog
Karl Klindworth (Berlin). Cécile Hartog has pub-
lished a numberof songsand of pieces for piano and
clarionet. Among her musical settings the best
known are: Browning's “The Years at the Spring,”
Lang's “Northern Song,” Zangwill’s “Sunset,”
Ileine’s “Snow May Drift,” and Mrs. Lucas’ “Song
of the Jewish Soldier.” Her tirst and great success
was “Swinging.”
Miss Hartog is also the composer of “ Barbara’s
Song Book,” a book of songs for children, and au-
thor of “ Poets of Provence,” in the “ Contemporary
Review,” October, 1894.
J. I. H.
HARTOG, EDOUARD DE: Dutchcomposer;
born in Amsterdam Aug. 15, 1826; studied under
Bartelmann, Dohler, Mme. Dulcken, and Hoch; sub-
sequently with Elwart and Litolff, and still later with
Heinze and Damcke. In 1882 he settled in Paris,
where he taught pianoforte, composition, and har-
mony. In 1853 he composed his first opera, “Le
Mariage de Don Lope,” which was not produced
tili 1868 (Théatre Lyrique, Paris). De Hartog
became prominent through his orchestral works,
particularly those composed in 1857 and 1859. He
has written, besides the opera mentioned above:
“T,’ Amour et Son Hote” (Brussels, 1873); Forty-third
Psalm, for soli, chorus, and orchestra; two string
quartets; “Lorenzo Aldini,” opera; and many pieces
for the violin, violoncello, harp, and organ. He
was also a contributor to Pougin’s supplement to
Fétis’ “ Biographie Universelle.”
De Hartog is a member of the Netherlands Mu-
sical Society; and he has been decorated with the
orders of Leopold and of the Oaken Crown.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Riemann, Musik-Lexikon; Baker, Biog. Dict.
of Musicians, New York, 1900.
8. A. P.
HARTOG, LEVI DE: Dutch jurist; born at
Gorinchem (Gorkum), Holland, Nov. 6, 1885; stud-
ied law and (under Professor Dozy) Oriental lan-
guages at the University of Leyden (LL.D. 1859).
De Hartog settled asa lawyer and private tutor in
Leyden, and in 1865 was appointed teacher of gen-
eral history and politics at the Hoogere Burger-
school, Haarlem. In 1866 he filled asimilar position
in Utrecht, and in 1877 was appointed professor of
law at the University of Amsterdam. Since 1888
he has been a member of the Royal Academy of
Sciences (Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschap-
pen).
De Hartog takes great interest in Jewish af-
fairs. Since 1887 he has served on the board of
trustees of the theological seminary, and in 1898
was appointed president of that institution. Since
1885 he has been chairman of the Dutch section of
the Alliance Israélite Universelle, and since 1890 of
the Maatschappij tot nut der Israelieten in Neder-
land.
Among De Hartog’s works are: acollation of the
Leyden MS. of Ben Sira for Steinschneider’s “ Al-
phabetum Syriacum” (Leyden, 1857; see introduc-
tion by Steinschneider); “De Jodenvervolging in
1096,” in the “ Gids,” 1856; “ Gronden der Staats-Pro-
vinciale-en-Gemeente-Inrichting van Nederland”
(1866; 8th ed., 1901); “Leven van R. P. Dozij in
Mannen van Beteekenis” (1884); “De Staatsre-
gelingen en Grondwetten van Nederland van 1798
af tot op Heden”; and “ Das Staatsrecht des Kénig-
reichs der Niederlande,” in Marquardsen’s “Das
Ocffentliche Recht der Gegenwart.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sijthoff, LDericon; Almanak Amsterdamesche
Studenten-Corps, 1887 (portrait); Feestnummer, Propria
Cures, Noy. 1, 1902 (portrait): Hen Halve Bewu.
8. E. St.
HARTOG, MARION: English writer; born at
Portsea on Oct. 22, 1821; fifth daughter of Joseph
Moss. She was eclucated by her parents, and at an
early age began with her sister Celia the composi-
tion of poems and stories. At sixteen they pub-
lished by subscription a book of poems entitled
“Early Efforts,” 1838. <A little later Marion went
to London and gained a livelihood as a teacher. In
1840 she published three volumes of tales entitled
“The Romance of Jewish History,” which were fol-
lowed by “Tales of Jewish History.” By this time
the sisters were engaged in literary work for differ-
ent publications, including the “ Bradford Observer,”
the “Metropolitan Magazine,” and Jewish period-
icals. In August, 1845, Marion married Alphonse
Hartog, of whom she had been taking French les-
sons, and shortly after her marriage established a
boarding- and day-school for young children, which
she continued to conduct until 1884. In 1855 she
founded the “ Jewish Sabbath Journal,” but the cares
of her school and family absorbing all her time, and
the journal not proving a financial success, it was
discontinued. She died Oct. 29, 1907.
Many of Mrs. Hartog’s children have become em-
inent. Of her sons, Numa Edward Hartoe was
senior wrangler at Cambridge; Marcus and Philip
Hartoc are distinguished men of science. Her
daughters are Mme. Arséne DARMESTETER, the por-
trait-painter, aud Cécile HarrocG, the composer and
pianist.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Aug. 23, 1895; Foung Israel,
Oct., 1898.
J. G. L.
HARTOG, NUMA EDWARD: First Jewish
senior wrangler; bornin London May 20, 1846; died
June 19,1871. At Pinches’ Commercial School and
afterward at University College School he gained
all the principal prizes. In 1862 he obtained the
Jews’ Commemoration Scholarship at University
College, London, and was twice awarded the An-
drews’ Scholarship. He matriculated at London
University in 1862, obtaining honors wholly with-
out precedent there.
In 1865 Hartog entered Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, with a minor scholarship, and in January,
1869, he appeared as the first Jewish senior wran-
gler. He was, however, prevented from taking a
fellowship by his inability to subscribe to the re-
quired test. In the movement for the removal of
Jewish disabilities he was a prominent figure, and
his straightforward evidence before a committee of
the House of Lords helped considerably to secure the
passing of the Universities Tests Act in 1871.
His brother, Marcus Hartog, is an English bota-
nist, born in London in 1850; professor of natural
history at Queen’s College, Cork.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Record, Feb. 5, 18€9; June 23, 1871; Jew.
Chron. June 23, 1871; Morais, Eminent Israelites; The
Times (London), May 30, 1871; June 21, 22, 23, 1871.
J.
Hartog, Philip
Hasdai, Abraham
HARTOG, PHILIP JOSEPH: English chem-
ist and educationist; bornin London March 2, 1864;
educated at University College School, at Owens
College, Manchester, and at the universities of Paris
and Heidelberg; B.Sc. of Victoria University, Man-
chester, and of the University of London. He
worked under Berthelot in the laboratories of the
Collége de France till 1889. In that year he was
elected to a Bishop Berkeley Scholarship at Owens
College, and in 1891 and 1895 to assistant lecture-
ships in chemistry at the same institution. In 1895
Tartog became lecturer to the university, and in 1901
he was appointed member of the court of the uni-
versity.
Hartog’s work lies chiefly in the field of thermo-
chemistry; and he has published the results of his
investigations on the thermochemistry of the sul-
fites and of iron nitrid, on the flame spectrum of
nickel compounds, on the latent heat of steam, etc.
He has also written most of the articles on chemists
in the latter half of the “Dictionary of National
Biograpby.” He edited a history of Owens College
on the occasion of its jubilee in 1900. Hartog has
contributed many articles to scientific and other
magazines, and is interested in Manchester Ruskin
Hall, an evening college which was established in
the interest of working men.
J. I. H.
HARTOGH, ABRAHAM FRANS KAREL:
Dutch jurist and deputy; born at Amsterdam Dec.
29, 1844; died at The Hague Feb. 13, 1901; LL.D.
Leyden 1869. Hartogh settled as a lawyer in Am-
sterdam, and soon became one of the capital’s most
prominent leaders of the Liberal party. In 1886 he
was elected to Parliameut as a member of the Second
Chamber for Amsterdam, which position he occupied
uninterruptedly till his death. Hartogh introduced
a bill on civil procedure, which was accepted after
strong opposition in the First Chamber on July 7,
1896. He was also successful in securing certain
rights for women, particularly as regards proceed-
ings for divorce.
Among Tlartogh’s works may be mentioned: (1)
“Treatise on the Financial Responsibility of the State
for the Damages Caused by the Faults of Its Func-
tionaries,” 1869; (2) “ Voorstel van Wet tot Wijzig-
ing van het Wetboek van Burgerlyke Rechtsvor-
dering,” 4 vols,, The Hague, 1895-98; and (8) “De
wet van 7 July, 1896 (“Staatsblad,” No. 103), tot
Wijziging van het Wetboek van Burgerlyke Rechts-
vordering,” with annotations by A. F. K. Hartogh
and C. A. Cosman, The Hague, 1897.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Amsterdammer, Feb. 24, 1901 (portrait).
8. | EK. Su.
HARTVIGSON, ANTON: Danish pianist;
born at Aarhus, Jutland, Oct. 16, 1845; brother of
Frits Hartvigson. He studied under Neupert and
Tausig. After appearing in several concerts in
Copenhagen he went to London, where for ten years
he was professor of music at the Royal Norma! Col-
lege for the Blind, and where he gave important an-
nual recitals. He resides (1903) in Copenhagen, where
he gives annually a series of lectures on the chief
works of pianoforte composition. In 1900 the King
of Denmark conferred on him the title of “Royal
Professor.”
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
246
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Salmonsen’s, Store Ilustrerede Konversar
tionsleksikon.
8. F. C.
HARTVIGSON, FRITS: Danish pianis:; born
at Grenaae, Jutland, May 31, 1841. Hig first in.
structors in piano were his mother and Anton Rée.
In 1859 he went to Berlin, where he studied under
Hans von Biilow. MHartvigson’s first importaat ap-
pearance in public was in Copenhagen in 1860.
Since then he has been received with enthusiasm in
most of the European capitals. His repertoire in-
cludes the compositions of Liszt, Bronsart, Brahms, -
Rubinstein, and Raff. Especially distinguished was
his performance in Liszt’s “ Todtentanz” for piano
and orchestra, given under the leadership of Hans
von Biilow in 1878 in England.
Hartvigson settled in London in 1864, and played
at the Crystal Palace Saturday concerts, at the
Richter and Hensche} orchestral concerts, and at the
Philharmonic Society concerts; at the last-named he
introduced Liszt’s Concerto in E-fat (1872). From
1872 to 1875 he iived in Russia, and when he returned
to London was appointed pianist to the Princess Al-
exandra of Wales. He was made a knight of the
Order of Dannebrog by the King of Denmark.
Hart vigson isan honorary iiember and a professor
(appointed 1888) of the Royal Academy of Music,
examiner in the Royal College of Music, and pro-
fessor in the Royal Normal College for the Blind.
Among his pupils were Alfred Hollins and Pauline
Ellice,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who’s Who, 193; C. F. Bricka, Dansk Bio-
grafisk Lexicon.
s. F. C.
HARVEST: The Palestinian harvest began in
April with the cutting (hence “ kazir”) of the barley.
The lentil and pea ripened at the same time, aud the
reaping of the wheat and spelt followed two weeks
later, although, of course, the time varied with the
climatic conditions in the different districts. While
in the lowlands around Jericho the barley harvest
began early in April, along the coast it began eight
days later, and in the mountains it was often from
two to four weeks later. The harvesting of grain
usually lasted seven weeks. It is doubtful whether
the Feast of Mazzot was at the beginning of the har.
vest; at any rate the chief harvest festival (“hag ha-
kazir”) was the Feast of Weeks (see SHEBU‘OT). The
grain was cut with a sickle (“hermesh,” “maggal”),
asis still the custom in Palestine (Deut. xvi. 9). The
reaper (“kozer”) grasped a number of ears with one
hand (Isa. xvii. 5; Ps. cxxix. 7), and cut them off
quite high up; perhaps in early times the single
ears were plucked out by hand. The cut grain
lay in rows (“‘amir”) behind the reaper, and was
bound into sheaves (“alummah”; Gen. xxxvii.
7) by the sheaf-binder (“meassef”; Jer. ix. 21:
“me‘ammer”; Ps. cxxix. 7) and placed in heaps
(“ gadish ”).
Lev. xix. 9 and xxiii. 22 ordain that the reapers
shall leave something for the poor, and shall not
clean the field too thoroughly. During the reaping
the workmen refreshed themselves with parched
grain (“ kali”), and with bread dipped in a sour drink
(“homez”; Ruth ii. 14). Since the grain was usu-
ally thrashed in the open field, the husbandmen used
247
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hartog, Philip
Hasdai, Abraham
to sleep there as long as the thrashing lasted, as
they still do in Palestine. The yield from the seed
varied greatly: from sixty to one hundredfold was
an unusually rich return (Gen. xxvi. 12); probably
thirtyfold was the ordinary return (Matt. xiii. 8),
although to-day the average return is considerably
less than this.
The harvest celebrations reached their climax in
the harvest festival (“hag ha-asif”), which was pre-
eminently a vintage festival. On that occasion the
land was filled with rejoicing, and the people gave
themselves over to mirth and dancing (comp. Judges
ix. 27; Isa. xvi. 10; Jer. xxv. 30, xlvili. 33). To-
day grapes to be consumed as food are gathered
from the beginning of the month of August on,
whereas those destined for the wine-press are not gar-
nered until the months of September and October;
it was the same in ancient times, since the real vint-
age festival is the Feast of Tabernacles, which comes
in Tishri. Harvest rejoicings are frequently men-
tioned in the Bible (comp. Isa. ix.3; Ps. iv. 8[A.V.
7, cxxvi. 5 ef seg.). Ata time of such rejoicing the
poor must not be forgcetten, hence the injunction,
that the cornersand edges of the ficld, as well as the
gleanings and any sheaves that may have been over-
looked, be left for the poor and the stranger (Lev.
xix. 9, xxiii, 22; Deut. xxiv. 19; Ruth ii. 2, 15 e¢
seq.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Stade, Gesch. des Volkes Israel, i.7; Nowack,
Lehrbuch der Hebrdischen Archidiologie, s.v. Hrnte ; Ben-
ginger, Hebrilische Arch., 1894, p. 209; Thomson, The Land
and the Book (popular ed., 1880), s.v. Harvest; Zeitschrift
des Deutschen Paldstinavereins, ix. 149; H. Vogelstein, Die
Landwirtschaft in Paldstina zur Zeit der Mischnah, p. 47,
le 1894; Adler and Casanovicz, Biblical Antiquities, p.
W. N.
HASA: Babylonian amora of the third century,
contemporary of Nahman (b. Jacob) and of Ammi
(B. M. 57a). Though he was a poor man, people
trusted him with their treasures, making him their
bailee, without taking receipts from him. It is
stated that, rumor having spread the report that
Hasa had been drowned, Nahman decided that
Hasa’s wife might marry again, on the ground that,
were he still alive, the report of the whereabouts of
so great a man would certainly have reached Nah-
man’s ears (Yeb. 121b; Ket. 85b).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ti.
de S. M.
HASAN BEN MASHIAH: Karaite teacher
of the ninth or tenth century. According to Sahl
ben Mazliah (sce Pinsker, “ Likkute Kadmoniyyot,”
p. 37), Hasan publicly disputed with Saadia, and
after Saadia’s death wrote against him. In op-
position to this, Ibn al-Hiti records that Hasan lived
in Bagdad, and held disputes there with the Chris-
tian physician Abu Ali Isa ibn Zara (see Stein-
schneider, “Polemische und Apologetische Littera-
tur,” p. 146), who wrote in the year 387 a.w. (= 997
c.£.). This date is, however, far too late for Ben
Mashiah.
Of Hasan’s polemic against Saadia, which was
probably written in Arabic, a passage is extant, re-
ferring to the antiquity of the present Jewish cal-
endar (the well-known theory of Saadia). In this
passage mention is made of certain “Sadducaic wri-
E, G, H,
tings,” which, as is now known, circulated among
the Karaites of the tenth century. To this polem-
ical treatise probably belongs another passage in a
St. Petersburg manuscript, where Ben Mashiah,
after some introductory remarks in Arabic, quotes
a complete Hebrew treatise on calendar-science by
au otherwise unknown Rabbinite, Joshua ben ‘Alan.
Hadassi, moreover, quotes from Hasan an opinion
on the law of inheritance (“Ha-Eshkol,” § 2573);
and Ibn Ezra, in the preface to his commentary on
the Pentateuch, mentions him (placing him in one
class with Anan, Benjamin al-Nahawandi, and
Jeshua b. Judah) as representative of Karaite Bible
exegesis,
From this it would appear that Hasan ben Ma-
shiah also wrote Bible commentaries; and perhaps
he is the author of a fragment of an Arabic commen-
tary on Exodus (MS. St. Petersburg), in which the
above-mentioned passage against Saadia likewise
occurs, and which Harkavy attributes to Sahl b.
Mazliah. On the other hand, the authorship of a
treatise on the theodicy, under the title “Sha‘ar ha-
Zedek,” of a“ Sefer ha-Datot ” or “ Zikron ha-Datot,”
and of a law code (“Sefer ha-Mizwot”), is errone-
ously ascribed to him.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pinsker, Likkute Kadmoniyyot, p. 114; Stein-
schneider, Cat. Lugd. pp. 390, 403; idem, Hebr. Uebers. p.
460; idem, Arabische Litteratur der Juden, pp. 79, 282; First,
Gesch. des Kardert. ii. 14 (notes), 46; Margoliouth, Ibn al-
Hiti, in J. Q. R.ix. 484, 441; Joshuab. ‘Alan, in Ha-Zefirah,
1899, Nos. 141-142, and in Ha-Goren, iv. 75. On the Exodus
commentary see Poznanski, Anan et Ses Ecrits, p. 20 (re-
printed in R. £. J. xliv. 176).
K. S. P.
HASDAI I.: Third exilarch of the Arabian
period; died in 730. He was a descendant of Bos-
tanai I. and a successor of Hanina b. Adait. His eld-
est son was Solomon b. Hasdai, who also, after his
father’s death, became exilarch. His second son,
David, was the father of Anan ben David, the
founder of the Karaites, and, according to Karaite
tradition, was gaon. Hasdai’sson-in-law, probably,
was Natronai ben Nehemiah, gaon of Pumbedita
(719-739). Hasdai I. is certainly the exilarch quoted
in Al-Kazwini’s “ Athar al-Bilad” (ed. Wiistenfeld,
p. 208), though his name is not mentioned. Accord-
ing to this report he showed to Mujahid (724) the
two angels Harutand Marut, great teachers of magic
(see Hughes, “ Dict. of Islam,” p. 167). It is related
that Mujahid, against Hasdai’s express condition,
pronounced the name of God on seeing them, and
thus did not perish.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gratz, Gesch. v. 118, 388; R. BE. J. viii. 124;
Lazarus, in Brill’s Jahrb. x. 48, 174, 180; Abraham ibn
Daud, in M. J. C. i. 198.
J. M. Sc,
HASDAI, ABRAHAM BEN SAMUEL HA-
LEVI: Hebrew translator; lived in Barcelona about
1230. He is supposed to have been the son of the
poet Samuel ibn Abraham ibn Hasdai ha-Levi (1165-
1216; Gratz,“ Geschichte,” vi. 195). Abraham Hasdai
was an enthusiastic partizan of Maimonides, and took
part in the struggle between the followers and the
opponents of that philosopher. He sent a letter to Ju-
dah ibn al-Fakhar of Toledo (see Buxtorf, “ Institutio
Epistolaris Hebraica,” p. 433, Basel, 1729) in which
he expressed the hope of converting him to the Mai-
monidean party. At the same time he blamed him
Hasdai, Abraham
Hasdai b. Solomon
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
248
for his attacks on the old grammarian David Kimhi,
and alluded to Meir ben Todros ha-Levi Abulatia,
the other principal adversary of Maimonides, in
terms of censure. Moreover, he addressed a letter
(Maimonides, “ Teshubot, She’elot we-Iggerot,” p.
346, Constantinople, 1820-40) to the same Abulatia,
in which he expressed astonishment that a man of the
latter’s connections and position should unite with
those who opposed Maimonides and despised a man
like David Kimhi. He addressed ‘another letter, in
conjunction with his brother Judah (see “ Ozar Neh-
mad,” ii. 171), to the Jews of Castile, Aragon, Na-
varre, and Leon, severely arraigning the anti-Mai-
monidists, who, in their fanaticism, had caused the
monks to burn some of Maimonides’ writings in
Paris and Montpellier.
Ibn Hasdai was an industrious translator from
Arabic into Hebrew; some Arabic works are known
only through his translations. Among his transla-
tions are the following: (1) “Sefer ha-Tappuah,”
from the pseudo-Aristotelian “ Kitab al-Tuffahah ”
(Venice, 1519, frequently reprinted; Latin transl.
“Biga Dissertationum,” Giessen, 1706; German
transl. by J. Musen, Lemberg, 1873). The original
Arabic text is lost. (2) “Mozene Zedek,” from
Ghazali’s ethical work entitled “ Mizan al-‘Amal.”
It was published by J. Goldenthal, who rejected Ibn
Hasdai’s for the original Arabic title of Ghazali
(Leipsic, 1839). The Arabic original has been lost.
Ibn Hasdai’s translation replaces Ghazali’s quota-
tions from the Koran and the Sunna with their
equivalents from Bible and Talmud (see Jellinek
in “Orient, Lit.” v. 578, and Goldenthal’s answer to
Jellinek in 2b. vi. 893). (3) “Sefer ha-Yesodot,”
from Isaac Israeli’s “Kitab al-Istiksat” (German
transl. by 8. Fried, “Das Buch der Elemente,”
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1900; first appeared as in-
augural dissertation, Leipsic, 1884). Ibn Hasdai
translated the book at the request of David Kimhi;
and some passages, compared by Steinschneider,
agree exactly with the Latin translation supposed
to have been made by Gerard of Cremona. Another
Hebrew translation of the book is supposed to be by
Moses ibn Tibbon, though both translations have
the introduction of Ibn Hasdai (see 8. Fried’s trans-
lation, p. 73). The Arabic original is lost. (4) Mai-
monides’ “Sefer ha-Mizwot.” Fragments of Has-
dai’s translation are preserved in quotations by
Nahmanides and Aaron ha-Levi, contained in M.
Bloch’s “ Le Livre des Préceptes,” p. 26 (Paris, 1888).
(5) Maimonides’ “Iggeret Teman.” Two passages
of Ibn Hasdai’s translation are given in Stein-
schneider’s “Hebr. Bibl.” (xv. 62). There are two
other Hebrew translations in existence of bothof the
foregoing booksof Maimonides. (6) “ Ben ha-Melek
we ha-Nazir” (see BARLAAM AND JOSAPHAT). The
question as to how far Ibn Hasdai introduced new
stories into the old framework, and as to which
Arabic translation of the original Persian or Indian
he used, can not at present be determined; but his
version jis one of the most important factors in the
critical inquiry as to how this story of the Buddha
was transmitted trom East to West. The Hebrew
style of Ibn Hasdai’s translations is elegant and clear.
According to De Rossi he also wrote hiddushim on
several Talmudic treatises (Parma MS. No. 1162,
iii. S4); but Stemnschneider doubts this (see Benja-
cob,“ Ozar ha-Sefarim,” p. 174).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider. Cat. Bodl. p. 673; idem, Jew-
ish Literature, pp. 89, 96, 173, 174; idem, Hebr. Uebers. pp,
268, 342, 391, 8638, 927, 980; Gritz, Gesch. vi. 195: Vii. 55, 56, 78,
313; Cassel, Lehrbuch der Jitdischen Gesch. und Littera-
tur, p. 2773 Brill, Jahrb. iv. 20, 32.
J. M. Sc.
HASDAI (HISDAI), ABU AL-FADL BEN
JOSEPH IBN: Jewish convert to Islam; lived at
Saragossa in the second half of the eleventh century.
Ibn Abi ‘Usaibia (“‘Uyun al-Anba fi Tabakat ai-
Atibba”) pompously calls him a descendant of
the prophet Moses, He relates further that Hasdai
was an excellent poet, an orator, a clever logician
and physician, and was well versed in mathematics
and astronomy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Ibn Abi ‘Usaibia, ‘Oyun al-Anba fi Tabakat
al-Atibha, ii. 50; Steinschneider, Die Arabische Literatur
der Juden, § 100, note 3, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1902.
K, I. Br.
HASDAI, ABU OMAR JOSEPH IBN:
Judzxo-Spanish poct of the eleventh century; prob-
ably born at Cordova; died between 1045 and 1055,
Tbn Janah, in his “ Luma‘” (p. 152 = “ Rikmah,” p.
86; between 1050 and 1055), speaks of Josephas al-
ready dead. He saw him at Saragossa, whither he had
gone from Cordova. It appears, however, from Jo-
seph’s poem that he wasalive in 1045. There is there-
fore little ground for Luzzatto’s supposition (“ Notice
sur Hasdai ben Isaac,” p. 60) that Joseph was the
son of Hasdai b. Isaac ha-Levi, who in 960 was an
old man. Only one poem of Joseph’s has been pre-
served, the “ Yetomah” (Arabic, “Yatimah” [“un-
equaled ”|), it is a panegyric of Samuel Nagdela
and his son Joseph, the latter being at that time a boy
between ten and fifteen. The beauty of this poem
is equal to its name, and critics recognize it as com-
parable to those of Ibn Gabirol, It is praised by
Moses ibn Ezra in a poem published in “ Ozar Neh-
mad” (iii. 44 e¢ seg.), and by Al-Harizi (“ Tahke-
moni,” ch. iii.). The Hebrew text of Hasdai’s poem
was published by L. Dukes in his “ Nahal Kedumin ”
(p. 17), and a German metric translation by Geiger
in his “Salomon Gabirol und Seine Dichtungen ”
(pp. 30 et seq.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, in Ersch and Gruber, Bneyc.
section ii., part 31, p. 73; idem, Jewish Literature, p. 171;
J. Egers, in Kobak’s Jeschurun, vi. 63-67; Gratz, Gesch. 3d
ed., Vi. 48, 301~852.
J. M. SEL.
HASDAI ABU YUSUF (BEN ISAAC BEN
EZRA) IBN SHAPRUT (SHABRUT, SHAF-
RUT, BASHRUT, or, incorrectly, SHPROT ;
called also Hasdai ha-Nasi): Spanish physician,
diplomat, and patron of Jewish science; born about
915 at Jaen; died 970 or 990 at Cordova. His father
was a wealthy and learned Jew of Jaen. Hasdai ac-
quired in his youtha thorough knowledge of Hebrew,
Arabic, and Latin, the last-named language being
at that time known only to the higher clergy of
Spain. Healsostudied medicine, and issaid tohave
discovered a universal panacea, called “ Al-Faruk.”
Appointed physician to the calif ‘Abd al-Rahman
IIT. (912-961), he, by his engaging manners, knowl-
edge, character, and extraordinary ability, gained
his master’s confidence to such a degree that he
became the calif’s confidant and faithful counselor.
249
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
fasdal, Abraham
asdai b. Solomon
Without bearing the title of vizier he was in reality
minister of foreign affairs; he had also control of the
customs and ship-dues in the port of Cordova.
Hasdai arranged the alliances formed by the calif
with foreign powers, and he received the envoys
sent by the latter to Cordova. In 949 an em-
bassy was sent by Constantine VII. to form a diplo-
matic league between the hard-pressed Byzantine
empire and the powerful ruler of Spain. Among
the presents brought by the embassy was a magnifi-
cent codex of Dioscorides’ work on botany, which
the Arabic physicians and naturalists valued highly.
Hasdai, with the aid of alearned Greek monk named
Nicholas, translated it into Arabic, making it there-
by the common property of the Arabs and of medie-
val Europe.
Hasdai rendered important services to his master
by his treatment of an embassy headed by Abbot
Johannes of Goritz, sent to Cordova in
As 956 by Otto I. The calif, fearing that
Minister. the letter of the German emperor might
contain matter derogatory to Islam,
commissioned Hasdai to open the negotiations with
the envoys. Hasdai, who soon perceived that the
letter could not be delivered to the calif in its pres-
ent form, persuaded the envoys to send for another
letter which should contain no objectionable matter.
Johannes of Géritz said that he had “never seen a
man of such subtle intellect as the Jew Hasdeu”
(“Vita Johannis Gorziensis,” ch. cxxi., in Pertz,
“Monumenta Germania,” iv. 371).
Hasdai secured a great diplomatic triumph dur-
ing the difficulties which arose between the king-
doms of Leon and Navarre, when the ambitious
Queen Toda sought the aid of ‘Abd al-Rahman in re-
instating her deposed grandson Sancho. Hasdai was
sent to the court of Navarre; and he succeeded
after a long struggle in persuading the queen to go
to Cordova with her son and grandson, in order to
prostrate herself before the calif, her old enemy, and
implore the aid of his arms (958). The proud
Navarrese allowed herself to be vanquished by
Hasdai—as a Jewish poet of the time expresses him-
self, “by the charm of his words, the strength of
his wisdom, the force of his cunning, and his
thousand tricks.” Hasdairetained his high position
under ‘Abd al-Rahman’s son and successor, Al-
Hakim, who even surpassed his father in his love
for science.
Hasdai was very active in behalf of his coreligion-
ists and Jewish science. When he heard that in the
far East there was a Jewish state hav-
ing a Jewish ruler, he desired to enter
into correspondence with this mon-
arch; and when the report of the ex-
istence of the state of the Chazars was confirmed by
two Jews, Mar Saul and Mar Joseph, who had come
in the retinue of an embassy from the Slavic king
to Cordova, Hasdai entrusted to them a letter, writ-
ten in good Hebrew addressed to the Jewish king,
in which he gave an account of his position in the
Western state, described the geographical situation
of Andalusia and its relation to foreign countries,
and asked for detailed information in regard to the
Chazars, their origin, their political and military
organization, etc. See CHAZans.
Jewish
Activity.
Hasdai sent rich presents to the academies of Sura
and Pumbedita, and corresponded with Dosa, the
son of Saadia Gaon. He was also instrumental in
transferring the center of Jewish science from Baby-
lonia to Spain, by appointing Moses b. Enoch, who
had been stranded at Cordova, director of a school,
and thereby detaching Judaism from its dependence
on the East, to the great joy of the calif, as Abraham
ibn Daud says (“Sefer ha-Kabbalah,” p. 68). Ibn
Abi ‘Usaibia writes of him: “Hasdai b. Isaac was
among the foremost Jewish scholars versed in their
law. He opened to his coreligionists in Andalusia
the gates of knowledge of the religious law, of chro-
nology, etc. Before his time they had to apply to
the Jews of Bagdad on legal questions, and on mat-
ters referring to the calendar and the dates of the
festivals” (ed. Miller, ii. 50),
Hasdai marks the beginning of the florescence of
Andalusian Jewish culture, and the rise of poetry and
of the study of Hebrew grammar among the Spanish
Jews. Himself a scholar, he encouraged scholarship
among his coreligionists by the purchase of Hebrew
books, which he imported from the East, and by
supporting Jewish scholars whom he gathered about
him. Among the latter were Menahem b. Saruk of
Tortosa, the protégé of Hasdai’s father, and Dunash
b. Labrat, both of whom addressed poems to their
patron. Dunash, however, prejudiced Hasdai to
such a degree against Menahem that Hasdai caused
Menahem to be maltreated.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Philoxéne Luzzatto, Notice sur Ahbou-Jou-
souf Hasdai thn-Shaprout, Paris, 1852; Dozy, Gesch. der
Mauren in Spanien, ii. 58; Rios, Hist. i. 145; Geiger, Das
Judenthum und Seine Gesch. ti. 82; Carmoly, Histoire des
Médecins Juifs, p. 30 (very inadequate); Cassel, in Miscel-
lany of Hebrew Literature, i. 73; Gritz, Gesch. v. 360.
G. M. K.
HASDAI BEN SAMUEL BEN PERAH-
YAH HA-KOHEN: Turkish rabbi; born at
Salonica; died there Sept., 1677; claimed descent
from Joseph ben Gorion. He was a son of the
learned Samuel ben Perahyah of Salonica, and a
pupil of Rabbi Hayyim Shabbethai in that city,
where he also became rabbi. Hasdai was the au-
thor of responsa, which appeared under the title
“Porat Hesed,” Salonica, 1722, containing also let-
ters written by him to Aaron ben Hayyim. His
novelle on the Hoshen Mishpat and on some Tal-
mudic treatises have remained unpublished.
Hasdai’s uncle, Daniel ben Perahyah, added
notes to Joseph ben Shem-Tob’s “She’erit Yosef”
(Salonica, 1568).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, ed. Cassel, pp. 39b,
44b; Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 61, ii. 1538; First, Bibl.
Jud. i. 169.
D. M. K.
HASDAI BEN SOLOMON: Spanish rabbi;
born probably in Tudela. He was a pupil of R.
Nissim Gerondi in Barcelona. His friend (and
probably fellow pupil) Isaac b. Sheshet calls him
the “Spanish worthy.” He oificiated as rabbi until
1379, when the plague broke out in Tudela. Still
unmarried, he went to Valencia, where he found a
position as rabbi. Hasdai, who corresponded with
Hasdai Crescas, Isaac b. Sheshet, and others, in his
stern piety opposed Hayyim Galipapa of Pamplona,
who had introduced certain ritualistic changes into
his community. He objected to the reading in
_ jin the batte midrashot.
Haselbauer
Hasidim
Spanish of the Esther roll; and in Fraga, where he
stopped on a journey, he unsuccessfully attempted
to force the community to change a custom which
had crept into the liturgy through ignorance.
BIBLIOGRAPAY: Isaac b. Sheshet, Responsc, Nos. 87, 303, 391,
445; Kayserling, Gesch. der Juden in Spanien, i. 87; Gratz,
Gesch., viii. 3b.
G. M. K.
HASELBAUER. See Eyspescuttz,JONATHAN.
HASHABIAH (7'awm): Name of several Le-
vites, chiefly in the time of the return from Babylon.
The most important are: 1. The fourth son of Je-
duthun, appointed by David to play the harp under
the direction of his father in the house of the Lord;
he had charge of the twelfth division of musicians
(I Chron. xxv. 8, 19). 2. Son of Kemuel, a chief of
the Kohathite Levites, who, with 1,700 men of his
tribe, superintended the business of the Lord and of
the king west of the Jordan (I Chron. xxvi. 39,
xxvii. 17). 3. A Levite, one of the chiefs who offi-
ciated at the Feast of Passover in the time of King
Josiah (II Chron. xxxv. 9). 4. The “ruler of half
the district of Keilah,” who repaired a portion of the
wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 17). 5. One of the
chiefs of the Levites who, with Nehemiah, sealed
the covenant (Neh. x. 12 [A. V. 11], xii. 24).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HA-SHAHAR (anw7 = “the dawn”): Hebrew
monthly; published at Vienna from 1869 to 1884 by
P. Smolenskin, who was also its editor. It resem-
bled the German “ Monatsschrift,” containing scien-
tific articles, essays, biographies, and narratives.
It contained also general Jewish news. The objects
of Smolenskin were to enlighten the Jews, to spread
the knowledge of Hebrew, and particularly to op-
pose obscurantism. Its publication was interrupted
several times for lack of support. “ Ha-Shahar ”
greatly influenced the Haskalah movement, espe-
cially in Russia, where it was well known. It was
read secretly in the yeshibot, in private houses, and
Among its contributors
were scholars and litterateurs like Brandsteter, Leon
Gordon, David Kahana, and Solomon Rubin; the last-
named assisted Smolenskin in the editorship. The
second volume was reviewed by A. Geiger in his
“Jid. Zeit.” (ix. 298-316); the twelfth and last vol-
ume was criticized by Eliezer Atlas in “Ha-Asif”
(ii. 854-870).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Brainin, Perez ben Mosheh Smolenskin, pas-
sim, Warsaw, 1896.
G. M. SEL.
HA-SHILOAH. Sce PERIODICALS.
HASHKABAH. See Hazkarar NESHAMOT.
HASHMONAH: Thirtieth station of the Israel-
ites during their wandering in the wilderness (Num.
xxxiii. 29, 30). It was situated not far from Mount
Hor. The Septuagint has YeAuwvd, evidently con-
fusing it with the station Zalmonah, mentioned in
verse 41.
E. G. H. Be:
HASHUB (3\wm): 1. Son of Pahath-moab, who
assisted Nehemiah in the repair of the walls of Jeru-
salem (Neh. iif. 11). 2. Another Hashub, engaged
in the same work (Neh. iii. 23). 3. One of the
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
250
chiefs of the people, who sealed the covenant with
Nehemiah (Neh. x. 24 (A. V. 23]). 4. A Levite of
the family of Merari (Neh. xi. 15; I Chron. ix. 14).
E. G. fi. M. SEL.
HA-SHULAMMIT. Sec PERIODICALS.
HASHUM (pwn): 1. Chicf of a family the
members of which, two hundred and twenty-three
in number, returned from captivity with Zerubbabel
(Ezra ii. 19; comp. Neh. vii. 22). Seven of them
had married foreign women, whom they had to put
away (Ezra x. 83). Hashum was among those who
sealed the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. x. 18).
2. One of the chiefs who stood on the left side of
Ezra when he read the Law to the people (Neh.
viii. 4).
E. G. I. M. SEL.
HASIDZEANS or ASSIDEANS (o°t pn;
"Acwaio.: Ht. “the pious”): Religious party which
commenced to play an important rodle in political
life only during the time of the Maccabean wars, al-
though it had existed for quite some time previous.
They are mentioned only three times in the books
of the Maccabees, In I Macc. ti. 41 it is related that
at the commencement of the war, after a number of
Maccabeans in the recesses of the desert had allowed
themselves to be slain on the Sabbath without offer-
ing any resistance, Mattathias and his followers de-
cided to fight on the Sabbath in case of necessity.
Thereupon a company of Hasidwans joined them,
“mighty men of Israel, . . . such as were volun-
tarily devoted unto the law.” Inthesecond passage
(I Macc. vii.) itis stated that Alcimus succeeded in
persuading Demetrius, the newly elected king of
Syria, to appoint him high priest instead of Judas
Maccabeus. Whereupon it is said (verses 12-14):
“Then did there assemble unto Alcimus and Bac-
chides a company of scribes, torequire justice. Now
the Assideans {’Ao:daio:] were the first among the
children of Israel that sought peace of them: For,
said they, one that is a priest of the seed of Aaron
is come with this army, and he will
Account in do us no wrong.” They were mis-
II. Macc. taken, however, since Alcimus later
caused sixty of them to be put to
death. Inthe parallel passage, on the other hand
(II Macc. xiv.), Alcimus describes the political situ-
ation of the Jews to Demetrius as follows: “Those
of the Jews that be called Assideans, whose captain
is Judas Maccabeus, nourish war, and are seditious,
and will not let the realm be in peace” (II Macc.
xiv. 6),
The name “ Hasidseans” occurs frequently in the
Psalms, in the sense of “the pious,” “saints ” (xxx.
§ [A. V. 4], xxxi. 24 [23], xxxvii. 28). In Talmudic
sources the Hasidgzans appear as martyrs to their
faith (Sanh. 10b); as unselfish and long-suffering
(Abot v. 4, 18); as the “saints of former times”
(“Hasidim ha-Rishonim”); as those who compose
themselves inwardly for an hour before prayer (Ber.
v. 1) and enjoy special honor at the Feast of Taber-
nacles, on the day of the drawing of water (Suk. v. 4).
To their party, which died out with Joshua Katnuta,
Jose ben Joezer probably belonged (Sotah ix. 15;
Hag. ii. 7). Inthe Eighteen Benedictions God’s bless-
ing is called down upon them immediately after the
251L
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Haselbauer
Hasidim
Zaddikim (“‘al ha-Zaddikim we‘al ha-Hasidim ”),
and in later times they appear in genera) as the ideal
representatives of Judaism, so that “Hasid” has
come to be a title of respect (Num. R. §§ 14, 227a,
“Yacob he-Hasid ”; comp. Tem. 15b; Ta‘an. 8a).
From these sources have been developed the opin-
ions, generally prevalent among scholars, that the
Hasideans were strongly religious ascetics who held
strictly to the Law and loved quiet,
Party of and who founded a society or sect
the that exercised considerable power and
Rebellion. authority among the people; and that
they were finally drawn into rebellion
by Antiochus, who began the war against the Syr-
ians and carried it to a triumphant conclusion. The
Hasideans thus became the chief impelling force in
the Jewish struggle for independence (II Macc.
xiv. 6).
Concerning the political réle of the Hasidseans in
this war, Wellhausen has endeavored to vrove that
it Was aiumost insignificant (“Die Pharisiier und die
Sadduciier,” Greifswald, 1874). According to him
they formed an independent association existing
apart from the doctors of the Law (comp. I Macc. vii.
12), which attached itself to the Maccabeans after
the latter had won their first success (I Macc. ii.
42), but which seized the first opportunity to make
peace with Alcimus and thus left the Maccabeans in
the lurch. The contradictory passage in II Macca-
bees, according to which the Hasidzans were the chief
force throughout the war, Wellhausen regards asa
violently interjected protest against the true repre-
sentation of them as found in I Maccabees. Several
modern scholars (Schtirer, Kautzsch, and others)
have agreed to this view, which had already been
adopted in part by Ewald (“Gesch. des Volkes
Israel,” iv. 401), But even if the justice of this
view were admitted, the origin and tenets of the
Haside#ans would be no less obscure than before.
Gritz (“Gesch.” ii. 273) supposes them to have de-
veloped! out of the Nazarenes, After
the Maccabean victories, according
to Gritz, they retired into obscurity,
being plainly dissatisfied with Judas
Maccabeus, and appeared later as the order of the
Essenes—a theory which is supported by the simi-
larity in meaning between ’Eooyvoi or ’"Eoaaior (= Syr-
iac stat. absolute pOn, stat. emphat. x'pn, “ pious ”)
and “ Hasidim ” (“ pious”), and which has as many ad-
vocates (Hitzig, “ Gesch. des Volkes Israel”; Lucius,
“ Die Therapeuten”) as opponents (Herzfeld, “ Gesch.
des Volkes Israel,” and others). Others think that
the Pharisees were developed from the Hasidim
(Schiirer, “Gesch.” ii. 404; Moritz Friedlander,
“Gesch. der Jiidischen Apologetik,” pp. 316 eft seq.,
464 ef seq.).
Since scholars have until recently started with the
erroneous hypothesis that Hellenism “took root only
in the upper classes of society, the main body of the
[Jewish] nation being wholly untouched by it”
(Wellhausen, “Israelitische und Jiidische Gesch.” p.
240), and that consequently the majority of the peo-
ple at that time were “pious, and observers of the
Law,” it would be necessary, in order to account for
the Hasidseans, to remove them from their “ pious ”
surroundings and make of them a sect or society
Different
Views.
of “extra-pious,” although the sources mentioned do
not justify such a view. The cuvaywy? ’Acdaiwy of
the books of the Maccabees, upon which so much
emphasis is laid, corresponds, as has already long
been known, to the D"T'DN Sr of the Psalms, which
means neither “sect” nor “society,” but only “con-
gregation,” with no ideaof party. The piety attrib-
uted to Hasidim in the Talmudic sources is not
in any way abnormal or suggestive of sect (Leh-
mann, in “RR. EB. J.” xxx. 182 et seg.). The supposi-
tion that they were a sect closely associated with
the scribes, and related to them, rests only on the
fact that the two classes are mentioned together in
I Mace. vii. 12, 18; the genuineness of verse 18, how-
ever, has been questioned by Hitzig (“Gesch. des
Volkes Israel,” p. 417).
Since Moritz Friedlinder’s investigations (espe-
cially in “Der Antichrist,” Gottingen, 1901) have
shown the great extent to which the
Jews in Palestine and in the countries
of the Diaspora fell away from ortho-
dox Judaism, even in the third cen-
tury B.c., the Hasideeans appear simply to have been
those “pious” ones who remained true to the cus-
toms of their fathers. They lost ground, however,
from day to day, as their prayer shows: “Help,
Lord; for the Hasid ceaseth” (S°DpMm 135 °5; Ps.
xi. 2[A.V.1]). They were animated bya profound
hatred for the foreign, Hellenic spirit, and for those
of their Jewish brethren who were filled with it.
In the Maccabean wars they came to an accounting
with both. They seem by no means to have been
peace-loving hermits or ascetics. Their sentiments
and attitude are probably to be seen in Ps. cxlix.:
“Sing unto the Lord a new song, and his praise in
the assembly of Hasidim. . . . The Hasidim exult
in glory: they sing for joy upon their beds. They
have the high praises of God in their mouth, and
a two-edged sword in their hand; to execute venge-
ance upon the nations, and punishments upon the
peoples; to bind their kings with chains, and their
nobles with fetters of iron: to execute upon them
the promised judgment” (Hebr.). This agrees with
II Maccabees, according to which the Hasideans
under Judas Maccabeus “continually stirred up war
and rebellion, and would not let the country be at
Their
Position.
‘peace ” (see ESSENES).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jost, Gesch. des Judenthums und Seiner
Sekten, i. 199; Herzfeld, Gesch. des Volkes Israel, ti. 357,
384, 395; Hamburger, FR. B. T. ii. 182; Ersch and Gruber,
Encye. section iii., part 32, p. 18; Gratz, Gesch. ii. 240-374 :
ili. 2, 7, 838, 99; Schitrer, Geseh. i. 190, 208, 217: ii. 404: Well-
hausen, lsraelitische und Jtidische Gesch. pp. 240, 277; Moritz
NENG Die Gesch. der Jtiidischen Apologetik, pp. 437
et seq.
J. M. Sc.
HASIDIM, HASIDISM : Hasidism is a relig-
ious movement which arose among the Polish Jews
in the eighteenth century, and which won over
nearly half of the Jewish masses. In its literal
meaning the word “Hasidism” is identical with
“pietism ” (“Hasid” = “the pious”), and the Hasi-
dic teachings resemble the synonymous Protestant
teachings in so far as they both assign the first place
in religion not to religious dogma and ritual, but to
the sentiment and the emotion of faith. Presenting
in its inner motives one of the most peculiar phe-
nomena of religious psychology in general, Hasidism
Hasidim
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
252
should in Jewish history be classed among the most
momentous spiritual revolutions that have influenced
the social life of the Jews, particularly those of
eastern Europe.
There has been apparent from time immemorial a
struggle for supremacy between two principles in
Judaism: the formalism of dogmatic ritual and the
direct religious sentiment. The «discipline of the
Law was in continual conflict with mystical medita-
tion, which gave considerable latitude to individual
inclinations in the domain of religion. Such was
the nature of the struggle between Pharisaism and
Essenism in ancient times, between Talmudism and
the Cabala in the Middle Ages, and between rabbin-
ism and the mystic-Messianic movements from the
sixteenth to the eighteenth century.
In Poland, where since the sixteenth century the
great bulk of the Jewry had firmly established itself,
the struggle between rabbinism and mysticism be-
came particularly acute after the Messianic move-
ment called into being by SHABBETHAI ZeEBI. Lean-
ings toward mystical doctrines aud sectarianism
showed themselves prominently among the Jews of
the southwestern or Ukraine provinces of Poland
(Volhynia, Podolia, and Galicia); whilein the north-
western provinces, in Lithuania, and in White Rus-
sia, rabbinical Orthodoxy held undisputed sway.
This was due to the pronounced social difference
between the northern or Lithuanian Jews and the
southern Jews of the Ukraine. In Lithuania the
Jewish masses were mainly gathered
in densely populated towns where rab-
binical academic culture (in the yeshi-
bot) was in a flourishing state; while
in the Ukraine the Jews were more
scattered in villages far removed from intellectual
centers, and were frequently steeped in ignorance.
The social decay in the south became more intense
after the Cossacks’ Urristne under Chmielnicki and
the turbulent times in Poland (1648-60), which com-
pletely ruined the Jewry of the Ukraine, but left
comparatively untouched that of Lithuania, The
econom.e and spiritual decline of the South-Russian
Jews created a favorable field for mystical move-
ments and religious sectarianism, which spread there
from the middle of the seventeenth to the middle of
the eighteenth century, and brought about, among
other things, the appearance of the Christianizing
sect of the Frankists. (See FRANK, J AcoB.)
Besides these external influences there were deeply
seated causes that produced among the greater por-
tion of the Jewish people a discontent with rabbin-
ism and @ gravitation toward mysticism, Rabbin-
ism, which in Poland had become transformed into
a system of book-lore and dry religious formalism,
satisfied neither the unlearned common people nor
the learned men who sought in religion an agreeable
source of consolation and of forgetfulness of worldly
cares. Although rabbinism itself had adopted some
features of the Cabala, it had adapted them to fit
into its own religious system: it added to the stern
discipline of ritualism the gloomy asceticism of the
“practical cabalists” of the East, who saw the es-
sence of earthly existence only in fasting, in penance,
in self-torture, and in spiritual sadness. Such a
combination of religious practises, suitable for indi-
Origin in
the
Ukraine.
viduals and hermits, was not suitable to the bulk of
the Jews. Hasidism gave a ready response to the
burning desire of the common people in its simple,
stimulating, and comforting faith. In contradistinc-
tion to other sectarian teaching, Hasidism aimed not
at dogmatic or ritual reform, but at a deeper psy-
chological one. Its aim was to change not the be-
lief, but the believer. By means of psychological
suggestion it created a new type of religious man,
a type that placed emotion above reason and rites,
and religious exaltation above knowledge.
The founder of Hasidism was a man of the ob-
scure Podolian Jewry, Israel b. Eliezer Ba‘aL SuEM-
Tos (BeShT). His personal fame as
The Ba‘al a healer spread not only among the
Shem. Jews, but also among the non-Jewisli
peasants and the Polish nobles. He
often cured the Jews by fervent prayer, profound
ecstasies, and gesticulations. He also at times suc-
cessfully prognosticated the future, and revealed se-
crets. Soop acquiring among the masses the repu-
tation of a miracle-worker, he came to be known
as “the kind Ba‘al Shem ” (“ Ba‘al Shem-Tob”).
Besht was the idol of the common people. Char-
acterized by an extraordinary sincerity and simplic-
ity, he knew how to gain an insight into the spiri-
tual needs of the masses. He taught them that true
religion was not Talmudic scholarship, but a sincere
love of God combined with warm faith and belief in
the efficacy of prayer; that a plain man filled witha
sincere belief in God, and whose prayers come from
the heart, is more acceptable to God than the rabbi
versed in the Law, and who throughout his life is
absorbed in the study of the Talmud and in the ob-
servance of petty ceremonials. This democratiza-
tion of Judaism attracted to the teachings of Besht
not only the common people, but also the scholars
whom the rabbinical scholasticism and ascetic Cabala
failed to satisfy.
About 1740 Besht established himself in the Podo-
lian town of Miedzyboz. He gathered about him
numerous disciples and followers, whom he initiated
into the secrets of his teachings not by systematic
exposition, but by means of sayings and parables.
These sayings were transmitted orally, and were later
written down by his disciples, who developed the
disjointed thoughts of their master into a system.
Besht himself did not write anything. Being a
mystic by nature, he regarded his teachings as a
prophetic revelation. Toward the end of his life he
witnessed the spread in Podolia of the teachings of
the Frankists, which, like Hasidism, were the out-
come of popular dissatisfaction with the existing
order of religious matters, but led to negative results.
The teachings of Hasidism, as laid down in the
sayings of Besht and his first disciples, are founded
on two theoretical conceptions: (1) religious panthe-
ism, or the omnipresence of God, and (2) the idea of
communion between God and man.
Funda- “Man,” says Besht,“ must always bear
mental in mind that God is omnipresent and
Con- is always with him; that He is, so to
ceptions. speak, the most subtle matter every-
where diffused. . . . Let man realize
that when he is looking at material things he is in
reality gazing at the image of the Deity which is
253
present in all things. With this in mind man will
always serve God even in smal] matters.”
The second of the above-named conceptions, one
which was adopted from the Cabala, consists in the
belief that between the world of the Deity and the
world of humanity there isan unbroken intercourse.
It is true not only that the Deity influences the acts of
man, but also that man exerts an influence on the
willand mood of the Deity. Every act and word
of man produces @ corresponding vibration in the
upper spheres, From this conception is derived the
chief practical principle of Hasidism—communion
with God for the purpose of uniting with the
source of lifeand ofinfluencingit. Thiscommunion
is achieved through the concentration of all thoughts
on God, and consulting Him in all the affairs of life.
The righteous man is in constant communion with
God, even in his worldly affairs, since here also he
feels His presence. Anespecial form of communion
with God is prayer. In order to render this com-
munion complete the prayer must. be full of fervor,
ecstatic; and the soul of him who prays must during
his devotions detach itself, so to speak, from its
material dwelling. For the attainment of ecstasy
recourse may be had to mechanical means, to vio-
lent bodily motions, to shouting and singing. Ac-
cording to Besht, the essence of religion is in senti-
ment and not in reason. Theological learning and
halakic lore are of secondary importance, and are
useful only when they serve asa means of producing
an exalted religious mood. It is better toread books
of moral instruction than to engage in the study of
the casuistic Talmud and the rabbinical literature.
In the performance of rites the mood of the believer
is of more importance than the externals; for this
reason formalism and superfluous ceremonial details
are injurious.
It is necessary to live and to serve God in a cheer-
ful and happy frame of mind: sadness and sorrow
darken the soul and interfere with
Com- communion; hence the iujuriousness
munion the of asceticism. By means of constant
Essence. spiritual communion with God it is
possible to secure clear mental vision,
the gift of prophecy, and to work miracles. The
righteous man, or “ zaddik,” is one who has reached
the ideal of communion in the highest degree, and
therefore appears before God as “one of His own.”
The role of the zaddik is that of mediator between
God and ordinary people. Through the zaddik
salvation of the soul is achieved, and earthly bless-
ings are obtained: it is merely necessary to believe
in the power of this mediator and favorite of God,
who has more or less influence in the “higher
spheres.”
Zaddikism, which in time became a complete sys-
tem, had a far-reaching influence on the later destiny
of Hasidism. From among the numerous disciples of
Besht, two—the preachers BAER oF MESERITZ and
Jacob Joseph Cohen of Polonnoye—more than any
others contributed to the spread of his teachings. In
Meseritz (Mezhirechye) and Rovno the future great
leaders of Hasidism were trained. Here also origi-
nated what may be termed the zaddik dynasties of
Poland and Russia. Jacob Joseph Cohen, on his
part, spread the Hasidic teachings by sermons and
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hasidim
books. He laid the foundations of Hasidic litera-
ture, Which in the last three decades of the eighteenth
century spread with extraordinary rapidity among
the Jewish masses in Poland and Russia.
This development was favored by the decline in
the economic condition of the Jews and by the polit-
ical disturbances of the period owing to the parti-
tion of Poland. The renewed HaIDAMACK move-
ment in the Ukraine, which reached its height in
1768, reminded the Jews of the bloody epoch of
Chmielnicki; and the disruption of Poland, which
soon followed (1772-95), brought about the division
of the entire Polish Jewry among three foreign gov-
ernments, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, which paid
little heed to the old patriarchal organization and
communal autonomy of the Polish Jews. During
this turbulent time the Jews listened eagerly to
teachings which distracted their attention from the
existing disturbances, and which lured them into
the region of the mysterious and the supernatural.
In Podolia, Volhynia, and in a portion of Galicia,
Hasidism attracted entire communities. There arose
everywhere Hasidic prayer-houses where service
was held according to the system of Besht, with its
ecstasies of prayer, its shoutings, and its bodily
motions. The Hasidim introduced the prayer-book
of the Palestinian cabalists (‘ Nusah Ari”), which
differed from the commonly accepted forms by vari-
ous modifications in the text and in the arrangement
of the prayers. They did not observe the hours for
morning prayer, but held their service at a late
hour; they made some changes in the mode of kill-
ing cattle; and dressed on Sabbath in
The white as symbolic of the purification
Zaddikim. ofthesoul. The Hasidim were, how-
ever, particularly noted for the ex-
alted worship of their “holy ” zaddikim. The log-
ical result of Hasidisin, Zaddikism in many places
actually prepared the soil for it. The appearance of
some miracle-working zaddik very often led to the
general conversion of the local inhabitants to Hasid-
ism. Crowds of credulous men and women gathered
around the zaddilk with requests for the healing of
bodily ills, for blessings, for prognostications, or
for advice in worldly matters. When the zaddik
succeeded in affording relief in one of the many
cases, or gave fortunate advice, his fame as a mira-
cle-worker was established, and the population of the
district remained faithful to the cause of Hasidism.
Such were the conditions in South Russia. In the
north, however, in Lithuania and in White Russia,
Hasidism did not sweep entire communities one
after another, but spread sporadically; and its ad-
herents reinained long in the condition of exclusive
sectarians. Fearing the persecution of the power-
ful rabbis, the Lithuanian Hasidim often organized
secret meetings where they prayed in their own
way, held conversations, and read of the truth of
Besht’s teachings. Here the fundamental principles
of Hasidism were acquired ina more conscious way,
and less significance was attached to the cult of the
Zaddikim.
In this way Hasidism gradually branched out into
two main divisions: (1)in the Ukraine and in Galicia
and (2) in Lithuania. The first of these divisions
was directed by three disciples of Bar of Meseritz,
Hasidim
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
254
Elimelech of Lizensk, Levi Isaac of Berdychev, and
Nahum of Chernoby!, besides the grandson of Besht,
Barucu oF Tutcwin. Elimelech of
Lizensk affirmed that belief in Zaddi-
kism is a fundamental doctrine of Ha-
sidism. In his book “ No‘am Elime-
lek” he conveys the idea that the zaddik is the
mediator between God and the common people, and
that through him God sends to the faithful three
earthly blessings, life, a livelihood, and children, on
the condition, however, that the Hasidim support
the zaddik by pecuniary contributions (* pidyo-
nim”), in order to enable the holy man to become
completely absorbed in the contemplation of God.
Practically this teaching led to the contribution
by the people of their last pennies toward the sup-
port of the zaddik (“rebbe ”), and the zaddik untir-
ingly “poured forth blessings on the earth, healed
the sick, cured women of sterility,” etc. The profit-
able vocation of zaddik was made hereditary. There
was &@ multiplication of zaddik dynasties contesting
for supremacy. The “cult of the righteous” as de-
fined by Besht degenerated into a system of exploi-
tation of the credulous. Baruch, the grandson of
Besht, deriving an immense income from his adher-
ents, led the life of a Polish lord. He had his own
court and a numerous suite, including a court jester.
The Hasidic organization in Lithuania and in
White Russia shaped itself along different lines. The
teachings of Besht, brought thither from the south,
adopted many features of the prevailing tendencies
in contemporary rabbinism. The leading apostle of
the northern Hasidim, Rabbi Zalman
Habad, of Liozna (1747-1812), created the
or remarkable system of the so-called
Rational Rational Hasidism, or “ Habad” (the
Hasidism. word “HaBaD” being formed of the
first letters of the words “ Hokmah,”
“Binah,” “De‘ah” = “wisdom,” “understanding,”
“knowledge”). In his “Tanya” (Slavuta, 1'796)
and in his sermons he advocates an intelligent and
not a blind faith, requiring from the Hasidim a cer-
tain me.tal preparation, and he assigns the cult of
the Zaddikim a very modest place.. In the system
of Habad the zaddik appears more as a teacher
than a miracle-worker. The teachings of Zalman
- were adapted to the comparatively advanced mental
level of the Jewish masses of the northwestern re-
gion; and the inevitable process of degeneration
which mystical doctrines ultimately underwent ap-
appeared here less prominently than in the south.
The rapid spread of Hasidism in the second half
of the eighteenth century greatly troubled the Or-
thodox rabbis. Rabbinism from the very beginning
recognized in ita dangerous enemy. The doctrine
of Besht, claiming that man is saved through faith
and not through mere religious knowledge, was
strongly opposed to the principal dogma of rabbin-
ism, which measures man’s religious
Opposition value by the extent of his Talmudic
to learning. The ritual formalism of
Hasidism. Orthodoxy could not reconcile itself
to modifications in the customary ar-
rangement of the prayers and in the performance
of some of the rites. Moreover, the Hasidic dogma
of the necessity of maintaining a cheerful disposi-
The Two
Schools.
tion, and the peculiar manner of awakening relig-
ious exaltation at the meetings of the sectarians—as,
for instance, by the excessive use of spirituous liquors
—inspired the ascetic rabbis with the belief that the
new teachings induced moral laxity or coarse epi-
eureanism. Still under the fear of the Shabbethai-
ans and the Frankists, the rabbis suspected Hasi-
dism of an intimate connection with these movements
so dangerous to Judaism. An important factor in
connection with this was the professional antago-
nism of the rabbis: they saw in the zaddik a threat-
ening competitor, a new type of the popular priest,
who was fed by the superstition of the masses, and
who acquired his popularity quickly.
In consequence of these facts a bitter strug-
gle soon arose between rabbinical Orthodoxy and
the Hasidim. At the head of the Orthodox party
stood ELIJAH BEN SoLomon, the stern guardian of
learned and ritualistic Judaism. In 1772, when the
first secret circles of Hasidim appeared in Lithuania,
the rabbinic “kahal” (council) of Wilna, with the
approval of Elijah, arrested the local leaders of the
sect, and excommunicated its adherents. Circulars
were sent from Wilna to the rabbis of other com-
munities calling upon them to make war upon the
“ godless sect.”* In many places cruel persecutions
were instituted against the Hasidim. The appear-
ance in 1780 of the first works of Hasidic literature
(e.g., the above-named book of Jacob Joseph Cohen,
which was filled with attacks on rabbinism) created
alarm among the Orthodox. At the council of rab-
bis held in the village of Zelva, government of
Grodno, in 1781, it was resolved to uproot the de-
structive teachings of Besht. In the circulars issued
by the council the faithful were ordered to expel the
Hasidim from every Jewish community, to regard
them as members of another faith, to hold no inter-
course with them, not to intermarry with them, and
not to bury theirdead. Theantagonists of Hasidism
called themselves “ Mitnaggedim ” (Opponents); and
to the present day this appellation still clings to
those who have not joined the ranks of the Hasidim.
Hasidism in the south had established itself so
firmly in the various communities that it had no fear
of persecution. The main sufferers
The ‘* Mit- were the northern Hasidim. Their
naggedim.” leader, Rabbi Zalman, attempted, but
unsuccessfully, to allay the anger of
the Mitnaggedim and of Elijah Gaon. On the death
of the latter in 1797 the exaspcration of the Mitnag-
gedim became so great that they resolved to denounce
the leaders of the Hasidim to the Russian govern-
ment as dangerous agitators and teachers of heresy.
In consequence twenty-two representatives of the
sect were arrested in Wilna and other places. Zal-
man himself was arrested at his court in Liozna and
brought to St. Petersburg (1798). There he was
kept in the fortress and was examined by a secret
commission, but he and the other leaders were soon
released by orderof PaulI. The Hasidim remained,
however, under “strong suspicion.” Two years la-
ter Zalman was again transported to St. Petersburg,
through the further denunciation of his antagonists,
particularly of Abigdor, formerly rabbi of Pinsk.
Immediately after the accession to the throne of Al-
exander I., however, the leader of the Hasidim was
255
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hasidim
released, and was given full liberty to proclaim his
religious teachings, which from the standpoint of the
government were found to be utterly harmless
(1801). Thereafter Zalman openly led the White-
Russian or Habad Hasidim until his death, toward
the end of 1812. He had fled from the government
of Moghilef to that of Poltava, in consequence of
the French invasion.
The struggle of rabbinism with Hasidism in Lithu-
ania and White Russia led only to the formation
of the latter sect in those regions into separate relig-
ious organizations; these existing In many towns
alongside of those of the Mitnaggedim. Inthe south-
western region, on the other hand, the Hasidim al-
most completely crowded out the Mituaggedim, and
the Zaddikim possessed themselves of that spiritual
power over the people which formerly belonged to
the rabbis.
In the tirst half of the nineteenth century Hasidism
spread unmolested, and reached its maximum devel-
opment. About half of the Jewish population of
Russia, as well as of Poland, Galicia, Rumania,
and Hungary, professes Hasidic teach-
Organiza- ings and acknowledges the power of
tion. the Zaddikim. In Russia the exist-
ence of the Hasidim as a separate re-
ligious organization was legalized by the “Enact-
ment Concerning the Jews” of 1804 (see Russta),
The Hasidim had no central spiritual government.
With the multiplication of the zaddikim their dio-
ceses constantly diminished. Some zaddikim, how-
ever, gained a wide reputation, and attracted people
from distant places. To the most important dynas-
ties belonged that of Chernobyl (consisting of the
descendants of Nahum of Chernoby)) in Little Rus-
sia; that of Ruzhin-Sadag ora (including the descend-
ants of Bar of Meseritz) in Podolia, Volhynia, and
Galicia; that of Lyubavich (composed of the de-
scendants of Zalman, bearing the family name
“Schneersohn ”)in White Russia; and that of Lublin
and Kotzk in the kingdom of Poland. There were
also individual zaddikim not associated with the dy-
nasties. In the first half of the nineteenth century
there were well known among them: Motel of Cher-
nobyl, Nachman of Bratzlav, Jacob Isaac of Lublin,
Mendel of Lyubavich, and Israel of Luzhin. The
last-named had such unlimited power over the Hasi-
dim of the southwestern region that the govern-
ment found it necessary to send him out of Russia
(1850). He established himself in the Galician village
of Sadagora on the Austrian frontier, whither the
Hasidim continued to make pilgrimages to him and
his successors,
Rabbinical Orthodoxy at this time had discontin-
ued its struggle with Hasidism and had reconciled
itself to the establishment of the latter as an accom-
plished fact. Gradually the Mitnaggedim and the
Hasidim began to intermarry, which practise had
formerly been strictly forbidden.
In the first quarter of the nineteenth century
Hasidism met new opposition from the younger gen-
eration of intelligent Jews, who had received a
modern education. The crusade against Hasidism
was started by the Mendelssohnian school in Austria.
The Galician writer Joseph Perl published in 1819 a
bitter satire against the sect in the form of “ Epis-
tole Obscurorum Virorum ” (“ Megalleh Temirin ”),
He was followed in Russia by Isaac Biir Levinsohn
of Kremenetz with his “ Dibre Zaddi-
Attacked kim” (1880). At times the embittered
by the foes of Hasidism went so far as to
Haskalah. urge the government (in Austria and
Russia) to adopt repressive measures
against the Zaddikim and the Hasidic literature.
But at first none of these attacks could weaken the
power of the Hasidim. They showed everywhere a
more stubborn opposition to European culture than
did rabbinical Orthodoxy; for they felt instine-
tively that free criticism was more dangerous to the
mysticism of the Zaddikim than to Talmudic casu-
istry and ritualistic formalism.
It was only in the second half of the nineteenth
century, when the educational movement among the
Russian Jews became stronger, that a period of
stagnation and decline for Hasidism began. A con-
siderable portion of the younger generation, under
the influence of the new movement for enlighten-
ment, repudiated Hasidism and began to struggle
against the powerof the Zaddikim. The enlighten-
ing literature of the HaskaLar attacked Hasidism
with bitter satire, and the periodicals exposed the
adventures of the miracle-working Zaddikim.
Moreover, early in the second half of the century
the Russian government instituted a police super-
vision over the numerous zaddikim within the Pale
of Settlement, and limited their freedom of move-
ment in order to counteract their propaganda. All
of these blows, external and internal, together with
the general decline of piety among certain classes of
the Russian Jews, weakened the growth of Hasidism
and Zaddikism. The decay of zaddik dynasties and
the impoverishment of the Hasidic literature became
apparent.
Nevertheless Hasidism is so deeply grounded in
Russo-Polish Judaism that it has proved impossible
to uproot it. It still has its hundreds
Decline of of thousands of adherents; and, al-
the though its development has been tem-
Movement. porarily arrested, its vitality can not
be doubted. Started asa counterpoise
to rabbinical and ritual formalism, it still satisfies
the religious requirements of the uneducated masses.
In the last two decades of the nineteenth century,
owing to a general social reaction in the life of the
Russian Jews, a measure of revival was noticed in
Hasidic circles. In the past ten years the adminis-
trative surveillance of the Zaddikim and the limita-
tion of their movements have been abolished. The
result has been a reenforcement of Zaddikism in some
places, where it had been almost superseded. Though
not producing at present any prominent personali-
ties in literature or in communal life, Hasidism nour-
ishes itself by its stored-up reserves of spiritual
power. In the eighteenth century it was a great
creative force which brought into stagnant rabbin-
ical Judaism a fervent stream of religious enthusi-
asm. Under the influence of Hasidism the Russo-
Polish Jew became brighter at heart but darker in in-
tellect. Inthe nineteenth century, in its contact with
European culture, it was more reactionary than rab-
binism. The period of stagnation which it has lately
passed through must, however, result in its gradual
Haskalah
decay. After having been the object of apology or
of vituperation in literature, Hasidism has become
an object of scientific investigation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Orshanski, Mysli o Khasidizmye, in Yevrei-
skaya Biblioteka, i., St. Petersburg, 1871; S. Dubnow, Vverde-
niye v Isloriyu Khasidizma; idem, Vozniknoventye Kha-
sidizma.: idem, Istouriya Khasidskavo Raskola; idem, Re-
ligioznaya Borba in Voskhod, 1888-93; J. Gessen, kK Istortt
Religioznoi Borby, ete.. in Voskhod, 1902, Nos. 1-2; Jost,
Gesch. dex Judenthums und Seiner Sekten, iii. 184; Low,
Vergangenheit und Gegenevart der Chasiddier, 1839; Gratz,
Gesch. xi., ch. iii. and note 2; Schechter, Studies in Juda-
iam, p. 1, Philadelphia, 1896; O. Rabinovich, Sochineniya,
iii. 207; Ehrlich, Der Weg Meines Lehbens, Vienna, 1874;
Sternhartz, ‘Alim li-Terufah, Berdychev, 1896: Gottlober, in
Ha-Boker Or, passim ; Entziklopedicheskt Slovar, xxxvii.,
St. Petersburg, 1903.
H. R. S. M. D.
HASKALAH (lit. “wisdom” or “understand-
ing,” but used in Neo-Hebrew in the sense of “en-
lightenment,” “liberalism ”): Generally, “ baskalah ”
indicates the beginning of the movement among the
Jews about the end of the eighteenth century in
Eastern Europe toward abandoning their exclusive-
ness and acquiring the knowledge, manners, and
aspirations of the nations among whom they dwell.
In a more restricted sense it denotes the study of
Biblical Hebrew and of the poetical, scientific, and
critical parts of Hebrew literature. It is identified
with the substitution of the study of modern sub-
jects for the study of the Talmud; with opposition
to fanaticism, superstition, and Hasidism; with the
adoption by Jews of agriculture and handicrafts;
and with a desire to keep in touch with the times.
Its adherents are commonly called MaskIuiom.
As long as the Jews lived in segregated com-
munities, and as long as all avenues of social inter-
course with their Gentile neighbors were closed to
them, the rabbi was the most influential, and often
also the wealthiest, member of the Jewish commu-
nity. To the offices of religion he added the func-
tions of civil judge in all cases in which both parties
were Jews, as well as other important administra-
tive powers. The rabbinate was the highest aim of
every Jewish youth, and the study of the Talmud
was the means of obtaining that coveted position, or
one of: -any other important communal distinctions.
The extraordinary success achieved by Moses
MENDELSSOHN asa German popular philosopher and
man of letters revealed hitherto unsuspected possi-
bilities of influence for the cultured Jew. Anexact
knowledge of the German language was, of course,
necessary to secure entrance into cultured German
circles, and an excellent means of acquiring it was
provided by Mendelssohn in his German translation
of the Pentateuch. The familiar text of the Penta-
teuch, which for many centuries had served as a
school-book in the earlier stages of a rabbinical edu-
cation, became the bridge over which ambitious
young Jewscould pass to the great world of secular
knowledge. The “bi’ur,” or grammatical commen.
tary (see Brurists), prepared under Mendelssohn’s
supervision, was designed to counteract the influ-
ence of the Talmudical or rabbinical method of exe-
gesis, and, together with the translation, it became,
as it were, the primer of haskalah.
The haskalah movement began to spread in Ger-
many in the last quarter of the eighteenth century.
Wealthy Jews like the Friedlanders and Daniel Itzig
were its sponsors, Mendelssohn was its prototype,
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
256
and Hartwig Wessely was its prophet. The latter’s
“ Dibre Shalom we-Emet,” an epistle to the Austrian
Jews in which they were advised as to the best way
to utilize the advantages extended to them by
Emperor Joseph II. in his “ Edict
Beginnings of Tolerance,” became the program
in of haskalah. The attacks on that
Germany. pamphlet were much more severe than
those made on Mendelssohn’s trans-
lation of the Pentateuch, and there is almost conc)u-
sive evidence that the “Dibre Shalom we-Emet”
was publicly burned in Wilna by order, or at least
with the consent, of Elijah Gaon (* Monatsschrift,”
xix. 478-480, xx. 465-468). These persecutions had
the effect of assisting the movement. Wessely found
defenders among liberal Judzeo-German scholars and
among Italian rabbis, and his apologetic writings
strengthened the hands of his followers. The friends
of Hebrew literature soon formed a society (Hebrat
Doreshe Leshon ‘Eber) for the purpose of publishing
the first Hebrew literary monthly, which appeared in
1783 under the name “ Ha-Meassef ” (see MEASSEFIM).
In Germany the first generation of haskalah was
also the last. Jews of ability soon attained promi-
nence in the social and intellectual life of the Ger-
man nation, and the salon proved more attractive
to them than the “ Meassef.” The “friends of He-
brew literature” soon tired of Hebrew, and changed
their name to “Shohare ha-Tob weha-Tushiyyah”
(Verein fir Gutes und Edles; 1787). The forma-
tion respectively of the Gesellschaft der Freunde
(1792) and the Verein fiir Cultur und Wissenschaft
des J udenthums (1821), in Berlin, marked the passing
of a large proportion of intelligent German Jews
from haskalab to assimilation, and, in many in-
stances, to Christianity. Polishand Bohemian Jews
like Israel Samoscz, Herz Homberg, Isaac Satanow,
and Solomon Dubno stood at the cradle of the has-
kalah, and when they returned to Poland (as did
the above-named, with the exception of Satanow)
they spread its tenets among their coreligionists,
who had been up to that time strict
Spread to Rabbinists. The “battle between light
Slavonic and darkness,” as the Maskilim fondly
Countries. described their movement, was soon
raging in Bohemia and Galicia, spread-
ing later to Russia. But the hopes of speedy eman-
cipation awakened by the premature liberalism of
Joseph II. were not fulfilled, and the haskalah,
which was transitory in Prussia, took root in the
Austrian dominions. In Bohemia the conflict was
less severe, because many rabbis there recognized
the utility of secular learning and encouraged the
modern spirit (see Fuenn, “Safah le-Ne’emaniin,”
pp. 109 e¢ seg., Wilna, 1881). The Jeiteles family,
and men like Peter Beer, did much for Bohemian
haskalah, and the printing-office of Moses Landau
in Prague, like the earlier establishment of the
“Hinnuk Ne‘ariimn” in Berlin under Satanow, issued
valuable contributions toward a rejuvenated litera-
ture. In Prague, as in other Austrian provinces
where the German influence was strong, the move-
ment soon took almost the same course as in Ger-
many, and the second period of haskalah therefore
really belonged to the least Germanized portion of
the empire—the province of Galicia.
257
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Haskalah
The condition of the Jews of Galicia, already de-
plorable, was made worse by the partition of Poland,
and the haskalah movement was introduced in
Galicia in such manner as to almost justify the view
that it was one of the afHictions due to the new ré-
gime. Herz Homberg, the friend of Mendelssohn,
was the chief inspector of all the schools established
for the Jews in Galicia. The teachers
In under him were mostly Bohemian
Galicia. Jews, and, wiih the assistance of the
Bohemian Christians, who then almost
monopolized the governmental positions in Galicia,
they forced the Jews to study Hebrew and German
in accordance with the program of the Berlin has-
kalah. But there soon arose other forces which ex-
erted an attracting influence. The reformative work
of Joseph Pert, and his clever aati-Hasidic writings,
paved the way for a revival of Hebrew literature,
and continued the work of the Meassefim. The
speculations of Nachman Krochmal, and the inves-
tigations of 8. L. Rapoport, as well as the excellent
writings of Erter, Samson Bloch, and their contem-
poraries, attracted many followers and imitators
whose love for the Hebrew language was disinter-
ested and who worked for haskalah without expec-
tation of reward. The small bands of Maskilim in
the various communities were encouraged by wealthy
men of liberal tendencies, who cherished the haska-
lah and assisted the dissemination of its literature,
which otherwise could not have supported itself.
Thus such periodical, or collective, publications
as the “Kerem Hemed” and “ Ozar Nehmad ” were
published by men who had no thought of financially
profiting thereby. The same can be said of Schorr’s
“He-Haluz.” At the present time (1903) scholars like
Lauterbach, Buber, and other Maskilim of means,
are the leaders of the Galician haskalah; it is almost
exclusively a literary movement, and its output
properly belongs to Neo-Hebrew literature.
In the Russian movement the influence of Elijah
Gaon of Wilna and of his school was very smali in
all directions, and in some respects was hostile to
haskalah. Mendel Levin of Satanov
In (1741?-1819) may be considered the
Russia. first of Russian Maskilim. THe was,
like Herz Homberg, a personal friend
and follower of Mendelssohn; butas he had not the
authority which Homberg enjoyed in Galicia, he
could do neither as much good nor as much mis-
chief. The direction of the influence exerted by
Solomon Dunno is more doubtful; after he had left
Mendelssohn and settled in Wilna he seems to have
become distinctly Orthodox (see Yatzkan, “ Rabbenu
Eliyahu me-Wilna,” pp. 118-120, Warsaw, 1900).
Tobias FrEpER, Manasseh Iniver, Asher GINZBERG,
and perhaps also Barucu of Shklov, may be classed
among the earliest Maskilim of Russia. Besides
these there was a number of men of wealth and
position in various cities, especially in southern
Russia, who were friendly toward the Berlin haska-
lah, and encouraged its spread in their respective
localities. Hirsch Rabinovich and Abigdor Wol-
kenstein of Berdychev, Hirsch Segalin Rovno, Lei-
bush Khariin Meseritz (Mezhirechye), Berl Lob Stock-
fishin Lutzk, Meir Reich in Bar, Joshua Hornstein
in Proskurov, and Mordecai Levinson in Kamenetz-
VI.—17
Podolsk were influential in their own circles, and to
some extent Jeaders toward liberalism (Gottlober, in
“ Ha-Boker Or,” iv. 788). But they had no plan or
program, nor anything to guide them except the
example of Mendelssohn; they contented themselves
with studying Hebrew and a little German, and
with ridiculing the Hasidim, who in their turn de-
nounced them as “apikoresim,” or heretics.
Thus the haskalah, which served in Germany as
a stepping-stone to secular culture, and in Austria
led to the enjoyment of minor advantages, in Russia
almost involved ostracism. The Maskil was es-
tranged and often persecuted in the Jewish commu- -
nity, and met with neither sympathy nor recognition
in the outside world, where he was entirely un-
known. Nevertheless, the number of Maskilim con-
stantly increased, and soon attempts were made to
found schools where children could obtain an edu-
cation more in accordance with the principles of
haskalah than was provided by the “heder.” Hirsch
(Hyman) Baer Hurwitz (later professor of Hebrew
in University College, London), of
Influence Uman in the Ukraine, opened in that
on city, in 1822, the first secular Jewish
Education. school in Russia, to be conducted, as
he expressly stated in his application
for permission to establish it, “after the system of
Mendelssohn.” His example was followed in other
cities, especially in those of New Russia, where Jews
had been treated liberally since 1764, when the
country was opened to them, and where “merchants
from Brody and teachers from Tarnopol ” had planted
the seed of Galician haskalah. Similar schoois were
established in Odessa and Kishinef, and laterin Riga
(1889) and Wilna (1841). But as far as haskalah
in the restricted sense is concerned, the attempt
failed in these schools, as well as in the rabbinical
schools established later. Haskalah has not evolved
a plunapplicable in systematically conducted schools,
The teachers who were autodidacts remained the
greatest Maskilim. The pupils, with very few ex-
ceptions, abandoned Hebrew studies as soon as they
had acquired a thorough knowledge of Russian and
other living languages, which were taught by non-
Maskilim and often by non-Jews.
The Russian haskalah found a leader and spokes-
man in Isaac Bair LEvinsoun. His “’Te‘udah be-
Yisrael,” which became the program of haskalah, is
in essence an amplified “ Dibre Shalom we-Emet,”
supported by a wealth of quotations. Though this
work, like most of the others by the same author,
was intended to convince the old generation, the
Orthodox, of the utility and the legality of haskalah
from the religious point of view, it convinced only
the young (see Mandelstamm’s letter to Levinsohn in
Nathanson’s “Sefer Zikronot,” p. 81, Warsaw, 1875);
and the approbation of that work by R. Abraham
Abele Posveller, the great Talmudical authority of
Wilna, is believed to have been given for po-
litical reasons (Yatzkan, é.c. p. 119). Levinsohn’s
works helped to solidify the ranks of the Maskilim
and to increase their number. The issue was now
joined between the progressists and the conserva-
tives, and persecutions of the weaker side were not
unknown. The masses and most of the communal
leaders were on the conservative side; but when the
Haskalah
Hast
Russian government began to introduce secular edu-
cation among the Jews it unwittingly turned the
scale in favor of the Maskilim, of whom it knew
very little.
Uvarov, minister of public instruction under Em-
peror Nicholas I., worked out all his plans for Jewish
education under the influence of Mas-
kilim like Nissen Rosenthal of Wilna,
and of men, like Max LILIENTHAL,
who were inspired by them. The
abandonment of the Talmud and the
study of Hebrew and German were the basis of Uva-
rov’s schemes and the cause of their ultimate fail-
ure. But they gave official sanctiou to the program
of haskalah; and Lilienthal, who was sent by Uva-
rov to visit Jewish communities to induce them
to establish schools, is aptly desiguated by Weiss-
berg as “anemissary of haskalah.” He was received
joyously by Maskilim as one clothed with govern-
mental authority to carry out their plans, and was
glorified by them to the point of absurdity. Lilien-
thal apprised Uvarov of the existence of groups of
Hebrew scholars and friends of progress in many
cities, and Uvarov, who until then had thought all
Russian Jews ignorant and fanatical, perceived that
these Maskilim could be employed as teachers in the
schools which he was about to establish. He ac-
cordingly gave up the plan of importing from Ger-
many the several hundred Jewish teachers to whom
Lilienthal had practically promised positions. This
action on the part of Uvarov was resented by Lihen-
thal, and seems to have been the reason for his de-
parture for America (1845).
But although Leon Mandelstamm, who was com-
missioned by the government to continue the work
of Lilienthal, was one of the Maskilim, the cause of
haskalah was not materially strengthened by the
establishment of primary and rabbinical schools, ex-
cept in so far as they provided teaching positions
for Maskilim. The oppressive candle-tax, instituted
to support these schools, and the other severe meas-
ures against the Jews taken simultaneously with
the efforts to educate them, aroused indignation
against haskalah. Later, when the more liberal
policy of Alexander IT. opened new prospects to the
Jew witha good Russian education, the Maskilim
with their Hebrew and German lost their hold even
on the younger gencration. The schools in Wilna
and Jitomir, in which the ideals of haskalah were to
be realized, went from bad to worse. The Maskilim
could not contro! the situation for reasons which
are best indicated by the fact that among the
twenty-one representatives of the Jewish commu-
nity of Wilna (the center of haskalah in northwestern
Russia for half a century) who waited on Governor-
General Nazimov in 1857, there was not one who
could intelligently state in Russian his complaints
in regard to the mismanagement of the rabbinical
schools (Benjacob, in his letter to Levinsohn in
Atlas’ “Ha-Kerem,” p. 54, Warsaw, 1887).
The Russian haskalah movement, as an educational
force, culminated in the Society for the Promotion
of Culture Among the Jews in Russia (1863). The
men at the head of that society modified the old Men-
delssohnian program to suit Russian conditions, and
thereby rendered invaluable service to the cause of
Lilienthal
and
Uvarov.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
258
education, The mild and cautious attempts at relig-
ious reform, as exemplitied by the “ Berliner Schul”
of Wilna and * Chorschulen” (modern-
The ized synagogues) in most of the
Society for larger towns in Russia, are also due
Culture. to the progressive movement. But
its greatest achievement is the cre-
ation of a Neo-Hebrew literature and a large Neo-
Hebrew reading public. The difficulties encoun-
tered by Jewsin their efforts to obtain a good secular
education and the inadequacy of school accommo-
dations caused them, in that thirst for knowledge
which distinguishes the Russian Jews, to turn
to Ilebrew studies, often to the exclusion of more
useful subjects. The works of the masters of Jew-
ish literature went through many editions, and of
some of them, as Mapu’s “Abhabat Ziyyon,” hun-
dreds of thousands of copies were sold. The activ-
ity of the Hebrew periodical press, and of large
publishing-houses which provide work for a host of
comparatively well-paid writers, has done much to
stimulate haskalah in Russia.
The only movement in Russian Judaism and in
Neo-Hebrew literature which has affected, and to
some extent transformed, haskalah is the nationalis-
tic. It really began with Peter SMOLENSKIN, who re-
belled against the old indefinite program and against
Mendelssohn himself. As the situation of the Jews
became worse, and the hope of emancipation almost
disappeared, the Maskilim, with few exceptions,
joined the national movement, and “haskalah” be-
came almost synonymous with “Zionism.” Still, the
change is more apparent than real. The foremost
Maskil of to-day, Asher Ginzberg, as the leader of
the Culture-Zionists, advocates the harmonization of
Jewish with general culture by means of the Hebrew
language; this, except for the nationalistic tendency,
is in essence the old program of Wessely and the
Berlin school of haskalah. See EpucaTion; LEVIN-
soHN, Isaac BAr; LITERATURE, NEO-HEBRAIC;
Masxitim; MENDELSSOTIN, Moses; Russia, Epvu-
CATION IN; WESSELY, HARTWIG.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Graetz, Hist. vol. v., ch. x.; Jost, Neuere
Gesch. der Israeliten, tii. 38 et seq.; Margolis, Voprosy Yev-
reiskoi Zhiznt, pp. 99 et seq., St. Petersburg, 1889; Weissberg,
Die Neuhebriiische Aufktirungs-Literatur in. Galizien,
Leipsic and Vienna. 1898; Brandt, in Jiidische Volksbiblio-
thek, ii, 1-20, Kiev, 1889; Lilienblum, in Ha-Zefirah, ii. 7-83
Trivash, in Ahiasaf, 5661, pp. 225-239; Ehrenpreis. in Ha-
Shitloah, i. 489-508; Leon Rosenthal, Toledot Hebrat Marhe
Haskalah be-Yisract be-Erez Russia, ii., St. Petersburg, 1885-
1890; Zeitlin, Bibl. Jud.; Akiba Joseph, Leb ha-Ibri, Lem-
berg, 1873.
H.R, P. W1.
HASMONEANS: The family name of the Has-
monean dynasty originates with the ancestor of the
house, ’Acauwvaing (Josephus, “ Ant.” xii. 6,§ 1; xiv.
16,84; xvi. 7, § 1) = "R;0wWN or NOWN (Middot i.
6; Targ. Yer. to I Sam. ii. 4), who, according to
Wellhausen (“ Pharisiier und Sadducier,” note 94),
is said to have been the grandfather of Mattathias.
The high-priestly and princely dignity of the Has-
moneans was founded by a resolution, adopted in
Sept., 141 b.c., at alarge assembly “of the priests
and the people and of the elders of the land, to the
effect that Simon should be their leader and high
priest forever, until there should arise a faithful
prophet ” (I Macc. xiv. 41).
Recognition of the new dynasty by the Romans
259
was accorded by the Senate about 139 B.c., when the
delegation of Simon was in Rome. Therefore, from
a historic point of view, one can speak of a Has-
monean dynasty only as beginning with Simon.
When Jonathan the Maccabee fell into the power
of Tryphon, Simon, his brother, assumed the leader-
ship (142), and after the murder of Jonathan took the
latter’s place. Simon, who had made the Jewish peo-
ple entirely independent of the Syrians, reigned from
142 to 185. In Feb., 185, he was assassinated at the
instigation of his son-in-law Ptolemy.
Simon was followed by his third son, John Hyr-
canus, whose two elder brothers, Mattathias and
Judah, had been murdered, together with their
father, John Hyrcanusruled from 135 to104. Ac-
cording to his directions, the government of the
country after his death was to be placed in the
hands of his wife, and Aristobulus, the eldest of his
five sons, was to receive only the high-priesthood.
Aristobulus, who was not satisfied with this, cast
his mother into prison and allowed her to starve
there. By this means he came into the possession
of the throne, which, however, he did not long
enjoy, as after a year’s reign he died of a painful
illness (108).
Aristobulus’ successor was his eldest brother, Alex-
ander Jannzus, who, together with his two brothers,
was freed from prison by the widow of Aristobulus.
Alexander reigned from 108 to 76, and died during
the siege of the fortress Ragaba.
Alexander was followed by his wife Alexandra,
who reigned from 76 to 67.
Against her wishes, she was succeeded by her son
Aristobulus IT. (67-63), who during the illness of
his mother had risen against her, in order to prevent
the succession of the elder son, Hyrcanus.
During the reign of Alexandra, Hyrcanus had
held the office of high priest, and the rivalry between
him and Aristobulus brought about a civil war,
which ended with the forfeiture of the freedom of
the Jewish people. Palestine had to pay tribute to
Rome and was placed under the supervision of the
Roman governor of Syria. From 63 to 40 the gov-
ernment was in the hands of Hyrcanus IT.
After the capture of Hyrcanus by the Parthians,
Antigonus, a son of Aristobulus, became king (40-
37). His Hebrew name was Mattathias, and he bore
the double title of king and high priest.
After the victory of Herod over Antigonus and
the execution in Antioch of the latter by order of
Antony, Herod the Great (87-4) became king of the
Jews, and the rule of the Hasmonean dynasty was
ended.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meg. Ta‘anit; Schiirer, Gesch. 3d ed., i, 179-
360, and the literature there cited; Josephus, B. J. i. 1-18;
idem, Ant. xti. 5 et seq.
G. H. Bu.
HASON, JOSEPH IBN: Talmudist; author
of a work entitled “Sefer Bet ha-Melek,” containing
a commentary on Maimonides’ Mishneh Torah, re-
sponsa on Orah Hayyim, Yoreh De‘ah, and Hoshen
Mishpat, and novelle on the Pentateuch (Salonica,
1804).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim; Zedner, Cat.
Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 9; Jellinek, Kontres ha-Ram-
bam, No. 26, Vienna, 1893.
Ji M. Sc.
Haskalah
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Hast
HASON, SOLOMON BEN AARON: Turk-
ish rabbi of the sixteenth century. Of his works
the following are known: “Bet Shelomoh,” re-
sponsa, at the end of which are added some responsa
by R. Daniel Estorza (Salonica, 1720); and “ Mish-
patim Yesharim,” containing responsa by him and
by R. Samuel Gaon, in two parts (2). 1832).
Hason is mentioned in the responsa of Samuel de
Modena (part i., No. 48) and in the “Torat Emet”
of Aaron Sason.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, pt.i., p. 164; pt. ii.,
Peg 17, 88; Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, pp. 3va, 39a, 48a, Berlin,
K, N. T. L.
HASSENAAH: The sons of Hassenaah rebuilt
the fish-gate in the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 3).
The name occurs twice (Ezra ii. 85 and Neh. vii. 38)
without the definite article, while in Neh. xi. 9 (R.
V.) and [ Chron. ix. 7(R. V.) it occurs in the form of
“ Wassenuah.” See Cheyne and Black, “ Encyc. Bibl.”
E.G. i. M. SEL.
HASSLER, SIMON: American musician; born
in Bavaria July 25, 1882; died in Philadelphia, Pa.,
Jan. 25, 1901; son of Henry Hassler, also a musician,
who, with his family, emigrated to the United
States in 1842. Simon received a sound musical
education, and in 1852 made his first public appear-
ance as @ Violinist. He became a member of the
orchestra which his father had established in Phila-
delphia, and later succeeded to its leadership.
From 1865 to 1872 he was leader of the orchestra at
the Walnut Street Theater in the same city, and
subsequently of the Chestnut Street Theater and of
the Chestnut Street Opera-House. He was chosen
to direct the orchestra at the Centennial Exposition
at Philadelphia in 1876, and conducted at many
festivals.
Hassler composed music for Shakespeare’s plays,
numerous marches, and other orchestral pieces.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: HW ho’s Who tn America, 1899-1900; Morais,
The Jews of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, 1894.
A. Aw P;
HAST, MARCUS: London cantor and com-
poser; born at Warsaw in 1840. In 1864 he went
to Germany to study music, and on his arrival at
Breslau was appointed cantor at the chief Ortho-
dox synagogue. While at Breslau he gave in-
struction to many cantors since conspicuous for
their merit, among them Rosenthal (Berlin), Birn-
baum (Konigsberg), Griitzhiindler (Warsaw), Gold-
berg, and Ziegelroth. In 1871 he was chosen to
succeed Simon Ascher as chief cantor of the Great
Synagogue, London.
Hast has since published a large number of tran-
scriptions of Hebrew melodies as well as many orig-
inal compositions, achieving marked success with
his numerous synagogal “ piéces d’occasion,” most
of them for chorus and orchestra, Among his pub-
lished works. are: “The Divine Service” (1873);
“ Bostanai,” a dramatic sacred cantata (1876); “ Aza-
riah,” an oratorio, produced at Glasgow (1883);
“The Death of Moses,” performed at Queen’s Hall,
London (1897); “The Fall of Jerusalem ” (1901); the
Seventy-second Psalm; “ Victoria,” a cantata.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Magazine of Musie, Oct., 1888; Jew. Chron.
June 1}, 1897.
Ji F. L. C,
Eat
Hattarat Hora’ah
HAT. Scc HEap-DREss,
HATAN BERESHIT.
THE Law.
HATAN TORAH. See BRIDEGROOM OF TIIE
Law.
HATHACH: One of the eunuchs in the palace
of Ahasuerus (Xerxes), in immediate attendance on
Esther, who employed him in her communications
See BRIDEGROOM OF
with Mordecai (Esth. iv. 5-10, R. V.). The Septu-
agint has ’A ypaéetog,
E. G. Hi. Be BP:
HA-TOR. Sce PERIODICALS.
HATRA’AH: Caution or warning given to
those who are about tocommitacrime. The Rabbis
consider the fact that not all men are lawyers (comp.
“Yad Malaki,” Din 24), and therefore many sin
through ignorance or error. To prove guilty inten-
tion, Which alone can render one amenable to the
full penalty for his crime, the Rabbis provide
that, prior to the perpetration of a crime, the one
who is about to perpetrate it must have been cau-
tioned of the gravity of his project (Sanh. v. 1, 8b;
Mak. 6b). This proviso they try to deduce (prob-
ably only in the way of “support”) from certain
peculiar expressions and phrases used by Scripture
in connection with various crimes and their punish-
ments (Sanh. 40b).
The caution has to be administered immediately
before the commission of the crime (Sanh, 40b; Mai-
monides, “ Yad,” Sanhedrin, xii. 2), and, according
to the better opinion of the legists, alike to the
scholar and to the layman, since by this cau-
tion alone may the court be enabled to distinguish
between error and presumption (Sanh. 8b; “ Yad,”
Zc. xiv. 4). The caution must name the particular
punishment which the commission of the contem-
plated misdemeanor entails—whether corporal or
capital. If the latter, the particular mode of death
(see CAPITAL PUNISHMENT) has to be mentioned, or
the legal penalty attached to the crime can not be
imposed (Sanh. 8b; Mak. 16a).
Besides establishing guilty intention on the part
of the culprit, this proviso operates in diverse direc-
tions, (a) It serves the court as a
Diverse guide in passing sentence on one con-
Operations victed ofaggravated or continuous mis-
of the demeanor. For instance: A Nazarite
Caution. (Num. vi. 2-4; Naz. i. 2, 8b) subjects
himself to the penalty of flagellation
if he violates his vow of abstemiousness by drinking
a certain measure (+ log) of wine (Naz. vi. 1, 34b;
“Yad,” Nezirot, v. 2). Incase he is guilty of drink-
ing several such measures in succession, how is he to
be punished? The preliminary caution decides. If
it is legally proved that due warning had been ad-
ministered to him before each drink, he is punish-
able for each drink separately; otherwise, if he was
forewarned once only, he is punishable for one viola-
tion only (Naz. vi. 4, 42b; Mak. iii. 7). (6) In passing
sentence on one convicted of an offense entailing both
corporal and capital punishment, the preliminary
caution serves the court as an index to the penalty
to beimposed. For example: The Bible (Lev. xxii,
28) forbids the killing of a cow or a ewe “and her
young both in one day”; and rabbinic law imposes
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
260
the penalty of flagellation on the violator of this
prohibition (Hul. v. 3, 78a, 82a). Another law im-
poses the penalty of death on the Jewish idolater
(Deut. xvii. 5; Sanh. vii. 4). When both of these
transgressions are committed simultaneously, as
when one slaughters an animal and its young in one
day as an offering to an idol, the question is, Which
penalty does he incur? Both he may not receive;
for rabbinic law prohibits the administration of more
than one punishment for any one offense (Mak.
18b). Which, then, should the court impose here?
Again the warning decides. If it is proved that
the culprit was warned of the death-penalty, a sen-
tence of death will be awarded; if flagellation only
was mentioned in the warning, flagellation will be
administered (Hul. 81b). (c) Where a convict incurs
two capital punishments, the one mentioned in the
warning is administered. For instance: The law
punishes the crime of adultery with death by stran-
gulation (Lev. xx. 10; Sanh. xi. 1; see
Between CaprriraL PUNISHMENT), and that of
Two criminal conversation with one’s own
Deaths. mother-in-law with death by burning
(Lev. xviii. 17; Sanh. ix. 1; see Cap-
ITAL PUNISHMENT). If one is charged with having
had criminal conversation with a married woman,
and that woman is his mother-in-law, the penalty
will depend upon the import of the antecedent cau-
tion. Where he was forewarned that the consum-
mation of his project will be adultery, entailing the
penalty of strangulation, he will be strangled; but
where the warning stated that the crime would
amount to that species of incest entailing burning,
the more severe death will be awarded (Sanh. ix. 4,
81a; Yeb. 32a).
From the benefit of this proviso rabbinic law ex-
cludes the false witness (Deut. xix. 19; Mak. 4b)
and the instigator to idolatry (Deut. xiii. 2-10;
Sanh. vii. 10, 67a): the first because the nature of
the crime does not admit of forewarning (Ket. 33a);
and the latter because of the heinousness of the
crime in a theocratic commonwealth (see ABET-
MENT). The burglar is also excluded from its opera-
tion (see HomicrpE), his crime of breaking in being
his warning (Ket. 84b; Sanh. 72b). So are all those
excluded who are guilty of misdeeds for the com-
mission of which the Mosaic law prescribes the pen-
alty of excision (M735; Mak. 13b).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benny, Criminal Code, p. 97; Fassel, Straf-
gesetz, 8 1, Mayer, Rechte der Israeliten, fii. 77: Mendel-
sohn, Criminal Jurisprudence of the Ancient Hebrews, 8§
16-19, note 68; Pineles, Darkah shel Torah, § 115: Rabbino-
wicz, Einleitung in der Gesetzgebung, p. 4; Saalschiitz,
Das Mosaische Recht, note 560.
s. 8. S. M.
HATRED (ANDY): Feeling of bitter hostility and
antagonism toward others. It is intrinsically wrong
when the good is hated, but it is proper to hate the
evil. The Decalogue speaks of those that hate God
(Ex. xx. 5; Deut. v. 9); soalso Num. x. 35; Deut. vii.
10, xxxii. 41; Ps. Ixxxiii. 3 (A.V. 2). To hate such
persons is declared by the Psalmist to be meritorious
(Ps. cxxxix, 21-22); for they are the wicked ones
that “hate instruction” (Ps. 1. 17), “right” (Job
xxxiv. 17), “knowledge” (Prov. i. 22, 29), and “him
that rebuketh in the gate” (Amos v. 10). The
prophet expressly admonishes men to “hate the evil
261
and love the good,” in order to “establish judgment
in the gate” (Amos v.15). God Himself hates what-
ever is abominable or morally perverse (Deut, xii.
31, xvi. 22; Isa. i. 14, Ixt. 8; Amos v. 21; Hos. ix.
15; Zech. viii. 17; Mal. ii. 16; Ps. v. 6 [5], xi. 5;
Prov. vi. 16). Likewise men should “hate evil”
(Ps. xevii. 10; Prov. viii. 18), “covetousness ” (Ex.
xviii. 21), “ wickedness” (Ps. xlv. 8 [7]), especially
“every false way” (Ps. cxix. 104), and accordingly
the congregations of “evil-doers” (Ps. xxvi. 5) and
“them that regard lying vanities” (Ps. xxxi. 7 [6]).
Hatred is unbrotherly where love should prevail,
and therefore the Law says, “Thou shalt not hate
thy brother in thine heart” (Lev. xix. 17). This
prohibition is not, as is often asserted with reference
to Matt. v. 48 e¢ seg., confined to kinsmen (see
BROTHERLY LOVE). Only idolaters and doers of evil
are excluded from the universal law of love (Deut.
vii. 2-10), whercas even an enemy's beast should be
treated with kindness (Ex. xxiii. 5-6), One ought
not to rejoice at the destruction of the man that
hateth him (Job xxxi, 29; Prov. xxv. 21 et seq.).
The hatred most frequently denounced in the Psalms
is that caused by no wrong-doing on the part of the
hated and persecuted one (Ps. xxxv. 19, lxix. 5 [4],
cix. 5), It was this hatred without reason which
caused the brothers of Joseph to do evil (Gen.
XXXVIi. 4).
“Hatred without cause” (“sine’at hinnam”) is
therefore the rabbinical term for the vice of hatred;
and the Talmud is emphatic in denouncing it. On
its account the Second Temple was destroyed (Yoma
9b). It undermines domestic peace (Shab. 32b). It
is equal in wickedness to any one of the three capi.
tal sins (Yoma 9b). To leave nodoubt as to the ex-
tent of the prohibition of hatred, the Rabbis use the
term “sine’at ha-beriyyot” (hatred of fellow crea-
tures; see CREATURE), and condemn such hatred as
is detrimental to the welfare of mankind (Abot ii. 11).
“Whosoever hateth his brother is a murderer,” is
Pharisaic as well as New Testament teaching (R.
Eliezer in Derek Erez Rabbah xiii. is prior to I John
iii. 15). On the other hand, the Rabbis maintain the
same sound view regarding the necessity of hatred
of sin and of all things or persons of an evil charac-
ter as that inculcated by the Old Testament. The
impudent man who hates God should be hated
(Ta‘an. 7b). So should all those heretics and in-
formers who alienate the people from their Father
in heaven (Ab. R. N. xvi.; Shab. 116a), and he who
is a wrong-doer in secret (Pes. 118b), for God Him-
self hates persons who lack modesty and purity of
conduct (Nid. 16b) and indulge in lasciviousness
(Sanh. 93a). Only those who deserve love are in-
cluded in the command of love; those whoare hated
by God on account of their evil ways should be
hated by men (Ab. R. N., after Ps. cxxxix. 21 et seg.).
K
HATSEK, IGNAZ: Hungarian chartographer
and engraver; born April 7, 1828, at Olmiitz. He
was educated in the public and the Jewish schools
of his native town. During 1848 and 1849 he was
lieutenant of the Honvéd artillery, and in 1851 be-
came chartographer to the state surveying depart-
ment of Hungary. This position he resigned in
1894, and since then he has lived in Budapest.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hat
Hattarat Hora’ah
Among the many maps which he has drawn or
etched during his forty-three years of active service
may be mentioned: railroad maps of Austria-Hun-
gary; an atlas containing maps of the comitats
of Hungary; an atlas of the government of Hun-
gary for the emperor; a special atlas of Hungary
for the prince imperial.
s. F. T. H.
HATTARAT HORA’AH (lit. “permission to
teach and decide ”): A rabbinical diploma; a written
certificate given to one who, after a thorough exami-
nation, proves himself competent and worthy to be
arabbi. It is a substitute for the “semikah,” which
could be conferred only in Palestine, by a member of
the Sanhedrin. The hattarat hora’ah, unlike the
Christian ordination, confers no sacred power, and
is not a license; it is simply a testimonial of the
ability of the holder to act as rabbi if elected. A
community had, however, a perfect right to, and
often did, elect a rabbi who had no diploma. The
diploma was regarded as a merely formal document
acquainting the people that the person named in it
was fit to teach anc to render decisions. A scholar
who succeeded as principal of the yeshibah, or who
acted as colleague of the rabbi, was not required
to hold a diploma. Some authorities, however, re-
quire that a rabbi have a “degree” in order to be
entitled to perform the rite of “halizah” or to grant
a divorce (annotations to Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh
De‘ah, 242, 14).
The usual title of a Babylonian scholar was
“Rab”; of one ordained in Palestine, “ Rabbi.”
Later on the title “Rabbi” was indiscriminately
used for every scholar who held a rabbinate, Thus
the title “Rabbi” lost its value among the Ashke-
nazim. The Sephardim, however, still held it in re-
spect as a mark of great learning. The ordinary
scholar they called “hakam™”; and the chief among
them is called in Turkey “hakam bashi” (see David
Messer Leon in “Kebod Hakamim,” ed. Mekize
Nirdamim, p. 68, Berlin, 1899).
The title “Moreh Hora’ah” (= “a guide for deci-
sions”; Ket. 79a) is evidently derived from the de-
gree of hattarat hora’ah. Jacob Méin Ss; d.
1427) and his teacher, Shalom of Vienna, introduced
into Germany the title “ Morenu ” (= “our guide and
teacher”) for one who obtained the quasi-semikah.
Don Isaac Abravanel (commentary to
Accom-_ Ab. vi. 1) accuses the Ashkenazim of
panying aping the Gentiles in using the title
Titles. “Doctor” (Gans, “Zemah Dawid,” ed.
Frank fort-on-the-Main, 1692, p. 42b).
The earliest form of hattarat hora’ah was called
“iggeret reshut” (= “letter of permission”) or
“nitka de-dayyanuta” (= “writ of jurisdiction”).
It was composed in Aramaic, in the geonic period of
the ninth century, and read as follows:
‘* We have appointed Peloni b. Peloni [i.e., N, son of N] a jus-
tice in the town of .. . and bave invested him with authority
to administer the civil laws, and to supervise all matters relating
to the Commandments and to things prohibited and permitted
and to things connected with the fear of God. And whosoever
Will not obey the verdict, he (the judge) has authority to deal
with him as he thinks proper. The miscreant is likewise liable
to [the punishment of] Heaven” (geonic responsa “ Zikkaron
la-Rishonim,”* § 180; ed. Harkavy, iv. 80, Berlin, 1887).
This document, given by the principals of the
Hattarat Hora’ah
Babylonian yeshibot, was of an authoritative na-
ture. It invested the recipient with full power to
act, in his limited jurisdiction under the Greco-
Roman or Persian rule, in matters of religion and
civillaw. The justice could compel a defendant to
appear before him for judgment. But, unlike the
justice who obtained the Palestinian semikah, he had
no right to impose monetary fines (“kenas”), nor to
inflict the regulation stripes (“malkut”), much less
capital punishment (Sanh. 31b). Hecould, however,
at his discretion imprison and inflict light bodily pun-
ishment for various offenses. This quasi-semikah
was kept up in Babylon during the Middle Ages.
The rabbinical diploma was known in the thirteenth
century as “ketab masmik,” e.g., in the collection
of Barzilai, “Sefer ha-Shetarot” (p. 131, Berlin,
1898). Maimonides speaks of Samuel ha-Levias “ the
ordained rabbi of Bagdad” (“Iggeret ha-Rambam,”
art. “Resurrection”) with more or less right of
special jurisdiction. In Spain, where the king
granted full privileges to the rabbis in accordance
with the Jewish law, there was even a revival of the
semikah right to inflict capital punishment. Asheri
in 1825 says: “In all countries that I have heard
of, except in Spain, the Jews have no penal juris-
diction; and I was surprised when I came here to
find that they sentenced to capital punishment with-
out a proper Sanhedrin” (Resp. Rosh, rule xvii. 8;
comp. Graetz, “ Hist.” iv. 58),
In any event, the hattarat hora’ah or quasi-semikah
could not give personal power to the rabbi without
the consent of the community; and
such power was limited to the commu-
nity that elected him and to his sphere
of influence. Isaac b. Sheshet rendered
a decision (1880) on this point in the
case of the French community of Provence, which
would not permit the interference of Meir ha-
Levi, chief rabbi in Germany, in its affairs (Re-
sponsa, Nos. 268-278; comp. Graetz, “ Hist.” vi.
152). Isaac b. Sheshet says it was the custom of the
German and French rabbis to give diplomas to the
disciples of their respective yeshibot and to recom-
mend them for vacant rabbinical positions (2d. ).
The hattarat hora’ah, although it invested the
rabbis of Wurzburg with special authority to inflict
corporal (not capital) punishment within the limits
of their jurisdiction, could not compel the defend-
ant living in another town to appear before them.
R. Joseph Colon (end of 15th cent.) decided that
a plaintiff must bring suit in the defendant’s town
before the resident rabbi (J. Colon, Responsa, No.
1, beginning, Venice, 1519).
Samuel of Modena says: “ No matter how superior
a rabbi may be, he has no right to interfere in the
district of another rabbi” (Responsa, iv. 14, Salonica,
1582; comp. “Bet Yosef” to Tur Hoshen Mishpat,
§ 11).
In the ordinance enacted at Ferrara by the rabbis
of Italy (June 21, 1554), clause 4 provides that
“outside rabbis shall not interdict or
Extent of establish ordinances or in any way
Authority. meddle in litigations occurring in the
town of another rabbi, unless such
rabbi voluntarily withdraws from the action. And
in a place where the community has clected the
Authority
Congre-
gational.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
262
rabbi, no other resident rabbi shall interfere with him
without the consent of the community ” (“ Pahad
Yizhak,” s.c. “Taw,” p. 158a, Berlin, 1887). This
“takkanah ” was applied by Samuel Archevolti in his
decision quoted in “Palge Mayim,” p. 15a (Salo-
nica, 1608).
Even in the same city where there are various
congregations, the rabbi elected in one can not in-
terfere withanother. David Messer de Leon, who re-
ceived the highest degree of the quasi-semikah from
Judah Miintz of Padua, and was elected by the Cas-
tilian Jews in Avlonain 1512, could not enforce a
Sabbath prohibition among the Portuguese Jews
in the same place; and in endeavoring to preach
against them he was insulted by their parnas, Abra-
ham de Collier, The rabbi used his prerogative to
excommunicate the parnas. The matter was sub-
mitted to David ha-Kohen of Corfu, who decided in
favor of De Leon in the main issue as a matter of
law, and required of the offender to ask De Leon’s
pardon (Responsa, No. 22; ed. Salonica, 18038, pp.
80a~84a). And yet De Leon is blamed for forcing
his views on the Sephardic community (Bernfeld,
introduction to De Leon’s “Kebod Hakamim,” p.
XV.).
Thus it is seen that the hattarat hora’ah does not
absolutely confer authority on the rabbi, but grants
it only subject to his being appointed, or his orders
approved, by the community. For this reason the
diploma of the modern semikah is more in the form
of a certificate of recommendation. Although the
phraseology is partly that of the original semikah
used by Judah ha-Nasi I., ys) ys) AY AN ( =“ he
may teach; he may judge”), the teaching refers only
to “issur we-hetter ” (= “dietary and ritual laws”),
and the judging to civil cases. The repetition of the
words is employed to emphasize the ordination.
Other phrases are: 435 NO'NOD IF fd 2D (—“all like
him we ordain”), and xobe NMMypOW Pw NI
sno (=“he is careful, and reaches decisions in ac-
cordance with the law”). These phrases usually
occur after a short introduction referring to the re-
cipient’s learning and character and his general fit-
ness as a leader of a community.
The proper age to receive the semikah or the hat-
tarat hora’ah is eighteen years or more. Eleazar
b. Azariah was elected chief rabbi when eighteen
years old (Ber. 28a). Rabbah was ordained at the
same age, and kept his position for twenty-two
years. He died at the age of forty (2b. 64a; Yeb.
105a). Hai Gaon, also, was ordained at eighteen.
David Messer de Leon received his degree at eight-
een, at Neapolis (“ Kebod Hakamim,” p. 64). The
question what degree of learning entitles a scholar
to receive the diploma is fully discussed by De Leon
in his “Kebod Hakamim,” It is nec-
essary for the student to be master
of the original sources of Bible and
Talmud and to possess a_ logical
reasoning power. Such a scholar was
known as “Sinai” (z.e, “the first
source”) and was called “the master of wheat,” in
contradistinction and as being superior to the stu-
dent who possessed rather a capacity for pilpulistic
argumentations and who was known as the “moun-
tain-raiser” (Ber. 64a). Isaac b. Sheshet quotes the
Age and
Qualifica-
tions
of Holder.
RABBINICAL DIPLOMA OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
(In the possession of E, N. Adler.)
Hattarat Hora’ah
Hauser
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
264
a
responsum of Asheri against those who decide blind-
ly by Maimonides’ code without having a thorough
knowledge of the Talmud; and as an example he
refers to a great man of Barcelona who admitted
that he could not comprehend the Yad ha-Haza-
kah on Zera‘im and Koda3him because he had not
a sufficient knowledge of the sources of these hala-
kot and of the respective treatises in the Talmud
(Responsa, No. 44, end).
David ha-Kohen of Corfu complains bitterly
against those rabbis who “ride on the horse of rab-
binism” and who render decisions without seeing
the light of the Talmud or the light of wisdom, but
have the gift of the tongue to raise themselves up
to the high position (Responsa, xxii. 80a). Other
authorities complain of the appointment of rabbis
through the action of the government, or through
the influence of money, when the appointees do not
possess the necessary qualifications of a rabbi (J.
Weil, Responsa, No. 68; see Yer. Bik. iii. 3; Sanh. 7b),
Orthodox congregations recognize a hattarat
hora’ah only when issued by a rabbi of acknowl-
edged authority who has personally examined the
candidate.
The following isa copy of the diploma given by
Rabbi Isaac Elhanan Spector of Kovno (d. 1896),
from whom most of the Russian rabbis now hold the
hattarat hora’ah:
soy. ann apy NaI NA Sp caimsd pra DN IDR OL Ip
DN) opp] OrYa A aT NSD NIM AMAT iy rndDdDd...
YO IAD Ww ON 39) Op AR WAT AN) ANID pI A
22) POW) MT ANT OI pp TAP AA NTN?
NA NDT (ANT) AND) AoA porwr ATA WoW) Minne
Geom an pam wad 39 .d Ta13D DIpD yoran WH noww
pepo... wand op) ©. oY meny omar sawp py Ono
:YINNP peDINA pMON pry oN
(TRANSLATION. ]
** Verily, these words of truth may be ascribed to that worthy
man, the rabbi. .., anative of ..., with whom I have dis-
cussed fully, and [found] he is filled with the Word of the Lord
in, Talmud and in the Codes. He is also an excellent preacher,
preaching what is moral and practising the morals he preaches.
Therefore I say: Let his power and might in the Torah be en-
couraged. Let him teach and decide in matters of monetary
law; dietary and rituals; get and halizah rites; laws relating
to pure andimpure. And may it be the will of the Merciful to
secure him an honorable position according to his honor. As
the said rabbi deserves and is able to lead a holy community
[lit. ** sheep ’’], I have signed this week-day,.. ., day in month,
-- +, and year,...
“So says Isaac Elhanan, who dwells with the holy congre-
gation of Kovno.”
This form of degree pronounces the holder to be
a full-fledged rabbi (“rosh ab bet din” = “the chiet
of bet din”), while a simple hattarat hora’ah is
sometimes given to a dayyan or moreh hora’ah per-
mitting him to render decisions only in dietary and
ritual laws (“issur we-hetter”), in which case the
limitation is so specified. The certificate given toa
shohet permitting him to slaughter animals or
fowls for kasher meat is designated “ kabbalah ” ( =
“accepting [authority ] ”).
Graduates from medern rabbinical seminaries,
such as those at Breslau and Budapest, receive not
only a hattarat hora’ah signed by the professor of
Talmudics, but also a diploma in the vernacular.
As an example of a hattarat hora’ah of the Lib-
eral school, that, given by Chorin to Zunz, on Nov.
18, 1834, may be cited. The document reads:
** Before the Congregation, I thank God for His goodness in
gratifying my perpetual desire, that the wise in Israel may take
to heart the words of our great inaster Maimonides, to reconcile
the Mosaic Law with philosophy, that truth and peace, goodness
and virtue, may be spread and fortified. Praised be God that I
have now found a highly learned and wise
A Reform man, well versed in the Jewish Law, and in
Diploma. other useful branches of science: for all
these are combined in my dear friend Leopold
Zunz, Itherefore ordain him to be a rabbi, and empower him
with the right to act and decide in matters pertaining to permis-
sions and prohibitions, and especially in matters of marriage and
divoree, in accordance With his wisdom and thorough know]-
edge of the Mosaic Law. With this, he assumes the duty of
teaching the Jewish community, by preaching reverence to God,
and drawing men nearer to His teachings and His command-
ments. May our Father in Heaven support him, and grant him
strength in his position, that he may reflect honor on all Israel.
* Aaron Chorin, Chief Rabbi.”
The following diploma is that issued by the He-
brew Union College at Cincinnati:
** By authority of the State of Ohio, and the Union of American
Hebrew Congregations, We, the Faculty and the Board of Gov-
ernors of this Hebrew Union College, hereby testify that the
possessor of this Diploma,. .., Was a regular
American andsuccessful student of the Rabbinical Course
Diploma. of this College, and of the Academic Course of
the University of Cincinnati; and, further-
more, that, at the Regular Final Examination in June, ..., he
proved his competency and worthiness to receive the honors of
this College. Therefore, We confer on him the Degree and
Title of Rabbi, to be known hereafter as Rabbi ..., ordained
and licensed to perform ali Rabbinical functions in the name of
God acd Israel. In Testimony Whereof, We have appended our
names and the seals of the Hebrew Union College and the Union
of American Hebrew Congregations.
**Done in the City of Cincinnati, Hamilton County, State o
Ohio, this... day of ..., in the year... A.M. (...0.E.).”
To this are appended the signatures of the presi-
dent and secretary of the Union of American He-
brew Congregations and of the president and fac-
ulty, and the president and secretary of the board
of governors, of the Hebrew Union College. This
diploma is divided into two columns, English in
one, Hebrew in the other, the Hebrew being spe-
cific as to the examination of the graduate in Bible,
Mishnah, Gemara, Halakah, Haggadah, Biblical exe-
gesis, philosophy, Jewish history, and the grammar
of Hebrew and of the allied languages. It further
certifies that the graduate has preached satisfacto-
rily in public, and has written an acceptable thesis
on Jewish literature, and includes the formula m7y°
hah ys a1".
See AUTHORITY, RABBINICAL; JUDGE; ORDINA-
TION; SUOHET.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Barzilai, Sefer ha-Shetarot, ed. Mekize Nir-
damim, p. 131, Berlin, 1898; Messer David de Leon, Kebod
Hakamim, Berlin, 1899; Schechter, Notes sur Messer David
Leon, in R. BE. J. 1892, p. 118; Monatsschrift, xiii.
68, 97, 384, 421; xxxviii. 122, 385; Salaman, Jews as They
Are, p. 149, London, 1882; Zerubbabel, ch. iv.: Kerem He-
med, iv. 37. For forms of semikah see examples in preface to
Kiddushin, Berit Yizhak, New York, 1897. Regarding ques-
tions of hattarat hora’ah in England, see Ha-*I bri, 1896, April
10; Jew. Chron. 1899, Mareh-June ; 1903, Feb. 13-20.
S. 8, J. D. E.
HATTUSH (yn): 1. Son of Shemaiah, a de-
scendant of the kings of Judah, in the fifth genera-
tion from Zerubbabel (I Chron. iii. 22). He returned
with Zerubbabel and Ezra from Babylon to Jerusa-
lem (Ezra viii. 2; Neh. xii. 2), and was one of those
who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. x.
5). 2. Son of Hashabniah; helped Nehemiah to re-
pair the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 10). Probably
the Hattush referred to is the same in both cases.
E. G. H. M. SEL.
265
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hattarat Hora’ah
Hauser
HAURAN (jn; in cuneiform inscriptions,
“Haurina”; LAXX. Atpavizi¢; Arabic, “Hauran ”):
A region east of the Jordan and north of Gilead,
reaching east tothe desert. It is mentioned in Ezek.
xlvii. 16, 18, in connection with the eastern border
of the land of Israel, as the land between Damascus
and Gilead. The homonymous mountain Hauran
(IN and y43n) is mentioned in the Mishnah (R. H.
ii. 4) as one of the stations upon which fire-signals
were given in order to announce the new-moon and
festival days to the Jewish inhabitants of Baby-
lonia. See PALESTINE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Schrader, K. RB. ti. 216: Hastings, Dict. Bible,
ii. 310; Neubauer, G. T. p. 42; Schtirer, Gesch. Index; Rind-
fleisch, in Z. D. P. V. xxi.1; Post, in Pal. Explor. Fund
~
Quarterly Statement, xix. 175, xxi. 171.
J. M, Sc.
HAUSEN, MOSES BEN ASHER AN-
SHEL: Danish Talmudic scholar: born at Copen-
hagen 1752; died June 28, 1782. He wrote a work
entitled “ Karan Or Pene Mosheh,” a homiletic com-
mentary to Genesis (Hamburg, 1787). Zedner and
Benjacob attribute the authorship of this work to a
Meir b. Isaac, also of Copenhagen; while Azulai
(“Shem ha-Gedolim, ” ii. 182) says that the author’s
name is not mentioned.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1822: First,
Bibl. Jud. i. 366 (where Hausen is cited as ** Moses ben Abra-
ham Anschel Hausen ’’); Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus.
p. 520; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 538.
K M. SEL.
HAUSER, CARL FRANKL: American hu-
morist and writer; born Dec. 27, 1847, at Janoshaza,
Hungary ; received a rudimentary secular and Tal-
mudic education at home. At Vienna, where he had
engaged in business, he obtained a free scholarship
at the Theater Academy. Subsequently (1872) he
accepted engagements with the Vienna Stadttheater
(with which he remained over two years) and with
the Duke of Meiningen’s troupe at Berlin (1875).
Toward the close of 1875 he emigrated tothe United
States and settled in New York city, where, after a
season’s engagement at the Germania Theater, he
entered journalism (1876) by joining the staff of
“Puck ” (German edition), of which he became asso-
ciate editor, holding that position for fourteen years
(1876-79, 1881-92). During the seasons of 1879-80
and 1880-81 he was engaged as an actor at the
Thalia Theater.
Hauser founded a German humorous weekly,
“Hallo,” in 1892, conducting it forabout two years.
Next he joined the staff of the “ New Yorker Herold,”
to which he was a prolific contributor for two years.
He is the author of “ Twenty-Five Years in Amer-
ica: Recollections of a Humorous Nature” (1900);
founder of the “ Birger- und Bauern-Kalender,” pub-
lished annually since 1897; author of the libretto to
“Madeleine, the Rose of Champagne,” and of mate-
rial of the same character for six burlesques. He
contributed to “Puck” a series entitled “ Letters of
Dobbljew Zizzesbeisser,” of interest to Jews. In
the political arena Hauser has taken part in many
reform movements as a member of the German-
American Reform Union and of the Citizens’ Union.
He is also a popular lecturer.
A. F. H. V.
HAUSER, MISKA (MICHAEL): Hungarian
violin virtuoso; born at Presburg, Hungary, 1822;
died at Vienna Dec. 8, 1887; pupil of Joseph Mata-
lay, and later of Kreutzer, Mayseder, and Sechter, at
the Vienna Conservatorium. In 1839-40 he first gave
a number of concerts in various cities of Germany,
and then traveled through Denmark, Sweden, Nor-
way, Finland, and Russia. Ten years later he vis-
ited England, North and South America, the West
Indies, the South Sea Islands, and Australia, return-
ing to Europe in 1858 by way of India, Turkey, and
Egypt. In 1864 he made a tour through Italy and
played also in Berlin and Paris, where his feats of
virtuosity won him great applause. He made his
last public appearance in 1874 at Cologne.
Hauser’s compositions, now rarely played, com-
prise the operetta “Der Blinde Leiermann,” and
numerous fantasies, rondos, and variations for the
violin. His “ Wanderbuch eines Oesterreichischen
Virtuosen: Briefe aus Californien, Sttdamerika und
Australien” (2 vols., Leipsic, 1858-59) was a reprint
of his letters to the “ Ostdeutsche Post,” Vienna, on
his American and Australian tour.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mendel, Musikalisches Konversations-Leri-
kon; Ebrlich, Celebrated Violinists, pp. 49-50; Riemann,
Musik-Lexikon, 1900, s.v. Ls
8. » po.
HAUSER, PHILIPP: Hungarian physician,
and writer on medical topics; born at Nadas, Hun-
gary, April 2, 1832. For several years he attended the
Talmudic schoolat Presburg and that at Nikolsburg,
Moravia (1848). In 1852 he began the study of med-
icine, attending successively the universities of
Vienna, Paris, and Bern (M.D. 1858). On the com-
pletion of his studies he went as physician to Tan-
gier, where more than 4,000 Jews were living.
When the war between Spain and Morocco broke
out a year later, Hauser, with many of his core-
ligionists in Tangier and the coast district, sought
refuge at Gibraltar, where he took charge of the
provisional hospital established by the Jewish com-
munity. Afterthe Spanish had taken Tetuan (Feb.,
1860), Hauser went to that city, where the cholera
was then raging, in order to relieve the Jews there;
a year later he returned to Gibraltar and resumed
his practise. He was frequently called for consul-
tations to the interior of Morocco, and to Cadiz and
other Spanish cities. In 1872 he settled at Seville;
there he succeeded, in spite of many difficulties, in
compelling recognition, and was appointed by the
municipal council as delegate to the fourth inter-
national hygienic congress.
In 1883 Hauser removed to Madrid, where he is
one of the very few Jewish physicians. He has
published the following works: “Nouvelles Re-
cherches sur l’Influence du Systéme Nerveux sur la
Nutrition ” (Bern, 1858); “Qa Mortalité de la Pre-
miére Enfance en Espagne Comparée avec Celle de
la France” (Paris, 1878); “L’Influence dela Densité
de la Population dans la Mortalité des Grandes
Villes” (2b. 1882); “Estudios Medico-Topograficos
de Sevilla” (Seville, 1888); “Estudios Medico-
Sociales de Sevilla” (2b. 1883); “ Estudios Epidemio-
logicos Relativos a la Etiologia y Profilaxis del Co-
lera” (3 vols., preface by Pettenkofer of Munich;
Seville, 1887); “Le Cholera en Europe Depuis Son
Origine Jusqu’a Nos Jours” (Paris, 1897; the last-
named two works received from the Academy of .
Hausfreund
Hawkers
Paris the Prix Bréant of 3,000 francs as well as the
Pettenkofer prize of 1,500 marks); “La Défense
Sociale Contre Ja Tuberculose” (Madrid, 1898);
“Nouvelles Recherches sur le Rapport Entre l’Evo-
lution et la Structure Géologique de la Péninsule
Ibérique et les Eaux Minérales d’Espagne”;
“Madrid Bajo el Punto de Vista Medico-Social ” (2
vols., Madrid, 1902-03).
8 M, K.
HAUSFREUND, DER. See PERIODICALS.
HAUSSMANN, DAVID: German physician ;
born at Ratibor, Silesia, July 22, 1839; died at Berlin
May 26, 1903. He received his education in the Jew-
ish school and in the gymnasium of his native town,
and also at the universities of Breslau and Berlin.
He received his degree as doctor of medicine from
the latter university in 1866. Having served half a
year as volunteer in the Kaiser Alexander Regi-
ment in Berlin, he took part as assistant surgeon in
the war with Denmark in 1864 and in the Austro-
Prussian war in 1866, and as captain-surgeon in the
Franco-Prussian war in 1870-71. During this last
campaign he was wounded before Metz. For his
military services he received the war medals of 1864,
1866, and 1870-71, the “Dtippler Sturmkreuz,” and
the Iron Cross. After his graduation Haussmann
practised gynecology in Berlin. From 1867 to 1870
he was proscctor at the gynecological hospital of the
Berlin University.
Haussmann wasa prolific writer. He contributed
about sixty essays to the various medical journals,
among which may be mentioned: Virchow’s “ Ar-
chiv fiir Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie
und fiir Klinische Medizin”; “Berliner Klinische
Wochenschrift”; “Deutsche Medizinische Woch-
enschrift”; “Monatsschrift fiir Geburtskunde”;
“Archiv fir Gyndkologie”; “Zeitschrift fir Ge-
burtshilfe”; and “Centralblatt fir Gynikologie.”
These essays treat especially of the origin, prophy-
laxis, and treatment of the infection and diseases of
the em} zyo during nativity. Haussmann was like-
wise the author of: “Die Parasiten der Weiblichen
Sexualorgane,” Berlin, 1870, translated into French
by P. E. Walther, Paris, 1875; “ Die Lehre von der
Decidua Menstrualis,” Berlin, 1872; “Die Parasiten
der Brustdriise,” 7d. 1874; “Ueber die Entstehung
der Uebertragbaren Krankheiten des Wochenbettes,”
1b. 1875; “Ueber das Verhalten der Spermatozoiden
in den Sexualorganen des Weibes,” 2b. 1879; “Die
Bindehautinfectionen der Neugeborenen,” Stuttgart,
1882.
8. : F. T. H.
HAVAS, ADOLF: Hungarian dermatologist ;
born in Szt. Gal, Hungary, Feb. 14, 1854; studied in
Veszprim, Budapest, and Vienna, taking his degree
as doctor of medicine in 1880. After a postgradu-
ate course abroad, he returned to Budapest (1883),
and was made chief of the department for skin and
venereal diseases in the university hospital. In 1884
he became privat-docent; in 1902, assistant professor.
His chief works are: “ Malleus Humidus”; “Lupus
Vulgaris”; “Sarcoma Idiopathicum Multiplicatum
Pigmentis Cutis”; “ Mycotis Fungoides”; “Lichen
Ruber Acuminatus.” He has published several es-
says in Hungarian and German medical journals.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
266
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pallas Lex.; Pesti Alfred, Magyarorszdg
Orvosainak Evkényve, 1895. L. Vv
8 bes
HAVILAH (Syn; Eiutér: lit. “the sandy
land”): Name of a district, or districts, in Arabia.
According to I Sam. xv. 7, Saul smote the Ama-
lekites from Havilah to Shur (the region of the
“wall”), “overagainst Egypt”; the Ishmaelitesare
also placed in the same locality (Gen. xxv. 18), which
will thus correspond with the northern part of Ara-
bia, the “ Melukhkha” or “Salt Desert” of the cune-
iform inscriptions. In Gen. x. 29and I Chron. i, 23,
on the other hand, Havilah is a son of Joktan, asso-
ciated with Sheba and Ophir in the southern portion
of the peninsula. As, however, the Assyrian in-
scriptions show that the power of Sheba extended
as far north as the frontiers of Babylonia, it is not
necessary to transplant Havilah from the north to
the south, more especially as Mesha (Gen. x. 30) is
probably the Assyrian “ Mas,” the northern desert of
Arabia. The Havilah of Gen. ii. 11 is certainly to
be sought in this direction, since the Pison, which
“compassed ” it, was, like the Euphrates and Tigris,
a river of Eden, the Babylonian “Edin,” or the
Chaldean plain. It is said that it produced gold,
bdellium, and the “shoham” stone. This last has
been identified by some Assyriologists with the
“samtur” stone of the monuments, which was found
in Melukhkha. Glaser makes bdellium the exuda-
tion of the balsam-tree.
It is questionable whether the Cushite Havilah
mentioned in Gen. x. 7 is to be looked for in Arabia
or Africa. Arabian tribes migrated to the opposite
coasts of Africa in early times. The fact, however,
that Raamah, Sheba, and Dedan are coupled with
Havilah is in favor of Arabia; and Havilah, like
Sheba, might geographically be described as both
Joktanite, or southern, and Cushite, or northern.
Havilah was identified by Bochart and Niebuhr
with Khaulanin Tehamah, between Mecca and Sana;
by Gesenius with the Khaulotei of Strabo in north-
ern Arabia; and by Kautzsch with Huwailah on the
Persian Gulf; while the supposed African Havilah
has been found in the Aualis of Ptolemy and Pliny,
now Zeila, Glaser places it in Yemama (central
and northeastern Arabia), from which gold was
“almost exclusively” brought in ancient times.
Ball has pointed out a statement of the Arabic wri-
ter Yakut that Hawil was the dialect spoken not
only by the people of Mahrah in the south, but also
by “the descendants of Midian, the son of Abraham.”
E. G. H. A. H. 8.
HAVILIO, SIMON BEN JUDAH. See Ha-
BILLO, SIMON BEN JUDAH BEN DAVID.
HAVOTH-JAIR (4's° nin= “the tent-vil-
lages of Jair ”): Certain villages or towns on the east
of the Jordan in Bashan and in Gilead, named after
their conquerors, 1, The towns of Jair, son of Ma-
nasseh, which occupied the whole tract of Argob in
Bashan (Num. xxxii. 41; Deut. iti, 14), They were
sixty in number, and, contrary to the litera] signifi-
cation of their name, were towns well fortified with
high walls and gates (Deut. iii. 4-5; Josh. xiii. 30;
I Chron. ii. 23). In the time of Solomon they formed
a part of Ben-geber’s commissariat. district (I Kings
iv. 13). It appears from this passage that Jair bad
267
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hausfreund
Hawkers
villages in Gilead, which also were called “ Havoth-
jair”; and according to I Chron. ii. 22 their num-
ber was twenty-three. 2. The villages of Jair the
Gileadite, in Gilead, thirty in number (Judges x. 4).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HAVRE: French seaport, on the estuary of the
Seine. It has a population of 118,478, of whom
about 50 are Jews (1903). In 1850 a dozen Jewish
families united for the celebration of Rosh ha-Shanah
and Yom Kippur, in an apartment at No. 33 Rue
Royale. The community was created by a minis-
terial decree in 1852, and its synagogue, at No. 42
Rue Dauphine, was dedicated by Chief Rabbi Isidor.
In 1862 the community, having increased in num-
bers, built a temple on the Rue du Grand Croissant,
which also was dedicated (1864) by Chief Rabbi
Isidor. In 1872 the community was included in the
rabbinical district of Rouen.
E. C. J. Ka.
HAWAIIAN (formerly Sandwich) IS8-
LANDS: Group of twelve islands in the North
Pacific Ocean, eight of which are inhabited. They
have a population of 154,000 (1902), of whom about
100 are Jews, As the territory of Hawaii the islands
were annexed to the United States in 1898.
The first Jew who visited Hawaii was A. S. Grin-
baum, whoarrived in Honolulu in 1856; a few years
later the firm of M. 8. Grinbaum & Co. was estab-
lished. It is still in existence, and is one of the
largest wholesale houses in the territory. After the
overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani in 1893 a number
of Jews settled there. In1901 the first Hebrew con-
gregation of Honolulu was formed, under the presi-
dency of 8. Ehrlich (vice-president, Elias Peck); it
numbers forty members (1903). Four Jewish wed-
dings have been solemnized under the Jewish rit-
ual by visiting rabbis having special authorization.
The cemetery was consecrated Aug. 24, 1902, by
Rudolph I. Coffee and by 8. Ebrlich, president of the
cemetery association. A scroll of the Law, said to
be of ancient origin, was owned by King Kalakaua;
it is used in the services on holy days.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Coffee, Jews and Judaism in the Hawaiian
Islands, in The Menorah, xxxiii. 259; American Hebrew,
xxi. 605.
A. R. I. C.
HAWE: The rendering of y) given by the Eng-
lish versions; it is enumerated among the unclean
birds in Lev. xi. 16; Deut. xiv. 15. The Hebrew
word, to which is added “after its kind,” may des-
ignate any of the smaller diurnal birds of prey,
which are numerous in Palestine. Of the Fulcont-
de the kestrels (Jinnunculus alaudarius and Tin-
munculus cenchris) are very common in Palestine.
Others, less numerous, are the hobby-hawk (Faico
subbuteo), the Eleonora falcon (alco eleonore), ete.
In Job xxxix. 26 the hawk is described as stretch-
ing its wings “toward thesouth,” in reference to the
migratory habits of the smaller birds.
In the Talmud (Hul. 42a) the hawk is said to kill
small birds, while another bird, the “ gas,” kills large
ones. The latter term may denote the Falco islan-
dicus, used in hinting.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Tristram. Natural History of the Bible, p.
189; Lewysohn, Zoologie des Talmuds, p. 164. LMC
J. A e We
HAWKERS AND PEDLERS. — Biblical
Data: In primitive countries trading was monopo-
lized by traveling merchants. Palestine, an agricul.
tural country, knew the traders mostly as foreigners,
chiefly Canaanites (Hosea xii. 8; Isa. xxiii. 8; Prov.
xxxi. 24; Job xl. 30). The Hebrew uses either
amp (Gen. xxiii. 16) or ayn (I Kings x. 25; Ezek.
Xxvii.; Cant. iii. 6), both of which mean originallv
“the wanderer.” Aversion to the foreigner, and the
narrow prejudices of the farmer, who considered the
profit of the merchant ill-gotten, combined to repre-
sent the hawker as dishonest. Hosea speaks of the
trafficker in whose hands are “ the balances of deceit ”
(xii, 8 [A. V. 7]); and the term for “slanderer” pin
‘39) meant originally a “ traveling merchant” (Prov.
xi. 13, xix. 16). The same idea appears in the verse
“A merchant will hardly keep himself from doing
wrong; and an huckster shall not be freed from sin ”
(Ecclus, [Sirach] xxvi. 29). The articles in which
the pedler dealt in those days were evidently man-
ifold. Nehemiah speaks of “the fish and all man-
ner of ware” which the “rokelim” brought to town
(xiii. 16); but in this case he may, perhaps, refer
exclusively to provisions. Canticles iii. 6 seems to
indicate that spices were a staple commodity of the
ambulant trader; and the Talmud (B. B. 22a) ex-
pressly states that they were.
—In Rabbinical Literature: With the loss of
their national independence and their gradual dis-
persion into foreign lands, the Jews resorted more
and more tocommerce. The pedler carried all kinds
of merchandise in his boxes; Johanan ben Nuri is
called, in allusion to his wide learning, “the pedler’s
box” (*kuppat ha-rokelim ”; Git. 67a). In Cant.
R. iii. 6 “the powders of the merchant ” is explained
as a figure for the blessings of Jacob, the source
of all blessing, like the box of the merchant which
contains all kinds of spices. Spices
were imported from distant lands, and
since patriarchal times had been car-
ried by Arabian caravans (Gen. xxxvii. 25). In an
allegorical introduction to a sermon R. Alexander
asks: “Who wishes to buy elixir of life?” (‘Ab.
Zarah 19b), which question evidently has reference
to the spice-pedlers’ custom of announcing their
wares in the streets. The Talmud decides that the
resident merchants of a town have no right to inter-
fere with the trade of the pedlers, for Ezra ordained
that pedlers should be permitted to sell their goods
in the cities so that cosmetics might he available to
the daughters of Israel (B. B. 22a; Shulhan ‘Aruk,
Hoshen Mishpat, 156, 6). The opportunities for
intrigues afforded to pedlers are frequently referred
to (Yeb. 63b; but see Rabbinovicz ad loc.; idem,
Hiddushim, iv. 13).
The trade of the pedler seems to have been consid-
ered very profitable; R. Judah (4th cent.) said that the
prosperity of the pedlers is due to the merit of Jacob
(Cant. R. iii. 6). The character of the pedler, how-
ever, is not highly esteemed. His most prominent
characteristic is garrulity. In defense of the brev-
ity of the Mishnah the Talmud says: “The Mishnah
is not supposed to enumerate every case in the style
of a pedler ” (B. B. 22a). The Hebrew “rakil” (slan-
der) is derived from “rokel” (pedler), because the
talebearer is like a pedler who ingratiates himself
Spices.
Hawkers
Hayem
with his customers by telling one what another
says about him (Yer. Peah 16a; comp. Sifra, ed.
Weiss, 89a).
In Medieval and Modern Times: The
primitive stateof western Europe during the earlier
part of the Middle Ages did not permit the develop-
ment of regular trading centers. Articlesof luxury
and the productsof foreign countries were brought to
Germany and eastern Europe by traveling merchants,
who also exportedamber and other goods, and espe-
cially slaves. This trade, at least after the eighth cen-
tury, was principally carried on by Jews. Thechar-
ter of Henry IV., issued to the Jews of Speyer (1090),
and confirmed by Frederick I. and Frederick IL,
emphasizes their freedom to deal in all kinds of
merchandise within the limits of the empire (“ Zeit-
schrift fiir die Gesch. der Juden in Deutschland,” i.
65 et seq.). The rise of city settlements, where Jews
lived almost exclusively up to the middle of the fif-
teenth century, and the restriction of
In Country the latter to money-lending, seem to
Districts. have curtailed the opportunities for
peddling; at all events legislation,
while very detailed about interest and pledges, has
nothing to say about the peddling trade. But when
the Jews, by the end of the fifteenth century, were
forced to livein villagesand small towns, it was neces-
sary for them to seek a livelihood beyond the places
of their residence, They went to the villages to buy
hides, wool, and produce, and sold various kinds of
merchandise, chiefly dry-goods. References to the
Mp2,
MOU i
VN, a
LY
=
LIK
we
a
a
SN
SS
Polish Jewish Hawker, Seventeenth Century.
(After Kohut, “ Gesch. der Deut. Juden.’’)
pedler are frequent from that period down to modern
times, when Kompert idealized him in his novel
“Der Dorfgeher,” and Moriz Oppenheim painted
the touching scene of the departure of the *“ Dorf-
ginger” from his home. The calling was not very
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
268
lucrative, and was often beset with dangers from
the inclemency of the weather and from highway
robbers and marauders. Two striking illustrations
of this are found in the responsa of Menahem Mendel
Krochmal (“Zemah Zedek,” Nos. 42,93). For the
ee
—
Zs
RB! 4/7
Ye
LH M
> aN S
oo
Jewish Hawker of Hamburg, Eighteenth Century.
(After Suhr.)
representation of a German Jewish hawker of the
early sixteenth century see Jew. Encyc, iv. 295.
Very frequently the Jews would peddle in the
cities from which, as residents, they had been ex-
pelled, but in which they might transact business
during the day when provided witha passport. The
regular shopkeepers of the cities naturally cpposed
this competition, and in the course of the eighteenth
century frequent instances occur in which cities or
countries from which the Jews were excluded pro-
hibited even their temporary presence as pedlers,
Such orders were issued by Frederick Augustus of
Saxony, July 10, 1719, and Aug. 16, 1746 (“Codex
Augusteus,” i. 1899, 2d division, p. 1167; Von Rénne
and Simon,“ Die Verhiiltnisse der Ju-
Restric- den im Preuss. Staat,” pp. 327, 341,
tions on’ Breslau, 1843), and repeatedly since
Peddling. 1712 by the council of the free city of
Nordlingen. Exceptions were made in
favor of pedlers of goods which could not be bought
in the regular shops of the city. Thus the Jews were
269
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hawkers
Hayem
forbidden to rent wareliouses in the cities or to ap-
pear on the street with a pedler’s bag (“Zwerch-
sack”). On entering a city they were obliged to re-
port to the police, who detailed a guard to watch
them during their stay within it (L. Miller, “Aus
Funf Jahrbunderten,” pp. 107 et seg., Noérdlingen,
1899). The same prohibition against peddling was
issued April 5, 1717, by the emperor Charles VI.
for the cities of Brinn and Olmiitz, whence the
Jews had been expelled in 1454 (D’Elvert, “Zur
Gesch. der Juden in Mihren und Oesterreichisch-
Schlesien,” pp. 95, 100, Briinn, 1895). When,
through the influence of the French Revolution, the
restrictions on both the residence and the traffic of
the Jews were relaxed, the local authorities endeav-
ored to check Jewish settlements by restricting ped-
dling. The Swiss canton of Aargau issued various
orders, especially that of Dec. 22, 1804, by which
peddling was restricted to absolute necessities (Hal-
ler, “Die Rechtliche Stellung der Juden im Kanton
Aargau,” p. 70, Aargau, 1901). In Munich the
“ Kurfiirst,” as a means of checking the increase of
Jews in the capital, had already (Oct. 16, 1786) pro-
hibited peddling by them (Taussig, “ Gesch. der Ju-
den in Bayern,” p. 67, Munich, 1874).
During the nineteenth century, when the move-
ment toward a gradual emancipation of the Jews
began, it was frequently stipulated that the Jews
must abandon peddling and engage
In the in more productive occupations before
Nineteenth being admitted to civil and political
Century. rights. Thus the edict of June 10,
1818, established for Bavaria the prin-
c{ple that a license to marry should not be issued to
those who engaged in “Schacherhandel” (* Regie-
rungsblatt,” 1818, p. 921; Heimberger, “ Die Staats-
kirchenrechtliche Stellung der Isr. in Bayern,” p.
182, Freiburg-im-Breisgau and Leipsic, 1894). The
same position was taken Oct. 29, 1833, by the elect-
orate of Hesse (“ Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” 1838, pp. 309
et seg.), Which was the first country in Germany to
grant to the Jews fullequality—from which, how-
ever, pedlers were excluded. A similar regulation
was made by the Prussian government in the tempo-
rary law for the Jews of the province of Posen issued
June 1, 1833 (“ Gesetzessammlung,” 1833, p. 66; Von
Roénne and Simon, f.c. p. 308), which allowed only
naturalized Jews to engage in peddling. <A law
of Mecklenburg dated Feb. 22, 1818, allowed the
Jews full freedom in this respect, but expressed the
hope that the peddling trade would cease within a
short time (Donath, “Gesch. der Juden in Mecklen-
burg,” p. 170, Leipsic, 1874). In more recent times
anti-Semitism used restrictions against peddling as
a means of depriving the poorest class among the
Jews of a livelihood. This was donein Rumania by
the law of March 17-29, 1884, which prohibited
peddling in the cities of anything except agricul-
tural produce, and restricted it in rural communities
by making it dependent on a license issued by the
village authorities (Edmond Sincerus [E. Schwarz-
feld], “Les Juifs en Roumanie,” pp. 65 e¢ seg., Lon-
don, 1901). An Austrian law of Feb. 25, 1902 (§§
59-60), affecting commerce was inspired by the same
motives.
With the influx of German Jews into America the
Jewish pedler became a familiar figure throughout
the United States. The immigrants, in most in-
stances poorand knowing no particular trade, would
receive goods from their countrymen or relatives on
credit and sell them in rural districts until they had
earned enough to open a store. Since the arrival
of the Russian Jews in 1882 the practise of selling
goods on the instalment plan (custom-peddling) has
developed among them; while in the large cities
some have sought a living as hucksters or by sell-
ing small household wares from push-carts. —_—D.«
HA-YEHUDI. See PEnrropica.s.
HAYEM, ARMAND-LAZARE: French au-
thor; born in Paris July 24, 1845; died there 1889;
son of Simon Hayem. Hayem forsook commerce
for literature and politics, In the last years of the
empire he openly advocated Republican doctrines,
and in 1871 was elected “conseiller général” for the
canton of Montmorency. He was an unsuccessful
candidate at the elections of Feb., 1876 and 1881.
Hayem was an adherent to the doctrines of Prou-
dhon, and published several political brochures. He
was also the author of: “ Le Mariage,” 1872 (2d ed.,
1876); “Le Collier,” 1881; “L’Etre Social,” 1881;
“La Science, 1?7Homme au XIXeme Siécle,” 1885;
“Le Don Juanisme,” 1886; “Don Juan d’Armana,”
1886; “ Vérités et Apparences,” 1891.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: La Grande Encyclopédie; Vapereau, Dic-
tionnaire Universel des Contemporains.
8. V. iE |
HAYEM, CHARLES: French collector and
art patron; born in Paris in 1839; died there May
13, 1902; eldest son of Simon Hayem. His wife
was the daughter of Adolphe Franck, and her salon
wasa center for artistsand writers. Hayem’s gift of
forty-six paintings by the foremost living French
artists, together with many objects of art, to the
museum of the Palais Luxembourg earned him the
title of “Benefactor of French Art.”
8. E. A.
HAYEM, GEORGES: French physician; born
in Paris Nov. 25, 1841; son of Simon Hayem. He
became doctor of medicine in 1868, and later “agré-
gé” of the faculty of Paris. In 1879 he was ap-
pointed professor of therapeutics and materia medica
at the Saint Antoine hospital, and in 1886 was elected
a member of the Academy of Medicine. He is
the author of many important medical works, and
has made extensive researches in the pathology of
the blood. He is a specialist on stomach disorders,
and has achieved some success in the cold-water treat-
ment of cholera. His most important works are:
“Des Hémorragies Intra-Rachidiennes,” 1872; “Re-
cherches sur 1’Anatomie Pathologique des Atrophies
Musculaires,” 1877; “Cours de Thérapeutique Ex-
perimentale,” 1882; “Lecons de Thérapeutique,”
1887-98; “Du Sang et de Ses Altérations Ana-
tomiques,” 1889; (with Winter) “Du Chimisme
Stomacal,” 1891. As the editor of the “ Revue des
Sciences Médicales en France et 4 )’Etranger” from
1873 to 1898, Hayem contributed articles on allied
subjects.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: La Grande Encyclopédie; Vapereau, Dic-
tionnaire Universel des Contemporains,; Nouveau La-
rousse I tlustre.
8. V. E.
-Yo* 7 ere
Bassin’ THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 2°70
HA-YO‘EZ. See PERIODICALS. by the order of the common council, hangs in the
HA-YONAH. SEE PERIODICALS.
HAYS: Family which emigrated from Holland
in the first quarter of the eighteenth century and set-
tled in and near New York city. Records exist of six
brothers: (1) Jacob, (2) Judah, (3) Isaac, (4) Solomon,
(5) Abraham, and (6) David, whose sons were iden-
tified with the colonial cause during the Revolu-
tionary war, and whose descendants are scattered
throughout the United States.
1. Jacob Hays: Naturalized in1723. A record
exists of the lease of property to him in Rye, N. Y.,
and his name appears among those active in erecting
the first building for the Congregation Shearith
Israel, New York city, in 1730. Hissons were farm-
ers in Westchester county, New York.
governor’s room, City Hall, New York, His grand-
son, William Jacob Hays (b. 1830; d. 1875), be-
came known as a painter of animal pictures.
Benjamin Etting Hays: Farmer at Pleasant-
ville, N. Y.; born 1779; died 1858. Though observ-
ing strictly the tenets of Judaism, he was known by
his neighbors as “ Uncle Ben, the best Christian in
Westchester county.” David Hays: Eldest son
of the preceding; born 1820; died 1897. He was
for many years treasurer of the College of Pharmacy
of the City of New York. He married Judith Sal-
zedo Peixotto, and the old family homestead at
Pleasantville is now the property of their eldest
son.
Daniel Peixotto Hays: Lawyer; eldest son of
the preceding; born at Pleasantville, N. Y., 1854.
Michael ask (of Holland)
J ae Solomon
David 4 others
(1732-1812)
= Esther Etten
or Etting
(of Baltimore)
Joseph Moses
(d. 1834)
= Rebec- =...
ca Ann Levy
|
5 chil-
dren
3 chil-
Benjamin Etting
(b. 1779)
= Sarah Meyers
Jacob
(1772-1849)
9 th eee
(Qi...
(3) Maria
Post
|
9 children
David (1820-97) 5 others
= Judith Peixotto
Daniel Peixotto Benjamin Franklin
6 children 4 children 3 children
Baruch Andrew Michael
| Solomon Michael
| (b. 1750)
Judah schil-
dren 3 children
Judah
(d. 17638)
Isaac
(d. 1765)
Moses Caty 4others
Michael =(1) Abra-
: ham Sar-
zedas
(2) Jacob
Jacobs
Samuel
(1764-1839)
= Richea (1739-
Gratz 1805)
6 chil-
Isaac 5 others aren
(1796-1879)
= Sarah Minis
David
Sarzedas
Tsaac
Minis
= Emma
Wood
s8chil- Frank
dren |
2 chil-
dren
|
4 children
Rachel Peixotto 4 others
= Rachel Hershileld = Anna Zemansky = Cyrus L. Sulzberger
GENEALOGICAL TREE OF THE Hays FAMILY.
Benjamin Hays: Member of Westchester
County Militia (J. A. Roberts, “New York in the
Revolution”), His house at Bedford, with that of
David Hays, was burned during the Royalist raid
upon that town in July, 1779 (Rev. Robert Bolton,
“ Hist. of the County of Westchester ”).
Michael Hays: Resident of Pleasantville, West-
chester county, where in 1785 he bought a large
estate. He served upon various important colonial
committees (“Calendar of New York Historical
Manuscripts”; “Public Papers of Governor Clin-
ton, 1777-1804”). He bequeathed his estate to his
brother, David Hays.
David Hays: Born 1732; died 1812; married
Esther Etting (or Etten) of Baltimore.
Jacob Hays: Eldest son of the preceding; born
1772; died 1849. He was high constable of New
York city from 1802 to 1849. His portrait, painted
He was appointed chairman of the Municipal Civil
Service Commission (1893), and was elected presi-
dent of the village of Pleasantville (1898), of the
Young Men’s Hebrew Association of New York
(1879), and of Temple Israel, Harlem, New York
city (1889).
2. Judah Hays: Owner of the sixteen-gun ship
“ Duke of Cumberland ” (1760); naturalized in 1729.
Moses Michael Hays: Son of the preceding; born
1739; died 1805. He resided in Newport, and after-
ward in Boston, where he became grand master of
the Masonic Grand Lodge of Massachusetts. Among
the grandsons of Judah Hays were David Sarzedas
and Judah Touro. David Sarzedas served as first
lieutenant in the Georgia Brigade in the Revolution-
ary war (White’s “Statistics of Georgia”). Judah
Touro became known throughout America as a
philanthropist.
271
3. Isaac Hays: Freeman of New York city
(1748).
Michael Hays: Eldest son of the preceding.
John Hays: Son of the preceding; mayor of
Cumberland, Md. (1852-58).
Samuel Hays: Brother of Michael Hays: born
1764; died 1889. He removed to Philadelphia and
married Richea Gratz.
Isaac Hays: Physician; son of the preceding;
born 1796; died 1879. He was president of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (1865-
1869), and was one of the founders of the Frank-
lin Institute and the American Medical Association.
He was the author of that association’s code of
ethics, which has since been adopted by every state
and county medical society in the United States.
He edited the “ American Journal of Medical Science”
from 1827 to 1869, when his son, Isaac Minis
Hays, one of the secretaries of the American Philo-
sophical Society, became his associate. In 1843
he established the “Medical News”; in 1874 the
“Monthly Abstract of Medical Science.” He was
also editor of Wilson’s “ American Ornithology,”
Hoblyn’s “Dictionary of Terms Used in Medicine
and the Collateral Sciences,” Lawrence’s “Treatise
on Diseases of the Eye,” and Arnott’s “ Physics.”
4, Solomon Hays: Merchant freeman (1742),
He had three sons.
Baruch Hays: Sonof the preceding; served as
first lieutenant in the Revolutionary war (“ Calendar
of New York Historical Manuscripts”). John
Hays: Son of Baruch Hays; born 1770; died 1836.
John Hays was one of the pioneers of Illinois. He
was sheriff of St. Clair county, 1798-1818; was ap-
pointed collector of internal revenue for Illinois
territory by President Madison in 1814; and became
Indian agent at Fort Wayne in 1822.
Andrew Hays: Son of Solomon Hays. He re-
moved to Canada, and was one of the founders of
the Shearith Israel Synagogue, Montreal (1768). His
son, Moses Judah Hays, became prominent in
municipal affairs. He organized Montreal's first
water-works and was chief commissioner of police.
5 and 6. Abraham and David Hays fought in
the colonial cause in the Revolutionary war (James
A. Roberts, “New York in the Revolution”; “ Offi-
cers and Men of New Jersey in the Revolutionary
War”), but nothing is known of their descendants.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Burghers and Freemenof New York; Jour-
nal of the Legislative Council of the Colony of New York,
1691-1775; Dawson, Westchester County During the Ameri-
can Revolution; Mason, Reminiscences of Newport; New
York Historical Society Collections; Publications Am.
Jew. Hist. Soc.; Appleton’s Encyc. of American Btoyra-
phy; David T. Valentine, History of the City of New York;
John Reynolds, The Pioneer History of lllinois.
A. R. H. 8.
HAYYAT, JUDAH BEN JACOB: Spanish
cabalist; lived in the fifteenth and sixteenth cen-
turies. Himself one of the exiles from Spain, he de-
scribesin vivid colors his sufferings and those of his
brethren (preface to his “Minhat Yehudah”), In
the winter of 1493 Hayyat and his family, with 250
other Spanish refugees, were ordered to leave Lis-
bon. For four months the ship on which they had
embarked remained at sea, as no port would allow
the Jews to land for fear of the plague. Finally,
the vessel was captured by Biscayan pirates, plun-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ha-Yo'‘ez
Hayyim
dered, and taken to Malaga, The officials of that
port would allow the Jews neither to land nor to
depart; nor were provisions given them. They
were, however, visited by priests who came on
board every day to preach Christianity. Driven by
hunger, hundreds were converted. Hayyat’s wife
died of starvation, and he himself lay between life
and death.
At last the Malaga authorities allowed the Jews
to set sailfor Africa, Hayyat settled in Berbera, but
there a new calamity befell him. A Mohammedan,
a native of Spain, testified that, during the rejoi-
cings at the conquest of Granada, Hay yat had ordered
his flock to drag through the streets the effigy of
Mohammed. Accordingly he was thrown into adun-
geon, and was offered the alternatives of death or the
adoption of Islam. After forty days of incarcera-
tion he was ransomed by the Jews of Luza, to whom
he presented two hundred volumes from his library.
He then went to Fez; but a famine which raged
there was so severe that he was compelled to turn a
hand-mill for a piece of bread scarcely fit for a dog.
At night he slept upon the ash-heaps of the town.
After many struggles and sufferings he reached
Italy and settled at Mantua.
Hayyat was one of the greatest cabalists of his
time. At the request of Joseph Jabez of Mantua,
he wrote a commentary on “ Ma‘areket ha-Elahut,”
a cabalistic system of theology, attributed to Perez
ben Isaac. This work, together with the text, was
published at Ferrara in 1557, under the title “ Min-
hat Yehudah.” In the preface, in which the events
of his stormy life are narrated, he glorifies the
Cabala, and advises its students concerning the works
to be consulted on that subject. According to him,
Isaac ibn Latif is to be relied upon in everything
except in Cabala, “in which he stands only upon one
foot”; and Abraham Abulafia is a mere swindler.
Hayyat recommends: the “Sefer Yezirah,” which he
attributes to the tanna R. Akiba; the “ Bahir”; the
works of Joseph Gikatilla; those of Shem-Tob de
_ Leon; the “Sodot ” of Nahmanides; and the writings
of Menahem Recanati.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Introduction to Ma‘areket ha-Elahut; Con-
forte, Kore ha-Dorot, p. 30a; De Rossi-Hamberger, Hist.
Worterb. p. 72: Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p.
149; Zunz, Z. G. pp. 231, 377 ; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col.
1300; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 396. LB
K. » DR.
HAYYIM (lit. “life”): A common prenomen
among the Jews, especially during the Middle Ages.
In its Latin form it occurs on the Hebrew mosaic of
Kafr Kenna as 0°3, ze. “Vita” (“ Pal. Explor.
Fund Statement,” 1901, p. 377), and in the Jewish
catacombs of Venosa(also}°9; Ascoli, “ Inscrizioni, ”
No. 21). The Greck Bira occurs upon an inscription
at Gallipoli (“C. I. G.” No. 2014); it may be the name
of a Jewess. In early transcriptions “Hayyim” oc-
curs in various forms: in Spain, as “Aim” (Jacobs,
“Sources,” p. 151), or “Haym” (2b. No. 1298); in
Germany, as “Hayum” (“Zeit. Gesch. des Ober-
rheins,” xv. 44), “Heyum” (Léwenstein, “Juden in
der Kurpfalz,” p. 298), “Heium ” (25. p. 299), and,
in later times, “Chajim” ; in France, as “ Haguin,”
“ Haquin,” “ Hagin,” “Chakin ” (“Sefer ha- Yashar,”
8 27), “Hakinet,” “Haquinet” (“R. E. J.” i. 68),
“Hakinet,” “Chakinet”; in England, as “Hagin”
Ravin
ayyim b. Isaac
(“Jew. Hist. Soc. Eng.” i. 156) and “ Agim ” (Jacobs,
“ Jewish Ideals,” p. 216).
The Latin “Vita” occurs in various forms.
“Vitalis ” was a name used by Christians of the first
century; from this come “ Vital” (Sr, Wirzburg,
1298) and x59°}( Bonn, 1288); and from this, “ Vida ”
(Worms, 1849) and the later * Veitel.” It occurs in
Provence and Catalonia with the addition of a pre-
fix, as “Anvidal.” “Vida” also occurs as a femi-
nine name, or, synonymously, as “Zoé” (gy, VY,
Zunz, “G. 8.” ii. 61). Other forms of the same
name are “ Vives” (ww, wan, Germany, 13th cent. ;
yyy, “Or Zarua‘”), “ Vivis,” “Viva” (Majorca,
1391; “R. E. J.” xiv. 261), “Vivo” (De Meaux
=Jehiel of Paris, this form being often a transla-
tion of “Jehiel”). In the later Middle Ages the
forms “ Vivant” (““R. E. J.” i. 69) and “ Vivian”
occur (Zunz, “G. 8.” ii. 35). As “caritatives ” there
are “ Vivelin ” (p5yy, Nuremberg, 1298) and “ Vivel-
man ” (bay, Bamberg, 1298). In Italy the old form
“Vita” was used,
It is interesting to note that in Germany the name
became “ Hain” (“ Hain” or “ Heine Goldschmidt”
= “Hayyim Hamelin ”); and the family name of the
poet is a derivative of this by way of “ Heine-mann ”
(Freudenthal, in “ Monatsschrift,” xlv. 460). “Hay-
yim ” was also one of the names given to those who
had recovered from an illness (Zunz, “ Namen des
Juden,” p. 51). In modern usage its secular paral-
lel is “Henry.” It also forms the basis of the sur-
names “Hyam,” “ Hyams,” “ Hiam,” and “ Hayem.”
HAYYIM (First Rabbi of Berlin). See Brr-
LIN.
HAYYIM, AARON IBN (the Younger):
Rabbi at Hebron, later at Smyrna; grandson of
Aaron ben Abraham ibn Hayyim, author of the
“Korban Aharon.” He was one of the victims of
the earthquake which occurred in Smyrna in July,
1688. Considered one of the most prominent Tal-
mudists of his time, he was consulted on ritual ques-
tions, .nd his decisions are quoted by Mordecai ha-
Levi (in the “ Darke No‘am”), by Abraham Amigo,
by Solomon ben Benjamin ha-Levi (in “ Leb Shelo-
moh”), by Benveniste (in the “ Keneset ha-Gedolah ”),
and by many other of his contemporaries. Accord-
ing to Azulai, Ibn Hayyim was the author of a com-
mentary on “‘En Ya‘akob,” which is, however, no
longer in existence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 9: Michael, Or
ha-Hayyim, p. 1386; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 80.
J J. Br.
HAYYIM, ABIGDOR: Talmudist; lived in
the eighteenth century. He was the author of
“Peri ‘Ez Hayyim” (Amsterdam, 1742), containing
responsa, annotations to Maimonides’ “ Yad ha-
Hazakah ” and to the “ Arba‘ Turim,” and sermons
arranged in the order of the Sabbatical sections.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 819; First,
ph: Jud. i. 156; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p.
Ss. S. I, Br.
HAYYIM, ABRAHAM. See ABRAHAM BEN
Hayy.
HAY YIM ABRAHAM BEN ARYEH
LOB: Russian preacher; lived at Moghilef in the
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
272
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. He wrote:
“Milhamah be-Shalom,” the history of Joseph and
his brethren, Shklov, 1795 (see Drama, HEBREW);
“Pat Lehem,” a commentary on Bahya’s “ Hobot
ha-Lebabot,” which together with the text is called
“Simhat Lebab,” Shklov, 1803; “Sidduro shel Shab-
bat,” cabalistic reflections on the prayers for Sab-
bath, Poryck, 1818; “Sha‘ar ha-Tefillah,” a caba-
listic homily on prayer, Sudilkov, 1878.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. i. 156-157; Zedner, Cat.
Hebr. Books Brit. Maus. pp. 181-182; Benjacob, Ozar_ ha-Se-
farim, pp. 170, 332; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 822.
H. R. M. SEL.
HAYYIM, ABRAHAM ISRAEL. See Is-
RABEL Hayy ABRAHAM.
HAYYIM, ABRAHAM BEN JUDAH IBN:
Spanish scholar and scribe of the thirteenth century.
He wrote a Spanish treatise on the preparation of
gold-foil and colors for miniatures; also a treatise,
probably in Hebrew, on the Masorah and on the
crowned letters in the scroll of the Pentateuch (De
Rossi, “Cat. Parma,” No. 945). Steinschneider
(“Jewish Literature,” p. 328, note 53) identifies Ibn
Hayyim with Abraham ben Hayyim, the French
liturgist; but, according to De Rossi (“ Dizionario,”
i. 6), Ibn Hayyim wrote his first treatise in Spanish.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 26;
Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 27.
a. M. Set.
HAYYIM BEN BEZALEEL: German Tal-
mudist; died at Friedberg on the Shabu ‘ot festival,
1588. He was the eldest of the four sons of Beza-
leel ben Hayyim, and spent his youth at Posen, the
native city of the family (comp. “ Monatsschrift,”
xiii. 371). He and Moses Isserles studied with Sha-
lom Shakna, whose methods of teaching Hayyim
largely adopted. He began his literary activity at
Worms, where he had gone in 1549; and, appar-
ently, he succeeded his uncle Jacob ben Hayyim as
rabbi in that city, after Jacob’s death in 1563 (comp.
his introduction to “Mayim Hayyim,” printed in
“ Ha-Shiloah,” § 9). He subsequently went as rabbi
to Friedberg; in 1578 this district was ravaged
by a terrible plague, which caused the death of one
of Hayyim’s servants. In consequence of this oc-
currence Hayyim and his family were quarantined
in his house for two months. During this time he
wrote his ethical work “Sefer ha-Hayyim,” consist-
ing of five books.
Hayyim carried on a heated controversy with his
former schoolfellow Moses Isserles, also indirectly
aiming at Joseph Caro. He did not approve of
their attempts to collect the laws found in the Tal-
mud and other authoritative works ina book suitable
for the general public. The reasons for his objec-
tions he set forth in the introdrction to his “Mayim
Hayyim,” which includes a criticism of Moses Is-
serles’ “ Torat ha-Hattot.” Hayyim held that through
such codices the study of the Talmud would be
neglected and the standing of the rabbis injured,
since every layman could turn to these books
for the solution of difficult questions. Moreover,
the writer of such codes would gain too much au-
thority over other teachers, whereas every rabbi
ought to arrive at his decisions independently. Such
codes, moreover, could not take into account the
273
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hayyim
Hayyim b. Isaac
minhagim of all countries; and this, again, would
lead to constraint in matters of conscience, since
every one would have to observe the minhagim ob-
taining in the place where the author of the code
in question was living.
Hayyim’s works include: “Sefer ha-Hayyim,”
Cracow, 1598; Amsterdam, 1718; Lemberg, 1887;
“Mayim Hayyim,” Amsterdam, 1711; Lemberg,
without introduction; “Iggeret ha-Tiyyul,” Scrip-
tural comments in alphabetical order, Prague, 1605,
and Offenbach, 1717; “‘Ez ha-Hayyim”; “Be’er
Mayim Hayyim,” supercommentary to Rashi’s com-
mentary on the Pentateuch.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 177;
First, Bibl. Jud. i. 157; Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, ii. 39:
Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, p. 388; Ha-Shiloah, v. 481-439;
Gal ‘Ed, p. 7.
K. A. PE.
HAYYIM COHEN. See Conen, Hayym.
HAYYIM B. ELIJAH. See Nisstm, Hayyim
B. ELIJAH.
HAYYIM, ELIJAH IBN: Rabbi of Constan-
tinople, perhaps the immediate successor of Elijah
Mizrahi: born about 1532; died in the beginning of
the seventeenth century. In his responsa the date
1562 is mentioned; another responsum is dated 1601,
and it appears from the preface that he was more
than seventy years old at his death. Ibn Hayyimis
the author of several works, although the following
only have been preserved: Responsa, part one, under
the title n3N""4AD n"\w, and novelle to Ketubot
(both printed at Constantinople, n.d.); Responsa,
part two, included with the “Mayim ‘Amukkim”
(Venice, 1645); “Imre Shefer,” homilies on the Pen-
tateuch (Venice, 1629; 2d ed. Frankfort-on-the-Main,
1712). His only son, Michael, who died at the age
of twenty, was noted as a scholar, and contributed
to the last-named work of his father.
K. L. Gri.
HAYYIM OF FALAISE (HAYYIM PAL-
TIEL?): French Biblical commentator of the thir-
teenth century; grandson of the tosafist Samuel of
Falaise (Sir Morel), An anonymous commentator
on the Pentateuch (Munich MS. No, 62) frequently
quotes another commentary (D'Ow5) on the Penta-
teuch, the author of which he on one occasion calls
“my teacher, Hayyim of Falaise”; in other places
he speaks of “Hayyim,” but more often of “ Hay-
yim Paltiel.” Many passages from Hayyim’s com-
mentary are given by Isaac b. Judah ha-Levi in his
“Pa‘aneah Raza” (Munich MS. No. 50). The com-
mentary is called there “ Peri ‘Ez Hayyim,” and the
author is called “Hayyim Paltiel” or, more often,
“Paltiel Gaon”; he is also mentioned as teacher of
Isaac b. Judah. Wayyim’s commentary is haggadic
in character, and shows the author to have possessed
a thorough knowledge of the Talmud. Contrary to
Ziemlich’s supposition (“ Monatsschrift,” xxx. 305),
Gross concluded that Hayyim of Falaise must not
be identified with Hayyim Paltiel b. Jacob, rabbi of
Magdeburg, who corresponded with Meir of Rothen-
burg and who is quoted by Solomon b. Adret (Re-
sponsa, No. 386). On the other hand, Zunz (“ Lit-
eraturgesch.” p. 493) mentions ten liturgical pieces
composed by “Hayyim b. Baruch, called Hayyim
Paltiel,” who may be the same as Hayyim of Fa-
VI.—18
laise, Zunz says (/.c.) that he is probably the Hay-
yim Paltiel of Magdeburg, forgetting that the lat-
ter’s father was called Jacob and not Baruch.
BIBLIOGRAPHY; Ziemlich, in Monatsschrift, xxx. 305 et seq.;
Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 480 et seq.
E. C. M. SEL.
HAYYIM GARMON. SeeGarmon, NEHORAL
HAYYIM OF HAMELN.
GLUCKEL OF.
HAYYIM B. HANANEEL HA-KOHEN:
French tosafist of the second half of the twelfth
century. He was a pupil of R. Jacob b. Meir
(Tam), with whom he discussed legal questions.
Hayyim was the maternal grandfather of Moses of
Coucy, author of the “Semag” (“Sefer Mizwot
Gadol”), and of Nahman ha-Kohen, author of “ Nah-
moni,” quoted in the responsa of Joseph Colon (No.
149). He is quoted in the Tosafot to Ber. 35a, Pes.
118a, Kid. 25b, and in other places. He is also men-
tioned in “ Haggahot Mordekai,” at theend of tractate
Ketubot. ‘Though a Kohen, he expressed his will-
ingness to participate in the funeral of R. Tam, be-
cause “ great men do not defile” (Ket. 1038b).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. p. 48; Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim ;
Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, pp. 405-406, Frankfort-on-the-Main,
1891; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 357.
J. P. W1.
HAYYIM BEN ISAAC REIZES: Head of
the yeshibah at Lemberg; born 1687; martyred
May 13,1728. Hayyim and his brother Joshua were
thrown into prison on the eve of Passover, March
24, 1728, as the result of being falsely denounced by
a Jewish convert, who declared they had induced
him to renounce Christianity. Hayyim and _ his
brother were condemned to be burned at the stake,
but were first tortured with extreme cruelty. Their
death is commemorated by a special prayer recited
at Lemberg on the festival of Pentecost.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Buber, Anshe Shem, pp. 64-67; Fuenn, Kene-
set Yisrael, p. 367.
S. 8. M. SEL.
HAYYIM BEN ISAAC OF VOLOZHIN
(HAY YIM VOLOZHINER): Russian rabbi and
educator; born at Volozhin, government of Wilna,
Jan. 21, 1749; died there June 14, 1821. Both he
and his elder brother Simhah (d. 1812) studied under
R. Aryeh Lobb Ginzberg, who was then rabbi of
Volozhin, afterward under R. Raphael ha-Kohen,
later of Hamburg. Tayyim ben Isaac was a dis-
tinguished Talmudist and also a prosperous cloth-
manufacturer. At the age of twenty-five he was
attracted by the fame of Elijah Gaon of Wilna,
whose disciple he became. Submitting to his new
teacher’s method, he began his studies anew, taking
up again Bible, Mishnah, Talmud, and even Hebrew
grammar. His admiration for the gaon was bound-
less, and after his death R. Hayyim virtually
acknowledged no superior (see Heschel Levin’s
“*Aliyyot Eliyahu,” pp. 55-56, Wilna, 1889).
It was with the view of applying the methods of
See HAMELN,
| his teacher that Hayyim founded, in 1803, the ye-
shibah of Volozhin, which became the most impor-
tant of its kind in the nineteenth century. He be-
gan with ten pupils, young residents of Volozhin,
whom Hayyim maintained at his own expense. It
ayyim b. Israel
ayyim, Pheibel
is related that his wife sold her jewelry to contribute
to their maintenance. The fame of the institution
spread, and the number of its students increased,
necessitating an appeal to which the Jews of Russia
generously responded. Hayyim lived to see his
academy housed in its own building, and to preside
over a hundred disciples (“Hut ha-Meshullash,” re-
sponsum No, 5).
Hayyim’s chief work is “Nefesh ha-Hayyim,”
edited by his son (Wilna, 1824; 2d ed., 1837); it is
an ethico-cabalistic work, with a distinct anti- Hasidic
tendency ; for, like his master, he was an uncompro-
mising opponent of the Hasidim. It lays great
stress on the necessity of conforming to all recog-
nized religious practises and on the value of the
study of the Torah, deprecating the antinominian
tendencies of the Hasidim and the mysticism and
affected ecstasy which some consider a good substi-
tute for piety and learning. His “Ruah Hayyim”
is a commentary on Pirke Abot, published by
Joshua Heschel Levin; it includes additions by his
son R. Isaac. Many of his responsa on halakic sub-
jects were lost by fire in 1815. His great-grandson,
however, had incorporated some of them in the col-
lection entitled “ Hut ha-Meshullash ” (Wilna, 1882) ;
the first twenty-five numbers belong to Hayyim, the
remainder to R. Hillel of Grodno and to his son R.
Eliezer Isaac. Some of his responsa are found in
other works, notably in “Kedushat Yom-Tob” by
R. Yom-Tob Lipman of Kapulie (2b. 1868).
Hayyim’s family, which is related to the Rapo-
port family, has assumed the name of Fried, and
some of his descendants, bearing that name, now
reside in America. See VOLOZzHIN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, pp. 347-349; idem,
Kiryah Ne’emanah, pp. 156-158 ; Lewin, *Aliyyot Eliyahu
(ed. Stettin), p. 70; Schechter, Studies in Judaism, p. 83, Phila-
del] phia, 1896 ; Jatzkan, Rabbenu Kiiyah mi-Wilna, pp.
100-106, St. Petersburg, 1901; Ha-Shahar, vi. 96; Eliezer of
popenan, Kin'at Soferim, p. 796; Ahiasaf, 5654, p. 260, and
1; Reines, Ozar ha-Sifrut, iii; Ha-Kerem, 1887,
oN Sreetse David Tebele, Bet Dawid, Preface, Warsaw, 1854 ;
aginne Erez, Preface, Shklov, 1803 ; Zedner, Cat. Hebr.
Books Brit. Mus. pp. 179, 555
P. W1.
6. 5.
HAYYIM BEN ISRAEL: Spanish philoso-
pher and author; lived in Toledo about 1272-77; a
descendant of the Israeli family and a relative
of Isaac Israeli, author of the astronomical work
“Yesod ‘Olam.” He wrote a treatise on paradise,
which exists in manuscript.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Additamenta to Benjamin of Tudela,
Dp: 259 ; aes G. &. i. 170; Steinschneider, Jewish Litera-
ure, p.
G. M. K.
HAYYIM JACOB BEN JACOB DAVID:
Rabbi of Smyrna; lived in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries. According to Michael, he was
born at Smyrna and was a pupil of Hayyim b.
Jacob Abulafia, author of “‘Ez Hayyim.” He went
to Safed, the rabbis of which town sent him on a mis-
sion to North Africa, where he stayed for several’
years: in 1718 he was in Tunis, in 1729 in Algeria.
Not long after hisreturn he was sent to Europe, and
while in Holland he published: “ Zeror ha-Hayyim,”
novell on the “ Yad” of Maimonides (Amsterdam,
1738); “Samma de-Hayye,” responsa, and notes to
the four Turim (7). 1789).
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
274
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, p. 408, No. 877;
Fuenn, Kenexet Visrael, p. 366; Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole
Yisrael, p. 102; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 182,
Ss. 8. M. SEL.
HAYYIM JACOB BEN JUDAH LOB
SLUTZKI: Russian rabbinical scholar; lived in
the first half of the nineteenth century. He was the
author of “ Nite‘e Na‘amanim,” containing the Mid-
rash Konen with a double commentary—“ Zerof ha-
Kesef,” explanatory of the text and giving the par-
allel passages in Bible and Talmud, and “ Behon
ha-Zahab,” glosses on the text (Wilna, 1886). Ac-
cording to First (“ Bibl. Jud.” iii. 846), he also wrote
the following (still unpublished) works: “Pardes
Rimmonim,” a commentary on the Midrash Me ha-
Shiloah; “ Nehpah ba-Kesef,” a commentary on the
Midrash Yonah; “ Retukot ha-Kesef,” a commentary
on Elijah Wilna’s “Darke Eliyahu”; “ Meassef
ha-Mahanot,” a glossary to difficult words in Tal-
mud and Midrashim.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 834; First,
Bibl. Jud. iii. 346.
H. R. M.
HAY YIM BEN JEHIEL HEFEZ ZAHAB:
Talmudist of the fourteenth century; died 1314.
He was a brother of Asher ben Jehiel (Rosh). He
was educated by his father, Jehiel, and by Samuel
of Evreux. Some of his responsa, perhaps all, are
included in the “She’elot u-Teshubot” of Meir
Rothenburg (ed. Prague, Nos. 188, 189, 241, 249,
296-298, 339-341, 355, 356, 383, 384, 462-464), with
the responsa of his brother (ed. Venice, No. 101, 1). In
one responsum (No. 241) he relates that he often
officiated as messenger of the community of sodyp,
which Michael has assumed to be Cologne. It is
doubtful whether the “ Hefez Zahab ” belongs to him
or to his father, Jehiel, who is also known as a writer
(see Zunz, “Z. G.” p. 127); the signatures to responsa
Nos. 188 and 189 (an? Yam “Ws ja ON) make it
probable that Jehiel, the father, was its author.
PE OGh Ara: Zunz, Z. G. pp. 38, 422; Michael, Or ha-Hay-
yim, No.
Ss. 8. M. Sc.
HAYYIM B. JOSEPH. See [sn Vives Hay-
YIM.
HAYYIM HA-KOHEN: German rabbi; born
at Prague at the end of the sixteenth century; died
at Posen about the middle of the seventeenth cen-
tury. He was the son of Isaac ben Samson ha-
Kohen, and, on his mother’s side, a grandson of the
renowned Léw ben Bezalecl, rabbi of Prague. His
brother Naphtali was rabbi at Lublin, and his sister
was Eva BacnaracH. From 1628 to 1680 he was
rabbi at Frankfort-on-the-Main. The earliest proof
of his activity there is a regulation regarding the
election of representatives of the congregation. In
another document he limits the lectures of learned
members of the congregation to the hours from 2
to 4 o’clock on Sabbath afternoon, while he reserves
the morning hours of the Sabbath to himself.
Among his hearers was Joseph Haun, who speaks
highly of him in his “ Yosif Omez” (§§ 520, 529,
729). In 1630 he accepted a call to Posen, where
also he was held in high esteem (preface to “ Haw-
wot Yair”). In David Oppenheimer’s collection is
a manuscript written by Hayyim’s nephew and dis-
SEL.
275
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
ayyim b. Israel
ayyim, Pheibel
ciple, Samson Bacharach, which contains Hayyim’s
novelle and explanations to the four codes of the
Shulhan ‘Aruk.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Horovitz, Frankfurter Rabbinen, ii. 25-29;
Michael, Or ha-Hayytn, No. 880.
D. S. Man.
HAYYIM HA-LEVI: Physician, and chief
rabbi of the united congregations in the archbishop-
ric of Toledo. As the chief rabbi, Zulaimah Alfahan,
did not personally administer his office, but resided
permanently at Seville, Archbishop D, Pedro Teno-
rio, Primate of Spain, in 1388 called Hayyim ha-Levi,
his body physician, to the office of chief rabbi.
The archbishop ordered the congregations (perhaps
against their will) and all their individual members
toacknowledge Hayyim ha-Levi thenceforth as their
rabbi and dayyan, and to bring all cases before him,
and not before any other rabbi or dayyan. Those
disobeying this decree were to be punished by a fine
of one thousand maravedis, for the benefit of the
archiepiscopal treasury. This decree (May 17, 1388)
was sanctioned by the king Dec. 14, 1888, with the
provision that Hayyim hold office for one year from
Jan. 1, 1889, and that the congregations receive him
on the same terms as the previous rabbi.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rios, Hist. ii. 577-590 et seg.; Jacobs, Sources,
pp. 143 et seq.
G. M. K.
HAYYIM LISKER. See Lisker, Hayyio.
HAYYIM MAUL AK: Polish Shabbcthaian
agitator; lived in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. According to Jacob Emden (“ Torat ha-
Kena’ot,” p. 55), Hayyim was at first named “Me-
hallek” (the wanderer), because he traveled to Tur-
key to learn there the Shabbethaian doctrines, which
name was afterward changed by his followers to
“Mal’ak” (apostle), Butitseems from Hakam Zebi’s
answer to Saul, rabbi of Cracow (2b.), that he was
called “Mal’ak” before he went to the East. At
first, like Judah Hasid, Hayyim headed a Hasidic
sect and did not openly profess Shabbethaianism.
Later (in 1699), when a large group of Hasidim made
a pilgrimage to Jerusalem under the leadership of
Judah Hasid, Hayyim headed a similar pilgrimage
to Jerusalem; but while the former went through
Tyrol and Venice, Hayyim and his companions
traveled via Constantinople. At Jerusalem Hay-
yim made the acquaintance of Samuel Primo, Shab-
bethai Zebi’s secretary, and became a fervent admirer
of his master. He presided over a small group of
Shabbethaians, and preached to them Shabbethaian
doctrines. Emden says (/.c.) that Hayyim carried
with him an image of Shabbethai Zebi and taught
his followers to worship it. Banished from Jerusa-
lem, he went to Salonica, where he joined the Déy-
MEH, and wandered as a preacher through various
parts of Turkey. At Constantinople he was excom-
municated (c. 1708); a year later, when he reappeared
there, he was banished. He then returned to Po-
land through Germany, preaching Shabbethaianism
as he went. |
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Emden, Torat ha-Kena ot, ed. Lemberg, pp.
55-57; idem, ‘Eidut be-Ya‘akob, p.5la; Gratz, Gesch. 8d ed.,
X. 307 et seq., 462-465.
K M. SEL.
HAYYIM MARINI. See Mari, Hayy
SHABBETHAI.
HAYYIM BEN MENAHEM OF GLOGAU :
German scholar; lived in the seventeenth and eight-
eenth centuries. He wrote a work entitled “ Mar’eh
ha-Ketab bi-Leshon Ashkenaz we-Rashe Tebot”
(Berlin, about 1717), a manual, chiefly for the use of
women, on reading and writing Judieo-German, It
contains rules of vocalization and abbreviations, the
correct spellings of names of persons and of Polish
and German towns, and a Juda#o-German vocabu-
lary. It is from this werk that EBER BEN PETHA-
HIAH plagiarized an abridgment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 831; idem,
Jewish Literature, p. 236.
D. M. SEt.
HAYYIM B. MOSES ‘ATTAR: Italian rabbi;
born at Sale, near Brescia, Italy, 1696; died in Jeru-
salem 1743. He was educated under the care of his
grandfather, R. Hayyim. He wrote: “Hefez ha-
Shem,” novelle on Berakot, Shabbat, Horayot, and
part of Hullin (Amsterdam, 1782); “Or ha-Hayyim,”
commentary on the Pentateuch (Venice, 1742); “ Pe-
rot Genusar,” or “ Peri Toar,” novell on some of the
halakot of the Yoreh De‘ah, and chiefly known for
its strictures on the “ Peri Hadash” of Hezekiah da
Silva (republished together with the “Or ha-Hay-
yim ” at Amsterdam, 1812). Healso wrote a work en-
titled “ Rishon le-Ziyyon,” containing: explanations
of seven passages in Berakot, Mo‘ed Katan, Ta‘anit,
Megillah, Hagigah, Sukkah, Bezah, and of Maimon-
ides on these tractates; novelle on the Yoreh De‘ah
(Nos. 240-298), and the rules relating to a double
doubt, XP*AD PHD: explanations on the prophet-
ical books and the Hagiographa (Constantinople,
1751). His“ Or ha-Hayyim” is very popular among
the Jews of the East.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 59; Fuenn, Kene-
set Yisrael, pp. 364-365; Jacob Nacht, Mekor Hayyim,
Drohobycz, 1898.
8. 8. N. T. L.
HAYYIM IBN MUSA. See Musa, Hayym
IBN.
HAYYIM BEN NATHAN: German scholar
of the seventeenth century. He translated into
Judxo-German the historical portions of the Bible.
In the preface to his translation he says that he de-
rived his version from the “ Galchisch ” Bible (Bible
of the “ gallahim,” or priests), that is, from Luther’s
translation, to which he added the legends, etc.,
found in the Midrashim and commentaries (16307).
Subsequent editions appeared at Prague (1674) and
at Dyhernfurth (1704). He also published “Sefer
ha-Ma‘asim,” a translation of the Apocrypha into
Judeo-German.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. i. and iii., No.617; Michael,
Or ha-Hayyim, p. 408; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 831;
idem, Jew. Literature, p. 238.
G. M. SEL.
HAYYIM (JOSHUA), PHEIBEL BEN IS8.-
RAEL, OF TARNIGROD: Geographer of the
eighteenth century. He wrote a geography of Pal-
estine, in Hebrew, entitled “Kazwe Arez” (Zolkiev,
1772). In the second edition (Grodno, 1818) it bore
the title “Erez Yisrael li-Gcbuloteha Sabib.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, p. 421;
Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 531.
J. M. Sc.
ayyim b. Samuel
ayyu)
HAYYIM B. SAMUEL B. DAVID OF
TOLEDO: Spanish rabbi and author; lived at the
end of the thirteenth century and at the beginning
of the fourteenth. He was a pupil of Solomon b,
Adret, and left in manuscript a work, “ Zeror ha-
Hayyim,” which contains the laws concerning the
services for Sabbaths and festivals, Some passages
of that work were inserted by Jacob Castro in his
“<Erek Lehem.” Hayyimalso wrote a compendious
work entitled “ Zeror ha-Kesef,” containing the rab-
binical laws, with many references to the works of
the Geonim and of the greatest authorities of Spain
and France. This work is divided into five parts.
A copy of the “Zeror ba-Kesef,” written by Solo-
mon b. Abraham Sorrata in 1461, was brought from
Cairo by Tischendorf, from which A. Jellinek ex-
tracted the preface and the table of contents. These
two works are mentioned by Joseph Caro in his
“Bet Yosef” and by Moses b. Joseph di Trani in his
Responsa (part i., No. 265; part ii., No. 22). Hay-
yim was also the author of novelle on the Talmud,
which are quoted by Bezaleel Ashkenazi in his man-
uscripts.
According to Heilprin, the same Hayyim b. Sam-
uel was the author of another book entitled “ Zeror
ha-Hayyim,” which treated in poetical form of the
Merkabah and gematriot. Itis mentioned in “ Zekan
Aharon” by Aaron ha-Levi.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, p. 288, Warsaw,
1891; Azulai, nen ha-Gedolim, part i., p. "56: part ii., p. 126;
Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, pp. 512, 513 : Jellinek, in Mo-
natsschr ift, ‘Ti. 245, 287; Fuenn, Keneset ¥ tsrael, p. 336,
Ss. S. N. T. L.
EHAYYIM SAMUEL FALK.
Hayyim SAMUEL.
HAYYIM B. SAMUEL HA-KOHEN. See
FALk, JOSHUA BEN ALEXANDER HA-KOHEN.
HAYYIM SHABBETHAI: Rabbi of Salonica;
born about 1556; died 1647. After studying in the
yeshibah of Salonica under Aaron Sason, Hayyim
became a member of the bet din presided over by
the latter. In 1607 he succeeded his former master
as head of the yeshibah and as chief rabbi of Salo-
nica; he officiated forty years, and during that time
graduated a large number of Talmudic scholars and
rabbis. Hayyim Shabbethai was-the author of
many responsa and decisions. Only four volumes of
them have been published: one, under the title of “ Te-
shubot R. Hayyim Shabbethai,” contains responsa on
the ritual laws of the Tur Eben ha-‘Ezer, with a
treatise on the laws of “‘agunah ” (Salonica, 1651);
the other three volumes, published under the title
“Torat Hayyim” (2b. 1713-22), contain responsa on
the civil laws of the Hoshen Mishpat. In addition
to the above he wrote a number of homilies, unpub-
lished, and novelle to the whole Talmud. Of the
latter only those on Ta‘anit and on the commentary
of R. Nissim to the last chapter of Yoma were pub-
lished (2b. 17977).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, pp. 48a et seq.; Azu-
lai, Shem ha-Gedolim ; Michael, Or ha- Hayyim, No. 902 ;
Ree neennelder Cat. Bodl. col. 833; First, Bibl. Jud. i. 158,
K. M. SEt.
HAYYIM 8B. SOLOMON: Russo- Polish
preacher; born at Wilna; died there Dec., 1804
(1794?), at an advanced age. His father, R. Solo-
See FAtk,
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
276
mon b. Hayyim, who died in 1766, was dayyan and
preacher at Wilna. Hayyim was a friend of Elijah
Gaon of Wilna and of Raphael ha-Kohen, later of
Hamburg, who, as rabbi of Minsk and the surround-
ing district, appointed him, in 1757, traveling
preacher. Hayyim appears to have been previously
rabbi or preacher in Serhei, now government of
Suwalki, for he is usually surnamed “Serheier.” In
his later years he occupied his father’s position as
preacher and “moreh hora’ah” in Wilna. Hayyim
was one of the two commissioners sent out in the
summer of 1796 by the rabbis and notables of
Wilna, headed by the gaon, to agitate against the
Hasidim in Lithuania and White Russia, especially
in Minsk.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Kiryah Ne’emanah, p. 169, Wilna,
0; Lewin, * Aliyyyot Eliyahu, ed. Stettin, p. 56, note 13;
jatzkan, Rabbenu Eliyah mi-Wiina, pp. 70 a 8eq., Warsaw,
8. 8. P. WI.
HAYYIM BEN SOLOMON OF MOGHILEF
or MOHILEV (also called Hayyim of Czerno-
witz): Rabbi and cabalist; died at Jerusalem in
1818. He was one of the Hasidic followers of Israel
Ba‘al Shem, and after he had been rabbi at five
different towns, among them Moghilef and Czerno-
witz, he settled in Jerusalem.
Hayyim was the author of: “Siddure shel Shab-
bat,” cabalistic homilies on Sabbatical subjects,
Poryck, 1818; “Be’er Mayim Hayyim,” novell on
the Pentateuch, in two parts, Czernowitz, pt. 1.
1820, pt. ii. 1849; “Sha‘ar ha-Tefillah,” cabalistic
reflections on prayer, Sudilkov, 1837; “Erez ha-
Hay yim,” in two parts: (1) a homiletic commentary
on the Prophets and Hagiographa, and (2) novellx
on the treatise Berakot, Czernowitz, 1861. Hayyim
is mentioned by Sender Margalioth in his responsa
on the Shulhan ‘Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 365; Walden, Shem
ha-Gedolim he-Hadash, p. 48.
E. C, M. SEL.
HAYYIM BEN TOBIAH: Russian rabbi;
lived in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
He was among the pupils of Elijah of Wilna, and
settled in Safed. Inaletter from Safed, dated 1810,
he exhorts the Jews of Russia to contribute to the
assistance of students in the Holy Land, and refers
to the bet ha-midrash established there by the pupils
of Elijah of Wilna.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Kiryah Ne’emanah, pp. 163, 164.
6. 8. N. T. L
HAYYIM VITAL. See Vita, Hayy.
HAYYIM ZANGER.
SoLOMON JOACHIM.
HAYYIM B. ZEBI HIRSCH. See BER.1y,
Noau Hayyim ZEBI HIRSCH.
HAYYIM BEN ZEBULON JACOB PERL-
MUTTER: Rabbiof Ostropol, Russia, in the eight-
eenth century. He was the author of “ Elef Omer,”
a collection of sayings beginning with “aleph,” and
based on the “Behinat ‘Olam” of Jedaiah Bedersi
(Grodno, 1795), and “Shirah le-Hayyim,” “azharot ”
of the 613 commandments, each verse beginning
with a word in the second song of Moses (Deut.
xxxii. 1-43), published together with an index to
See HALBERSTAMM,
277
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hoyyim b. Samuel
ayy uJ
the Biblical passages and a commentary entitled
“Yakin u-Bo‘az’’ (Warsaw, 1814; 2d ed., Vienna,
1847).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 832; First,
Bibl. Jud. i. 159; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p.
181; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, pp. 37, 509. -
M. SEL.
Ss. 8.
HAYYON, GEDALIAH: Turkish rabbi: pu-
pil of Alfandari the Younger (see Azulai, “Shem
ha-Gedolim,” and Gritz, “Gesch.” x. 360); born at
Constantinople in the second half of the seventeenth
century. He settled at Jerusalem; subsequently
he traveled as messenger of the city of Hebron, with-
out receiving compensation, and afterward returned
to Jerusalem (Azulai, ?.c.; Luncz,“ Jerusalem,” 1.130,
No. 238). A scholar by the same name was a con-
temporary of Elijah ibn Hayyim (comp. the latter’s
responsa, “Mayim ‘Amukkim,” No, 54; he is also
mentioned once in the responsa of Samuel di Mo-
dena, Tur Eben ha-‘Ezer, No. 36). This scholar
may have been an ancestor of Gedaliah Hayyon.
The latter is not known as a scholar, but he was a
student of the Cabala, and was considered a man of
extraordinary piety.
K. L. Grt.
HAYYON, MOSES B. AARON: Rabbi of
Jerusalem, later of Safed; flourished at the end of
the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth
century. He was the colleague of Abraham Yiz-
haki (comp. Gritz, “Gesch.” x. 517, note 6) and the
son-in-law of Jacob Haciz. In 1701 he signed at
Jerusalem a circular letter in favor of Moses Hagiz,
addressed to the community of Leghorn (see Moses
Hagiz’s “Sheber Poshe‘im,” No. 11). From thesame
work (No. 1) it is known that the full name of his
father, who was a member of the rabbinical college
about 1698, and author of cabalistic works, was
Obadiah Aaron Hayyon. Unlike his father, Moses
Hayyon devoted himself more to Talmudic litera-
ture. Of his works a few responsa only have been
preserved.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim. ¥
K. L. Grt.
HAYYUJ, JUDAH B. DAVID (Abu Zaka-
riyya Yahya ibn Daud): Spanish-Hebrew gram-
marian; born in Fez, Morocco, about 950. At an
early age he went to Cordova, where he seems to
have remained till his death, which occurred early
in the eleventh century. He was a pupil of MENa-
HEM BEN Saruxk, whom he later helped to defend
against the attacks of DuNasH BEN LABRAT and his
followers. Later in life Hayyuj developed his own
theories about Hebrew grammar, and
Father washimself obliged tostep forward as
of Scientific an opponent of the grammatical theo-
Hebrew ries of his teacher, His thorough
Grammar. knowledge of Arabic grammatical lit-
erature led him to apply to the Hebrew
gtammar the theories elaborated by Arabic gram-
marians, and thus to become the founder of the
scientific study of that discipline. The preceding
scholars had found the greatest difficulty in account-
ing, by the laws of Hebrew morphology, for the di-
vergences existing between the regular, or so-called
“strong,” verbs and the “weak” verbs. <A hopeless
confusion appeared to reign here in Hebrew; and
much ingenuity was spent in endeavoring to dis-
cover the principles that controlied the conjugation
of the weak verbs. The weakness of Menahem’s
assertion that there are stems in Hebrew containing
three letters, two letters, and one letter respectively
was pointed out by Dunash; but, although the lat-
ter was on the road to a solution of the problem, it
was left to Hayyuj to find the key.
Hayyuj announced that all Hebrew stems consist
of three letters, and maintained that when one of
those letters was a “ vowel letter,” sucha letter could
be regarded as “concealed” in diverse ways in the
various verbal forms. To substantiate his theory
he wrote the treatise upon which his reputation
chiefly rests, the “ Kitab al-Af‘al Dhawat Huruf al-
Lin” (The Book of Verbs Containing Weak Letters).
The treatise is in three parts: the first is devoted to
verbs whose first radical is a weak let-
His Works. ter; the second to verbs whose second
radical is weak; and the third to verbs
whose third radical is weak. Within each division
he furnishes what he considers a complete list of the
verbs belonging to the class in question, enumerates
various forms of the verb, and, when necessary, adds
brief comments and explanations. Preceding each
division the principles underlying the formation of
the stems belonging to the division are systematic-
ally set forth in a series of introductory chapters.
As asupplement to this treatise he wrote a second,
which he called the “Kitab al-Af‘al Dhawat al-
Mathalain” (The Book of Verbs Containing Double
Letters), and in which he points out the principles
governing the verbs whose second and third radicals
arealike. He furnishes a list of these verbs, together
with their various forms occurring in the Bible.
Besides the two treatises on verbs Hayyuj wrote
“ Kitab al-Tankit ” (The Book of Punctuation). This
work, probably written before his two chief treatises,
is an attempt to set forth the features underlying
the Masoretic use of the vowels and of the word-
tone. In this work he deals chiefly with nouns, and
its purpose is more of a practical than of a theoret-
ical character.
A fourth work, the “ Kitab al-Natf” (The Book
of Extracts), is known to have been written by Hay-
yuj, but only a fragment, still unpublished, and a
few quotations by later authors have survived.
This was a supplement to his two grammatical
works on the verb, and in it he noted the verbs omit-
ted by him in theformer treatises. In doing this he
anticipated in a measure Ibn Janah’s “ Mustalhak,”
which was devoted to this very purpose. He ar-
ranged and discussed the verbal stems in question,
not alphabetically, but in the order in which they
occur in the Bible.
Hayyuj exerted an immense influence on succeed-
ing generations. All later Hebrew grammarians up
to the present day base their works on
His his; and the technical terms still em-
Influence. ployed in current Hebrew grammars
are most of them simply translations
of the Arabic terms employed by Hayyuj. His
first three works were twice translated into Hebrew,
first by Moses ibn Gikatilla and later by Abraham
ibn Ezra. The following modern editions of his
works have appeared:
Ae
azael
Ewald and Dukes, ** Beitrige zur Geschichte der Aeltesten
Auslegung und Spracherklarung des Alten Testaments,”’ Stutt-
gart, 1844 (i. 123, ii. 155; vol. iii. contains Ibn Ezra’s translation
of Hayyuj).
John W. Nutt, “Two Treatises on Verbs Containing Treble
and Double Letters by R. Jehuda Hayug of Fez: From a Hebrew
Translation of the Original Arabic by R. Moses Gikatilla of
Cordova; to Which Is Added the [Arabic text of the] Treatise on
Punctuation by the Same Author, Translated by Aben Ezra:
Edited from Bodleian MSS. with an English Translation.”
London and Berlin, 1870.
M. Jastrow, Jr., “ The Weak and Germinative Verbs in He-
brew by... Hayyug, the Arabic Text Now Published for the
First Time.’? Leyden, 1897. (Comp. Bacher in “J. Q. R.” Xi.
504-514.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Bacher, Die Grammatische Terminolo-
gie des... Hajjug, Vienna, 1882 (comp. with this N. Porges
in Monatsschrift, xxxtii. 285-288, 330-336); W. Bacher, in
Winter and Wiiusche, Die Jiidische Literatur, ii. 161-169;
Israelsohn, in R. EB. J. xix. 806; J. Derenbourg, ib, xix. 310;
Harkavy, ib. xxXxi. 288; N. Porges, in Monatsschrift, xXxlv.
321: L. Luzzatto, in lt Vessillo Israelitico, xliv. 385; B.
Drachman, Die Stellung und Bedeutung des J. Hajjug in
der Geschichte der Hebridischen Grammatik, Breslau, 1885;
Morris Jastrow, Jr., Abu Zakarijja Jahjab. Dawud Hajjug
und Seine Zwei Gramimatischen Schriften tiber die Verben
mit Schwachen Buchstaben und die Verben mit Doppel-
buchstaben, Giessen, 1885.
T: C. L.
HAYYUN, AARON BEN DAVID: Caba-
list; lived at Jerusalem in the seventeenth century.
He, together with David Yizhakiand Jacob Molko,
was dayyan in the rabbinate of Moses Galante. A
decision by Hayyun concerning the dispute between
Mordecai ha-Levi, chief rabbi of Cairo, and Judah
Habillo, rabbi of Alexandria, is published in the
former’s “Darke No‘am” on the Shulhan ‘Aruk,
Hoshen Mishpat (Nos. 47, 48). He was the author
of a commentary on the Zohar, of which only a
small part was published, under the title “ Mahaneh
Aharon” (Leghorn, 1795).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 287; Benjacohb,
Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 820, No. 994, where Hayyun is called
**Aaron b. Abrahain.”’
K. M. SE.
HAYYUN, ABRAHAM BEN NISSIM:
Portuguese scholar; father of Don Joseph Hayyun,
rabbi of Lisbon; lived in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries. He was the author of an ethical work
entitled “ Amarot Tehorot” (Constantinople, 1516).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserling, Gesch. der Juden in Portugal,
». 74; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 672; Fuenn, Keneset
israel, p. 27.
J. T. Br.
HAYYUN, NEHEMIAH HIYYA BEN
MOSES: Bosnian cabalist; born about 1650; died
about 1730. His parents, of Sephardic descent, lived
in Sarajevo, Bosnia, where probably he was born,
although in later life he pretended that he was a
Palestinian emissary born in Safed. He received
his Talmudic education in Hebron. In his eight-
eenth year he became rabbi of Uskup, near Sa-
lonica. This position, however, he held only fora
brief period. Thereafter he led a wandering life,
as a merchant, asa scholar, or as a mendicant. In
the guise of a saint he constantly sought ad-
ventures of love. From Uskup he went to Pales-
tine, thento Egypt. In 1708 he made his appearance
in Smyrna, where he won some adherents willing to
help him publish his “Mehemnuta de Kulla,” and
thus secure a rabbinical position for him. In this
work he asserted that Judaism teaches a Trinitarian
God. This God, he declared, embodies three persons
(“ parzufim ”)—the Ancient of Days (“‘Attik ”), the
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
278
Holy King, and the Shekinah. Hayyun’s own
part in this book consists only of two commen-
taries; the text was anonymously written by a
Shabbethaian pupil. Leaving Smyrna, Hayyun was
led to Jerusalem with pomp and ceremony; but the
rabbi of Smyrna, who had = seen
Excommu- through his pretensions, warned the
nicated at rabbis of Jerusalem of his heresies.
Jerusalem. The immediate consequence was that
even before his arrival the rabbis of
Jerusalem, though they had never read his work,
excommunicated him as a “min,” and condemned
his book to be burned.
Excommunicated, he met little sympathy any-
where (1709-11) with his cabalistic fraud. In Ven-
ice, however (1711), with the approval of the rabbis
of that community, he had printed an extract from
his work, under the title “ Raza di- Yihudah,” into the
beginning of which he had woven the first stanza of a
lascivious Italian love-song, “ La Bella Margaritha,”
with a mystical hymn entitled “Keter ‘Elyon.”
In Prague, where he lived from 1711 until 1712, he
found an appropriate soil for his teaching. Joseph
Oppenheim, the son of David Oppenheim, received
him. The cabalistic rabbi of Prague,
At Prague. Naphtali Cohen, was also greatly im-
pressed with his personality. Heeven
highly recommended his book, basing his judgment
merely upon fraudulent testimonials. Here Hay-
yun delivered sermons which had a Shabbethaian
background, and which he had printed in Berlin
(1718) under the title “ Dibre Nehemyah.” Moreover,
he played the réle of a wizard, of one who had in-
tercourse with Elijah, of a person capable of resur-
recting the dead and of creating new worlds. By
writing amulets he earned the money he needed for
gambling. By fraudulent introductions he also
managed to obtain friends in Vienna, Nikolsburg,
Prossnitz, Breslau, Glogau, and Berlin, and formed
political connections with Lébel Prossnitz of Mora-
via. In Berlin (1718), the community of which city
was then split into two parties, he succeeded in hav-
ing his book “Mehemnuta de Kulla,” or “‘Oz le-
Elohim,” printed with the approval of the Berlin
rabbi, Aaron Benjamin Wolf.
On the prestige he obtained from his book he now
tried his fortune in Amsterdam. Almost from the
outset he encountered the antagonism of Zebi Ash-
kenazi, rabbi of the German congregation of Amster-
dam, who mistook him for another Hayyun, an old
enemy of his. Hayyun surrendered
In his book to the board of the Portu-
Amster- guese congregation in Amsterdam, in
dam. order to obtain permission to sell it.
Distrusting their own rabbi, Ayllon,
this board brought the matter before Zebi Ashkenazi,
who, of course, very soon detected its heretical char-
acter and called for its author’s expulsion. Aft this
point, however, Ayllon, evidently under some un-
explained obligation to Hayyun, became his de-
fender, and made Hayyun’s cause entirely his own
and that of the Portuguese conmunity. The result
was that Ayllon was charged by the board of his
synagogue to form a commission to reexamine Hay-
yun’s book. Without awaiting the decision of this
commission, Zebi Ashkenazi and his anti-Shabbe-
279
thaian friend Moses Haaiz excommunicated Hayyun
(July 28, 1713). They published their decision,
with various unjustified calumnies, in pamphlets,
which, answered by counter pamphlets, greatly in-
creased the ill feeling between the Portuguese and
the German congregation.
The Portuguese commission announced its decision
on Aug. 7, 1713. In spite of the objections of two
members of the commission, one of them Ayllon’s
own son, they declared Hayyun entirely guiltless
of heresy, and he was rehabilitated in a solemn as-
sembly of the great Amsterdam synagogue. But
Hayyun was excommunicated by many other out-
side congregations, and his disreputable antecedents
and the deceptive means by which he acquired in-
troductions were exposed, especially by Leon Brieli,
the aged rabbi of Mantua. In spite of this the
members of the Portuguese commission adhered to
their decision, but felt themselves bound to pub-
licly exonerate themselves, and for this purpose is-
sued “Kosht Imre Emet,” a pamphlet which was
not without obvious misstatements. Protected by
the Portuguese, Hayyun could even insult his op-
ponents in pamphlets, and did so. He attacked
Zebi Ashkenazi, in “ Ha-Zad Zebi,” Amsterdam, 1713;
Joseph Ergas, in “Shalhebet Yah” and “ Ketobet
Ka‘ka‘”; Zebi Ashkenazi, Moses Hagiz, and Leon
Brieli, in“ Pitka Min Shemaya ”; Moses
Leaves Hagiz, in “Iggeret Shebukin,” Am-
Am- sterdam, 1714. Atlast, however, Hay-
sterdam. yun left for the Orient, and every one
feltrelieved. Theintroductions given
him by his supporters were of little avail; wherever
he went the doors were barred against him.
In August, 1724, through the influence of a
vizier, he succeeded at Constantinople in absolving
himself from the excommunication on the con-
dition that he should abstain from teaching, writing,
and preaching on cabalistic subjects. Under oath
he promised this, but subsequently broke his word.
Thus rehabilitated, he went to Vienna and inanaged,
by urging his Trinitarian teachings and professing
his intention to convert the Jews to Christianity, to
obtain a letter of protection from the Austrian em-
peror. Secretly he sympathized with the Shabbe-
thaians, but openly he still professed to bean Ortho-
dox Jew. But his game had been played. Before
the walls of Prague he faced starvation. In Berlin
he threatened to embrace Christianity if support
were denied him. His friends in Amsterdam, even
Ayllon, forsook him. In April, 1726, he was ex-
communicated in Hamburg and finally in Altona.
He fied to North Africa, where he died. His
gon turned Christian, and endeavored to revenge
his father by calumnious attacks on Judaism.
. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. iii. 828 et seq., iv. 928 et seq. :
Jost, Gesch. des Israelitischen Volkes, ii. 363 et seq., 468 et
seq.; idem, Gesch. des Judenthums und Seiner Sekten, sil.
l77 et seq.; D. Kahana, Eben ha-To‘im, pp. 64 et seg.; Jacob
Emden, Megillat Sefer, ed. Kahana, pp. 25, 30-32, 34, 39, 58,
117, 118; Neubauer, Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS. p. 760; Gritz,
Gesch. x. 309 et seq., 468 et seg.; Landshuth, “Ammude ha-
*Abodah, p. 282; Perles, Gesch. der Juden in Posen, pp. 79
et seq.:; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 2054 et seq. ; Winter
and Wiinsche, Die Jtidische Litteratur, ti. 73; Miktab
me-R. Abraham Segre,in Berliner’s Magazin, Hebr. part,
1890, xvii. 15; D. Kaufmann, Samson Wertheimer, p. 97,
note 1; idem, in Ha-Hoker, ti. 11, Vienna, 1894; Berliner,
Gesch. der Juden in Rom, ii?. 75; Ha-Zad Zebi, Preface,
Amsterdam, 1713.
K. M. Sc.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
ayyun
azael
HAYYUT, ISAAC BEN JACOB: Polish
rabbi; died at Skala, near Lemberg, Sept., 1726. He
was descended from an old Provencal family which
first settled in Bohemia, and was the grandson of
R. Menahem Manesh Hayyut of Wilna. He became
rabbi of Skala late in life, and remained there until
his death. He wrote thirteen works, which are enu-
merated in the preface to his “Zera‘ Yizhak” on the
Mishnah, which was published by his son Eliezer
(Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1732). His “Iggeret Kez
Hai,” describing in a cabalistic manner “terrible
things which he had seen in the upper world,” was
published in Czernowitz in 1862.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Kiryah Ne’emanah, p. 64, Wilna,
; idem, Keneset Yisrael, p. 612, Warsaw, 1886: Zedner,
Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 184, s.v. Chayuth, Isaac ben
Jacob; Buber, Anshe Shem, pp. 118-119, Cracow, 1895.
K. P. WI.
HAYYUT, MENAHEM (MANESH,
MANUS, MANISH, MANNUSCH) B.
ISAAC: Polish rabbi; died at Wilna about May,
1636. He was the son of R. Isaac b. Abraham Hay-
yut, a descendant of a pious Provencal family; his
father went to Prague in 1584 (see Gans, “Zemah
Dawid,” sub anno). It seems that in his younger
days, about 1590, he was rabbi of Torbin, Moravia.
He is the first known rabbi of Wilna, and his tomb-
stone is the oldest in the old Jewish cemetery of that
city. The Jewish community of Wilna was estab-
lished in the last decade of the sixteenth century,
and as Abraham Samuel Bacuaracnu of Worms (d.
1615) congratulates Hayyut on his good position in
a far-away place (Responsa, “Hut ha-Shani,” No.
31) it is probable that the latter was really the first
rabbi of Wilna. He is also mentioned in Ephraim
Cohen’s responsa “Sha‘are Efrayim,” No. 29, and
in Moses Jekuthiel Kaufmann’s “ Lehem ha-Panim ”
on Yoreh De‘ah, the first reference indicating Hay-
yut’s proficiency in geometry. His only known
published work is “Zemirot le-Shabbat,” or “ Kab-
balat Shabbat,” which appeared in Prague (accord-
ing to Zunz, “Z. G.” p. 803, in Lublin) in 1621, but
of which only one copyis known to exist (see Stein-
schneider, “Cat. Bodl.” No. 68348). He was the
author of anelegy on the conflagration of Posen and
of one on the death of his brother Samuel, which
appeared in his father’s “Pene Yizhak” (Cracow,
1591). The Bodleian Library contains a manuscript
work of his, entitled “ Derek Temimim,” which con-
tains seven commentaries on the section Balak of
the Pentateuch and which is included in the Op-
penheim collection (“Collectio Davidis,” MS. No.
375, Hamburg, 1826).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Kiryah Ne’emanah, pp. 68-66, Wilna,
60; First, Bibl. Jud. ii. 321; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books
Brit. Mus. pp. 363, 572: Walden, Shem ha-Gedolim he-Ha-
dash, p. 98, Warsaw, 1882.
P. WI.
8. 8.
HAZAEL: The most powerful of the kings of
Damascus, and a ruler of general historical as well as
of Biblical importance. While Ahab was still reign-
ing as King of Israel the prophet Elijah was ordered
by YHwH to anoint Hazael as the coming King of
Damascus (I Kings xix. 15). At this time Ben-hadad
II. was at the height of his power. It is not men-
tioned whether Elijah was able to carry out this
difficult and dangerous commission; but in any
Hazael
Hazakah
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
280
case the prophetic and reforming party in Israel had
a share in the promotion of Hazael’s ambition.
When Joram, the successor of Ahab, was near the
end of his reign (about 845 3B.c.), Ben-hadad fell
sick, and sent Hazael to Elisha, the successor of
Elijah, to inquire as to the issue of his sickness.
Elisha told Hazael in reply that his master would
not recover, and predicted to him that he himself
would be the next king, and would wage war
against Israel with relentless cruelty. Hazael upon
his return assassinated Ben-hadad and seized the
throne (II Kings vili. 7-15).
The result of Hazael’s encounters with Israel was
disastrous to the latter. Joram, in alliance with his
nephew Ahaziah, King of Judah, was defeated and
wounded at Ramoth-gilead in a battle against the
forces of Hazael (II Kings viii. 28 e¢ seg.), After the
murder of Joram by the usurper Jehu, the latter also
found himself compelled to defend his kingdom
against Damascus, again without success. Hazael
“ smote them in all the coasts of Israel,” and secured
for Damascus not only the long-disputed territory
of Bashan and Gilead, but also the whole of the
country east of Jordan, which in the days of Omri
had been for a time subject to Israel (II Kings x. 32
et seqg.). These successes of Hazael were followed
by invasions of western Palestine, in the course of
which he destroyed the city of Gath, ranged at will
over the kingdom of Judah, and dictated terms of
submission to King Jehoash, from whom he took
the richest spoil of the Judean palace and temple in
return for cessation of hostilities (II Kings xii. 17-
18). His marchthrough Philistia and Judea implies
that northern Israe] had been rendered helpless, and
probably reduced to vassalage.,
Still more remarkable was the stand made by
Hazael against the attacks of the Assyrians, then
under the leadership of Shalmaneser II. (860-825).
Hazael’s predecessor, Ben-hadad IIJ., had on at least
two occasions (854 and 849) been able to secure the
aid of several powerful princes in defending the
western country against the great conqueror; but
Hazac. had to endure the brunt of invasion alone.
Shalmaneser recounts two great battles fought with
Hazael, in 842 and 839, in which he claims to have
been victorious. He was, however, unable to take
the city of Damascus, and during the latter part of
the reign of Hazael southern Syria was unmolested
by the Assyrians. Thus, while Hazael was the con-
queror and oppressor of Israel, he did memorable
service to the Mediterranean coast-land by standing
as a bulwark against its most powerful and persist-
ent invader.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Obelisk inscription of Shalmaneser IL, lines 97
et seq.; MeCurdy, History, Prophecy, and the Monuments,
$8 236, 241 et seq.
E. G. H. J. F. McC.
HAZAK, JACOB RAPHAEL HEZEKIAH:
Italian rabbi of the eighteenth century; born 1689;
died at Padua 1782 (Ab 16). He was a pupil of
Mordecai Basan of Verona, whence he went to
Padua, where he studied with Moses Hayyim Luz-
zatto. He succeeded Menahem Modena as rabbi at
Padua. Hazak was involved in a number of argu-
ments with therabbisat Venice. He was the author
of responsa; ofnotes to the four Turim, “Maginne
Erez,” “Ashle Rabrebe,” “Appe Rabrebe,” and
“Shifte Kohen”; and of “Sefer Kelalim,” on the Ge-
mara and Poskim,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael.
8s. 8.
HAZAKAH (lit. “taking hold,” “possession ”):
The term has various meanings in the Talmud; the
one most cognate to the original meaning of the He-
brew root is that of “taking possession,” which act
constituted acquisition with regard to both movable
and immovable property (see ALIENATION AND AC-
QUISITION). But it is more frequently used to cover
the acquisition of property by continued and undis-
turbed possession during a period of time prescribed
by law.
Mere possession was not sufficient to establish a
title to real property. The presumption was that
“real property is always in the posses-
sion of its owner” (B. K. 95a) until
evidence showed that he had sold it
or had given it away. Since, how-
ever, men are not careful in preserving documentary
evidence for more than three years (B. B. 29a), the
Rabbis ordained that undisturbed possession for
three consccutive years was sufficient to establish a
claim to real estate (see ConriLicr oF Laws). In
the case of houses or of other buildings the possessor
was required to produce evidence of continuous
occupancy, cither by himself or by a tenant holding
a lease from him, for three full years “from day to
day ”; while in the case of fields or gardens the pre-
vailing opinion was that possession for three succes-
sive harvests of the same kind was sufficient, even
when the last harvest had been gathered before the
expiration of the three years (B. B. 28a, 36b; Mai-
monides, “ Yad,” To‘en we-Nit‘an, xii. 1; Shulhan
‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 1-41, 1, Isserles’ gloss).
“Possession not based on a valid claim is not re-
garded” (B. B. 41a). Ifthe possessor claimed that he
had bought the land of its owner, or that it had been
given to him, or that he had inherited it, possession
for three years was sufficient. Butifhesaid that he
took possession of the property because there was
no other claimant, possession even for many years
was of no value. And if at any time during the
three years the owner protested (“ maha’ah ”), either
in the presence of the holder or before two witnesses,
against the unlawful holding of his property, the
fact of possession was of no value in establishing
title to the property (B. B. 29a, 38b).
The following persons could not acquire property
by prescription: (1) a building contractor; (2) a
partner; (8) a steward; (4) a husband his wife’s in
which he had the right of usufruct; (5) a father
his son’s, or (6) a son his father’s; (7) a guardian his
ward’s; (8)a minor; (9) an idiot; (10) a deaf-mute
(whose property, in turn, could not be acquired by
others); (11) arobber. No argument of possession
could be advanced to establish a title to the prop-
erty of a fugitive who had fled in fear of his life, or
to property belonging to a synagogue, or to com-
munal charitable institutions (B. B. 42a; To‘en we-
Nit‘an, xiii. 8; Hoshen Mishpat, 149).
With regard tomovable property the presumption
was that it belonged to the possessor unless it was
Pre-
scription.
281
conclusively proved that he held it under false pre-
tenses. Even if the owner brought evidence that
the object belonged to him, the possessor was be-
lieved if he claimed that he had bought it or that he
had received it as a gift, and he needed only to take
the rabbinical oath (“hesset ”) to establish his claim
(B. B. 45a; Sheb. 46b). Talmudic law distinguished,
however, between objects that people are accus-
tomed to lend or hire and objects that people are not
accustomed to lend or hire; the mere claim of posses-
sion, even for many years, was not sufficient to estab-
lish a title to objects of the former class, and the
owner could at any time establish a claim by produ-
cing witnessesto testify that they belonged to him; but
the latter class of objects could be acquired by mere
possession (B. M. 116a; Sheb. 46b; To‘en we-Nit‘an,
viii. [where a more restricted interpretation of the
ex pression syndy Sew PIYYTA OMI is given];
Hoshen Mishpat, 183).
The maxim that anything that is in a man’s pos-
session is his did not apply to a mechanic whose oc-
cupation it was to repair the objects in question.
Even if he had had an object in his possession for a
long time, the owner could claim it on the ground
that he had given it to him for repair (B. B. 42a,
45a, 47a; To‘en we-Nit‘an, ix. 1; Hoshen Mishpat,
134).
Small cattle of the kind that are left in the open
and allowed to move from place to place were ex-
cluded from the principle governing
Cattle an title by possession in movable prop-
Exception. erty, for the supposition was that they
had wandered onto other premises
without the knowledge of their owner. There isa
difference of opinion among the later authorities as
to whether three years’ possession was sufficient to
establish the right of property in them. Large cat-
tle of the kind that are delivered to a shepherd and
are always under his control, or infant slaves that
are unable to walk, were treated like other movable
property, while adult slaves were considered in the
same category as immovable property, and a con-
tinuous possession of three years was sutficient to
establish title to them (B. B. 86b; To‘en we-Nit‘an,
x. 1, 4; Hoshen Mishpat, 185).
The Talmudic law applies the principle of haza-
kah also to easements or servitudes consisting in
the right or privilege of using another’s land with-
out compensation. For example, if one causes one
of the beams of his house to protrude into the prem-
ises of his neighbor, and the neighbor does not ob-
ject immediately, the owner is regarded as having
a hazakah in the servitude of his neighbor's prem-
ises as regards the beam. There are three distinct
opinions among the later authorities regarding the
- nature of this hazakah. Some (the Geonim and Mai-
monides) are of the opinion that the hazakah of ease-
ment need not be accompanied by a real claim, nor
need it last for three successive years as is required
with movable property. Others (Jacob Tam, R.
Jonah, Solomon ben Adret) hold that this case is
in all respects similar to the case of immovable prop-
erty, needing both a real claim and three years’ pos-
session. Others, again, adopt the compromise of
Samuel ben Meir, who regards easements as im-
movable property in so far as they require a real
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hazael
Hazakah
claim to title, but with the difference that they do
not require three years’ possession to establish the
right (Maimonides, “ Yad,” Shekenim, xi. 4; comp.
“Maggid Mishneh” ad loc.; Hoshen Mishpat, 153-
155; see EASEMENT).
Presumptions are principles formed on a vast
amount of judicial experience, by which the court
is guided not only in settling the ques-
tion as to which of the contending
parties incurs the burden or responsi-
bility of bringing proof of the asser-
tions made in pleading, but also in rendering a de-
cision in doubtful cases. Although inferior to
actual evidence and entirely disregarded when re-
futed by it, presumption was still a potent factor in
Jewish law, and exerted a great influence in the de-
cision of civil as well as capital cases. In accord-
ance with the prevailing tendency of the Talmud
to find a basis in the Scriptures for every principle,
the Rabbis attempted to derive the principle of pre-
sumption from a Biblical passage (Lev. xiv. 88) in
regard to the plague of leprosy in houses. After the
priest had examined the plague-sore and found it to
be of a certain size, he locked the house for seven days,
at the conclusion of which time another examination
was tobe made. “Is it not possible that while he was
locking the door the plague-sore diminished in size?
Since, however, Scripture takes no notice of this, it
must be because it presumes that the plague re-
mained in the state in which it was first found by
the priest; Scripture teaches us here the principle
of presumption” (Hul. 10b). Of course, the valid-
ity of this principle does not depend upon this par-
ticular passage, for, in fact, some of the amoraim
are dissatisfied with this mode of derivation and
claim that this case by no means proves the validity
of the principle. According to these, the principle
of hazakah is traditional, and was handed to Moses
on Sinai (comp. Tosef., Hul. 10b; R. Samuel Edels
ad loc.).
The various kinds of presumptions found scattered
throughout the Talmud may be divided as follows:
(1) presumptions of physical conditions (“hazakah
di-gufa”); (2) presumptions arising from the fact
of possession (“hazakah di-mamona ”); (8) presump-
tions arising from the nature of man or from cer-
tain actions and circumstances (“hazakah mi-koah
sebara ”’).
(1) All flesh is presumed to have been cut from
a living animal (“ eber min ha-hay ”) and hence to be
forbidden food until it has been ascertained that the
animal was ritually slaughtered; hence an examina-
tion of the organs to be severed at slaughtering is
necessary. After it is slaughtered it is presumed to
be kasher until it is demonstrated how it became
forbidden; hence no examination of the animal is
necessary, except of those organs (such as the lungs)
which contract a disease most readily (R. Huna in
Hul. 9a, followed by all later authorities).
(2) In cases involving money the prevailing prin-
ciple was AM) NApInd KY ‘pix (“leave the
money in the possession of its master”). Hence the
general principle in Jewish law, that the burden of
proof is on the plaintiff (B. K. 85a; B. M. 100a; Ket.
20a; et al.). This principle has far-reaching results.
It was followed not only where there was not suf-
Presump-
tion.
azakah
azkarat
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
282
ficient evidence to establish the truth (B. K. 46a),
but also where there was contradictory evidence
(Ket. 20a). If after a case has been decided in ac-
cordance with a presumption the plaintiff violently
takes the object of contention from the defendant so
that the presumption shall favor him, it is doubt-
ful whether the former presumption becomes thus
annihilated; and the later authorities differ as to
which presumption to follow in such a case (Tosef.,
1b. 8.v. “DIN; comp. B. M. 6b; ShaK in “Tekafo
Kohen ”).
(3) Many of the presumptions established by the
Talmud are based on an analysis of the human mind,
and find their chief support in the nature of man
(Ket. 75b). It was presumed that no woman would
have the audacity to declare in her
Kinds of husband’s presence that she was di-
Pre- vorced from him, if she were not (Ket.
sumption. 22b; Ned. 91a). No man was pre-
sumed to have paid his debt before it
was due (B. B. 5a). No one would be so shameless
as to deny a debt in the presence of his creditor (B.
M. 3a; B. K. 107a; et al.). The agent was presumed
to fulfil his commission (‘Er. 31a). The master was
presumed to have paid the day-laborer at the end of
his day’s work (B. M. 112b). No man was presnmed
to permit himself to be rcbbed without a struggle
(Yoma 85a; Sanh. 72a). It was presumed that the
scholar would not issue any deed unless it had been
correctly executed (Pes. 9a). A house was presumed
to have been examined for leaven on the fourteenth
of Nisan, and one hiring a house on that day need
not examine it again (Pes. 4a). A presumption was
often established through the repetition of an inci-
dent a number of times. The most notable in-
stance of this kind is that of the GorrnG Ox, which
was regarded as a vicious animal (“mu‘ad ”) after
it had committed the offense three times (B. K. 23b).
It was not permitted to marry a woman who had been
twice divorced on account of barrenness, for she was
presumed to be a barren woman (Yeb. 64a), nor a
woman whose two husbands died a natural death,
for she was presumed to be a murderous (“kat-
lanit ”) woman (Niddah 64a), Parents, two of whose
children died at circumcision, need not circumcise
their other children, for the presumption was es-
tablished that their children could not stand the pain
of circumcision (‘Er. 97a). R. Simeon ben Gamalie]
is of the opinion that a presumption may be estab-
lished only after an incident has occurred three times
(Yeb. 64b; comp. 7). 65a, Tosef., s.v. “ We-Shor”
and “ Niset”; Asheri, vi. 14, where it is argued that
Rabbi’s ruling, as is shown by his decision in the
case of the goring ox, does not differ from that of
Rt. Simeon ben Gamaliel in so far as monetary cases
are concerned).
No definite rule was laid down by the Rabbis for
guidance in cases where presumptions collide, that
is, where each party has some presumption in his
favor. In such cases it is for the court to decide
which of the two is the more important. A bought
an object from B, but had not paid the money; A
desired to return the object to B on the ground that
he had found a defect in it which, he claimed, was
in it before it was delivered to him. A had the pre-
sumption of possession (of the money), B the pre-
sumption that the defect was created while the ob-
ject was in the possession of him on whose premises
it was found: the decision was in favor of B (Ket.
76a; Maimonides, “ Yad,” Mekirah, xx. 14; Hoshen
Mishpat, 124; comp. B. B. 92a). In all such cases
the court had to decide as to which of the presump-
tions was stronger, and render its decision accord-
ingly.
The influence of presumptions in Jewish law ex-
tended even to capital cases, and punishment was
frequently inflicted on that basis. Man and wife and
children Hiving together and treating one another
as such are legally considered as one family, and
illicit relationships between them would be punished
with death on the strength of the presumption, even
though the kinship could not be proved by legal
evidence (Kid. 80a). In regard to the presumption
that a man would not offer a false argument when,
if he were willing to lie, he could produce a better
one, see JuS GazaAKa; Miao.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hamburger, R. B. T.; Frankel, Der Gericht-
liche Beweis, Berlin, 1846; Goitein, Kesef Nibhar, Lemberg,
1895; Bloch, Das Besitzrecht, Budapest, 1897; Freudenthal,
in Monatsschrift, 1854-64.
Bac, J. H. G.
HAZAR-ENAN : Place on the boundary of Pal-
estine, apparently to the northeast, between Zephron
and Shepham, not far from the district of Hamath,
in Damascene Syria (Num. xxxiv. 9, 10; Ezek.
xvii. 17, xlviii. 1 [R. V. “ Hazar-enon ”}).
BE. G. H. es
HAZAR-SHUAL: Townin the south of Judah
(Josh. xv. 28: Neh. xi. 27), between Beth-palet and
Beer-sheba, afterward included in the territory of
Simeon (Josh. xix. 8; I Chron. iv. 28), where it is
mentioned between Moladah and Bilhah. After the
Captivity Hazar-shual was repeopled (Neh. xi. 27).
E. G. II. B. P.
HAZAR-SUSAH: City in the extreme south of
Judah, allotted to Simeon (Josh. xix. 5), Inthe par-
allel passage I Chron. iv. 31, the reading is “ Hazarsu-
sim,” where the Greek translators have ‘Hycovoeworp,
which would presuppose the Hebrew reading “ Hazi-
susim.” In Joshua it is mentioned between Beth-
marcaboth and Beth-lebaoth; in Chronicles between
Beth-marcaboth and Beth-birei. Whether read
“Hazar-susah” (village of the horse) or “ Hazar-
susim ” (village of horses), its connection with Beth-
marcaboth (“house of chariots ”) suggests that it was
a station used for military purposes (comp. I Kings
x. 28, 29),
E. G. H. B. P.
HAZARMAVETH: Third son of Joktan, of the
family of Shem (Gen. x. 26; I Chron. i. 20). The
name is preserved in the modern Hadramaut, a prov-
ince of southern Arabia. Strabo (xvi. 42) mentions
the Xa7papwriraz, one of the four chief tribes of south-
ern Arabia, known for their traffic in frankincense.
E. G. H. B. P.
HAZAZON-TAMAR: Dwelling-place of the
Amorites when the four kings made their invasion
and fought with the five kings (Gen. xiv. 7[A. V.
“Hazezon-tamar”]). In II Chron. xx. 2 it is iden-
tified with En-gedi, where the Ammonites, Moabites,
and others met before going out to battle against
Jehoshaphat.
E. G. H. B. P.
283
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sater poder
azkarat
HA-ZEBI (‘3yn): Hebrew weekly, published at
Jerusalem, beginuing in 1876, by Eliezer Benjudah.
At the end of 1899 he began to publish a supple-
ment, also in Hebrew, dealing with agriculture,
under the title “ Ha-‘Ikkar.” Thesupplement, how-
ever, was discontinued after a few months. Sus-
pended by official order toward the end of 1900, “ Ha-
Zebi” resumed publication with the title “ Hash-
kafah” (Appwin), but under the control of Hemdah,
the wife of Eliezer Benjudah.
G. M. FR.
HA-ZEFIRAH (Ay5yn; in modern Hebrew,
“The Morning”): Hebrew newspaper; founded by
Hayyim Selig Slonimski at Warsaw Jan. 25, 1862.
In 1863 it was suspended on account of the Polish
troubles. Slonimski revived it in 1874, the first two
volumes appearing at Berlin, the third and subse-
quent volumes at Warsaw, Down to March 23,
1886, it was issued as a weekly; on April 23, 1886,
Slonimski, with Sokolow as coeditor, began a daily
edition. In addition to general news, “Ha-Zefirah ”
formerly contained many scientific articles on phys-
ics, astronomy, chemistry, etc., written principally
by Slonimski and Solomon Jacob Abramowitsch.
Among its contributors were Kalman Schulmann
and other well-known Hebrew litterateurs. With
the beginning of the daily edition it was devoted
exclusively to general political and specifically Jew-
ish news.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Entziklopedicheski Slovar, s.v. Slonimsaki,
G. M. SEL.
HAZEROTH (ninyn): A station of the Israelites
in the desert (Num. xi. 85, xii. 16, xxxiii. 17; Deut.
i. 1). It was at Hazeroth that Miriam, having slan-
dered her brother Moses, was stricken with leprosy
(Num. xii. 1-11). The geographical position of
Hazeroth is indicated in Deut. i. t—in the Arabah
opposite the Red Sea. It isidentitied with the mod-
ern ‘Ain al-Khadra, on the route from Mt. Sinai to
‘Akaba.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Robinson, Researches, i. 228.
E. G. U. M. SE.
HAZKARAT NESHAMOT: Memorial serv-
ice, held, according to the German ritual, after
the readings of the Law and the Prophets in the
morning service on the eighth day of Pesah, the
second of Pentecost, the eighth of Sukkot (She-
mini ‘Azeret), and the Day of Atonement. In mem-
ory of a father the following is recited:
** May God remember the soul of my respected father, ——, son
of ——, who has gone to his eternal home ; on whose behalf I vow
as alms -— ; may his soul be bound upin the bundle of life
{see I Sam. xxv. 29] with the souls of Abraham, Isaac, and Ja-
cob, Sarah, Rebekah, Rachel, and Leah, and all other righteous
men and women that are in the Garden of Eden, and let us say,
Amen.”
The same prayer is recited in memory of a
- mother, with a change in gender; he whose father
and mother are dead says both prayers. There is
another formula for grandparents and for other
kindred, and a special prayer for such as have died
as martyrs for the faith. In some synagogues this
prayer is followed by the reading of a list of those in
memory of whom money has been given for charity ;
for them another form of prayer is used. In many
places a similar prayer is recited on ordinary Sab-
baths, after the readings from the Law and the
Prophets, its opening words being: “El male raha-
mim ” (God, full of mercy). The service closes with
the following memorial prayer for the souls of the
martyrs:
‘“Father of Mercy, who dwelleth on high! May Hein His
abundant mercy turn to the saintly, the upright, the perfect, to
those holy communities that gave up their lives for the glory of
His name. They were lovely and pleasant in their lives, and in
death they were not parted; they were swifter than eagles, they
were stronger than lions [II Sam. i. 23], to do the will of their
Master, the wish of their Rock. May our God remember them
for good with the other just ones of the world, and avenge be-
fore our eyes the spilled blood of His servants [Ps. Ixxix. 3], as
it is written in the law of Moses, the man of God. . . (Deut.
Xxxii. 43]. By the hands of Thy servants the Prophets it is
written ... [Joel iv. 21 (iii. 21)].. And in Thy holy writings it
is written . . . [Ps. lxxix. 10]; and it is also said ... [Ps. ix.
13, ex. 6-7].”
In western Germany this “in memoriam” is read
only on the Sabbath before Pentecost and on that
before the Ninth of Ab; where the Polish minhag is
used it is read on all Sabbaths that do not fall on
days of rejoicing; and it is omitted when the new
moon, other than that of Iyyar or Siwan, is an-
nounced. The custom of remembering the souls of
the departed is traced to Pesikta xx., where men-
tion is made of sa] vation of souls through charity and
prayer. The Mahzor Vitry (dated 1208) says that
in its time “alms for the dead are set aside ” only on
the Day of Atonement, showing that the memorial
service on the three festivals came into use some-
what later. In the Sephardic ritual the origin of
the particular service for certain days in the year is
unknown; but the “ Hashkabah” (laying to rest) is,
on ordinary Sabbaths and on festivals, or even on
Mondays and Thursdays, recited in the synagogue,
either after the Scroll has been returned to the Ark
or, at the request of a son of the departed who has
been called to the desk, immediately after he has
read his part of the lesson. The prayer reads as fol-
lows, subject to modifications in the case of women
or children:
**A good name is more fragrant than rich perfume; and the
day of death better than the day of one’s birth. The sum of
the matter, after all hath been heard, is, To fear God, and keep
His commandments, for this is the whole of man. Let the pious
be joyful in glory; let them sing aloud upon their couches.
‘** May the repose which is prepared in the celestial abode, un-
der the wings of the Divine Presence in the high place of the
holy and pure—that shine and are resplendent as the bright
light of the firmament—with a renewal of strength, a forgive-
ness of trespasses, a removal of transgressions, an approach of
salvation, compassion and favor from Him that sitteth enthroned
on high, and also a goodly portion in the life to come, be the
lot, dwelling, and the resting-place of the soul of our deceased
brother, ... (whom may God grant peace in paradise), who
departed from this world according to the will of God, the Lord
of heaven and earth. May the supreme King of kings, through
His infinite mercy, have mercy, pity, and compassion on him.
May the supreme King of Kings, through His infinite mercy,
hide him under the shadow of His wings, and under the protec-
tion of His tent, to behold the beauty of the Lord, and to wait
in His temple; may He raise him at the end of days, and cause
him to drink of the stream of His delights. May He cause his
soul to be bound up in the bond of life and his rest to be glori-
ous. May the Lord be his inheritance, and grant him peace ;
and may his repose be in peace; as it is written, He shall come
in peace; they shall rest in their beds; every one walking in
his uprightness.’ May he, and all His people of Israel, who
slumber in the dust, be included in mercy and forgiveness.
May this be His will! and let ussay, Amen.” (Gaster, **The
Book of Prayer,”’ pp. 200-201, London, 1901.)
For a deceased scholar the following versec are
prefixed: Job xxviii. 12; Ps. xxv. 12, xxxi. 20,
xxxvi. 8-9. The rimed part isa poetic paraphrase
Hazkuni
Hazzan
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
284
and enlargement of the “El Male Rahamim ” of the
German ritual.
Primarily, the “ Hashkabah ” is recited at the grave
as a part of the burial service; when it is used af the
synagogue a vow of alms, somewhat like that in the
German ritual, is sometimes added. The making of
vows of alnis or of gifts for the repose of souls is
unknown to the Talmud and to Maimonides. Shul-
han ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim (621, 6), written in Pales-
tine, but by Joseph Caro, a Spaniard, born after
Spain had been a Christian country for centuries,
teaches that on the Day of Atonement it is “custom-
ary to make vows for the dead”; and with the
Sephardim such vows, coupled with “A name is
better,” etc., are commonly made on that day.
In many Sephardic synagogues a “ Hashkabah” for
a long list of deceased members is read on Kol Nidre
night; in others, vows for the dead are made in
the daytime, between musaf and minhah. For the
Hazkarot Meshumot in Reform congregations, see
MEMORIAL SERVICE.
K, L. N. D.
HAZKUNI, ABRAHAM BEN HZZEKIAH:
Galician Talmudist and cabalist; born at Cracow in
1627; died at Tripoli, Syria. He was a disciple of
Yom-Tob Lipman Heller, and the author of the fol-
lowing works: “Zot Hukkat ha-Torah,” an abridg-
ment of Isaac Luria’s “Sefer ha-Kawwanot,” Venice,
1659; “Shete Yadot,” sermons arranged in the order
of the sections of the Pentateuch, published by the
son of the author, Amsterdam, 1726; a commentary
on the Zohar divided into two volumes, “ Yad Ra-
mah” and “ Yad Adonai,” still extant in manuscript
(Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” Nos. 1729b,
1853); “Zera’ Abraham,” in two volumes, the first
containing sermons, the second novelle on Bezah
and Mo‘ed Katan, quoted in the first-named work;
“Yodea‘ Binah,” cited by the son of the author in
his preface to the “Shete Yadot.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 675; Fuenn,
Keneset Yisrael, p. 24; Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 92.
S. S. I. Br.
HAZKUNI, HEZEKIAH. See HEZEKIAH BEN
MANOAH.,
HAZOR: 1. Fortified city between Ramah and
Kadesh, on the high ground overlooking Lake
Merom. It was the seat of Jabin, a powerful Ca-
naanitish king, as appears from the summons sent
by him to all the kings round about to assist him
against Israel. But Joshua defeated the allied forces,
and burned the city, which was “the head of all
those kingdoms,” to the ground (Josh. xi. 1-5, 10-
13). Hazor must have been rebuilt, for in the time
of Deborahand Barak there was another King Jabin
reigning there (Judges iv. 2), to whom Israel was
temporarily made subject in punishment for its
sins. After this Hazor was again in [srael’s posses-
sion, and belonged to the tribe of Naphtali (Josh.
xix. 36). In the later history of Israel, Hazor is
mentioned again when its inhabitants were carried
off to Assyria by Tiglath-pileser (II Kings xv. 29).
2. Village in the extreme south of Judah, named
between Kedesh and Ithnan (Josh. xv. 28, where the
Vatican manuscript of the Septuagint reads “ Hazor”
and “Ithnan” as one word, ’Acoptwraiv, whereas the
Alexandrian manuscript omits “Ithnan ”).
3. One of the southern towns of Judah, near
Kerioth (Josh, xv. 25 [R. V. “ Hazor-hadattah ”}).
4. Place inhabited by the Benjamites after their
return from captivity, situated between Ananiah
and Ramah (Neh. xi. 33).
5. Place in the vicinity of Kedar, with which
it was devastated by Nebuchadnezzar (Jer, xlix. 28-
33). The mention of the “kingdoms of Hazor”
leaves room for the supposition that “ Hazor” may
have been the name of a district in Arabia,
E. G. H.
HAZOT. Sec Horonoey.
HAZZAN (Hebrew, jin; Aramaic, x3tm): Com-
munal official. The word is probably borrowed
from the Assyrian “hazanu,” “ hazannu ” (overseer,
director; see Delitzsch, “ Assyrisches Handwérter-
buch,” p. 272a; connected with the Hebrew wh,
meaning “vision”). “ Hazanuti” (plural of “ha-
zanu ”) in the El-Amarna tablets designates the gov-
ernors who were stationed by Egypt in the subju-
gated cities of Palestine (Winckler and Zimmern,
“Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament,” pp.
194, 196, 198).
In the Talmud the term “hazzan” is used to de-
note the “overseer”: (1) of a city; “hazzane de-
mata,” according to B. M. 98b (see Rashi ad loc. ;
Ket. 8b; ‘Ar. 6b); (2) of acourt of justice; at his or-
der the sessions opened (Yer. Ber, iv. 7d); he also exe-
cuted judgment on the condemned (Mak. iii. 12;
comp. Yer. Sanh. v. 28a); (8) of the Temple; he
had charge of the Temple utensils (comp. Arabic
“khazin ” = “ treasure-keeper ”) and aided the priests
in disrobing (Tamid v.38; Yoma vii. 1); (4) of the syn-
agogue (“hazzan bet ha-keneset”; see Sotah vii. 7,
8; Suk. iv. 4); he brought out the rolls of the Torah,
opened them at the appointed readings for the week,
and put them away again (Sotah vii. 7-8; Yer.
Sotah vii. 2id; Yer. Meg. iv. 15b, 75b); with
trumpet-blasts he announced the beginnings of Sab-
baths and holy days from the roof of the synagogue
(Tosef., Suk. iv.); heattended to the lamps of the syn-
agogue (Yer. Ma‘as, Sh. 56a); he accompanied the
pilgrims that brought the firstlings to the sanctuary
of Jerusalem (Tosef., Bik. ii. 101). His place was
in the middle of the synagogue, on the wooden
“bimah” (Yer. Suk. v. 55b), and, according to
Tosef., Meg. iii., beginning (see Mordecai ad loc.),
he might, at the desire of the congregation, read
aloud from the Torah, his ordinary duties then de-
volving temporarily upon another. It seems also to
have been the duty of the “overseer” of the syna-
gogue to teach the children to read (Shab. i. 3, ac-
cording to Maimonides, Bertinoro, and Tosafot Yom-
Tob on the passage), or to assist the schoolmaster
in teaching the children in the synagogue.
A passage in the Jerusalem Talmud (Ber. ix. 12d,
beginning), which Kohut considers to have been in-
terpolated after Midr. Teh. to Ps. xix., seems to indi-
cate that the hazzan also led the prayers in the syn-
agogue. Especially in smaller congregations, and
even inearly Talmudic times, the duties of preacher,
judge, schoolmaster, and hazzan were discharged by
one person, as the famous story about Levi bar Sisi
shows (Yer. Yeb, 18a; Gen. R. 1xxxi.).
In the geonic period, at any rate, the duties of
reading from the Torah (“kore”) and of reciting the
285
prayers (“Sheliah zibbur”) were included, as a
rule, among the functions of the hazzan (see Pirke
R. El. xi., xvi.; Masseket Soferim x. 7; xi. 3, 5).
The blowing of the shofar was also one
In of his duties, as may be seen from a
the Geonic responsum of Solomon ben Adret (No.
Period. 300). Heacted sometimes as secretary
to the congregation. He was assisted,
especially on festival days, by a chorus (“ meshore-
rim,” singers; Immanuel, “ Mehabberot,” xv. 181).
This institution was afterward developed in Poland
and Germany, where a singer stood on each side of
the precentor and accompanied him, sometimes in
high, sometimes in low, tones, at intervals singing
independently.
The office of hazzan increased in importance with
the centuries. As public worship was developed
in the geonic period, and as the knowl-
Growing edgceof the Hebrew language declined,
Importance singing gradually superseded the di-
ofthe Office. dactic and hortatory element in the
worship in the synagogue, The piy-
yutim (very often composed by the hazzanim them-
selves) were intermingled with the prayers, and
tended still further to make the hazzan indispensable.
It is true that in the ninth century hazzanim skilled
in piyyutim were rejected (see Zunz, “ Ritus,” p. 7),
but the repulse was only temporary; in time the
piyyutim attained, both over the ritual and over the
congregation, an almost limitless influence, before
which even Saadia was compelled to give way
(2b. p. 8).
Even in the oldest times the chief qualifications de-
manded of the hazzan, in addition to knowledge of
Biblical and liturgical literature, were a pleasant voice
and an artistic delivery; for the sake of these, many
faults were willingly overlooked (see Zunz, “8. P.”
pp. 15, 144 et seg., and the Cremona edition of the
Zohar, section Wayehi, p. 249). He was required
to possess & pleasing appearance, to be married, and
to wear a flowing beard. Sometimes, according to
Isaac of Vienna (13th cent.), a young hazzan having
only a slight growth of beard was tolerated (see Tur
Orah Hayyim, 58; “Bet Yosef,” ad loc.; “Shibbale
ha-Leket,” ed. Buber, § 10). Maimonides decided
that the hazzan who recited the prayers on an ordi-
nary Sabbath and on week-days need not possess an
appearance pleasing to everybody; he might even
have a reputation not wholly spotless,
Qualifica- provided he was living at the time of
tions. his appointment a life morally free
from reproach. Even baptized Jews
who had sincerely returned to Judaism might, ac-
cording to him, be admissible as reciters of prayers
(see Lampronti, “ Pahad Yizhak,” x. 219b; Solomon
ha-Kohen [MaHaRSHaK], Responsa, ii., $$ 127, 157; .
Elijah Mizrahi, Responsa, i. 6). The same privilege
was accorded Maranos whose return to Judaism was
complete and sincere (Abraham di Boton, “ Lehem
Rab,” § 3).
But all these moderations of the rule disappeared
on fast-days or high feast-days (“ yamim nora’im”) ;
then an especially worthy hazzan was demanded,
one whose life was absolutely irreproachable, who
was generally popular, and who was endowed with
an expressive delivery. Even a person who had
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hazkuni
Hazzan
once appealed to a non-Jewish, instead of to a Jew-
ish, court in a disputed question could not act as
hazzan on those days, unless he had previously
done penance (Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 581).
As late as the fourth century persons who came
from the three Palestinian cities Haifa, Beth-shean,
and Tabun (Neubauer, “G. T.” pp. 175, 195, 197)
were wholly ineligible for the office (Nissim ben
Reuben’s commentary on Alfasi’s “ Halakot”; Meg.
iv.). Since the hazzan was the representative of
the congregation (“sheliah zibbur”) in prayer, it
was felt to be very necessary that a perfect inner
harmony should exist between him and the congre-
gation, and consequently a unanimous vote for his
election was insisted upon in many
Conditions places. If but one personin the com-
of munity refused to vote for a candi-
Election. date, and was able to give a reason-
able explanation therefor, the latter
was not appointed (MaHaRIL, Responsa, No. 60;
Meir of Padua, Responsa, No. 64; Agur, No. 96).
In the Rhine district this rule was adhered to
with especial strictness in the earlier part of the
Middle Ages (“Or Zarua‘,” i. 41; comp. Gross in
“ Monatsschrift,” xx. 262). In the seventeenth cen-
tury, however, Abraham Abele ben Hayyim ha-Levi
expressed himself against this custom in his commen-
tary, “Magen Abraham,” on Orah Hayyim: he as-
serted that the hazzan no longer represented the
congregation in prayer, as in former times; that he
was no longer the only one who knew how to say
the prayers, since every one in the congregation
now prayed for himself; and that a unanimous vote
in his favor had therefore become superfluous.
Naturally, the removal of the hazzan from office,
as well as his appointment, indeed, depended in
most cases upon the will of those who paid the high-
est taxes in the community. This fact seems to
have beconie legally recognized in the sixteenth
century (Levi ben Habib, Responsa, No. 179). A
blameless hazzan was not to be removed simply be-
cause another had a more pleasing voice; a second
hazzan, however, might be appointed. An old
hazzan who had lost his voice could be removed
from office, and some arrangement be made with
him in regard to his maintenance. The community
could also discharge a hazzan who, out of considera-
tion for his sons that had been converted to Chris-
tianity, omitted the execratory formula “ Wela-Mal-
shinim,” etc., in the Eighteen Benedictions (¢. No.
15).
In the sixteenth century Moses Minz, at the desire
of the community of Bamberg, drew up rules of
conduct for a hazzan (Responsa, No. 81). These
show the accepted opinion as to the ideal hazzan.
He should be blameless in character,
Rules for a humble, a general favorite, and mar-
Hazzan. ried, orat least should have reached the
age of puberty; he should possess an
agreeable voice, be able to read easily and under-
stand all the books of the Holy Scriptures, be the
first to enter, and the last to leave, the house of
God, and should strive to attain the highest degree of
devotion in his prayers; he should dress neatly, and
wear a long upper garment and “knee breeches”; he
should not look about him nor move his hands rest-
Hazzan
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
286
lessly, but should keep them folded under his man-
tle; in praying aloud he should articulate each word
separately as if he were counting money, and his
delivery should be quiet, distinct, and in accordance
with the sense, and his accentuation should follow
strictly the rules of grammar, Outside God’s house
he should avoid sowing any seeds of anger or hatred
against himself, by keeping aloof from communal
disputes (see Gidemann, “ Gesch.” iii. 95 e¢ seq.).
As early as the time of Hai Gaon the hazzan was
paid according to his ability in reciting “ Yozerot,”
“Kerobot,” ete. (comp. Zunz, “ Ritus,” p. 8); and
he was also exempt from communal taxes (Isaac
ben Sheshet, Responsa, Nos. 176, 177). During the
eleventh century there arose some opposition to the
payment of the hazzan, but the opposition was with-
out result (Judah the Pious, in “Or Zarua‘,” i., No.
113). In Germany the hazzan was entitled “ pre-
centor” in public documents (Gengler, “ Deutsche
Stadtrechtsalterthiimer,” p. 104); in lands where any
of the Romance languages were spoken he was
called “cantor ”
In the early Middle Ages the office of hazzan
seems to have been held in high esteem, for scholars
like R. Eliezer ben Meshullam and R. Meir acted
as the leaders in prayer. As late as the end of the
fourteenth century Jacob Méln ha-Levi (Maharil),
at the express desire of the congregation, read the
prayer on special festivals, such as New-Year, the
Day of Atonement, the eve of the 9th of Ab, Hosha‘na
Rabbah, and Shemini ‘Azeret (the “ Tal ”- prayer; Ma-
haril, “ Minhagim,” pp. 43b, 49a, 61a). In Spain, how-
ever, even at the beginning of the fourteenth cen-
tury, Jews of the better families seem no longer to
have adopted this calling, and the position of the
hazzan in Spain was a source of surprise and grief
to the German Asher ben Jehiel (see Lampronti,
“Pahad Yizhak,” /.c.). Asamatter of fact, no other
communal official of the Middle Ages
Complaints occasioned so much and so frequent
Against complaint as the hazzan. As early
Haz- as the ninth century complaint was
zanim. made that the hazzanim changed the
text of the regular prayers (Zunz, “S.
P.” p. 114). In connection with the piyyutim, the
hazzanim introduced foreign inelodies taken from
non-Jewish sources.
Against these abuses Alfasi (Responsa, No. 281),
the “ Book of the Pious” (ed. Basel, Nos. 238, 768),
Maimonides (“ Moreh,” i. 59), Asher ben Jehiel (“ Besa-
mim Rosh,” iv 22), and others protested in vain.
The earlier Jewish melodies, not having been written
down, were changed by the hazzanim, consciously or
unconsciously, in accordance with their individual
tastes, which were often very poor. Their vanity also
led them to unsuitably prolong single notes and to
insert interludes of song (“ Magen Abraham,” on Orah
Hayyim, 281) Thereby the prayers were greatly
lengthened, concerning which the Midrash Kohelet
complains in the words of Eccl. vii. 5: “It is better
to hear the rebuke of the wise than for a man to
hear the song of fools.” All complaints on this
score, however, were of no avail (see “Bet Yosef”
on Orah Hayyim, 58; Moses Minz, Responsa, No. 87;
Judah b. Moses Selichover, “Shire Yehudah”; Isa-
iah Horwitz, “Shene Luhot ha-Berit,” section “Te-
fillah”; Solomon Lipschitz, “Te‘udat Shelomoh, ”
No. 21). The morality of the hazzanim was not
always the highest, and they were continually cen-
sured for vanity. According to Asher ben Jehiel
(20.), they sang only what was most likely to win
applause (so also Solomon Ephraim Luntschiitz,
“<Ammude Shesh,” i., quoted in Gidemann, “ Quel-
lenschriften zur Gesch. des Unterrichts und der
Erziehung bei den Deutschen Juden,” p. 85).
It is stated that the hazzanim, in the midst ofa
prayer, frequently brought the tallit, which covered
the head, down upon the shoulder, in
order to create an opportunity to ob-
serve what impression their singing
had made (Lewysohn, “ Mekore Minha-
gim,” p. 12, Berlin, 1846). Their immoderate rais-
ing of the voice, their incorrect pronunciation of
Hebrew, and the drawling of their singing were
constantly subjects of complaint. Their method of
singing has justly been called “a pilpul set to
music,” and was current in Poland, Germany, and
Austria from the seventeenth century onward
(Low, “ Lebensalter,” p. 314). The hazzanim them-
selves, in the same period, called their solos, which
they prolonged at will, “sebarot” (hypotheses), an
expression borrowed from the Talmudists(¢b.). The
prolongation of the service naturally caused general
weariness, and hence there resulted a great deal of
disorder. Abraham ben Shabbethai Horowitz, in
his ethical will “ Yesh Nohalin,” p. 16b, even recom-
mends the study of the Turim or of the Mishnah
at those places in the service where the hazzan is
accustomed to prolong his singing. The unworthy
deportment of the choir, their talking and quarrel-
ing with the hazzan during service, also occasioned
complaint (see JEW. Encyc. iv. 41). The “ Reshit
Bikkurim” (17th cent.) enumerates a long list of
offenses of the hazzanim, among which is mentioned
their habit of putting the hand on the chin or throat
in singing, evidently to facilitate trilling or the pro-
ducing of high notes (see Giidemann, J.c. p. 301).
The existence of these conditions is also shown in
the guide for hazzanim written by the hazzan Sol-
omon Lipschiitz (“Te‘udat Shelomoh,” Offenbach,
1718). These faults did not exist to the same extent
in Sephardic congregations, where the absence of
piyyutim from the regular service gave less op-
portunity for individual singing, and where well-
ordered congregational chanting was developed.
Their
Vanity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages,
passim; Bacher, in Hastings, Dict. Bible, iv. 640; Berliner,
Die Ientstehung des Vorheterdienstes, in Jitidische Presse
(Israel. Lehrer und Cantor), 1899, pp. 2, 13, 29, 34,40; Giide-
mann, Gesch. iti. 49, 95, 237; idem, Quellenschriften zur
Gesch. des Unterrichts, etc., passim: Gratz, Gesch. v. 150;
Jastrow, Dict.; Kohut, Bertihmte Israelitische Mdnner
und Frauen, pp. 152 et seg.; Lampronti, Pahad Yizhak, s.v.
Hazzan, Sheltah Zibbur, Tekt'ot, ete.: Oesterreichisch-Un-
garische Cantor-Zeitung, 1888, Nos. 23, 26, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38;
Kohut, in Ha-Shahar, x. 198; Smolenskin, Ha-To‘eh be-
Darke ha-Hayyim, ii. 272: Winter and Wiinsche, Die Jti-
dische Litteratur, iii. 513 et seq.; Zunz, G. V. p. 4253 idem,
Ritus, pp. 6, 8, 36, 98; Schitrer, Gesch. ii. 441; A. Lewysohn,
ners Minhagim, pp. 11 et seq.; Kohut, Aruch Compile-
um,
A. M. Sc.
With the abridgment and modernization of the
old ritual the music of the synagogue was also put
upon a modern basis; the ancient chants and melo-
dies were written down in modern notation, and
287
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hazzan
harmonized; the hazzan gave way to the cantor,
and the “ meshorerim ” were supplanted by a male,
or mixed, choir. While there is no
In Modern doubt of the common origin of the tra-
Times. ditional chants, the manner of singing
both them and the so-called traditional
melodies differs materially among the Sephardim
and Ashkenazim. Therefore it may be said that
there are two schools of cantors—the Sephardic and
the Ashkenazic. The latter may again be divided
into the German and the Polish, differing somewhat
from each other in the manner of singing the chant,
the latter being chiefly characterized by a greater
embellishment of the melodies, while the former
adheres toa plainer style.
The first to harmonize some of the Jewish melodies,
it is said, was Meir Cohen, early in the nineteenth
century. A more ambitious effort was made by
Israel Lévy of Paris (1788-1832). His compositions
became, and still are, very popular in France, and
were published by the Jewish Consistory of Paris
(1862). The father of the modern cantorate, how-
ever, wasSalomon SuLZER (b. at Hohenems, Austria,
March 80, 1804), chief cantor of Vienna from 1825 to
1890, and universally recognized as the
Sulzer regenerator of the music of the syna-
and His gogue. His “Shir Zion” became the
Influence. model adopted by subsequent cantors
and composers of synagogal music.
Next came 8. Naumbourg, cantor in Paris (“ Zemi-
rot Yisrael,” in 1847), and H. Weintraub of Konigs-
berg (“Shire Bet Adonai,” 1860). Louis Lewan-
dowski, royal musical director of Berlin, and Adolf
Griinz weig, musical director in Arad, Hungary, have
also done much for the development of the modern
cantorate, the former by the publication of his “ Kol
Rinnah u-Tefillah ” (1850) and “Todah we-Zimrah ”
(1854), and the latter by his “Zemirot shel Shab-
bat” (1863). Moritz Deutsch of Breslau (b. 1818, at
Nikolsburg, Austria) published “ Vorbeterschule ”
(1882), “Breslauer Synagogengesiinge” (1884),
“Deutsche Chorale ” (1886), “ Nachtrag zu den Bres-
lauer Synagogengesingen ” (1888), and “Synagogen-
Praeludien” (1889). These men, together with
Abraham Bakr of Gothenburg, Sweden, author of
“Ba‘al Tefillah, oder der Praktische Vorbeter”
(1870), were the pioneers in the field of modern syna-
gogue music.
Amony those that followed the above-mentioned
were many who printed collections of their own, or
of others’, renderings. <A partial list may serve to
recall the chief cantors of the nineteenth century,
the titles of their chief works, where these have been
published, being given:
Max Léwenstamm, Munich (‘‘ Zemirot le-El Hai,” posthu-
mous, 1884); I. L. Weiss, Warsaw (1825-89; ‘** Musikalische
Synagogenbibliothek,” 1888); H. Berggriin, Hanover (1838-90);
Solomon Popper, Frankfort-on-the-Main (1838-89); Leon Kartch-
maroff, Nagy-Kanizsa; I. Lachman, Hiirben, Bavaria; Moritz
Friedmann, Budapest; Eduard Birnbaum, Kénigsberg: J. Hy-
man, Amsterdam (°° Shire Todah le-El’’); Julius Mombach, 1813-
1880 (“* Zemirot Yisrael,” London, 1881); Marcus Hast, London
(‘* Seder ha-‘Abodah,”’ 1879); A. B. Birnbaum (“* Hallel we-Zim-
rah’); M. Rosenhaupt, Nuremberg (*‘Shire Ohel Ya‘akob,”’
1887); Emanuel Kirschner, Munich (** Tehillot le-El Hai,’’ 1890);
Samuel Welsch, New York (in collaboration with others, ‘* Zim-
rat Yah,” 1879); Moritz Goldstein, Cincinnati, Ohio (in collabo-
ration with others, ** Zimrat Yah,” 1879; ** Kol Zimrah ”’); Alois
Yah,”’ 1879-86 ; ** Shire Hinnuk,’’ 1870; ‘* Union Hymnal,” 1897 ;
‘Principal Melodies of the Synagogue,” 1893); William Léw-
enberg, Philadelphia, Pa. (collaborated in ‘*‘ Union Hymnal,”
1897).
The majority of these writers were themselves
practical hazzanim, and the music published by
them was in most instances that employed by them
in divine service.
J A. Kat
HAZZAN, HAZAN: An Oriental rabbinical
family, probably of Spanish origin, members of
which are found in Spain, and in Smyrna, Alexan-
dria, and other cities of the East; their pedigree,
however, can not be traced further back than the
eighteenth century. The name is undoubtedly de-
rived from the office of hazzan, which one of the
ancestors of the family held.
Aaron de Joseph Hazan: Brother of Elijah
Bekor Hazan; born at Smyrna 1848. In 1871 he
founded the Judeo-Spanish periodical “La Espe-
ranza,” subsequently called “La Buena Espe-
ranza”; he also wrote two novels from Jewish life:
“Rahel en el Convento” and “El Muchacho Aban-
donado.” Aaron Hazan celebrated the twenty-fifth
anniversary of his paper by issuing an “edition es-
pecial” (Smyrna, 1896), containing a history of the
congregation of Smyrna during the quarter-cen-
tury. In 1890 he was decorated with the Order of
the Nishan-i-Medjidie.
Abraham Hazzan of Gerona (called Ge-
rondi): Writer of devotional hymns; flourished
about the middle of the thirteenth century. His
piyyutim are found in the Sephardic, the Italian,
the Algerian, and even the Karaitic rituals. Best
known is his AyotT KETANNAH, a hymn for New-
Year, which has been included in the devotional
“Likkute Zebi” and translated into German.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Literaturgesch. p. 410; Plessner, 4 po-
kryphen, i. 146; Landshuth, ‘Ammude ha-‘Abodah, i. 11 et
seq.
David ben Hayyim ben Joseph Hazzan:
Lived in Jerusalem about the middle of the eight-
eenth century. He wrote: “Hozeh Dawid,” a com-
mentary on the Psalms (Amsterdam, 1724); “ Kohe-
let ben Dawid,” on Ecclesiastes, with “Dawid
ba-Mezudah,” on Abot (Salonica, 1748); and “ Aggan
ha-Sahar,” on Proverbs (2b. 1749).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Hazan, Zikron Yerushalayim, Leghorn, 1874;
Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 858.
David Hayyim Samuel Hazzan: Flourished
in Palestine toward the end of the eighteenth cen-
tury. Hewrote: “Miktam le-Dawid,” responsa and
novelle on Maimonides (Leghorn, 1792); and “ Kod-
she Dawid,” annotations to the laws on holy days in
the Shulhan ‘Aruk (72d. 1792). The latter was in-
tended as the first part of a larger work to be en-
titled “Hasde Dawid,” which, however, was not
published.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 77.
Elijah Bekor Hazan: Chief rabbi of Alexan-
dria (1903); born at Smyrna in 1840. He went to
Jerusalem with his grandfather, Hayyim David
Hazan, in 1855. He was successively clerk of the
Jerusalem congregation (1866) and member of the
rabbinical college (1868). In 1871 he was appointed
Kaiser, Baltimore, Md. (in collaboration with others, “Zimrat | solicitor of alms for Palestine; in 1874 he was elected
noo
e
rabbi of Tripoli, whence he was called to Alexandria
in 1888. In 1908 he presided over the Orthodox
rabbinical convention at Cracow, Elijah Hazan
was arepresentative of strict Orthodoxy. He pub-
lished: “Tob Leb,” homilies printed together with
his grandfather's “Yitab Leb” (Smyrna, 1868);
notes to his grandfather’s “ Yishre Leb” (20. 1870);
“Kontres Yismah Mosheh,” a decision on the will
of the famous philanthropist Ka’id Nissim Sha.
mama (Leghorn, 1874; Italian transl., 1877); “ Zi-
kron Yerushalayim” (db. 1874); “Ta‘alumot Leb,”
responsa (ist part, 7b. 1877; 2d part, 726. 18938;
3d part, Alexandria, 1902); “Neweh Shalom,” on
the religious customs of Alexandria (2b. 1894).
“Zikron Yerushalayim” is an apology for Judaism
in the form of a dialogue between a Palestinian rabbi
and the members of the family of a pious Mecenas
in Tunis. The author defends the strictest Ortho-
doxy, insists on the sacredness of the second holy
days, and deniesthe truth of the Copernican system ;
in an appendix he gives valuable notes on the Haz-
zan family. Many of his works are still in manu-
script. Hedied June 21, 1908.
Elijah Rahamim Hazan: Son of Joseph ben
Hayyim Hazan; rabbinical scholar of the nine-
teenth century. He wrote “Orah Mishpat,” notes
on Hoshen Mishpat (Salonica, 1858). Some of his
responsa are found in the collection of his father;
others, a volume of homilies, and novell to Hai
Gaon’s “ Mikkah u-Mimkar ” are in manuscript.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Elijah Hazan, Zikron Yerushalayim, p. 131,
Leghorn, 1874.
Hayyim David Hazan: Son of Joseph ben
Hayyim Hazan; born at Smyrna Oct. 9, 1790; died
at Jerusalem Jan. 17, 1869. He was one of the
leading Talmudists of hisage. In 1840 he was ap-
pointed chief rabbi of Smyrna; in 1855 he went to
Jerusalem, where he was made hakam bashi in 1861.
In allusion to his initials, 3"M, he was called 73 4
(“without equal in his generation”). He wrote:
“Torat ha-Zebah,” on the laws of ritual slaughter
(Salonica, 1852; reprinted, Jerusalem, 18838) ; “ Nedib
Leb,” responsa (1st part, Salonica, 1862; 2d part,
Jerusalem, 1866); “ Yitab Leb,” sermons (Smyrna,
1868); “ Yishre Leb,” halakic discussions, with addi-
tions by his grandson, Elijah Bekor Hazan (7d, 1870).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Luncez, Jerusalem, iv. 213.
Israel Moses Hazan: Son of Eliezer Hazan;
born in Smyrna 1808; died at Beirut Oct., 1862. He
was taken by his father to Jerusalem (1811), where
he was educated under his grandfather, Joseph ben
Hayyim Hazan. In 1840 he became a member
of a rabbinical college; in 1848 he was appointed
“meshullah ” (messenger). While at Rome he was
elected chief rabbi. In 1852 he resigned this office
_ for the rabbinate of Corfu, and in 1857 he was called
to the rabbinate of Alexandria. In 1862 he went to
Jaffa; but, being in ill health, he removed to Beirut,
where he died. He was buried in Sidon. In Rome
and in Corfu he was held in high esteem, and the
poet Ludwig August Frankl, who saw him in
Corfu (1856), speaks in glowing terms of his vener-
able personality. While a champion of Orthodoxy,
ke possessed sufficient independence of mind to pro-
test against the superstitious practises customary
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
288
among the Jews of Rome, who insisted on washing
corpses with warm water, and who would not allow
a clock in the yard of the synagogue. He wrote a
letter condemning the reforms advocated in the
Brunswick rabbinical conference (published in the
collection “ Kin’at Ziyyon,” Amsterdam, 1846). He
published: “ Nahalah le- Yisrael,” a collection of de-
cisions in an inheritance case (Vienna, 1851; Alexan-
dria, 1862); “Kontres Kedushat Yom-Tob Sheni,”
an argument in favor of retaining the second holy
days (76. 1855); “ Dibre Shalom we-Emet,” a reply
(in the form of an address to the Israelites of Great
Britain by a Levite) to a Reform pamphlet (Hebrew
and English, London, 1856); “She’erit ha-Nahalah,”
a discourse in dialogue on religious questions, with
a revised edition of his “ Nahalah le- Yisrael ” (Alex-
andria, 1862); “lyye ha-Yam,” responsa of the Geo-
nim, with his notes (Leghorn, 1864); “ Kerak shel
Romi,” responsa (2b. 1876). Other responsa, with
homilies and an apology for the Cabala, remain in
manuscript.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Solomon Hazan, Ha-Mat‘alot li-Shelomoh,
p. 114; Elijah Hazan, Zikron Yerushalayim, p. 181, Leg-
horn, 1874; Berliner, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, pp. 182,
208, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1893.
Joseph ben Elijah Hazzan: Rabbiin Smyrna
and Jerusalem in the seventeenth century; died at
Jerusalem. He wrote “‘En Yosef,” homilies on
Genesis and Exodus (Smyrna, 1675), and “‘En
Yehosef,” novelle on Baba Mezi‘a, edited by his .
son Caleb (Smyrna, 1730).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 78, ii. 104.
Joseph ben Hayyim Hazan: Chief rabbi of
Jerusalem; born at Smyrna 1741; died at Jerusa-
lem Nov. 11,1819. At first rabbi in his native city,
he went to Palestine in 1811, settling at Hebron,
where he became rabbi. In 1813 he was elected
chief rabbi of Jerusalem, which position he held
until his death. He wrote: “ Hikre Leb,” responsa
(vol. i., Salonica, 1787; vol. ii., Leghorn, 1794; vols.
iii.-viii., Salonica, 1806-58); “ Ma‘arke Leb,” homi-
lies (22. 1821-22); “Hikre Leb,” Talmudic novelle,
edited by his great-grandson, Elijah (Jerusalem,
1880). His four sons, Elijah Rahamim, Eliezer,
Isaac, and Hayyim David, were ail rabbinical schol-
ars; one of his daughters became the mother of
Hayyim Palaggi, chief rabbi of Smyrna.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Solomon Hazan, Ha-Ma'‘alot li-Shelomoh, p.
43; Elijah Hazan, Zikron Yerushatayim, p. 131, Leghorn,
1874; La Buena Esperanza, Smyrna, 1896; Franco, Essat
oe U Histoire des Israélites de VEmpire Ottoman, etc., p.
i.
Moses ben Abraham Hazzan (also known as
Memunneh Ephorus): Greek synagogal poet of
the fifteenth century. THe is identical with Moses
ha-Memunneh ben Abraham. Thirty-one poems
are attributed to him, in which most of the stro-
phes and stanzas begin, and often end, with the
same word. Thus the piyyut oxy bx bi D's" be-
gins and ends with the word On, and in the piy yut
mand JTYS 995, which has been translated into
German by Zunz, the ten strophes begin and end
with 135.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, S. P. pp. 325, 328 et seq.; idem, Litera-
turgesch. pp. 374 et seq.; Landshuth, ‘Ammude ha-‘Abo-
dah, pp. 203 et seq., 206; Dukes, Moses b. Ezra, p. 108; idem,
in Orient, Lit. v. 776 et seq., x. 618.
289
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hazzan
He
Sclomon Hazan: Bibliographer; born in AI-
geria at the end of the eighteenth century; died
1852 on board a vessel bound for Malta. As a boy
he accompanied his father to Damascus, and sub-
sequently settled in Cairo, where he conducted a
Talmudic school. In 1882 he was elected chief rabbi
of Alexandria. Threeofhis works, edited by Faraj
Hayyim Mizrahi, were printed after his death by
his son David; namely, “ Ha-Ma‘alot li-Shelomoh,”
“ Baruk Mimeshah,” and “Ben Shelomoh,” Alex-
andria, 1889-90. The most important of these, “Ha-
Ma‘alot li-Shelomoh,” is a bibliographical work di-
vided into two parts, the first containing a title
bibliography, the second a list of authors. Itisa
continuation of Azulai’s “Shem ha-Gedolim,” and
includes the Sephardic writers who were contempo-
rary with Azulai (omitted by the latter), as wellas
those living half a century after him. <A biograph-
ical appendix to the work deals with the chief rabbis
of Alexandria.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Solomon Hazan, Ha-Aa‘alot li-Shelomoh.
Solomon ben Abraham Hazzan: Member of
the rabbinical college at Salonica (1538). He emi-
grated later to Safed, where Jacob BERAB commis-
sioned him fo take the rabbinical diploma to LEvr
IBN Hanis (Conforte, “Kore ha-Dorot,” p. 35a;
Solomon Hazan, “Ha-Ma‘alot li-Shelomoh,” p. 92).
PEDIGREE OF THE HAZAN FAMILY.
Joseph i ieee
Elijah Eliezer Isaac Hayyim David daughter, m. Jacob
Rabamim (1790-1869) | Palaggi
Israel Moses Hayyim Palaggi
(ad. 1862) Raphael (a. 1868)
Abraham Palaggi
Elijah Bekor Aaron (d. 1901)
(b. 1840)
M. K.—M. Fr.—D.
HAZZAN, ABRAHAM BEN JUDAH: Can-
tor at Kremenetz, Volhynia, in the sixteenth cen-
tury. In 1595, after recovering from a terrible mal-
ady which ended in a trance, he applied himself to
utilizing certain material fora haggadic commentary
upon the Prophets and the Hagiographa, with a
Judwo-German translation of difficult passages.
This material had been accumulated by him from his
various teachers, and from his reading of Rashi, Re-
dag, Ralbag, Abraham ibn Ezra, and the Midrashim ;
in his expositions he did not depart much from the
Biblical text. Heceased his work, however, when he
heard of the publication at Cracow in 1593 of N.
Hirsch Aitschuler’s “Ayyalah Sheluhah”; but he
found that, although its purpose was the same,
the plan of this work was quite different from his
own, and, encouraged by Rabbi Samson of Kreme-
netz, he finished his book in the spring of 1597. Not
wishing to compete with the above-named work,
he did not publish his compilation, which was
entitled “Hibbure Leket” (A Miscellaneous Collec-
tion), and which was printed, after his death, at Lub-
lin by Zebi b. Kalonymus Jafe in 1611-12. The Op-
penheim Library (“Cat. Bodl.” col. 696) possesses
one copy; the British Museum possesses two copies,
one complete, the other incomplete (Zedner); and
VI.—19
Chwolson has one in his library. Hazzan is not
to be confounded, as he has been by Wolf, with
Abraham ben Judah of Krotoschin, author of “ ‘En
Mishpat.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Rossi-Hamberger, Historisches Worter-
buch, p. 78; Benjacob, Ozar he-Sefarim, p. 168; Stein.
schneider, Cat. Boul. col. 6%.
G. D. G.
HAZZAN, ELEAZAR HA-: Precentor: lived
in Speyer toward the end of the eleventh century.
He was the teacher of Samuel the Pious, and perhaps
identical with Eleazar, son of Meshullam the Great.
The latter supplied many notes to the commentator on
Chronicles who wrote at Narbonne about 1180-40.
He was also the teacher of Shemariah ben Mordecai
of Speyer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. p. 72; Monatsschrift, xii. 165.
8. M. K.
HAZZANUT (lit. “that appertaining to a haz-
zan”): Originally, as in the Siddur of Saadia Gaon,
the term was applied to the piyyutim which it was the
function of the official then called “hazzan” to re-
cite. But as the duties of this official spread to the
intonation of the whole of the service, the term came
to be applied to the traditional form of melodious
intonation. Beautiful singing, with its influence on
the emotions, dates from the later Talmudical period
(Ta‘an. 16a).
The term “hazzanut” is used also to denote the
collective traditional intonations as chanted in
any particular service. This hazzanut is not com-
posed of fixed melodies in the modern sense, but is
essentially a species of cantillation. It is not, like
the cantillation of the Scriptures, designated by
any system of accents, but consists of a free vocal
development, on traditional lines, of certain themes
specifically associated with the individual occasion.
But it diverges from the hazzanut of any other
sacred occasion much as do the respective parallel
interpretations of the accents exhibited under Can-
TILLATION. The divergence, that is to say, lies not
so much in style or in treatment, in outline or in de-
tail, as in tonality.
While the main features of synagogue melody re-
main fairly constant, the detail depends upon the
capacity of the particular officiant, the extent to
which he is en rapport with the congregation, the
strain on his voice due to the acoustics of the build-
ing, the duration of the devotions, and other varia-
ble conditions. But in all cases it may be said that
the hazzanut consists of an unaccompanied vocal
fantasia upon the traditional prayer-motive, beneath
which a sense of devotion and reverence will usually
be apparent. The working out of the melody-type
of the service is necessarily to a considerable extent
left to the impulse of the moment, but depends
much upon the structure and, above all, the signifi-
cance of the sentences intoned. This method is ex-
plained in the general article Music, SYNAGOGAL.
A. F. L. C.
HE (n): Fifth letter of the Hebrew alphabet; on
its form see ALPHABET, It is a guttural, pro-
nounced as the English “h,” standing midway be-
tween & and 7, and sometimes interchanged with
these two. At the end of a word it is generally
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 290
HAZZANUT
Ad ib, bore
—4—— = ep st ja a =a
| 5 |S eo se ee
—t-— yj @—'-— ar ft «5-6. —__—
Waeye =: Bul =: Mes .sadasctevtecseeas ee ha-sha-ma - - yim, we-ha - -
Thus were fin - ished..............5-06. then the heav - ens and the......
8 oo
oT eng Oe ow
estan (oman
a@ - - rez, we-kol ze - ba’ - - - - - - am; wa - ye -
earth. . . yea, and all the = host......... cece cee eeee of them ; and then
a ee a0 0-lte— ?
hal E - lo - him.... ba-yom ha- she - bi - ‘] me -ilak - to & -
fin - ish-ed God...............4.... on the Sev-enth Day His work which
sher.... ‘a - sah, wa - yish - bot ba - yom ha-she- bi - i mi -
ys Cerne had made, and rest - ed ON acute the.... Sev-enth Day from
SS ee ee
— 27 ne = ES a — ee See ~——-
Gata sna 7 g_ ta? a ee een eerie —* ey a al ESS
kol.... me-lak - _ to a - sher ‘a - sah: wa-ye- ba-rek K-lo-him — et
all..... His glo-rious work which He had.... made: then.. blessed God...... the
ame SA —_——y—
——— =
FOU. ¢ 67x ves ves ha - she- bi - ‘i wa- ye - kad - desh............ o - to;
Sev - - - enth Day...... and He hal - - lowed = its...
ki bo sha - bat mi - - kol..... me - Isk - - to a -
for in ean ee 2 rest - - ed...... God......... from
motto riten.
SS Se
ae ——-4f© 9 — 1 — | — ot ——_-—_ : 4 Rename mame
ae a i pe ee es ee 3
SS Se ee ae a a
\ -@-
sher.... ba - fra E - lo 2 | 6 Oe ern la - a‘ - sot.
all... His work... which He.. had cre-a ~- - ted and..... made,
291 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
HAZZANUT
SABBATH MOTIVE—“ MODEL”
HAZZANUT
Moderato ad lib.
They that keepthe Sab - - bath, and call it a de - light, shall re- joice in Thy
ten, cres.
= aoe eee en oe — =
== ee
king- dom; the peo - -
a ee ee oe bee ee ee
a a oe a
all of them shallbe sa - ti- a-ted and de - light-edwithThy good-ness, see-ing that
Thou didst find pleas-ure in Sev-enth Day, and didst hal
it; Thou didst call it the de
e ~ £p mf
—~-3 ener a Se eee
| SS Ss ens ———— ——
a, O02 ee ee oie — se! ego
re , ——sS ~o-
mem-brance of the Cre-a_ - - - tion. Our God andthe God of our
4 ———
ns — as
SS =f =e = eee eas s se"
aa eae
r 4— Fhe Ee- -_o—_— Soe me —__@g—_@—
““neemumesmmenn””
fa - thers, ac - cept.... our rest; sanc -ti- fy us with Thy com-mand - ments,and
| Set, ee = =
SP alte _ «ee 2-9 = o_o
aang ea amg rai
grant our por-tion in Thy Law;.... sat -is - fy us with Thy good - ness, and
cres. ten. ten. hae ————— .
é= SP Se eee ee
glad-den us with Thy sal-va - tion; PU oT BY cceeta tos tees cee
mf
eee ———— eek SS RCAC) SE i ae ae RANA NERY REIT, PPRERNeGe aha Nee eerias \ es
-— te or — (ae |
hearts to serve Thee in truth; and in Thy love and fa - vor, O
Head
Head-Dress
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
292
mute. It is an important element in Hebrew gram-
mar, Serving as an article, asa demonstrative pro-
noun, as a particle of interrogation, and as the
characteristic letter of the verbal forms “hif‘il,”
“hof‘al,” and (in part) “hitpa‘el.” As a numeral
it has the value of 5. The Tetragrammaton is some-
times represented by 7, as being the second letter of
mn.
T. I. Br.
HEAD, COVERING OF. Sce BAREHEADED-
NESS.
HEAD-DRESS: Covering or ornament for the
head. Very little information is obtainable as to
the adornment and covering for the head in use
among the Israelites of antiquity. The Old Testa-
ment sources contain scarcely anything on this sub-
ject; neither do the monuments furnish any material.
The Israelites on Sennacherib’s marble relief appear
witi no head-dress, and although the ambassadors of
Jehu onthe Shalmaneser stele havea head-covering,
their costume seems to be Assyrian rather than
Israelitish. Only one passage of the older literature
is of any significance: I Kings xx. 31 mentions
“habalim ” together with “sak,” both of which are
placed around the head. Thiscalls to mind pictures
of Syrians on Egyptian monuments, represented
wearing a cord around their long, flowing hair, a
custom still followed in Arabia. Evidently the cos-
tume of the poorest classes is represented; but as it
gave absolutely no protection against the heat of the
sun to which a worker in the fields is so often ex-
posed, there is little probability that it remained uu-
changed very long, although it may have been the
most ancient fashion.
The Israelites most probably had a head-dress sim-
ilar to that worn by the Bedouins. This consists of
a keffich folded into a triangle, and placed on the
head with the middle ends hanging over the neck to
protect it, while the other two are knotted together
under the chin. A thick woolen cord (“‘akal”)
holds the cloth firmly on the head. In later times the
Israelites, both men and women, adopted a turban-
Now
hal - lows Thy
who
ba]
rss See ee
bless-ed be Thou, O
riten,
: a ee Ce — ==
sie ee
—4-—-@ ——} gj 1-3 — - _
—— 6 eo << | ~T
Sab . bath. A - men,
like head-dress more like that of the fellahs of to-day.
The latter wear a little cap (“talkiyah”), usually
made of cotton cloth folded doubly or triply, which
is supposed to shield the other parts of the head-
covering from perspiration. With boys this often
forms the only head-covering. Under this cap are
placed one, often two, felt caps (“ lubbadah”), and the
national head-dress of the Turks, the red tarboosh.
Around this, finally, is wound either an unbleached
cotton cloth with red stripes and fringe, a gaily flow-
ered “mandil,” a red- and yellow-striped keffieh, a
black cashmere scarf, a piece of white muslin, ora
colored cloth. Such a covering not only keeps off
the scorching rays of the sun, but it also furnishes.a
convenient pillow on occasion, and is not seldom
used by the fellas for preserving important docu-
ments. :
That the head-dress of the Israelites must have
been of this kind is shown by the noun “ zanif” and
by the verb “ habash ” (to wind; comp. Ezek. xvi. 10;
Ex, xxix. 9; Jonah ii. 6 [A.V.5]). “Zanaf” means
“to roll like a ball” (Isa. xxii. 18). As to the form
of such turbans nothing is known; perhaps they
varied according to the different classes of society,
as was customary with the Assyrians and Babylo-
nians, whose fashions may have influenced the cos-
tume of the Israelites. How the high priest’s miter
(“miznefet”; Ex. xxviit. 37, xxix. 6) differed from
the zanif is not clear; perhaps it was pointed like
the head-covering worn by Assyrian kings; the tur-
ban (“migba‘ah ”)of an ordinary priest probably had
a conical form. Nothing is known concerning the
“‘atarah” (II Sam. xii. 80; Ezek. xvi. 12) or the
“keter” (sth. i. 11, ti. 17, vi. 8; comp. De La-
garde, “ Gesammelte Abhandlungen,” pp. 207, 213-
215; ¢dem, “ Armenische Studien,” pp. 67, 2008).
The bridegroom was distinguished by his head.
dress (“pe’er”; Isa. 1xi. 3; Ezek. xxiv. 17, 23), which
was, perhaps, of cloth wound round the head and
worn over the zanif (comp. Ex. xxxix. 28). Veils
were used only by the women, and even by them
only on certain occasions, the strict separation of
36 37 38 39
JEWISH HEAD-DRESS AT VARIOUS PERIODS,
1,2. England (13th cent.). 3-5. Germany (18th cent.). 6-8. France (18th cent.). 9. Rhine Provinces (13th cent.). 10. Constance (1417).
11. Holland (15th cent.). 12. Italy (15th cent.). 13, 14. Germany (15th cent.). 15-17. Rhine Provinces (15th cent.). 18,19. Worms (16th
cent.). 20. Germany (16th cent.). 21. Worms: ‘‘ Judenbischof ” (17th cent.). 22. Swabia (Iith cent.). 23. Frankfort-on-the-Main (1680).
24, 25. Poland (1765). 26, 27. Warsaw (1825). 28. Cracow (17th to 18th cent.). 29. Podolia (1750). 30. Tunis (1800). 31. Morocco (1800).
32. Moravia (1800). 33. Russia (modern). 34. Caucasus (medern). 33. Russia: Karaite (modern). 36,37. Tunis (modern). 38. Russia:
“ Yarmulka’’ (modern). 39. England: rabbinical (modern).
Health Laws
Heart
men and women, customary in Mohammedan coun-
tries, being foreign to Jewish antiquity. The bride
was Veiled when she was led to the bridegroom (Gen.
xxiv. 65; comp. xxix. 22 e¢ sey.). In later times,
however, veils and gauzy garments found their way
into the wardrobes of Jewish women (comp. Isa. iil.
16 et seg.). That the Israelitish men sometimes wore
a veil, as dO men among the Arabs occasionally, can
not be proved by Ex. xxxiv. 33 e¢ seg. See VEIL.
E. G. H. W. ON.
HEALTH LAWS: The preservation of phys-
ical well-being is looked upon in Judaism as a relig-
ious command. “And live through them, but not
die through them ” (Yoma 85b, based on Lev, xvii.
5), was the principle applied to all the laws of the
Bible, from which the Rabbis deduced that in case
of danger to life all laws except those against idola-
try, adultery, and murder might be violated (Pes.
25a; Maimonides, “ Yad,” Yesode ha-Torah, v. 7).
The neglect of one’s health was regarded as a sin;
and the Nazarite who vowed to abstain from wine
was considered a sinner, as well as he who fasted or
underwent other penance without reason (Ned. 10a;
Ta‘an. lib; see ABSTINENCE; ASCETICISM). Purity,
which is the aim of most of the Biblical sanitary
laws, was to be not only physical, but also moral
and religious.
There was not a distinct department of public
health in the government of the ancient Jews. The
charge of infectious diseases, such as leprosy, and of
epidemics of all kinds, was delegated to the priests,
who acted as the physicians (see LEPRosy). The
Talmud mentions the office of a physician in the
Temple, whose duty it was to look after the health
of the priests (Shek. v. 12). In later times every
town counted among its permanent officials a phy-
sician who supervised the circumcision of children
aud looked after the communal well-being. <A
scholar was forbidden to live ina city where there
was no physician (Sanh. 17b; “ Yad,” De‘ot, iv. 28).
The Rabbis have various laws regulating dict.
The: enjoin also divers precautions, many of which
go to improve the physical well-being of the com-
munity. Special emphasis was laid upon early
breakfasts, so that R. Akiba included this advice in
his last will to his children (Pes. 112a; B. M. 107).
No oue should foree himself to eat; he should wait
until he is really hungry (Ber. 62b), not hurry his
meal (2b. 54a), and not talk while eating (Ta‘an. 5b).
The Rabbis even prescribed the kind of food men
should eat, and that from which they should abstain ;
wheat bread, fat meat, and old wine being recom-
mended as the most wholesome (Pes. 42a). Salt and
hot soup are pronounced to be essentials of a meal
(Ber. 44a). “ After all solid food eat salt, and after
all beverages drink water,” is the advice of the
Rabbis (#b. 40a).
For domestic sanitation the commandments given
in the Bible direct the covering of the blood of a
fowl or of a wild beast with dust (Lev.
Removal of xvii. 13), and the covering of excreta
Nuisance. with eurth and the appointing of a
special place outside of the camp for
depositing the excreta (Deut. xxiii, 12-15). The
Rabbis forbid the erection of tanneries or the estab-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
2904
lishment of cemeteries within fifty cubits of the city
limits. To deposit carcasses within that distance
was also forbidden. Tanneries even beyond that
limit could be built only to the east of the town, so
that the west wind might dispel the bad odors arising
therefrom. The thrashing-floor must also be re-
moved fifty cubits from the city, on account of the
chaff and the dust coming from it (B. B. 24b, 25a;
“Yad,” Shekenim, x. 2, 3; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen
Mishpat, 155, 22-23). It was suggested by some
scholars (following Kimhi) that perpetual fires were
kept up in the valley of Hinnom, outside of the
gates of Jerusalem, for the purpose of consuming
the refuse of the city, thus disposing of all the offal,
in order to preserve the health of the city.
In order to prevent the spread of leprosy, a com-
plete system of quarantine laws was developed in
the Levitical code (sce LEPROsy).
The numerous laws of purity scattered through-
out the Bible, especially in Leviticus and Numbers,
were probably not intended primarily as health laws.
The Rabbis built up a complete system with regard
to things clean and unclean upon these laws, which
occupy a whole section of the Mishnah (Tohorot;
see Purtry). All these laws may be conveniently di-
vided into two classes: (1) those which govern cases
of impurity created in the body of a person, as lep-
rosy, unclean flux of man or of woman, menstrua-
tion, etc.; and (2) those which govern cases of im-
purity caused by contact with unclean objects, as
contact with a dead body or with a person of the
former class. By the careful isolation of such per-
sons and objects and by the complete system of
baths and ablutions provided by the Law for their
cleansing, the chances of the propagation of infec-
tious diseases were much diminished.
The Rabbis regarded the laws of health as of
greater importance than those which were of a mere
ritualistic character. “You have to be more care-
ful in cases where danger is involved
Importance than in those which involve a mere
of Health matter of ritual” (Hul. 10a). On ac-
Laws. count of “sakkanah” (danger) it was
forbidden to eat the meat of an animal
that had eaten poison, or to eat meat and fish to-
gether, or to drink water left uncovered overnight
(see DirETARY Laws). It was considered dangerous
to drink water at the beginning of the seasons
(“tekufah ”). In many places it was customary to
place a piece of iron on all articles of food at that
period. This was supposed to remove the danger
(Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 116, 5, Isserles’ gloss;
Shak and TaZ, adloc.). In time of plague the
Rabbis recommended staying at home and avoiding
the society of men (B. K. 60b). Perspiration was
considered especially dangerous (Min OD); and it
was therefore forbidden to touch, during meals, any
part of the body which is usually covered, or to hold
bread under the arm, where the perspiration is usu-
ally profuse. Coins should not be placed in the
mouth, as there is the apprehension that they have
been touched by persons suffering from contagious
diseases. Articles of food should not be placed
under a bed, because something impure might fall
on them (Yer. Ter. viii. 3; “Yad,” Rozeah, xii. 4,
5; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 116, 4, 8). It was
295
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Health Laws
Heart
also forbidden to eat from unclean vessels or from
vessels that had been used for unscemly purposes, or
to cat with dirty hands, These and many other
laws are derived by the Rabbis from the expression,
“And ye shall not make your souls abominable”
(Lev. xx. 25; comp. Mak. 16b; Shab. 82a; “Yad,”
De‘ot, iv. 2; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 116, 8,
9, 11, 1%).
The washing of the hands and of the face in the
morning and, according to some, in the evening also,
and the washing of the hands after relieving nature,
were considered important by the Rabbis, so that a
special blessing was pronounced after each ablution
(Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 116, 4, 6, 7). The
rules concerning the washing of the hands before
meals occupy a considerable portion of the cere-
monial law (7. 158-165), and minute regulations
were prescribed as to the manner of pouring the
water, the size of the vessel employed, and the kind
of water to be used. The custom of washing the
hands during and after meals, although mentioned
by the Rabbis, was not universally followed (Hul.
10da et al.; “Yad,” Berakot, vi.; Shulhan ‘Aruk,
Orah Hayyim, 158-165). The system of baths and
ablutions, which forms a large portion of the Jewish
laws of cleanliness, and which is still observed to a
large extent by pious Jews, has had a marked influ-
ence on the physical health of the Jews, so that in
epidemics they have frequently been immune (see
ABLUTION; Batus).
Provisions were also made by later rabbis with
regard to sleeping. They warned against eating
heavy meals immediately before going to bed, and
approved of lying first on the left and then on the
right side, this being considered good for digestion
(“ Yad,” De‘ot, iv.5; Kizzur Shulhan ‘Aruk, 7, and
especially 32; Hayye Adam, 35, 5).
Maimonides lays down certain regulations by
which a man should be guided at sexual intercourse
in order to preserve his physical well-being; and he
promises him who will comply with these precepts
that he will always be well, will never need to con-
sult a physician, and will live to a good old age
(“ Yad,” Ue. 19, 20; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim,
240, 14, 15).
There are some laws whose purpose it is to pre-
vent any cause of injury to others as well as to one-
self (sce DAMAGE), One who builds a new house
must erect a battlement (“ma‘akeh”) around the
roof, so that no person shall fall from it (Deut. xxii.
8). The battlement must be at least ten “tefahim ”
(fist-breadths) in height, and must be well con-
structed, so that one may lean upon it without ap-
prehension (see House). To guard against injury
one must not leave a well or a pit on one’s premises
uncovered, nor must one keep a vicious dog or a
broken ladder (B. K. 15a). It is forbidden to walk
alone at night; to stand under a wall that is likely
to fall; to walk upon a poorly constructed bridge;
to enter a ruin; or to drink in the dark from a well,
lest some poisonous animal lurk in the water. He
who defies the Law, saying, “It is no one’s affair if
I wish to expose myself to danger,” is punishable
with stripes; for life is considered as belonging to
God and not to man (“ Yad,” Rozeah, xi.; Shulhan
‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 427, 9, 10; comp. “ Be’er
ha-Golah ” ad loe.; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah,
116, 5, Isserles’ gloss; see CoNFLICr oF Laws;
Law, CIvin.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hastings, Dict. Bible, s.v. Medicine ; Saal-
schitz, Das Mosaische Recht, ¢h. xxii.-xxvi., Berlin, 1853;
Bloch, Das Polizeirecht, Budapest, 1879; Rabinowitz, Mebo
ha-Talmud (transl. from the French), pp. 139-162, Wilna,
1894: De Sola, Sanatory Institutions of the Hebrews.
S. S. J. H. G.
HEARSAY EVIDENCE. Sce EVIDENCE.
HEART (Hebr. “leb,” or “lebab”).—Biblical
Data: The seat of the emotional and intellectual
life. “Keep thy heart with all diligence; for out of
it are the issues of life” (Prov. iv. 28), refers to the
moral and spiritual as wellas the physical life. Ani-
mals have simply a sentient heart without personal
consciousness or reason. This is what is meant
when it is said that a beast’s heart was given to
Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. iv. 18 [A. V. 16]). Delitzsch
(“System der Biblischen Psychologie,” p. 252) calls
attention to the fact that the Arabic Hamasa (p. 513)
says explicitly that the brute is without heart
(“bi-ghair lubb ”).
The three special functions, knowing, feeling,
and willing, ascribed by modern psychologists to
the mind, were attributed to the heart by the Bib-
lical writers (comp. Assyrian “libbu ” = “heart,” in
Delitzsch, “ Assyrisches Handwéorterb.” p. 367). In
the Book of Daniel intellectual functions are as-
cribed not to the head only (Dan. ii. 28; iv. 2, 7, 10
[A. V. 5, 10, 13]; vii. 1, 15), but also to the heart
(2b, ii. 30).
The heart as the seat of thought is referred to in
“mahshebot libbo” (thoughts of his heart; Ps.
xxxili. 11) and in “morashe lebabi” (possessions or
thoughts of my heart; Job xvii. 11). So “amar
beleb” (Obad. i. 3), “amar el leb” (Gen. viii. 21),
“dibber ‘im leb” (Eccl. i. 16) (= “to speak to the
heart” or “to oneself”), mean “to think.” The
heart knows and perceives (Deut.
Its xxix, 8 [A. V. 4]); it remembers and
Psychical forgets (I Sam. xxi, 18 [A. V. 12];
Aspects. Deut. iv. 9). “A dead man out of
heart” (A. V. “mind”; Ps. xxxi. 13
[A. V. 12]) means a dead man forgotten. The man
of understanding is called “ish [plur. “anshe”]
lebab” = “the man of heart” (fob xxxiv. 10, 34),
aud the man without understanding “hasar leb”
(Prov. x. 13) or “en leb” (Jer. v. 21), “the man void
of heart” or “ without heart.”
That the heart is the seat of emotion is the gener-
ally accepted opinion of all investigators into the
psychology of the Bible, though Carl Griineisen
(“Der Ahnenkultus und die Urreligion Israels,” p.
39) denies it. All modes of feeling, from the lowest
physical forms, as hunger and thirst, to the high-
est spiritual forms, as reverence and remorse, are at-
tributed by the Hebrews to the heart (comp. Gen.
xviii. 5; Judges xix. 5; Ps. cii.5 [A.V. 4]); so joy
aud gladness, sorrow and grief, fear and reverence
(Zeph. iii. 14; Isa. Ixvi, 14; Ps. xiii. 3 [A. V. 2];
Deut. xx. 8, 7, 8; Jer. xxxii. 40). Still the term
“nefesh ” (soul) is more frequently used with refer-
ence to the appetites.
The heart is also the seat of volition. It is self-
directing and self-determining. All conscious re-
Heart ;
Heave-Offering
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
296
solvesemanate from that source (comp. “ mela’olibbo”
fEsth. vii. 5]; “nadab libbo oto” [Ex. xxxv. 29];
“nesa’o Hbbo” [Ex. xxxv. 21]; and
Is “natan libbo” [Eecl. i, 13]). When
the Seat of the words “heart” and “soul” are used
Volition. in connection with each other (Deut. v1.
5), they are not used merely as syn-
onymous terms in order to add force to the expres-
sion, for the phrase “ with all your heart ” denotes the
love of conscious resolve, in which the whole being
consents, and which must at once become a natural
inclination (see Cremer, “ Biblico-Theological Lexi-
con,” s.v. kapdia, transl. by William Urwick, p. 347).
It is in the heart that the heart becomes conscious
of itself and of its own operations. It recognizes its
own suffering. Itis the seat of self-consciousness:
“the heart knoweth its [A.V. “his ”] own bitterness ”
(Prov. xiv. 10). Asthe whole physical and psychical
life is centralized in the heart, so the whole moral life
springs fromand issues outofit. This is clear from
such expressions as “shalem” and “tam” (perfect),
“tahor” (pure), “tob” (good), and “yashar” (up-
right), used in connection with the heart. The Bib-
lical writers speak of the false heart, the stubborn
and obstreperous heart, and the heart distant from
God (Ps. ci. 4; Jer. v. 23; Isa, xxix. 13). The hypo-
crite is the man with a double or divided heart: where
one would say “two-faced,” the Psalmist says “two-
hearted ” (“beleb waleb”; Ps, xii. 8 [A.V. 2]). Laz-
arus (“The Ethics of Judaism,” Engl. transl., ii. 60,
note) observes that “the Talmudic ‘libbo’ rarely
reaches the inclusive meaning of the Hebrew ‘leb,’
which comprises the whole psychic phenomena. As
a rule, the Talmudic expression approaches the
modern ‘ heart,’ primarily indicating inner convic-
tion as contrasted with external deed” (see Sanh.
106b; Ber. 20a, Munich MS.). There is an interesting
discussion between Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi Joshua
as to whether the heart or the head should be re-
garded as the seat of wisdom (Yalk., Prov. 929).
Maimonides, in discussing the term “leb,” says
that it is a word used homonymously, primarily sig-
nifying the organ of life and then coming to mean
“center,” “thought,” “resolution,” “will,” “intel-
Ject” (“ Moreh Nebukim,” i. 89). See Brpun Exs-
GEsIs, § 15. :
“Leb” is used figuratively for the center or inner-
most part of objects other than the human body, in
expressions such as “the heart of the sea” (Ex. xv.
8; Jonah ii. 8); “the heart of heaven” (Deut. iv. 11;
A.V. “midst ”); “the heart] A. V. “ midst ”] of an oak-
tree” (1 Sam. xviii. 14). In this use “ heart” has gone
over into the English language as a Hebraism when
mention is made of the “heart” or “core” (Latin
“cor”) of a subject or object, meaning its central or
innermost part. its central idea oressence. “She’er”
(flesh) and “leb” (heart) are used conjointly to des-
ignate the whole inner and outer life of man (Ps.
Ixxili. 26).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Franz Delitazseh, System der Biblischen Psy-
chologie, 2d ed., § 12, pp. 248-265; Charles A. Briggs, A Study
of the Use of Leb and Lebab in the Old Testament, in
Kohut. Memorial Volume, pp. 44, 105; J. T. Beck, Umriss
der Biblischen Seelenlehre, 1843, Eng. transl., 1877, 8 iii., pp.
78-148; D. R. Goodwin, in Jour. Bib. Lit. i. 67-72; Ham-
vurger. R. B. T.: Protestantische Real-Eneyc.; Schenkel,
Bibel Lexricon, Cheyne and Black, Encye. Bibl.; Hastings,
Dict. Bihie.
K, T. S.
——In Apocryphal and Rabbinical Litera-
ture: Kapdiwin the Apocrypha, and aa5, x35, 35 in
rabbinical literature, have the various meanings of
the Biblical] term 3b = “heart.”
1. As the Seat of the Physical Organism: Compare
Tobit vi. 4-7, and the numerous references in Tal-
mud and Midrash, especially the treatise Hullin,
which treats largely of the traditional manner of
slaughtering animals for ordinary use.
2, As the Seat of All Morality and of All Moral and Spir-
itual Functions: The heart being the center of per-
sonal life, and in fact of man’s collective energies,
as well as the laboratory for the appropriation and
assimilation of every influence, the moral and relig-
ious conditions of man wholly depend upon it. For
example, in II Esdras (ix. 31) occurs, “I sow my
law in you [in your hearts] and it shall bring fruit
in you, and ye shall be honored in it forever.”
II Macc. ii. 3 reads: “ And with other such speeches
exhorted he them, that the law should not depart
from their hearts.” “Yes, therefore, Thou hast
given us a heart that we may fear You and call
upon Your name” (Baruch iii. 7; comp. Tobit i. 12).
That God “requires the service of the heart” is a
favorite saying of the Rabbis.
As in the Bible (Gen. vi. 5, viii. 21), the seat of
good and evil impulses alike is neither the body
nor the soul, but rather the heart (not, of course, the
physical organ, but the willing and thinking self);
thus the Rabbis frequently use “ yezer” to interpret
the Biblical term a. “Esau speaks in his heart ” is
rendered in Gen. R. lxvii., “The wicked are in the
power of their heart, but the righteous have their
heart in their power.” In Num. R. xvi. it is said, in
reference to the report of the spies, “The heart and
the eyes are the cause of their sin.” “The evil de-
sire is living in the heart” (Ber. 61a). The heart is
the organ of conscience. Thusthe Septuagint trans-
lates Ecclus. (Sirach) xlii. 18, “ The heart He search-
eth,” with ovveidyoce = “ conscience” (comp. Wisdom
xvii. 11).
The heart is also the seat of feeling, of courage, of
hatred, of pride, and of deceit. “As the heart is
first to feel sorrow, so it is also first to feel joy”
(Ex. R. xix.; comp. Prov. xiv. 10). “Set thy heart
aright, and constantly endure” (Ecclus. [Sirach] ii.
2). “Do not approach righteousness with a divided
heart ” (Enoch xci. 4), “ Myson, love your brethren,
and do not turn from them with a proud heart”
(Tobit iv. 18). “With his lips the enemy talketh
sweetly, but in his heart he planneth to throw thee
into a pit” (Ecclus. [Sirach] xii. 16).
There is a famous reference in “Cuzari,” ii. 36 et
seg., to the effect that Israel occupies the position
among the nations which the heart occupies among
the organs of the human body. For the heart is
most exposed to the ills of the flesh, and most sensi-
tive to all changes of temperament, hatred and love,
fear and vengeance, etc.
3. As the Seat of the Intellect and the Will: “Do
not follow thy desires to walk in the ways of
thy heart” (Ecclus. [Sirach] v. 2; comp. 7. iii.
24, 25; Baruch ii. 30, 31). In Eeci. R. i. 1 the Bib-
lical passage I Kings iii. 5 et seg. is referred to,
where Solomon, in answer to YHWRH’s request that
he shall ask for something, asks for an under-
297
standing (hearing) heart. The Midrash renders “an
understanding heart” by “ wisdom”; and there it is
said that God gives Solomon “wisdom and under-
standing.” “The heart of the ancients was as large
as the gate of Ulam, the heart of the later ones as
the gate of Hekal; and ours is like the eye of a
needle” (‘Er. 58a). This refers not to the actual
size of the physical heart, but to difference in mental
attainments.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Kautzsch, Die Apokryphen und Pseud-
epigraphen des Alten Testaments; Deane, Pseudepigra-
pha: Porter, The Yecer Hara,in Yale Bicentennial Pubh-
lications ; Wahl’s Worterbh.
E. C. A. G.
HEATHEN. See GENTILE,
HEATHENISM. See Worsnip, [pou.
HEAVE-OFFERING: Present made to the
Tabernacle or Temple for the use of the priests.
Adin (from ayn, “to lift,” that is, to set apart for a
special purpose from a larger quantity, either vol-
untarily or under compulsion) originally connoted
any tax paid or gift made toa superior officer. This
meaning is still apparent in the phrase AyD UX
(Prov. xxxiv. 4); but as the taxes levied and the
contributions ex pected in Israel were mostly for the
maintenance of the Temple and the priesthood, the
word acquired technically the meaning of an obliga-
tory or voluntary contribution for the uses of the
sanctuary or of the sacred persons therewith con-
nected. The transition from the general to the spe-
cific sense is noticeable in the use of the term in
Ezek. xlv. 18 (comp. xx. 40, xlviii. 12; Mal. iii. 8).
Where voluntary contributions are intended, the
English versions prefer the rendering “ offering,”
“oblation,” or “tribute.” Of such “ offerings ” made
by the people those of precious metals and of mate-
rial for the Tabernacle (Ex. xxv. 2-3; xxxv. 5;
xxxvi. 3, 6) are mentioned. The gifts of the Per-
sian court carried by Ezra to Jerusalem are also des-
ignated by “[heave-] offering ” (Ezra viii. 25), as are
the fine bullocks and other sacrificial animals given
for special occasions by the king and the princes (II
Chron. xxx. 24, xxxv. 7-9). Even that part of the
“devoted” prey taken from the Midianites which
was distributed among the priests and Levites is
called a “[heave-] offering ” (Num. xxxi.).
The following comprise the prescribed heave-
offerings: (1) The tribute of half a shekel (Ex, xxx,
13, xxxviii. 26). This was levied from all male
Israelites that were of age (comp. Matt. xvii. 24).
Neh. x, 82-38 fixes the amount at one-
third of a shekel. This discrepancy
has given rise to the theory that Ex.
xxx. 18 is a later addition to P (see
Schiirer, “Gesch.” ii. 258, Leipsic, 1898). (2) Hat-
LAH (see Num, xv. 19-21; Neh. x. 38). (8) “ Hallot,”
the cakes prepared for the sacrifice of peace-offerings.
Of these one shall be a “heave-offering,” and shall
belong to the priest that sprinkles the blood of the
peace-offerin gs (Lev. vii. 14). A similar share of the
cakes and the wafers forming part of the Nazarite’s
offering appertained to the priest (Num, vi. 19, 20).
(4) The heave-offering of the tithe (“terumat ha-
ma‘aser”): the tithe of their tithe which the Levites
surrendered to the priests (Num. xviii. 26). There
is no mention of this in Deuteronomy. The critical
Various
Classes.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Heart
Heave-Offering
school accounts for this silence by the fact that in
Deuteronomy priests and Levites are not distin-
euished. (5) The heave-offering for the priests
(“terumat ha-kohanim”): taxes paid to the priests
from the yield of the fields, olive-groves, and vine-
yards (Neh. xiii. 5; Num. xviii. 11-18; Deut. xviii.
4 [from wool also}).
Tithe and heave-offering are occasionally men-
tioned together (II Chron. xxxi. 10-14; Neh. x. 39;
Mal. iii. 5). In such cases that portion of the agri-
cultural produce reserved for the priest is so desig-
nated, and this was permitted to be eaten only by
priests in a state of Levitical purity, or by members
of their family (see Lev. xxii. 12; Maimonides,
“Yad,” Terumot, vii.).
The Mishnah (Seder Berakot) includes a tract en-
titled “ Terumot,” dealing with the laws regulating
the heave-offerings. On the same subject there are
the corresponding Tosefta and the Gemara of the
Jerusalem Talmud. According to these, only the
proprietor was empowered to “setapart” the “ teru-
mah.” This excluded minors, deaf-
Rabbinic mutes, those not in full possession of
Dis- their mental faculties, and non-Jews,
tinctions. the last-named even if deputed to act
for the proprietor (i. 1). Olives could
not be “set apart” for oil, nor grapesfor wine. The
“corners of the field” (“ pe’ah”), that which had been
“forgotten” (“shikhah”), and the “ gleanings”
(“leket ”), as well as that which had no owner (“hef-
ker”), were exempt (1.5). The same exemption ap-
plied to the first tithe (“ma‘aser rishon”), from
which the heave-offering had already been “ lifted ”
(therefore not “terumah gedolah”; see below), and
to the second tithe, the holy part that had been re-
deemed (“hekdesh she-nifdah”). Nor was it law-
ful to substitute “free” for “bound” fruit (Z.e.,
fruit subject to the tithe); nor “fixed” for “mova-
ble” produce; nor new for old or old for new; nor
fruits grown in Palestine for those grown outside
(i. 5). Regulations are given to prevent the act of
setting apart by persons not conducting themselves
decently, or by persons in improper condition (i. 6).
The heave-offering must not be counted by meas-
ure, nor by weight, nor by number, but must be
set apart by estimate from a given quantity. The
different kinds of cereals and fruit must be kept dis-
tinct; one can not serve in lieu of another (ii. 4).
In places where a priest resided the heave-offering
was to be taken from the best; where no priest was
at hand, such produce as would not perish was as-
signed (11.4). Whole small onions should be taken,
and not the halves of big onions (ii. 5). “ KiVayim ”
(incompatible kinds of plants) couid not be substi-
tuted, even where one was better than the other.
Where the mixing of plants was not to be ap-
prehended the better could be used for the worse,
but never the reverse (ii. 6). Mistakes of assign-
ment (for instance, Wine for vinegar) were to be rec-
tified (ili. 1). The proportion fixed is, fora generous
man (“a man with a good eye”), ay (fy according
to Bet Shammai); for a fair man, 35; fora stingy
man, g5-. Whoever, without right, inadvertently
partook of the terumah was required to pay the
full value and one-fifth more (vi. 1-8). Intentional
violation was ove of the great crimes (ier. i. 1).
Heaven
Hebra Kaddisha
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
298
The “terumah gedolah” (the great heave-offering ;
see “ Yad,” Terumah, iii. 1), by which name the taxes
based on Deut. xviii. 15 e¢ seg. are known (Hul. 187a),
had precedence of any other tax, the “bikkurim ”
(First-Frerrs) alone excepted (iii. 6). For the
terumah not only were the seven “minim” (plants
of Palestine) chosen, but also onions, cucumbers,
melons (ii. 5, tii. 1), “ tiltan ” (nbn, Trigonclla He-
num-grecum, fenugreek [curly plant]; x. 5), and va-
rious other vegetables. Extensive rules are given
which specify the conditions under which cereals
and plants that had been set apart retain or lose
their sacred character, including cases of possible
admixture with non-sanctified fruit. These rules
also indicate the disposition to be made of terumah
so profaned.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Maimonides, Yad, Tcrumot; the various com-
mentaries to the MWishiah.
E. G. H.
HEAVEN (Hebr. “shamayim” [the heavens],
from “shama” [the high place}): Chiefly, the
upper part of the universe in contradistinction to
the earth (Gen. i. 1); the region in which sun, moon,
and stars are placed (Gen. 1.17). It is stretched out
as a curtain (Isa. xl. 22), and is founded upon the
mountains as on pillars sunk into the waters of the
earth (II Sam. xxii. 8; Prov. vill. 27-29). It is the
dwelling-place of God, from which He looks down
upon all the inhabitants of the earth (Ps. xi. 4;
xxxili. 18, 14), though the heavens and heaven’s
heaven do not contain Him (Isa. ixvi. 1; I Kings
viii. 27). It is the dwelling-place also of the angels
(Gen. xxi. 17, xxii. 11, xxviii. 12). From heaven
comes the rain, the hail, and the lightning (Gen. viii.
2, xix. 24; Ex, ix. 28; Deut. xi. 11; Job xxxviii. 37).
Yuwu, the God of Israel, is eminently the God of
heaven (Gen. xxiv. 8); the “ possessor of heaven and
earth ”—of the world above and the world below
(Gen. xiv. 19); “Lord of [the] hosts [of heaven] ”
(I Kings xviii. 15; Isa. xx vi. 21; comp. Gen. ii. 1, and
elsewhere). Toward heaven as the seat of God the
hands are stretched forth in prayer (f Kings viii. 22,
30 e¢ seg.; LI Chron. xxx. 27; comp. Ex. ix. 29, 88),
because there the prayer is heard. Hence the ex-
pression “ prayed before the God of heaven ” (Neh.
i. 4 et seq., ii. 4). During the Persian rule, and pos-
sibly under Persian influence, the name “God of
heaven” becomes quite frequent (Ezra i. 2, vi. 9,
vii. 21; Neh. ii. 20; Dan. ii. 19, 37; iv. 24 [“the
Lord of heaven,” Hebr.]; Tobit x. 11, and else-
where).
The conception of a plurality of heavens was evi-
dently familiar to the ancient Hebrews (see Deut. x.
14; I Kings xviii. 15; Ps. cxlviiit. 4; comp. Hag.
12a); while rabbinical and Apocryphal literature
speaks of seven or of ten heavens (see Jew. ENcyc. i.
591, s.c. ANGELOLOGY; Kautzsch, “ Die Apokryphen
und Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testaments,” ii.
121; Charles, “Book of the Secrets of Enoch,” 1896,
pp. xxx. ef seqg.). In the third of the seven, or the
seventh of the ten, heavens paradise was placed,
and within it the treasures of life and of righteous-
ness for the soul (Hag. 12b-—18a; Slavonic Enoch,
viii. 1; II Cor. xii. 2 ef seg.; Matt. vii. 19-20; Ex.
R. xxxi. 4).
Inasmuch as “heaven” stands for the seat of God,
whither prayer is directed, and where the destinies
of men are decided, it came to be used as an equiv-
alent for “God” (comp. “Makom” = “the Place,”
or “Marom” = “the Height,” as equivalent to
“God”; see Dan. iv. 28; Book of Jubilees, xxvi.
18; the rabbinical “min ha-shamayim” = “from
heaven it is decreed,” ‘Ab. Zarah 18a; Hul. 7b;
Gen. R. Ixxix. 6; “bi-yede shamayim” = “by the
hands of heaven,” Ber. 83b; and “ha-shamayim beni
le-benak ” = “destiny stands between me and thee,”
Ned. xi. 12; I Mace. iii. 18 e¢ seg.; iv. 10, 24, 40; xii.
15; II Macc. iii. 15, ix. 20; TTI Macc. vi. 17, 338;
Assumptio Mosis, iii. 8; Matt. xxi, 25), In rabbin-
ical terminology, especially, “shamayim,” without
the article, became the regular expression for the
name of God, which was, from motives of reverence,
avoided as far as possible; hence the words “ mora”
or “yir’at shamayim ” = “fear of heaven” (Abot i.
3; Ber. 6b); “shem shamayim” = “the name of
heaven” (Abot i. 12, if. 2, iv. 11, and elsewhere);
and “malkut shamayim” = “kingdom of heaven.”
This last expression is used in the sense of “sov-
ereignty of God,” as in the phrase “mekabbel
‘ol malkut shamayim” = “to accept the yoke of
God’s kingdom ”—that is, by a solemn profession to
acknowledge Israel’s God as the only King and
Ruler (Ber. ii. 1). With reference to the Messianic
age, it applies to the time when God will be the
sole King on earth, in opposition to the kings of
worldly powers (Pesik. 5la; Cant. R. ii. 12);
whence Matthew’s “kingdom of heaven” (Matt. iii.
2, and elsewhere), where the other gospels have
“kingdom of God.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, 1898, pp. 75 et seq.
K.
HEBER (73n): 1. Grandson of Asher and
founder of the family of the Heberites (Gen. xlvi.
17; Num. xxvi. 45). 2. Heber the Kenite, husband
of JAEL (Judges iv. 11-17, v. 24). At the time of
the war between Barak and Jabin, King of Hazor,
Heber the Kenite separated himself from his family
and pitched his tent in the plain of Zaanaim ([A.V.
“Zaanannim ”| ¢b. iv. 11). He was at peace with
both contending parties (2d. 17).
BK. G. H. M. SE-.
HEBRA (more correctly Habura) KAD-
DISHA: Name for a charitable society which cares
for the sick, especially for the dying, and buries the
dead. The name “hebra kaddisha” (holy society)
seems to have been used originally for congregations
and religious societies generally. The old prayer for
the welfare of the congregation (“ Yekum Purkan ”),
which is still recited in Ashkenazic synagogues on
Sabbath morning, includes the prayer for teachers
and masters forming “holy associations,” ¢.¢., acad-
emies (“haburata kaddishata”), both in Palestine
and in Babylonia. This prayer, the date of which
is uncertain, must have been written in Baby-
lonia before the eleventh century. In Lemberg
about 1700 there was a Holy Society of Morning
Watchers, meu who attended vigils every day
(Buber, “ Anshe Shem,” p. 217, Cracow, 1895). In
Moisling, near Libeck, about the same time, there
was a Hebra Kaddisha Talmud Torah, whose ob-
ject was the study of religious literature (Carlebach,
299
“ Gesch. der Juden in Liibeck,” p. 29, Litbeck, n.d.).
In Remagen there is a society for the promotion of
manual labor among the Jewish youth, founded in
1837, and called “ Chebroh Kadischoh ” (“ Allg. Zeit.
des Jud.” 1908, No. 42). Zalman Fischhof, in his
“Zemirot Yisrael.” Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1711,
calls Judah he-Hasid the “leader of the entire
hebra kaddisha” (S. T. Rabbinowitz, in “ Keneset
Yisrael,” i. 77).
Since ancient times the burial of the dead has been
regarded by the Jews asa religious duty of the high-
est importance (see BurRIAL). That
organized societies on the lines of the
modern hebra kaddisha existed in re-
mote times would appear to be indi-
cated in the folowing Talmudic pas-
sage. Rab Hamnuna arrived at a certain place and
heard that some one had died. Observing that the
people of the city continued to follow their occupa-
tions, notwithstanding the fact that the duty of
burying the dead took precedence of everything else,
he threatened them withexcommunication ; but when
they explained that there were burial societies in the
city, he said that under such conditions work is per-
mitted (M. K. 27b). Similarly, the Jerusalem Tal-
mud declares that when the body is handed overto the
carriers of the dead the relatives may break their fast,
which begins at the moment of the death (Yer. Ber.
iii. 1). On the basis of this decision the codes since
Nahmanides (18th cent.) have formulated the law that
in places where officials are charged with the bury-
ing of the dead the relatives have done their duty as
soon as the body has been delivered to the officials
(Nahmanides, “'Toratha-Adam, Tur Yoreh De‘ah,”
341, 343, 883; comp. Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah,
ad loc.).
Another Talmudic passage (Shab. 106a) says that
if a member of a society (“haburah ”) dies, all the
members of that society shall mourn. It is doubt-
ful, however, whether these societies were organ-
ized for the special purpose of taking care of the
dead. The context, and the absence of all laws
regulating such societies, tend to lead to the suppo-
sition that these haburot were fraternities dating
from the time of the Essenes (Philo, ed. Mangey, ii.
632; Schirer, “Gesch.” 8d ed., it. 563; see HABER).
The oldest mention of societies for burying the dead
is found in a responsum (No. 75) of Nissim ben
Reuben of Barcelona (14th cent.), who discusses
a case in which legacies were left to
various charitable societies, among
them the “kabbarim ” (grave-dig gers).
An often-quoted tradition attributes
to Léw ben Bezaleel, chief rabbi of Prague (d.
1609), the organization (1598) of the first hebra kad-
_disha (Lieben, “Gal ‘Ed,” p. 4, Prague, 1856; “II
Vessillo Israelitico,” 1894, p. 395; “Allg. Zeit. des
Jud.” 1865, p. 102). A. Kolm, in Wertheimer’s
“Jabrbuch,” i, 28, Vienna, 1854, says that Eliezer
Ashkenazi founded the hebra at Prague in 1562;
and G. Wolf thinks that the expulsion of the Jews
from Prague in 1561, at which time the sick were
allowed to remain, led to the organization of a soci-
ety for the care of the infirm (“ Allg. Zeit. des Jud.”
1888, p. 237).
At all events, historical reports of the existence of
Historical
Develop-
ment.
Oldest
Mention.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Heaven
Hebra Kaddisha
these societies date back to the beginning of the seven-
teenth century. Even the books of prayers to be re-
cited at the bedside of the dying seem to prove the
existence of these societies. The earliest of these
books is the “ Ma‘abar Yabbok” of Aaron Berechiah
of Modena (Venice, 1626). On the blank pages of a
copy of Leon Modena’s “Zori la-Nefesh u-Marpe
la-‘Ezem ” (7). 1619), Steinschneider found the roster
of the members of such a society, giving their turns
for duty, and beginning with 1646 (“Hebr. Bibl.”
xvii. 126). Jospe Hahn of Frankfort-on-the-Main,
in his “ Yosif Omez ” ($ 870), reports that his congre-
gation had a society for the care of the sick (“ gomel
hesed ”) as early as the seventeenth century (Horo-
vitz, “Frankfurter Rabbinen,” ii. 12). The hebra
kaddisha of Hildesheim was founded in 1668 (“ Allg.
Zeit. des Jud.” Sept. 15, 1898); that of Breslau dated
its oldest constitution from 1726; that of Vienna,
from 1764; that of Copenhagen, from 1767. The
“Book of the Society of Mercy” (“Hebrat Raha-
mim ”) of the congregation of Mantua, dated 1579
(Almanzi MSS., Cat. p. 13), may be something
similar.
The membership of the hebra was limited to males
over the age of thirteen (see Bak Mizwau), but chil-
dren might be admitted as contributing
Organiza- members. It was, in fact, customary
tion. for wealthier members of the commu-
nity to enroll their children in the
hebra at the time of birth. Women formed their
own societies to attend the dying and wash the dead;
these were usually called “Nashim Zadkaniyyot”
(pious women), The members of the hebra and
their families enjoyed certain benefits after death;
they were buried in that part of the cemetery re-
served for privileged people, and their funeral ex-
penses were lower. The officers of the hebra were
elected annually, generally during the week of the
Feast of Sukkot; but the president, chosen from
the trustees, was changed every month. In some
cities, as Breslau and Diisseldorf, there was a
board of eighteen (that number being chosen be-
cause it is the numerical value of "n= “living ”),
who were always ready to attend the bedside of
a dying member and remain with him to the last;
to recite with him the confession of sins, if he
were conscious; to pray during his agony; and
finally to recite the SHEMA‘ at the moment of death.
When breathing had ceased for a certain tine, they
laid the body on the bare floor, arranged for the
burial, and then washed the body, during which
ceremony they recited Biblical passages. Among
the Sephardim this is done by a similar society
called the “Lavadores” (“Jew. Chron.” Dec. 28,
1900; Jan. 28, 1903). The various functions con-
nected with washing the body and attiring it in
shrouds were distributed according to the age and
the standing of the members; thus, the president of
the society had the privilege of putting the linen cap
on the head of the corpse. Every year the society ob-
served a fast-day, on which, after the morning service,
the members visited the cemetery, where the rabbi
preached a sermon on charity; in the evening they
held a banquet (“hebrah se‘uddah”) Various days
are chosen for this reunion, although the 7th of
Adar, the traditional date of Moses’ death, seems to
ebrah Se‘udah
ebraists
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
300
be the most popular date. Presburg observes this
fast-day on the 22d of the ‘Omer days (17th of ITyyar);
Prague, on the eve of the new moon of Shebat;
Kiev, on the 15th of Kislew. The members of the
hebra had certain privileges at the synagogue: they
distributed the honors on Hosha‘na Rabbah, and on
the eve of Simhat Torah the president was escorted
to the svnagogue under a canopy by torch-bearers
(Mapu, “Wa-‘Ayit Zabua‘.” iii. 54). Not infre-
quently friction occurred between the hebra and the
congregation; this lias been especially the case in
modern times, When the congregations have been
inclined to Liberalism, and the hebra has been the
center of Orthodoxy. On one occasion in Fiirth
the civil authorities were compelled to interfere
(“Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” 1841, pp. 387 et seg.). In
the congregations of to-day, however, especially in
large cities, the voluntary performance of the duties
to the dead is no longer common, and the functions
of the hebra have become attached to certain of the
communal offices or are performed by paid workers.
See CEMETERY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jeiteles, Zikkaron le-Yom Aharon, Prague,
1828-30; Immanuel Lo6w and Solomon Klein, 4 Szegedi
Chevra 1787 tél 1887, Szegedin, 1887; Alig. Zeit. des
Jud. 1888, pp. 167, 237; Ottolenghi, Origine della Hebra
Chedoseia, in Il Vessillo Israelitico, 1894, p. 395; G. Wolf,
Die Jtidischen Friedhife und die Chewra KRadischa in
Wien, Vienna, 1879; Kupernik, Le-Korot Bene Yisrael be-
Kiew, Berdychev, 1891; S. Weisz, Abne Bet ha-Yozer, Paks,
1900; Ornstein, Laws and Bye-Laws of the Burial Soctety
of the United Synagogue, London, 1902; I Gratzer, Gesch.
der Israelitischen Krankenverphegungsanstalt und Beer-
diqungsyesellschaft zu Breslau, Breslau, 184i; B. Beer, Rede
bei der Hundertitihrigen Gedenkfeier der Cheira Ka-
discha in Dresden, Dresden, 1850; Emil Lebmann, Zur
Gesch. der Juden in Dresden, ib. 1875; Ben Chancaija, 1865.
A.
HEBRAH SE‘UDAH. Sce Hepra Kappisia.
HEBRAISTS, CHRISTIAN: The work of
Christian scholars in the field of Hebrew literature
demands special treatment, not only as part of the
history of Jewish literature itself, but also as an in-
dication of the relation which existed between Jews
and Christians at various epochs. The neglect by
Chris‘ians of this study has given rise to many of
the false ideas in regard to the Jews and their history
which have been current down to the present day.
The early fathers of the Christian Church recognized
the necessity of understanding the ideas of the
mother Synagogue, and got their knowledge of He-
brew traditions (7.¢., the Haggadah) from their Jew-
ish teachers. This is seen especially in the exegesis
of Justin Martyr, Aphraates, Ephraem Syrus, and
Origen. Jerome’s teachers are even mentioned by
name—e.g., Bar Hanina (Hananiah). This knowl-
edge, however, gradually grew less and less as the
separation between Church and Synagogue became
wider.
What was known of Jewish literature came to
the scholastics entirely through translations, as
can be seen in the works of Albertus Magnus.
That The Venerable Bede (673-785) knew anything
of Hebrew may be doubted, despite the testimony of
Hody in his “De Bibliorum Textibus ” (1705). The
same may be said of Alcuin (b. 785); but the “ Magis-
ter Andreas, natione Anglus” mentioned by Roger
Bacon, and identified by 8. R. Hirsch with an Au-
gustinian monk who lived about 1150, must at least
have been able to read the Bible in the Hebrew orig-
inal. Bacon himself (b. c. 1210) was “a tolerable
Ilebrew scholar.” It was not, however, until the
end of the fifteenth century that the Renaissance
and the Reformation, while awakening a new inter-
est in the classics, brought about a return to the
original text of Scripture and an attempt to under-
stand the later literature of the Jews. Hieronymus
Buclidius, the friend of Erasmus, gave more than
20,000 francs to establish a [lebrew chair at Louvain;
Francis I. called to the chair of Hebrew at the Col-
lége de France Elijah Levita, the friend of Cardinal!
égidius of Viterbo. Cardinal Grimani and other
dignitaries, beth of the state and of the Church,
studied Hebrew and the Cabala with Jewish teachers;
even the warrior Guido Rangoni attempted the He-
brew language with the aid of Jacob Mantino (1526).
Pico de la Mirandola (d. 1494) was the
In first to collect Hebrew manuscripts,
the Renais- and Reuchlin was the first to write a
sance. mnodern grammar of the Hebrew lan-
guage. But interest still centered
wholly around the Bible and the expository litera-
ture immediately connected therewith. During the
whole of the sixteenth century it was Hebrew gram-
mar and Jewish exegesis that claimed attention.
Christian scholars were not ashamed to sit at the
feet of Jewish teachers. Sebastian Miinster(d. 1552)
was known as a grammarian; Pellicanus (d. 1556)
and Pagninus (d. 1541), as lexicographers; Bomberg
(d. 1549), asa printer of Hebrew books. Arius Mon-
tanus (d. 1598) edited the Masorah and the “ Travels
of Benjamin of Tudela.” Widmanstadt (1528), liv-
ing ina colony of Spanish Jewish refugeesin Naples,
studied Hebrew with David ibn Yahya and Baruch
of Benevento, and collected the Hebrew manu-
scripts which formed the basis of the Hebrew divi-
sion of the Royal Library at Munich. Vatablé (d.
1547) made use of Rashi’s commentary. Conrad
Gesner (cd. 1565) was the first Christian to compile
a catalogue of Hebrew books; Christmann (d. 1618)
busied himself with the Jewish calendar, and Dru-
sius (d. 1616) with the ethical writings of the Jews.
Johannes Buxtorf (d. 1629) marks a turning-point
in the study of Jewish literature by Christians. He
not only studied the Targum and the Talmud, but
endeavored to understand Jewish history, and he
was the first real bibliographer. Even women
showed an interest in the subject~Anna Maria
Schurman, the “star of the century,” in Holland;
Dorothea Moore in England; Queen Christina of
Sweden (d. 1689); Maria Dorothea, consort of the
Duke of Saxe-Weimar; Elizabeth, daughter of Fred-
erick of the Palatinate; Maria Eleanora, wife of
Charles Ludwig of the Palatinate; Antonia, daugh-
ter of Duke Eberhard of Wiirttemberg. Through
the influence of Buxtorf a serious attempt was made
to understand the post-Biblical literature, and many
of the most important works were translated into
Latin. In this connection the following names may
be mentioned: Coccejus (d. 1667);
Seven- L’Empereur (d. 1648); Lightfoot (d.
teenth 1675); Leusden (d. 1699); and espe-
Century. cially Surenhuis (1698), who gave a
complete translation of the Mishnah;
Jewish theology was studied by Carpzov (d. 1699),
Wagenseil (1705; whose letters show the care he took
301
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
ebrah Se‘udah
ebraists
to gather information from both Jews and Jew-
esses), and Rittangel (1641); antiquities, by Bochart
(d. 1667), Hottinger (d. 1667), Hyde (d. 1700), Trig-
land (d. 1705), Breithaupt (1707), and Schudt (d.
722). It was a time in which the Christian theo-
logian studied Hebrew and rabbinics before taking
up his specific theological study. Wackspan (d.
1659) wrote upon the value to the theologian of
studying the works of the Rabbis. Their writings
on the Bible were read by Schickard (1685), Hody
(d. 1706), and Richard Simon (d. 1712), while cata-
logues of Hebrew collections were published by
Plantavitius (d. 1651), Le Long (d. 1721), and Mont-
faucon (d. 1741). Hottinger gave this literature a
place in his “ Bibliotheca Orientalis”; Otho (1672)
wrote a biographical lexicon of the Mishnah teachers ;
and Bartolocci’s “ Bibliotheca Rabbinica ” (1675) was
a worthy continuation of these bibliographical labors,
The first half of the eighteenth century contains
the names of three important scholars. Basnage (d.
1725), though he knew no Hebrew, may be men-
tioned here for the reason that his “ Histoire et la
Religion des Juifs” was the first attempt at a com-
plete presentation of this history. The “ Entdecktes
Judenthum ” of HKisenmenger (d. 1704) exhibits a mass
of Jewish learning; but its anti-Jewish tendency
largely vitiated the service it might have rendered.
Far ahead of these two stands Johann
Eighteenth Christian Wolf (d. 1739), who, with
Century. the help of the Oppenheimer library,
was able to produce his “ Bibliotheca
Hebreea,” which laid the foundation for all later
works in Hebrew bibliography. In addition to
these, Bodenschatz (d. 1797) deserves mention. He,
though not a scholarly Hebraist, gave an unbiased
and accurate account of Jewish ceremonials. B
the side of these stand Bashuysen (d. 1750), the
translator and printer of Hebrew books; Reland (d.
1718), the first to use Talmudic material for the study
of the geography of Palestine; the bibliographers
Unger (d. 1719) and Gagnier (d. 1720), who gave
Wolf his information regarding the manuscripts in
the Bodleian; J. H. Michaelis (d. 1738) and Mai (d.
1782), who compiled a catalogue of the Uffenbach
library; Baratier (d. 1740), the youthful prodigy,
who wrote on Benjamin of Tudela; Mill (d. 1756),
who treated rabbinical exegesis; and Wihner (1762),
who described Hebrew antiquities. Ugolini (1744)
is said to have been a converted Jew, and therefore
finds no place here. Especial mention should be
made of Ezra Stiles, the learned president of Yale
College (1778), certainly the most learned Christian
student of post-Biblical Jewish literature that Amer-
ica has produced.
Toward the end of the eighteenth century such
friends of Hebrew literature becameeverrarer. The
rise of Biblical criticism and of the study of other.
Semitic languages engaged the whole interest of
Semitic scholars. Even Rabe, the translator of the
Mishnah into German (d. 1798), Semm-
Early ler, Michaelis, Tychsen (d. 1815), and
Nineteenth Sylvestre de Sacy (d. 18388) can hardly
Century. be mentioned by the side of the human-
ists of previous centuries. Interest in
the text of the Bible caused some work to be done in
the collecting of Hebrew manuscripts, especially by
Kennicott in England (1776-80) and De Rossi ia
Italy (1784-88). The last-named made a most val-
uable collection of Hebrew manuscripts; and by
his side may be mentioned Pasinus in Turin (d.
1749), Biscioni in Florence (d. 1752), Assemani in
Rome (d. 1756), and Ury in Oxford (d. 1787).
The downward trend continued in the first half of
the nineteenth century; Jewish literature became
less and less a subject of investigation by Chris-
tians; and when it was studied it was generally for
the purpose of forging weapons against the people
whose literature it was. This is seen in such
works as A. T. Hartmann’s “Thesaurus Lingue
Hebr. e Mischna Augendus ” (1825), in Winer’s * Bib-
lisches Real worterbuch,” and even in the works of
Hitzig and Ewald. There was no understanding
even of the period of Jewish history during which
Christianity arose and developed; and David
Strauss’s complaint in regard to this was only too
well founded. During the second half of the nine-
teenth century, however, the idea gained currency
that there was something to be learned by going
back to the sources of this history; but only a
very few of the universities made a place for this
study in their curricula. At the beginning of the
eighteenth century David Rudolph of Liegnitz in-
cluded “Rabbinisch und Chaldiisch” among the
Oriental languages which he taught at Heidelberg ;
but he had few imitators; and in the nineteenth cen-
tury, apart from a few stray courses, such as
Kautzseh’s on D. Kimhi at Tiibingen, Lagarde’s on
Al-Harizi at Gottingen, and Strack’s on the Mish-
nah at Berlin, the whole of rabbinic literature was
ignored by European universities. Honorable ex-
ceptions in this respect were furnished in the uni-
versities of Oxford (where A. Cowley is sublibrarian
of the Bodleian Library) and Cambridge (which has
produced such scholars as W. H.
Atthe Lowe, Matthews, and C. Taylor) in
Universi- England, and in Columbia University,
ties. the University of California, the Uni-
versity of Chicago, Harvard Univer-
sity, and Johns Hopkins University, in America.
The Jews have been allowed to work out by them-
selves the new Jewish science (“Jiidische Wissen-
schaft ”), little attention being paid to that work by
others.
In more recent times a few Christian scholars have
given Jewish literature their attention. Abbé Pietro
Perreau has done good service by bis many articles
on the literature of the Jews in the Middle Ages
and by the assistance he has given to scholars from
the Hebrew manuscripts at Parma; Martin Hart-
mann has translated and commentated the “ Metek
Sefatayim” of Immanuel Frances (Berlin, 1894);
Thomas Robinson has collected some good material
in his “The Evangelists and the Mishna ” (1859).
August Wiinsche, in his “ Erliuterung der Evan-
gelien aus Midrasch und Talmud ” (1878), enlarged
the scope of the inquiry begun by Lightfoot; and
his translations from the Midrash opened up the
stores of ancient Jewish exegesis. Weber’s “Sys-
tem der Altsynagogalen Pakistinischen Theologie ”
(1880) was, with all its failings, an honest attempt
to understand the theology of the Synagogue, and it
has been worthily followed by Bousset in his “ Re-
Hebraists
ligion des Judenthums im Neutestamentlichen Zcit-
alter” (1908). Dom Pedro, King of Brazil, should
also be mentioned for his publication of Provencal
Jewish poetry.
The Institutum Judaicum in Leipsic, founded by
Franz Delitzsch, and a similar society bearing the
same name in Berlin and founded by Hermann
Strack, have attempted, by their various publica-
tions, to diffuse in the Christian world a knowledge
of Jewish writings. Gustav Dalman has shown by
his philological works on Talmudic grammar and
lexicography that he is at home in the rabbinic wri-
tings. Hermann Strack in Berlin demands special
mention not only for his publications dealing with
the literature of the Mishnah and the Talmud, but
also on account of the fearless manner in which he
has combated auti-Semitic prejudice, drawing his
material directly from the original sources. Carl
Siegfried, in his yearly reports in the “ Theologischer
Jahresbericht,” for many years called attention to
putilications on Jewish subjects, and
the mention of such works in the
“Orientalische Bibliographic” has
served to bring them more closely to
the attention of Christian scholars. The roll of
Christian Hebraists in England includes the names
of J. W. Etheridge, the author of a popular “ Intro-
duction to [post-Biblical] Hebrew Literature ” (1856) ;
Thomas Chenery, translator ot “Legends from the
Midrash ” (1877), and editor of Al-Harizi’s translation
of Hariri; and W. H. Lowe, who edited the Pales-
tinian recension of the Mishnah.
In spite, however, of these facts and of the warn-
ing given by Lagarde (“Symmicta,” ii. 147; “ Mit-
theilungen,” ii. 165), that in order to understand the
Bible text itself a deep study of the Halakah is nec-
essary, Christian writers on the life of Jesus continue
their disregard of the primary sources, This may
be seen in Hausrath’s “Neutestamentliche Zeit-
geschichte” (“ Kaufmann Gedenkbuch,” p. 659), and
even in Schiirer (“ Gesch.”), who, though making a
great advance upon previous efforts, still relies upon
second-hand sources for mapy of the pictures that
he draws (see Abrahams in “J. Q. R.” xi. 628),
Adolph Harnack, who, in his “ Dogmengeschichte ”
(3d ed.), endeavors to do some justice to the rabbis
of old, falls, in his “Wesen des Christenthums”
(1900), into many old errors through his ignorance
of the Jewish literature of the period of which he
treats, at the same time disregarding entirely the
literature and history of the Jews during the last
eighteen hundred years (Felix Perles, “ Was Lehrt
Uns Harnack?” Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1902).
The following list of Christian Hebraists has been
compiled upon the basis of Steinschneider’s article
mentioned in the bibliography below. Christian
students of the Bible have not been included, as
they may be found in other articles:
Aarhus, Peter Sim. (¢c. 1711: Hafen 7).
Abicht, Jo. Ge. (d. 1740; Wittenberg).
Adam, Eston (Benedictine; d. 1397; Hereford).
Adler, Jac. Ge. Chr. (d. 1805: Copenhagen).
JEgidius de Viterbo (1471-1532 ; Italy).
Alfonso de Leon Zamora (16th cent.).
Allixius, Petrus (17th cent.; Alencon).
Alting, Jacob (17th cent.; Gréningen).
Anchersen, Matth. (da. 1741: Jutland).
Anslus. Gerebrard (17th cent.).
Present
Day.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
302
Arias Montanus (Benedictine; d. 1598; Seville).
Armengaud (7), Blasius (d. 1514; Montpellier).
Arnd, Joshua (c. 1626; Gustrow).
Arnoldus, Michael (c. 1680; Holland).
Asp, Matth. (1696-1763; Upsala).
Assemani, Simon (d. 1821; Padua).
Aubry, Esaias (c. 1780; Berlin 7).
Bacon, Roger (1214-94; Oxford).
Baldi, Bernardino (1553-1617; Urbino).
Baratier, Jo. Phil. (1721-40; Schwabach).
Barozzi, Frane, (d. 1587; Italy).
Bartolocei, Jul. (1613-87; Rome).
Bashuysen, Henr. Jae. van (1679-1750; Hanau).
Baynus, Rudolphus (e. 1554; Paris).
Beckmann, Jo. Christ. (c. 1677; Frankfort-on-the-Oder)
Becks, Matth. Frid. (1649-1701; Augsburg).
Bedwell, William (1561-1632; London).
Beelen, Joh. Theodor (c. 1841; Amsterdam).
Beke, Matth. (¢c. 1708; Amsterdam).
Bellermann, Jo. Joachim (1754-1842 ; Erfurt).
Bengel (7), Eric (c. 1692; Sweden).
Bernard, Edward (1638-96; Oxford).
Bircherode, Jan. (1623-86; Copenhagen).
Biscioni, Anton. Maria (1674-1756; Florence).
Bleibtreu, Phi}. Jo. (¢. 1699; Frankfort-on-the-Main).
Bodecker, Stephan (Bishop; c. 1438; Brandenburg).
Bohlius, Sam. (1611-89; Rostock).
Borel, Adam, Jun. (1603-67; Zealand).
Béschenstein (7), Jo. (b. 1472; Austria).
Bourdelot (¢. 1619; Paris).
Breithaupt, Joh. Fred. (1689-1718; Gotha).
Brighenti, Gio. Ant. (d. 1702; Verona).
Broughton, Hugh (1549-1612; Tottenham).
Buddaeus, Jo. Fr. (1667-1729 : Halle ?).
Burgonovo, Archangelus (Minorite; 16th cent.; Pozzo)
Buxtorf, Johannes I. (1564-1629; Basel).
Buxtorf, Johannes II. (1599-1664; Basel).
Buxtorf, Johannes Jakob (1645-1705 ; Basel).
Buxtorf, Johannes Jakob (1663-1732 ; Basel).
Cademannus, Jos. Rud. (d. 1720; Pegau).
Campen, Joh. van (1490-1538 ; Freiburg-im-Breisgau).
Caninius, Angelus (1521-57; Paris).
Cappellan, Claud. (d. 1667; Paris).
Carpzov, Johann (Benedictine ; 1639-99; Leipsic).
Cartwright, Christ. (1602-58 ; York).
Castell, Edmund (1606-85: Higham).
Castro, Joh. Rodriguez de (1739-96; Madrid).
Cellarius (?), Jo. (e. 1518).
Chenery, Thomas (1826-84; London).
Chevalier, Ant. Rud. (1507-72; Germany).
Chiarini, Luigi (Abbé; 1789-1832; Warsaw).
Christmann, Jac. (1554-16138; Heidelberg).
Chytraeus, D. (e. 1551).
Ciselius, Phil. (c. 1696; Franeker).
Clanner (J. G. 7) (6. 17262).
Clark, Sam. (c. 1657; Oxford).
Clavering, Rob (Bishop; 1671-1747; Peterborough).
Clodius, Jo. Chr. (d. 1638; Leipsic).
Cluverus, Jo. (17th cent.).
Cnotlen, Adam Andreas (1674-1714; Firth).
Cnollen, Jos. Nicol. (brother of preceding).
Coccejus (Koch), Jo. (1603-69; Leyden),
Coddaeus, Giul. (1575-1630; Leyden).
Collin, C. E. (¢c. 1705; Giessen).
Collins, G. (ce. 1890; Oxford).
Costus, Petrus (¢. 1554).
Cotta, Jo. Fr. (1701-79: Ttibingen).
Cramer, Jo. Jac. (1673-1702; Zurich).
Cramer, Jo. Rud. (1678-1731; Zurich).
Crenius, Thom. (1648-1728; Leyden).
Crocius, Lud. Mich. (e. 1673).
Croius (?), Jo. (18th cent.: Oxford).
Dachs, Fried. Bernh. (e. 1726; Utrecht).
Dalinaki, Laurentius (ec. 1648; Hungary).
Danz, Jo. Andr. (1654-1728; Jena).
Dassovius, Theod. (d. 1721; Wittenberg; Kiel).
Disma, P. (ce. 1757; Italy).
Dithmar, Just. Christ. (c. 1706; Holland ?).
Donatus, Frane. (d. 1685; Rome).
Dove, John (c. 1746; London).
Drusius (Driesch), Jo. I. (1550-1616; Leyden).
Drusius, Jo. 1. (son of preceding : 1488-1609; Chichester).
Ebertus, Jac. (1549-1614; Frankfort-on-the-Oder).
Ebertus, Theod. (d. 1680; Frankfort-on-the-Oder).
Eggers, Jo. (c. 1719; Basel: Leyden).
303 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Finem, Jo. Justus von (ec. 17388; Germany).
Eisenmenger, Joh. And. (1654-1704; Heidelberg).
Emipereur, Constantin l (1570-1648; Leyden).
Etheridge, J. W. (c. 1856; Penzance).
Fabricins, Ern. Christ. (¢. 1792).
Fabricius, Fred. (1642-1708 ; Wittenberg).
Fagius (Buehin), Pawus (1504-49; Cambridge).
Faust, Jo, Friedr. (c. 1706; Germany).
Ferrand, Lud. (¢. 1640-1700; Paris).
Figueiro, Petrusa (¢, 1615).
Fourmont, Etienne. the elder (1683-1745: Paris).
Franciscus, Maria (Capuchin).
Franck, Sebastian (c. 15387; Ulm).
Frey, Jo. Ludw. (1682-1759: Basel).
Frommann, Erh. Andr. (1722-74; Klosterbergen).
Fronmiiiler, Conrad (ce. 1679; Altdorf ?).
Fuller, Nicol. (1457-1626; Salisbury).
Gaffarellus, Jac. (1601-81).
Gacnier, Jos. (1670-1740: Oxford).
Galatinus, Petrus (c. 1518).
Galle, Joh. (e. 1711 ; Upsala).
Gaudia, Barthol. Valverdio (Spain).
Gaulmyn, Gilb. (d. 1667; France).
Gejerus, Martin (1614-80; Freiberg).
Genebrard, Gilb. (1537-97; Samur).
Gentius, Geo, (1618-87; Freiberg).
Georgios, Chrysococea (1340-56 ? Greece).
Germberg, Herm. (1604).
Giggeius, Ant. (d. 1632; Milan).
Gill, John (1697-1771 ; London).
Graser, Conrad (d. 16138; Germany).
Groddeck, Gabr. (1672-1709; Danzig).
Guidacerius (Guidacter), Agathius (¢c. 1540),
Guisinus, Gul. (1653-90; Oxford).
Hackspan, Theodor (1607-59; Altdorf).
Haller, Albert (1708-77; Bern).
Hanel, Melchior (c. 1661; Prague).
Hannecken, Meno (1595-1677; Marburg).
Hardt, Anton Jul. van der (1707-85 ; Helmstiidt).
Hardt, Herm. van der (1660-1746; Helmstadt).
Hartmann, Ant. Theodor (1774-1888; Rostock).
Hartmann, Jo. Phil. (¢. 1708).
Hartmann, Martin (1851; living; Berlin).
Havemann, Chris. (17th cent.).
Hebenstreit, Johann Chr. (1686-1756; Leipsic).
Helenius, Engelbart (c. 1727; Sweden).
Helwig, Christopher (1581-1617; Giessen).
Hepburn, Jo. Bonaventura (1573-1621; Scotland).
Hilpert, Jo. (c. 1651).
Hinckelmann, Alr. (1652-95; Hamburg).
Hirt, Jo. Frid. (1719-84; Wittenberg).
Hochsteter, Andreas Adam (1668-1717; Tiibingen),
Holten, Albert (c. 1675; Ttibingen).
Hommel, Car. Ferd. (1722-81; Leipsic).
Honorius (Monk; 1452).
Hottinger, Jo. Henr. I. (1620-67; Heidelberg).
Hottinger, Jo. Henr. I. (ce. 1704).
Houting, Henr. (c. 1695).
Hufnagel, G. F. (¢c. 1795).
Huldrich, Jo. Jac. (1688-1731).
Hulsius, Ant. (d. 1685: Holland).
Husen, Frane. (¢. 1676).
Hyde, Thomas (1631-1703 ; Oxford).
Ikenius, Conrad (1689-1753; Bremen).
Imbonatus, Car. Jos. (d. 1696 ; Rome).
Jacobs, Henry (1608-52; Oxford).
Janvier, Renatus Ambros. (1618-82; Paris).
Johannes Lucs# (1406; Italy).
Justinianus, Augustin (1470-1581; ‘* Episcopus Nebiensis”’).
Keller, Gottl With. (17th cent.: Jena [?]).
Kircher, Athanasius (Jesuit: 1602-80; Rome).
Knorr, Christian, Baron de Rosenroth (1636-89; Sulzbach).
Koecher, Herrm. Fried. (c. 1783; Jena).
Koénig, Friedrich Eduard (1846; Reichenbach).
KG6nig, Sam. (1670-1750; Bern).
KGppen, Nic. (c. 1709; Greifswald).
Kosegarten, J. G. L. (1792-1860; Greifswald).
Krafft, Karl (c. 1889; Ansbach).
Kraut, Paul (c. 1703: Lund).
Kyber, David (16th cent.: Strasburg ?).
Lagarde, Paul de (1827-91; Géttingen).
Lakemacher, Joh. Gothofr. (1695-1736; Helmstidt).
Lange, Jo. Joachim (1670-1744; Halle).
Lange, W. (¢. 1710).
Langens, Henr. (c. 1720; Holland).
Hebraists
Lederlin, Jo. Henr. (1672-1737 ; Strasburg).
Lehmann, Ge. Heinrich (1619-99; Leipsic).
Leib, Chilian (Prior; 1471-1548; Rebdorf).
Le Long, Jac. (1665-1721; Paris).
Lenz. Jo. Leonh. (e. 1700; Germany).
Lepusculus, Sebastian (¢. 1546: Germany).
Leusden, Joh. (1624-99; Utrecht).
Leydecker, Melchior (1642-1722 ; Utrecht).
Lightfoot, Jobn (1602-75; Ely).
Lipomanni, Mareo (c. 1440; Venice).
Loscan, Job. Frid. (¢c. 1710; Germany).
Losius, Jo. Justus (¢. 1706; Germany).
Lowe, W. H. (Cambridge).
Ludwig, Christ. L. (b. 1668, Landshut ; d. 1782).
Lund, Dan. (b, 1666, Fogdoé ; d. 1746, Strengnis).
McCaul, Alexander (b. 1799, Dublin ; d. 1863, London).
Mai, Joh. Hen. (1688-17382; Giessen).
Malamina. Caesar (c. 1774; Florence).
Manfred (?), King (d. 1266; Germany).
Mannetti, Giannozzo (b. 1896, Florence ; d. 1459, Naples).
Margoliouth, D. S. (living ; Oxford).
Margoliouth, G. Giving ; London).
Margoliouth, Moses (b. 1820, Suwalki; d. 1881, London).
Marini, Mareo (b. 1541, Brescia; d. 1594, Brescia).
Matthias Aquarius (c. 1581).
Matthias, Elias (Germany).
Meelfiihrer, Rud. Martin (b. 1670, Ansbach: d. 1729).
Mercer, Jo. (d. 1570; Uzeés).
Meyer, Jo. (¢. 1693; Holland).
Michaelis, Jo. Henr. (b. 1717, Halle; d. 1791, Gdttingen).
Midhorp, Joh. (ec. 152).
Mieg, Jo. Frid. (b. 1700, Marburg ; d. 1788, Heidelberg).
Mill,. David (b. 1692, Konigsberg; d. 1756, Utrecht).
Molitor, Christoph. (ce. 1659; Altdorf).
Montfaucon, Bern (b. 1655, Soulange; d. 1741, Paris).
More, Eugene (c. 1837; France).
More, Henry (b. 1614, Grantham; d. 1687, Cambridge).
Morin, Etienne (b. 1625, Caen: d. 1700, Amsterdam).
Morin, Jean (b. 1591, Blois; a. 1659, Paris).
Muhl, Henr. (b. 1666, Bremen; d. c. 1780, Kiel).
Muhl, Jos. (Holstein).
Muis, Simon de (b. 1587, Orleans; d. 1644, Paris).
Miinster, Sebastian (Minorite ; b. 1489, Ingelheim ; d. 1552, Basel).
Murner, Thomas (Minorite; b. 1475; d. 1587 ?).
Myerlin, David Fr. (d. 1778; Frankfort-on-the-Main).
Nagel, Jo. Andr. Mich. (1740-1788; Altdorf).
Neale, Thomas (ec. 1557; England).
Nicholas de Lyra (d. 1340; Paris).
Nigri (Schwartz), Peter (c. 1475; Cadana ?).
Nork, Fr. (1808-50; Germany [actually Fr. Korn]).
Norrelius, Andr. (¢c. 1720; Upsala).
Novenianus, Phil. (?) (c. 1520; Hasfurtensis 7),
Odhelins, Laur. (d. 1691; Upsala).
Opfergeld, Friedrich (1668-1746: Breslau).
Opitius, Paul Friedr. (1684-1745 ; Kiel).
Osterbréck, Aaggaens.
Otho, Jo. Henr. (d. 1719; Lausanne).
Ouser], Phil. (c. 1714; Frankfort-on-the-Main).
Owmann, Mart. Jac. (c. 1705; Germany).
Pagninus, Xanthus (b. 1470, Lucca; d. 1586, Lyons).
Palmroot, Jo. (c. 1696; Upsala).
Pasinus, Jos. (b. 1687, Padua; d. 1770, Turin).
Pastritius, Jo.
Pedro, Dom (Emperor of Brazil; 1825-91).
Pellican, Conrad (1478-1556; Zurich).
Peringer, Gustav (b. 1657; Upsala; Stockholm).
Peritz, Ismar J. Niving; Syracuse, U.S. A.).
Perreau, Pietro (Abbé: living, Parma).
Pertsch, W. H. F. (¢. 1720: Jena).
Peter of St. Omer (1296; Paris).
Petit, Pietro Giov. de (d. 1740; Rome).
Petrus de Alexandrica (Augustinian; 1342).
Petrus Montagnana (?) (1478; Italy).
Pfeiffer, Aug. (b. 1640, Lanenburg; d. 1698, Leipsic).
Pico de la Mirandola (d. 1494; Italy).
Pieques, L. (c. 1670; Paris).
Pistorius, Jo. Nidanus (b, 1544, Nidda; d. 1607, Freiburg-im-
Breisgau).
Plantavitius, Jo. (Bishop ; 1625-48 ; Lodéve}.
Plato of Tivoli (1116; Barcelona).
Pontacus, Arnold (Bishop; d. 1605; Bazas).
Postel, Gul. (b. 1505, Delorie; d. 1581, Paris).
Prache, Hilarie (bo. 1614, Teutschel: ad. 1679, London).
Prideaux, Humphrey (Dean; b. 1648, Padstow; d. 1724, Nor-
wich).
Hebraists
Hebrew
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
304
Quinquaboreus (Cinqarbre), Johannes (d. 1587 ; Paris).
Rabe, Job. Jac. (1710-98 ; Onolzbach).
Rapheleng, Frane. (b. 1559; Lannoy).
Raymund (7), Martin (Monk; ¢. 1286).
Raymund de Pefiaforte (Dominican; 1175-1275; Barcelona).
Reinneccius, Chr. (b. 1668, Grossmiihlingen 3 d. 1752, Weiscufels).
Reiske, Joh. Jacob (b. 1716, Zoerlug; d. 17y4, Leipsic).
Reland, Adrian (b. 1676, Ryp; @. 1718, Utrecht).
Rendtorf, Jo. (Hamburg).
Reuchlin, Jo. (b. 1455, Pforzheim; d. 1522, Stuttgart).
Rezzonius, France. (b. 1531, Como; d. 1780).
Rhenferdius, Jac. (b. 1654, Mithlheim ; d. 1712, Franeker).
Ritmeier, Chr. Henr. (c. 1687).
Rivinius, Titeman Andreas (b. L601, Halle; d. 1656, Leipsic).
Robustellus, Jo. (1655; Rome).
RG6nnow, Magn. (d. 1690).
RossivGiov. Bern. de (1742-1831 ; Parma).
Sacy, Isaac Silvestre de (1758-1888 ; Paris).
Salehli (7), Jo. Jac. (b. 1694, Eggwil; d. 1774, Bern).
Sartorius, Jo. (b. 1656, Eperies; d. 1729, Danzig).
Saubert, Jo. (1638-88 ; Helinstidt).
Scheidt, Balth. (1614-70; Strasburg).
Scherping, Jacob (¢. 1787; Stockholm).
Scherzer, Jo. Adam (b. 1628, Eger; d. 1683, Leipsic).
Schickard, Wilh. (b. 1592, Heerenberg; d. 1635, Tiibingen).
Schindler, Valentin (a. 1604; Wittenberg; Helmstidt).
Schmidt, Sebastian (c. 1656; Strasburg).
Schnelle, Sebald (1621-51; Nuremberg).
Schoettgen, Jo. Christ. (1687-1751).
Scholl, J. C. F. (Tiibingen).
Schotanus, Christ. (b. 1608, Scheng; d. 1671, Franeker).
Schramm, Jonas Conr. (c. 1700; Helmstadt).
Schreckenfuchs, Erasmus Oswald (1511-75: Tiibingen).
Schroeder, Jo. Joachim (1680-1756; Marburg).
Schulten, Car. (c. 1725; Lund).
Schulten, Heinrich Albert (1749-93; Holland).
Schulten, Jo. Jac. (1716-78; Holland).
Schultens, Albert (1686-1750; Holiand).
Schwenter, Daniel (1585-1636 ; Nuremberg),
Scotus, Jo. Duns (d. 1808).
Sebastianus, Aug. Nouzanus (c. 1582; Marburg).
Seidel, Casp. (c. 1638; Hanaburg).
Seiferheld, J. L. (18th cent.).
Seyfried, Christ. (c. 1664).
Seyfried, Henr. (c. 1663; Altdorf).
Sgambatus, Scipio (¢. 1703; Italy).
Sheringham, Rob. (b. 1602, Gnestwick ; d. 1678, Cambridge).
Siegfried, Carl (b. 1830, Magdeburg; d. 1902, Jena).
Smith, Thomas (b. 1638, London; d. 1710).
Sommer, Gottfr. Chris. (ec. 1734; Gotha).
Sonneschmiad, Jo. Just. (e. 1719; Jena?).
Spalding, G. L. (b. 1762, Barth ; d. 1811, Friedrichsfelde).
Sprecher, Jo. Died. (¢. 1703; Helmstidt).
Springer, Daniel (1656-1708; Breslau).
Stae;mmmen, Christoph. van (c. 1661; Preza-Holsatus ?).
Starke, Heinrich Benedict (b. 1672, Engelen; d. 1717, Leipsic).
Steinmetz, Joh. Andr. (b. 1689, Gr. Knicymtzd; d. 1762).
Strack, Herrmann L. (living; Berlin).
Stridzberg, Nic. H. (¢. 1731; Lund).
Struvius, Jo. Jul. (e. 1697; Germany).
Surenhuys, Gul. (d. 1729; Amsterdam).
Svetonio, Agost. (Italy).
Taylor, C. (living; Cambridge).
Taylor, Frane. (d. 1660; Cambridge).
Terentius, Jo. (b. 1580, Constance; ud. 1630, China).
Theobald (?) (Subprior ; 14th eent.; Paris).
Trigland, Jac. (d. 1705; Leyden).
Tychsen, Olaf Ger. (1734-1815; Rostock).
Ulmann, Jo. (c. 1663; Strasburg).
Urbanus, Rhegius Henricus (¢. 1485; Germany).
Ury, Jo. (d. 1796; Oxford).
Uythage, Cn. Corn. (c. 1680; Leyden).
Valverdius, Barthol. (Spain).
Varen, Aug. (d. 1684; Rostock).
Vatablé, Fr. (d. 1547; Paris).
Vehe, Matth. (d. 1589: Halle).
Vinding, Jo. Paul (c. 1633; Holland 7).
Voorst, Dick Cornelis van (b. 1751, Delft; d. 1833, Amsterdam).
Voss, Dionysius (b. 1612, Dordrecht; d. 1633, Amsterdam).
Voysin (Vicinus), Jos. de (c. 1685; Paris).
Wagenseil, Jo. Christoph. (1635-1703; Altendorf).
Wakefield, Rob. (d. 1537; Oxford).
Wallin, Georg (c. 1722; Holm).
Walter, Jo. (¢e. 1710).
Walther, Christ. (ec. 1705; Kénigsberg).
Warner, Levin (ad. 1663; Holand).
Weiganmeier, Georg (1555-99; Tubingen).
Wessel, Joh. (b. 1419, Groningen; d. 1489).
Widmanstadt, Jo. Albrecht (b. 1500; @. 1559, Wellingen).
Wilkins, David (b. 1685; d. 1748, Hadleigh).
Winekler, Jo. Fried. (b. 1679, Wertheim ; d. 1738, Germany).
Winer, Jo. Ge. Bened, (1789-1858 ; Leipsic).
Witter, Henr. Bernh. (c. 1703; Germany).
Woeldicke. Marcus (1699-1750 ; Copenhagen).
Wolf (2), Georg (c. 1557; Grimma).
Wolf, Jo. Christoph. (1688-1739; Hamburg).
Wolf, Jo. W. (d. 1571; Gera).
Wolph (7), Jo. Hae. (Zurich).
Wotton, William (1666-1720; London).
Wilfer, Jo. (1651-1724; Nuremberg).
Wimsche, August (living ; Dresden).
Zanolini, Antonio (c. 1747; Padua).
Zeller, Andr. Christoph. (¢c. 1711; Maulbronn).
Zeltner, Ge. Gust. (1672-1738; Altdorf).
FEMALE CHRISTIAN HEBRAISTS.
Alberta Katherina (17th cent.: Bohemia).
Amoena Amalia (wife of Duke Louis; d. 1625, Anhalt).
Anna Sophia, Abbess (c. 1658; Quedlinburg).
Apna (Weissbrucker) Urban (16th. cent.).
Antonia, Duchess (d. 1679; Wiurttemberg).
Blesilla (5th cent.),
Calonges, Madame de.
Cibo ? (wife of Joh. Verano, Duke of Camerino; 1550).
Cornaro, Piscopia Cornelia (Eleonora Lucretia ; d. 1684; Venice).
Cramer, Anna Maria (1613-27; Magdeburg).
Dorothea Maria (wife of Duke John ; 17th cent.; Saxe-Weimar).
Einsiedel, Marg. Sybilla (wife of Conrad Loser ; ¢. 1670; Saxony).
Elisabeth (Abbess of Herfort; d. 1680),
Eustochium, Julia (éth cent.; Rome).
Friesen, Henr. Kath. (17th cent.; Saxony).
Guyenne, De (c. 1625; Paris).
Habert, Susanna (d. 1638; France).
Lehmann, Maria Barbara (c. 1700; Schnekengriin).
Losa, Isabella (d. 1564; Cordova).
Louise Amoena (Princess; 17th cent.; Anhalt).
Ludolf, Susanna Magdalena (c. 1700; Frankfort-on-the-Main).
Marchina, Martha (d. 1646; Naples).
Maria Eleonore (wife of Ludwig Philipp of Pfalz; c. 1669).
Maria Elizabeth (daughter of Duke Christian Albrecht; c. 17063
Sleswick-Holstein).
Molinaea, Maria (17th cent.).
Molza-Porrino, Tarquinia (d. 1600; Modena).
Paula, Cornelia (ad. 408; Rome).
Rohan, Anna, Princess of (¢. 1634).
Saracena, Ludovica (wife of Marcus Offredus:; ¢. 1606; France).
Schurmann, Anna Maria (1607-78; Altona).
Sebutia, Ceecilia (c. 1683; Rome).
Sigvea, Aloysa (wife of Alfonso du Guevas; d. 1569; Toledo).
‘Tanfeld, Elisabeth (d. 1639: London).
Wagenseil, Helena Sybilla (c. 1700; Altendorf).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Christliche Hebraisten, in
Zeit. fiir Hebr. Bibl. i. 50 et seg.; Gesenius, Gesch. der Hebr.
Sprache, passim, Leipsic, 1815; Zunz, Z. G. pp. 1 et seq. (re-
published in G.S. i. 41 et seq.); L. Geiger, Studiwm der Hebr.
Sprache in Deutschland, Breslau, 1870; J. Perles, Beitrdige
zur Gesch. der Hebr. und Aram. Studien, pp. 154 et seq.;
Kayserling, Les Hébraisants Chrétiens, in R. E. J. xx. 264
et seq.; Kaufmann, Die Vertretung der Jiid. Wissenschaft
an den Universitdten, in Monatsschrift, xxxix. 145 et seq.;
S. A. Hirsch, Early English Hebraists, in J. Q. BR. xii. 34 et
seq.; Kauffmann, Jacob Mantino, in R. BE. J. xxvii. 30 et
seq. (comp. J. Q. R. ix. 500); E. Sachau, Orientalische Phi-
lologie, in Die Deutschen Oniversitéten, p.520, Berlin, 1898 ;
William Rosenau, Semitic Studies in. American Colleges,
Chicago, 1896; Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl. xx. 65 et seq.;
Kayserling, A Princess as Hebraist, in J. Q. R. ix. 509.
G.
HEBREW (Hebr. “‘Ibri”; Aramaic, “ ‘Ibrai,”
whence the Greek ‘'ESpaioc; Latin, “Hebreeus”;
Norman, “Hebreu”; Eng. “ Hebrew ”).
The Name and Its Use: The expression “ He-
brews” is used as a name for Israelites in contrast
with Egyptians, or by Egyptians for Israelites, in
both the early narratives of the Pentateuch (J and
E), but only in the story of Joseph and in that of
Moses (Gen. xxxix.-xliii.; Ex. iii.-x.). It is also
305
used in contrast with * Philistines,” or by Philistines
in speaking of Israelites, in I Samuel, both in the
story of Saul and in that of Samuel (Smith, in “In-
ternational Commentary,” s.v. “Saul” and “Sam-
uel”). It is further used once in the early legislative
document commonly known as “The Book of the
Covenant,” to differentiate a Hebrew slave from oue
of any other nationality (Ex. xxi. 2). In Deut. xv.
12, based upon the preceding, it is used both in the
masculine and in the feminine. This latter passage
is twice quoted by Jeremiah (xxxiv. 9, 14). In Gen.
xiv. 13 occurs the expression “ Abram the [lebrew,”
rendered in the Greek wepazy¢ = mepaizne (“ Abram,
the man of the region beyond”). It is difficult to
determine whether the use of the term “ Hebrew ”
here is due to the contrast of Abram, as typifying a
nation, with the foreigners about him, with whom
the chapter deals, or whether it is in this case a
usage which may be compared with that of the
preposition “ ‘eber” inthe Book of Nehemiah, where
the author, writing from the standpomt of the Far
Fast, and following Babylonian and Persian usage,
designates Palestine as “the province beyond ” the
Euphrates.
It would appear from the passages cited that the
Israelites were known to other peoples by the name
“Hebrews,” and that in the earlier period of their
history this name was used by them in
The Term contrasting themselves with other na-
Used by tions. This was not their customary
Foreigners. or preferred designation of them-
selves. In the period of prophetic
activity preceding the Exile, and in the prophetic,
legal, and poetical literatures of the exilic and post-
exilic periods, the word does not appear, with the
doubtful exception of the passage in Gen. xiv. In
the Greek period the ancient use was revived; and
Jonah speaks to foreigners of himself as a Hebrew
(i. 9). Similarly, in Judith and II Maccabees the
word “Hebrew” is used where foreigners are ad-
dressed or where foreigners speak of Israelites.
In the prologue to Ecclesiasticus the word is used
to designate the Hebrew language In contrast with
the Greek. There is a similar use in the New Tes-
tament (John v. 2; xix. 18, 17; xx. 16; Acts xxi. 40,
Xxil. 2, xxvi. 14; Rev. ix. 11, xvi. 16) and in Jose-
phus (“ Ant.” ii. 1, 8 1; iii. 10, § 6); but here it may
mean either the old Hebrew or the later Aramaic
idiom of Palestine. The word is also used at this
period to designate those who conformed to the an-
cient practises in contrast with the Hellenists, who
observed Greek customs (Acts vi. 1; II Cor. xi. 22;
Phil. iii. 5).
Derivation and Meaning: “‘Ibri” is a gentilic
noun, formed by adding the suffix “i” to the word
“‘eber.” The latter is a common preposition in
Hebrew, meaning “beyond” or “across.” Other
derivatives from the same root mean “ ford,” “ pass,”
and thelike. This preposition, alone or in combina-
tion with other prepositions, is used to designate the
region across or beyond the sea or a river, but espe-
clally the region beyond the Jordan—commionly east-
ward of the Jordan, from the standpoint of a writer
in Palestine proper; less often westward of the
Jordan, from the standpoint of the trans-Jordanic
territory. Frequently, also, it designates the region
Vi—20
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hebraists
Hebrew
beyond the Euphrates—commonly eastward, spoken
from the standpoint of Palestine, but also west ward,
from the standpoint of Babylon and Persia.
The word appears, further, as a proper name—
that of an ancestor of the Hebrews (see EBER)—in
the early Judean document (J), in the later Priestly
Code (P), and in the Chronicles. Once the name
“Tber” is used as a collective noun, to designate a
people or country, in connection with Asshur (Num,
xxiv, 24). An early Israelite tradition (Josh. xxiv.
2) interpreted the word “Hebrew ” as meaning the
people whose ancestors had dwelt in the land be-
yond the River Euphrates (A. Y. “on the other side
of the flood ”).
Similar to this use of “‘eber ha-nahar” for “the
region beyond the river,” is the Assyrian “‘ebir
nari” and the Minsean “‘ibr-naharan.” The former
of these designates roughly the later Persian prov-
ince “Abar-Nahra, the country between the Eu-
phrates and Gaza. What region is designated by
the latter is not clear. This interpretation lies also
behind the treatment of the eponymous Eber in the
Priestly Code (Gen. xi.), and was adopted by later
Jewish tradition (Gen. R., and Rashi, ad loe.).
Some late writers interpret the word as meaning
“the people from beyond Jordan” (so Wellhausen
and Stade). I£fthis latter view be cor-
Views of rect, the name “Hebrew ” may be sup-
Late posed to have been originally a general
Writers. term (comp. Gen. x. 21, 24, where
Shem is called the “father of all the
children of Eber,” and Eber is the father of Peleg
and Joktan) to designate the peoples beyond the
Jordan. In that case the Habiri or ‘Abiri of the
El-Amarna tablets, who were overrunning Judea
and threatening Jerusalem about 1400 B.c., may
have been “Hebrews” (comp. Jastrow in “Jour.
Bib. Lit.” xi. 218, xii. 61), and the term may desig-
nate in general the trans-Jordanic populations (the
Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, etc.); among these
at a later date were included the Israelites, who
finally became the Hebrews par excellence. Other
views propounded in recent times are those of Hom-
mel, that the term designated the land west of the
Euphrates, between Borsippa and Ur (“ Ancient
Hebrew Tradition,” Appendix), and of Steiner (in
Schenkel’s “Bibel-Lexikon ”), that “‘eber” means,
as in Arabic, “a river-bank,” and that the Hebrews
were the “dwellers ina land of rivers.” [None of
these views is satisfactory.—T. ]
E. G. H. J. P. P.
HEBREW, THE: Jewish weekly; established
in San Francisco, Cal., in 1868, by Philo Jacoby, a
son of Isaac Jacoby, rabbi of Lauenburg, Pomerania.
It is still published by its founder, and is the oldest
Jewish paper on the Pacific coast. Rabbis Henry
and Bettelheim, and Ernest Jacoby of Chicago, a
brother of the founder, have been among its editors.
The tendency of the paper in religious matters is
conservative.
a. S.
HEBREW EDUCATION SOCIETY OF
PHILADELPHIA: Organized July 16, 1848,
largely through the efforts of Isaac Leeser; one of
the oldest societies of its kind in the United States.
Hebrew Education Society
Hebrew Language
The charter granted by the Pennsy]vania legisla-
ture April 7, 1849, authorized the establishment of
schools for general education, combined with in-
struction in the Hebrew language and literature; the
charter also authorized the establishment of a “su-
perior seminary of learning.” with power to grant
the usual degrees given by other colleges. A sup-
plementary act, passed May 138, 1866, allowed the
admission of its pupils to the Boys’ and Girls’ High
School, Philadelphia. The first school of the society
was opened on the upper floors of the Phoenix Hose
House on Zane (now Filbert) street, The first ses-
sion was held on Monday, April 7, 1851.
Early in 1854 the society received a legacy of
$20,000 from the estate of Judah Touro; in May
following, the purchase of a church building on
Seventh street, between Wood and Callowhill streets,
was authorized; the school removed into this build-
ing in October of the same year. In January, 1889,
this building was sold, and the school, now known
as Hebrew School No. 1, removed to Keystone Hall,
1204 Germantownavenue. Maimonides College was
opened Oct. 28, 1867, and remained in existence until
December, 1873. Hebrew School No. 2 was opened
March 3, 1878, in the synagogue building of the
Holland Schule, Fifth and Catherine streets; it sub-
sequently removed to Wheatley Hall, then to 822
Bainbridge street, and finally to the society’s build-
ing, Touro Hall, at the southwest corner of Tenth
and Carpenter streets.
Hebrew School No. 8 was opened October, 1879,
at Marshal] street and Girard avenue, andin Decem-
ber following Hebrew School No. 4 was opened at
624 Wayne (now William) street, in the district of
Richmond, Hebrew School No. 3 removed to the
corner of Fourth and Poplar streets, thence to Sev-
enth street, and in October, 1881, was merged with
Hebrew School No. lin its new building at 817
North Seventh street, Hebrew School No. 4 becom-
ing known as No. 38.
In 1888, houses on Lark (now Weikel) street were
purchased, and school No. 3 removed thither from
624 Wayne street. Forsome time trade-schools were
in operation there, but they have been discontinued.
The principal work of the society is now centered
in Touro Hall, where a night-school is kept open the
entire year. There are now classes in English, type-
writing and stenography, men’s and women’s gar-
ment-cutting, millinery, dressmaking, and cigar-
making, a free synagogue for the most sacred holy
days, free baths, a reading-room, and a circulating
library. The Hebrew Sunday-School Society, the
Baron. de Hirsch Committee, and the B’nai B’rith
Manual Training-School have the free use of the
Hebrew Education Society’s buildings for their
meetings and classes. The permanent fund of the
society amounts to $35,000. The annual expense is
about $9,500.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fifty Years of the Hebrew Education So-
ciety, Philadelphia, 1898.
A. D. Sv.
HEBREW GLOBE, THE. See PERIODICALS.
HEBREW GRAMMAR. See Grammar, HE-
BREW.
HEBREW INSTITUTE. See NEw York.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
806
HEBREW INTELLIGENCER. See PERtop-
ICALS.
HEBREW JOURNAL, THE. See PERIob-
ICALS.
HEBREW LANGUAGE: The designation
“ Hebrew language” for the language in which are
written the Old Testament (with the exception of
Ezra iv. 8-vi. 18; Dan. ii. 4 [after the fourth word ]-
vii. 88; Jer. x. 11; and a proper name in Gen. xxxi.
47), part of the Apocryphal and pseudepigraphic
writings, and the greatest part of later Jewish liter-
ature, is first found in Hellenistic literature (Prologue
to Ecclesiasticus [Strach]; Josephus, “ Ant.” 7. 1, § 2;
Rev. ix. 11). The same designation is frequently
used by Hellenistic authors to denote the Aramaic
language spoken at a later time by the “ Hebrews,”
as the Jews were called by non-Jewish writers. In He-
brew literature the term is first met in
the Mishnah (Yad. v. 4; Git. ix. 8); Bib-
lical writers use the expression “the
language of Canaan ” (Isa. xix. 18) or “the Jews’ lan-
guage ” (IT Kings xviii. 26, 28; comp. Isa. xxxvi. 11,
13; Neh. xiii. 24; comp. also the modern use of “ Yid-
dish”). More frequently, however, the language is
called in later Jewish literature “the Holy Tongue,”
to distinguish it from the Aramaic vernacular or other
“profane languages” spoken in later times by the
Jews (Targ. Yer. to Gen, xxxi. 11; Sotah vii. 11).
This designation seems to be an abbreviation of
“lishan bet kudsha” = “the language of the sanc-
tuary ” (Targ. pseudo-Jonathan to Gen. xxxi. 47).
The Assyrians called Hebrew “the language of the
west country” (comp. Hastings, “Dict. Bible,” iii.
23).
The Hebrew language might be appropriately
called the Israelitish dialect of Canaanitish, a branch
of the Semitic LANGUAGES spoken in Palestine and
in the Phenician colonies. Almost identical with it
is Moabitish, as seen in the stele of Mesha (sce Moab-
ITE STONE). Closely akin to it was Phenician, and
in all probability also the languages of Ammon,
Edom, and Philistia. The language used in the
Zenjirli inscriptions approaches Hebrew closely.
Phonetically Hebrew occupies a middle place be-
tween Arabic, on the one hand, and Aramaic, on the
other. Of the original Semitic consonants some ap-
pear to have been wholly or partly
Relation- lost; at Ieast the distinction between
ship and certain related but different sounds is
Character- not indicated in writing. Thus there
istics. is only one character in Hebrew (n)
for the Arabic “ha” and “kha,” only
one (3) for the Arabic “‘ain” and “ ghain” (though
from transcriptions of proper names in the Septua-
gint it seems that, like Arabic, it once had the two
y sounds), only one (¥) for the Arabic “sad” and
“dad,” and only one (%) for the Arabic “ta” and
“za.” Like Aramaic, Hebrew has a double pro-
nunciation of the letters 7'53°3'3'3—explosive and
spirant. Like Arabic, it has a double sound of 4
(comp. Merx, “Zeitschrift fitr Assyriologic,” xiv.
308). From the 5 at the end of the alphabet in
certain alphabetic compositions in the Old Testa-
ment some assume the existence of the emphatic
“pn” Known in Syriac and Ethiopic. Initial radical 5,
as in Aramaic, has largely passed into», Although
Name.
307
Hebrew has lost some of the original vowels still
retained in classical Arabic, that loss has not as-
sumed such proportions as in the case of Aramaic.
This is due chiefly to the retention in Hebrew of
the pretonic “a” vowel (see ACCENTS IN HEBREW).
Of case-endings, entirely lost in Aramaic, Hebrew
has preserved some remnants, although these have
become meaning less.
The passive verb-forms, produced by internal
vowel-change, only remnants of which are preserved
in the oldest Aramaic, are still full of life in Hebrew.
An exception to this is found only in the passive of
the first conjugation, which has been largely replaced
by a reflexive form. Similarly, in the case of the
formation of a jussive mode, Hebrew holds an inter-
mediate position between Aramaic and Arabic. He-
brew has in common with Arabic a prefixal definite
article and an inseparable interrogative particle.
Syntactically, Biblical Hebrew remained in a very
primitive stage, lacking long and artificially con-
structed periods. The sentences are short and are
connected with one another by the conjunction
“and,” which particle has various logical meanings.
This frequent use of “and” has, how-
Hebrew = ever, also developed in Hebrew some
Syntaxand very fine and expressive forms of con-
Vo- struction, which, though occurring
cabulary. here and there also in cognate dialects,
have found their highest development
in Hebrew. One of these is the peculiar consecutive
use of “and” to connect a series of clauses with
an initial clause, which latter defines them tem-
porally. On the whole, the particles in Biblical
Hebrew are little developed and frequently ambigu-
ous. In later Hebrew this fault has to a large ex-
tent been remedied. As in all Semitic languages,
the concrete meanings of the word-stems are more
or less apparent and present in the consciousness of
the speaker or writer in all the derived word-forms.
Hebrew, moreover, admits of almost no compounds,
except in proper names. There is a great lack of
adjectives and adverbs, especially of the latter; and
the so-called tenses are rather modalities of action.
All these facts make Hebrew, indeed, a vehicle for nar-
ration of great vividness, expressiveness, and beauty,
and cause it asa language of poetry, especially of
religious poctry, to stand unsurpassed. On the
other hand, it is, at least in its Biblical form, ill
adapted for the expression of abstract ideas and
involved philosophical thought—a deficiency but
partially overcome by medieval writers by the inven-
tion of abstract terms and adjectival and adverbial
forms.
In the Middle Ages it was a prevailing opinion that
Hebrew was the primitive speech of mankind. This
view was based on “etymologies and other data in
the early chapters of Genesis [comp.
Berliner, “ Beitrige zur Hebriischen
Grammatik,” p. 9; Konig, “ Hebriaisch
und Semitisch,” pp. 118 e¢ seg.], which, however,
were as plausibly turned by Syriac writers in favor
of their own tongue ” (“ Encyc. Bibl.” ii. 1987; comp.
Audo, “Syriac Dict.” Preface). A similar opinion
was expressed by Rab (Sanh. 38b). Medieval Jew-
ish scholars considered Arabic and Aramaic, the only
cognate languages known to them, as corruptions of
Origin.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hebrew Education Society
Hebrew Language
Hebrew. In more recent times, however, two op-
posing theories have been held. One, whose chief
exponent is 8. D. Luzzatto, is that Hebrew is de-
rived from Aramaic; the other, whose chief expo-
nent is Olshausen, is that it is derived from Arabic.
D. 8. Margoliouth (“Lines of Defense of Biblical
Tradition,” and “ Language of the Old Testament,”
in Hastings, “ Dict. Bible,” iii. 25 e¢ seq.) claims that
Hebrew is nothing but a vulgar dialect of Arabic.
Not only, however, can the question concerning the
rclative age of a language whose origin lies in pre-
historic times not be answered positively, but the
necessity of the question itself is problematical:
cognate languages may be parallel developments of
one mother tongue instead of being derived from
one another. All that can be said is, that by the
testimony of the El-Amarna tablets (15th cent. B.c.),
which contain Canaanitish or Hebrew glosses, and
by the evidence of Egyptian, which contains Canaan-
itish loan-words borrowed some centuries before
those tablets were written, Canaanitish or Hebrew
was spoken in Palestine as early as the beginning of
the second millennium B.c.
The other question, however, whether the Israel-
ites brought their language with them from their
original home or adopted it after the conquest of Pal-
estine, as the Philistines seem to have
Language done, is quite pertinent. From the
ofthe facts that Abraham was connected
Patriarchs. with Haran, that Jacob is called an
Aramean (Deut. xxvi. 5), and that the
language is designated as Canaanitish and, as men-
tioned above, was spoken in Palestine centuries
before the Exodus, one might assume, as some
scholars have done, that the Israelites’ language
in patriarchal times was Aramaic. Hommel (“ The
Ancient Hebrew Tradition”) maintains that Ara-
maic is a later development; that in patriarchal
times Aramaic was but an Arabic dialect; and that
originally the Israelites spoke Arabic. From the
fact, however, that the Phenicians claimed to have
come from the border of the Persian Gulf, where
Abraham also is said to have had his home, and from
the fact that Assyro-Babylonian is in both pho-
netics and vocabulary closely connected with Ca-
naanitish, the probability of the Israelites having
brought their language along with them is not to be
denied.
Since Israel was a conglomeration of tribes, one
expects to find their language showing dialectic
differences. Such differences are distinctly men-
tioned in the case of the Ephraimites (Judges xii. 6),
who could not pronounce w. In some books ex-
pressions occur which show perhaps local coloring,
on the basis of which some distinguish a Judaic
and an Ephraitie dialect; others, an Ephraitic, a
Judaic, and a Simeonie dialect. But there is no
certainty that such expressions are not rather char-
acteristics of the individual authors. Differences
that may have existed in the pronunciation of the
various localities were obliterated by a later level-
ing vocalization. That such obliteration has taken
place in some cases is apparent from the differences
in the vocalization of proper names existing be-
tween the Masoretic text and the Septuagint.
The literature of Hebrew covers a period of about
Hebrew Language
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
308
3,000 vears, from the earliest documents of the Bible
down to modern times. In so longa period the lan-
guage hasuaturally undergone many changes. One
may reckon broadly two phases of linguistic devel-
opment: (1) the creative period, during the life of
the language as the people's speech, and (2) the re-
productive period, during its life in hterary monu-
ments only.
The creative period of Hebrew may be divided
into three phases: pre-exilic, post-exilic, and Mish-
naic (the justification for including the
last-named phase in this period is
given below). The limited literature
preserved in the Bible and the nature
of most of its books, which are the products of
schools rather than of individuals, as well as the un-
certainty as to the time and place of their composi-
tion, make the historical tracing of the development
of Biblical Hebrew a hazardous undertaking. Ina
general way it may be said that the language under-
went little change during the first commonwealth ;
but with the growth of the arts and the develop-
ment of professions and trade, new expressions had
probably to be coined and foreign words borrowed.
Accordingly loan-words from Assyrian and Egyp-
tian, from the languages of India and Persia,
and perhaps from Greek are successively found.
Whether such borrowing was done directly or
through the mediation of Phenician can not be
ascertained positively. Direct borrowing need be
assumed only in the case of Aramaic loan-words.
The Arameans were the immediate neighbors of
northern [srael from the very beginning. The
foreign settlers who were domiciled in Israel after
the downfall of the kingdom of the Ten Tribes prob-
ably also spoke Aramaic.
The correctness of the view that Aramaic was the
international language of anterior Asia as early as
the eighth century B.c. is not certain (comp. A.
Ehrlich’s commentary to II Kings xviii. 26), but
there is no doubt that this was the fact after the
Babylonian exile. Gradually Aramaic gained pre-
dominance in the Persian empire, displacing local
forms of speech, and Hebrew, like other languages,
had to succumb to its influence and ceased to be
spoken. As was to be expected from such close
relationship between the two languages, one bor-
rowed from the other during the entire period
that Hebrew and later Aramaic were together alive
in Palestine. Even the oldest Biblical writings, as
the Book of Judges, the Elohistic document, and
Isaiah, show Aramaisms (79M. TIM, [PO, Nw, etc. ).
It is interesting in this connection to notice that the
oldest Canaanitish inscription known, the patera of
Ba‘al Lebanon, contains also an Aramaic loan-word
(HWS).
By the post-exilic writers pre-exilic literature
seems to have been recognized as already classic.
Their language differs from that of the preceding pe-
riod in three respects: (1) there is conscious imitation
of earlier works (asin Daniel, the late Psalms, Ecclesi-
asticus (Sirach]); (2) the borrowings from Aramaic
increase in volume and Persian words come in (some
of the Aramaisms are not taken over bodily, but are
translated into Hebrew, e.g., npy $5 in Ecclesiastes) ;
(3) the popular language gains entrance into litera-
Biblical
Hebrew.
ture and thus leads Biblical or literary Hebrew into
Mishnaie or popular specch.
As mentioned above, beginning with exilic times
Aramaic influence began to be felt in Palestine.
Nehemiah complains that the children
from mixed marriages are unable to
speak Hebrew (Neh. xiii. 24). For
some centuries the two languages were
spoken side by side, somewhat like Low and High
German in certain states of Germany to-day. But
as time went on the circle of the Hebrew-speaking
population narrowed down, in spite of that lan-
guage having sole control of the school, the syna-
gogue, and the literature, until Hebrew became ex-
clusively the language of literature and prayer. In
the house of the patriarch Judah I. the maid servant
still spoke Hebrew (Meg. 18a). The literary monu-
ments of this last phase of living Hebrew have been
preserved in tannaitic literature, the chief work of
which is the Mishnah.
The “language of the Mishnah” (“ Perek Kinyan
Torah”), or “ the language of the sages” (‘Ab. Zarah
58b; Hul. 137b; Kid. 2b), as the language of tan-
naitic literature is called in later generations, is not
an artificial product of the schools, but is the living
language of the last centuries of Jewish independ-
ence. This has been convincingly shown by 8. D.
Luzzatto (in “Orient, Lit.” 1846, col. 829; 1847,
cols. 1 ef seg.). Mishnaic Hebrew differs from Bib-
lical in the following particulars: in admitting a
greater contingent of Aramaic loan-words; in bor-
rowing to a considerable extent (about 300 vocables)
from Greek and Latin; in the greater Aramaization
of its syntax; in the larger substitution of the re-
flexive verb-forms for the internal passives; in the
loss of the feminine plural forms of the imperfect;
in the use of the plural ending “-in” for “-im” and
of the plural suffix “-n” for “-m”; in the more defi-
nitely temporal use of the tenses; in the wider use of
the participle; in the introduction of periphrastic
verb-forms; in the substitution of the relative par-
ticle for the construct state; in the more definite use
of prepositions and conjunctions, and in the aug-
mentation of their number; and frequently in a dif-
ferent use of the gender of nouns. Words are fre-
quently used in their pausal forms outside of pause;
Biblical words-are used in other than Biblical senses,
and new forms are built from Biblical stems. The
laws of word-formation are, however, the same as in
Biblical Hebrew. A conscious imitation of Biblical
language is noticeable in the liturgy only. In the
rest of tannaitic literature such imitation is expressly
avoided (comp. Hul. 187b).
The term “New Hebrew” or “ Neo-Hebraic,” by
which post-Biblical Hebrew is usually designated,
should preperly be used only for the
Neo-Hebrew. language of the reproductive period,
beginning with amoraic literature
(early in the third century of the common era) and
continuing until the present. This period is of no
interest to the student of Hebrew philology, but is
of great importance for the study of Hebrew litera-
ture. New Hebrew presents a variety of styles dif-
fering not only according to periods, but also, and
perhaps even in a greater degree, according to the
subjects treated. In the treatment of this form of
Mishnaic
Hebrew.
309
the language, periods and departments of literature
must naturally crossone another. Inthe first place,
prose must be separated from poetry. As regards
linguistic peculiarities the prose literature may be
divided into six groups; the poetical, into five.
Original work in midrashic literature is not the
rule: the greatest part of it is compilation from
older works. Probably most of these works were
originally written in Aramaic and translated by the
compiler into Hebrew. ‘This is especially the case
in the later Midrashim, while in the earlier compila-
tions considerable Aramaic material las been pre-
served. The language differs little from that of the
haggadic portion of tannaitic literature, and in some
cases it has preserved linguistic material from tan-
naitic times which is not found in any extant tannaitic
literature. Words which belong neither to Aramaic,
Persian, Greek, nor Latin, although not found in
Mishnaic Hebrew, are certainly tannaitic. Here be-
long also the halakic code (Yad ha-Hazakah) of
Maimonides, the language of which is based on the
language of the Mishnah, and the later codes imi-
tating that of Maimonides.
The writers on Talmudic subjects, especially the
commentators of the Talmud and the Posekim or
legal authorities, who adopted Mishnaic Hebrew
and avoided Biblical language, imitated to a great ex-
tent the Babylonian Talmud, interspersing their He-
brew not infrequently with Aramaic. The neces-
sary lack of esthetic qualities in such a mixture is
not very noticeable to one familiar from his youth
with the Talmud. But the application of this style
of writing to other than Talmudical subjects among
medieval German Jews, loaded as it was with taste-
less plays upon words and tessellated with Biblical
phrases wrongly used, presents an unesthetic result
difficult to understand and not very pleasing to a
modern reader.
The language used chiefly by writers on philolog-
ical and Biblical subjects shows in its earliest forms
the influence of the Bible and of the payyetanim
(comp., é.g., Ben Asher, Saadia, “ Yosippon,” and the
Ahimaaz Chronicle). But the payyetanic influence
soon disappears and leaves a midrashic Hebrew
somewhat influenced by the Bible and by philo-
sophic Hebrew. The use of Aramaic elements is
very rare.
The preceding phases contributed little to the in-
crease of the vocabulary. On syntax they had no
influence whatsoever. This can not be said of the
philosophic phase, which differs so much from the
preceding that a new name was applied to it by
medieval writers. It has been called “the language
of the translators,” or “the language of astronomy ”
(“leshon tekunah”), This phase isa product of the
translation of Arabic works on philosophy and
science. The insufficiency of the old language for
the treatment of scientific subjects
Philo- was supplied by the creation of new
sophic word-forms, especially of abstract
and Rhe- terms and adjectives, by giving new
torical meanings to old words, and by borrow-
Hebrew. ing fromthe Arabic. The new exten-
sions of meanings were modeled on the
cognate Arabic; and, the translations being slavisily
literal, the Hebrew received the imprint of Arabic
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hebrew Language
syntax. In many cases a familiarity with Arabic
is necessary to understand this kind of writing.
This style was successfully imitated by philosoph-
ical and scientitic writers who wrote originally in
Hebrew.
Closely akin to this form of language is that which
appears in the writings of the Karaites, except that
Karaitic literature uses some pay yetanic word-forms
—a legacy of geonic times—and a number of terms
peculiar to itself.
The Samaritans also attempted to write Hebrew ;
but, with one notable exception (comp. the Samari-
tan Chronicle, published in “R. E. J.” xliv. 188 e¢
seq.), their Hebrew is only an object of curiosity.
In the last quarter of the eighteenth century a re-
action set in against the corrupt style of the German
rabbis (see above). The writers of those days
desired to influence the people in the direction of
estheticism. They therefore introduced a_ style
chiefly based on the Bible, the “rhetorical” style
(“melizah”), asitiscalled. This style occurs indeed
even earlier, but in very rare cases (comp., ég.,
Archevolti, Oliveyra). Since the vocabulary of the
Bible, taken in its proper sense, is entirely insufti-
cient to express modern ideas, resort was had to
periphrases, whose terms, taken from the Bible,
frequently meant something quite different in their
original context. Asaccnsequence the style became
stilted and bombastic, incapable of giving an exact
expression to ideas and things, and forcing the writer
to be unnatural and to limit himself to jejune sub-
jects. This style dominated Hebrew literature for
three generations.
The necessities of Jewish lite in Russia and the
rise of national cousciousness throughout European
Jewry required a better-adapted vehicle of expres-
sion than was offered by the rhetorical style; and
this demand was supplied by the creation of modern
Hebrew. This style combines philological with
philosophic Hebrew, eliminating from the latter its
Arabic syntax. It has created a number of new
terms to express modern ideas and things, drawing
upon all phases of Hebrew, and, through the He-
brew writers in Palestine, upon Arabic. Scientific
terms for which it has no equivalent it adopts from
the modern languages. The periodic structure of
the sentence is successfully cultivated.
Later Hebrew poetry may be divided into (1) pay-
yetanic or liturgical, frequently having rime but ne
meter, and (2) metrical, first introduced by Dunash
b. Labrat. The language of the payyetanim may
again be subdivided into an earlier and
Poetry. a later period. The earlier period (.
800-1100) presents a language based
on the whole on the Bible, but enriched with a
multitude of new forms. The number of new noun-
formationsin the piyyut amount to more than forty.
New verbs are formed from nouns and particles,
new verb-forms are used for or alongside of older
ones; defective stems are treated as biconsonantal],
or more correctly as middle-waw stems; the insep-
arable prepositions are used with the finite verb;
new plural forms are used where the older language
has only the singular, or the singular is used where
the older language has only the plural; masculine
nouns are abstracted from older feminine forms, and
Hebrew Language
Hebron
new feminine forms are built from older masculine
forms. Some nouns have double plural endings:
the masculine ending is sometiines used where the
older language has the feminine, and vice versa.
The later piyyut literature, especially the peniten-
tial hymns, abandons a number of payyetanic word-
forms and uses more Talmudic expressions.
The language used in metrical poetry presents,
broadly speaking, three styles: the Spanish, the
German, and the Russian. The language of the
Spanish school follows the philosophic style and,
though chiefly based on the Bible, contains a num-
ber of Arabisms in the significations of words, in
phraseology and, more rarely, in syntactical construc-
tions. The German style imitates chiefly the rhetor-
ical style, is smoother in construction and purer in
diction, but nerveless. The Russian or modern style
strives after realism; it can not, therefore, limit itself
to Biblical phrases, but uses the resources of all
periods, even the latest coining of words.
The national and realistic tendencies of the pres-
ent generation have inspired many writers to try to
enlarge the vocabulary of the language
Revival of by the coinage of new terms and to
Hebrew revive Hebrew as a spoken language.
asaSpoken Throughout Europe circles were
Language. formed that had as their object the
cultivation of Hebrew conversation.
It was in the nature of conditions that in Europe
such efforts could meet with no signal success. It
was Otherwise in Palestine. There the resurrection
of Hebrew as the tongue of the home and of the
school has been realized toa considerable degree. See
DICTIONARIES; GRAMMAR, HEBREW; LITERATURE,
HEBREW; Poetry, D1IpacTic; PRONUNCEATION OF
HEBREW; SEmITIC LANGUAGES; VOCALIZATION.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For Biblical Hebrew: Gesenius, Gesch. der
Hebriiischen Sprache und Schrift, 1815; the various ency-
clopedias, sv. On Aramaisms in the Bible: Kautzsch, Die
Aramaismen im Alten Testament, 1902, where older litera-
ture is given. On Hebrew loan-words in Palestinian Aramaic:
Jacob, in Stade’s Zeitschrift, xxii. 83 et seg. On the relation
between Hebrew and Phenician: Stade, in Murgenldndische
Forschungen, 1875, pp. 167-232. On Hebrew and Ethiopic:
Halévvy, Mahberet Mclizah wa-Shir, 1894, pp. 38-44. On
Mishnaic Hebrew: A. Geiger, Lehr- und Lesebuch zur
Spraehe der Misehnah, 1845; L. Dukes, Die Sprache der
Mischnah, 1846: 8. D. Luzzatto. in Orient, Lit. 1846, cols.
829 et seq.; 1847, cols. 1 et seg.; Weiss, Mishpat Leshon ha-
Mishnah, 1867; Siegfried and Strack, Lehrbuch der Neu-
hebriiischen Sprache und Literatur, 1884; Siegfried. in
Kohut Memorial Volume. pp. 543-556 ; 8, Stein, Das Verbum
der Mischnahsprache, 1888; F. Hillel, Die Nominatlbil-
dungen in der Mischnah, 1891: H. Sachs, Die Partikeln der
Mischnah, 1897. On terminology of Mishnaie Hebrew: W.
Bacher, Die Aelteste Terminologie der Jitdischen Schrift-
auslegung, 1899; P. Rieger, Versuch etner Technologie und
Terminologie der Handwerke in der Mischnah, 1894; H.
Vogelstein, Die Landwirtschaft in Patdéstina zur Zeit der
Mischnah, 1894; J. Krengel, Das Hausgertith in der Misch-
nah, 1898; G. Lowy, Die Technologie und Terminologie der
Miler und Bicker in den. Rabbinischen Quellen, 1899.
On philosophic Hebrew: Goldenthal’s preface to his edition
of Ibn Roshd’s commentary on Aristotle’s Rhetoric, 1842.
On scientific, especially phijosophie, terminology: Bonafos, Ne-
fer ha-Gedavrim, ed, 1798; glossaries at the end of some mod-
ern works on medieval Hebrew literature, as Steinschneider,
at the end of R. Hillel’s Tagmale. ha-Nefesh: D. Kaufmann,
in his Attributenlehre and Die Sinne,and others. On Kara-
itic terminology : Gottlober, Bikkoret le-Toledat ha-Karaim,
Glossarv ; Steinschneider’s glossary at the end of Delitzsch’s
edition of Aaron of Nicomedia’s “Ez Hayyim. On philological
Hebrew: Levias, 4 Dictionary of Philological Terminology
in Hebrew (in preparation). On modern Hebrew: Klausner,
Sefat *“Eher Safah Hayyah, in Ozar ha-Sifrut.y.,also printed
separately; Ben-Yehudah, Hebrew Dictionary (in course of
publication). On payyetanic Hebrew: Zunz, S. P. pp, 118 et
sety., 365 et seq.; idem, Ritus, pp. 234 et seq. On later poetic
Hebrew: Albrecht in Stade’s Zeitschrift, xix. 134 se
T.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
310
HEBREW LEADER, THE: Weekly news-
paper; publishedin New York city by Jonas Bondy,
who edited it. The first number was issued in May,
1850, and the last on Dec. 8, 1882. Its theological
position was conservative. <A distinct feature of
the paper was its department of Masonic news.
G, A. M. F.
HEBREW LITERATURE. Sce LITERATURE,
HEBREW.
HEBREW NATIONAL, THE. Sce PERiop-
ICALS.
HEBREW OBSERVER, THE (75197): Peri-
odical; published in London by Abraham Benisch.
The first and only number appeared Jan. 7, 1853.
G. A. M. F.
HEBREW REVIEW, THE: Literary maga-
zine; published at Cincinnati, Ohio, during the years
1881 and 1882 (2 vols.) by the Rabbinical Literary
Association of America. The president of the asso-
ciation, Dr. Max Lilienthal, and after his decease
the vice-president, Dr. K. Kohler, edited the maga-
zine,
G, A. M. FE.
HEBREW REVIEW AND MAGAZINE
OF RABBINICAL LITERATURE, THE
(aya) : Journal; published in London by Morris
Jacob Raphali from Oct. 8, 1884, to and including
Sept., 1835 (2 vols.). The object of the magazine
was to foster the study of rabbinical literature.
G. A. M. F.
HEBREW SABBATH-SCHOOL UNION OF
AMERICA: Organized at Cincinnati, Ohio, July,
1886, “to provide a uniform system forall Hebrew
Sabbath-schools in the United States by promul-
gating a uniform course of instruction and by train-
ing competent teachers.” It was the first attempt
to secure united effort in the cause of Jewish relig-
ious education in the United States. The union has
paid special attention to publishing text-books for
religious schools; among its publications may he
mentioned: “School Edition of the Book of Prov-
erbs,” by Adolph and Isaac 8. Moses; “The Ethics
of the Hebrew Scriptures,” by the same authors;
“Selections from the Psalms.” by M. Mielziner;
“How to Organize a Sabbath-School,” by Henry
Berkowitz; “Guide for Jewish Sabbath-Schoo]
Teachers,” containing papers on instruction in Bib-
lical history by K. Kohler, in post-Biblical history
by B. Felsenthal, on religio-moral instruction by
David Philipson, and on the teaching of Biblical
history in primary classes by Edward N. Calisch.
The union has introduced the leaflet system, and has
published three series of leaflets on Biblical history,
and one series on religious themes, such as “The
Love of God,” “Our Love for God,” “ Love and Re-
spect for Parents,” “ Truth-Speaking,” etc. These
leaflets are used in over one hundred schools through-
out the country. The union has also published a
curriculum for Jewish Sabbath-schools (see “ Re-
port for 1898,” p. 8). Ninety schools are included
in the union. It receives a subsidy from the Union
of American Hebrew Congregations, and meets in
biennial session at the same time as that organiza-
tion. Its presidents have been M. Loth, 8S. M.
311
Winkler, M. Mielziner, and the present (1908) in-
cumbent, David Philipson. The headquarters of
the union are in Cincinnati.
A. Dek.
HEBREW STANDARD, THE: Weekly;
founded in New York city by J. P. Solomon on
Sept. 23, 1881. Solomon has been its sole editor
and proprietor. The paper is strongly conserva-
tive and of Orthodox tendencies, and has always
taken a definite political standpoint, that of the
Democratic party. “The Hebrew Standard” was
the first attempt at the issue of a cheap, popular
Jewish newspaper in the English language.
G. A. M. F.
HEBREW UNION COLLEGE: A rabbinical
college founded by Dr. Isaac M. Wise at Cincinnati,
Ohio, in 1875. In 1854 Dr. Wise had made an at-
tempt to establish a similar institution under the name
of the “Zion College Association.” Failing, and
being convinced that such a college could be estab-
lished only through a union of congregations, he
agitated for the formation of such a union. In 1872
Henry Adler of Lawrenceburg, Ind., offered $10, -
000 toward the establishment of a rab-
binical college. Thereupon delegates
from thirty-four congregations con-
vened at Cincinnati and organized the
UNION OF THE AMERICAN HEBREW CONGREGATIONS,
with the objects of establishing a Hebrew theolog-
ical institution for the education of rabbis for the
Jewish pulpit in America and of promoting Jewish
learning. In 1874 the council of this union met
at Cleveland, Ohio, and adopted laws to govern
the proposed institute, then named “The Hebrew
Union College,” which was placed under the author-
ity of a board of governors consisting originally of
twelve, and later on of twenty-four, members ap-
pointed by the council.
The college was opened in October, 1875, with
one preparatory class. As this class advanced, others
were added, until the preparatory department
was completed with four classes in 1879. In Sep-
tember of that year the collegiate or rabbinical
department was opened with one class, consisting
of the graduates from the preparatory department.
As this class advanced, each year another was
added, until in 1883 the collegiate de-
Organiza- partment also was complete with
tion. four classes; in July of that year the
first four rabbis were graduated and
publicly ordained. In 1896 a Semitic department
was added for the benefit of those who, without in-
tending to enter the rabbinate, desired to pursue
Semitic studies. To this department, and also to
the preparatory department, female and non-Jewish
students are admitted.
Dr. Wise was the first president, and retained the
office until his death (March 26, 1900), when the
senior member of the faculty, Dr. Moses Mielziner,
was appointed president. The faculty comprises
six professors and several instructors. By its char-
ter the college is authorized to confer academic
degrees. Graduates from the preparatory depart-
ment receive the degree of bachelor of Hebrew let-
ters. The collegiate course of studies leads to the
Founda-
tion.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hebrew Language
Hebron
rabbinical diploma, or, in case the student does not
intend to accept a rabbinate, to the degree of bach-
elor of divinity. The postgraduate course leads to
the degree of doctor of divinity. The latter degree
is also conferred on theological authors in recogni-
tion of special merit.
During the first years of its existence the college
held its daily sessions in two of the Cincinnati syna-
gogues; but in 1881 a building on West Sixth street
was purchased.
When the college was established its library con-
sisted of a very limited number of Hebrew books.
Through donations and purchases it
has grown to about 20,000 volumes
and pamplhiets. Rev. Dr. Samuel
Adler of New York bequeathed to the college his
very valuable theological library and the sum of
91,000, the yearly interest of which is expended
in its enlargement. Another collection of valuable
books was presented to the college by the trustees
of Temple Emanu-El, New York. During the
twenty-seven years of its existence the college has
graduated about one hundred rabbis.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Proceedings of the Union of American
Hebrew Congregations, i.-iv.
A. M. M.
Dr. Mielziner (the author of this article) died Feb.
18, 1903, and the duties of president were tempora-
rily assumed by Prof. G. Deutsch. On Feb. 26,
1908, Dr. K. Kohler was elected president.
The faculty of Hebrew Union College as at
present constituted (1903) includes:
Dr. K. Kohler (president)—theology, Hellenistic literature,
history of liturgy, and beginnings of Judaism; Dr. David Phil-
ipson—homileties; Dr. Louis Grossmann—ethics and pedagog-
ics: Dr. G. Deutsch—history and Jewish literature; S. Mann-
heimer, B.A.—-translation of Bible commentators, Hebrew, and
Mishnah Abot; Ephraim Feldman, B.D.—history of philosophy
and introduction to the Talmud; Dr. Henry Malter—<Arabic
grammar, Judzeo-Arabic philosophy, and Jewish code; Caspar
Levias, M.A.—Bible exegesis, Midrash, Hebrew, and Aramaic;
Dr. Moses Buttenwieser—Bible exegesis; Dr. Leon Magnes
(librarian)—translation of Bible and prayer-book, Biblical his-
tory and geography. A
HEBREW UNION COLLEGE JOURNAL:
Monthly magazine, edited and published by stu-
dents of Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio,
in the interests of that institution. The first num-
ber appeared in October, 1896. It publishes articles
on Jewish literary subjects, occasional sermons de-
livered to or by the students, and reviews of current
literature,
Library.
G. A. M. F.
HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO. See New TeEsta-
MENT.
HEBRON (p14n): 1. A city of Asher, properly
“Ebron”; called also ABDON.
2. Town in Palestine, about 17 miles southwest
of Jerusalem; if has a population of 14,000, inclu-
ding 1,100 Jews—690 Sephardim and 410 Ashke-
nazim. In 1890 there was a Jewish population of
1,490, but it has been diminishing. Most of the
Jews still live in a ghetto surrounded by walls, and
known in Spanish as “ El Cortijo ” (the court). It con-
sists of a maze of narrow and dark passages, into
which the doorways open at distances of not more
than three feet. In ancient times Hebron was known
Hebron
Hecht
as “ Kirjath-arba,” after its reputed founder, Arba,
father of the Anakim (Josh. xiv. 15, xxi. 11). But
according to modern exegetes the name is equiva-
lent to the “city of the four.” The patriarch Abra-
ham resided at Hebron (Gen. xiii. 18, xiv. 18, xvill.
1, xxiii. 2), and purchased a cave known as the
“ Double Cave,” where Sarah was buried. Abraham,
Isaac, Jacob, and Leah were afterward buried there
(see BuRTAL; CAVES IN PALESTINE; MACHPELAH).
Jacob went from Hebron to Egypt (Gen. xxxvii. 14,
xlvi. 1); the spies visited the city (Num. xiii. 22). In
the time of Joshua, Hoham, King of Hebron, was
captured there and put to death by the Israelites.
Hebron and its territory were at first given to Caleb
(Josh. xiv. 6 et seq., xv. 18; Judges i. 20), and then
to the Levites of the family of Kohath; it ultimately
became one of the six cities of refuge (Josh. xx. 7).
UR R= ee eS re nee SOO SEO
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
a i
S12
Local tradition attributes the foundation of the
modern community to Malkiel Ashkenazi (14507), in
whose honor a service is held every
The year on the anniversary of his death
Modern (Azulai, “Shem ha-Gedolim,” p. 88).
Com- Fifty years afterward, however, it
munity. wasdifticult to forma“ minyan” (quo-
rum). The following were chief rabbis
of Hebron: Israel Zebi (1701-81); Abraham Castel
(1757); Aaron Alfandari (1772); Mordecai Ruvio (¢.
1785); David Melamed (¢. 1789); Eliakim (end of
18th cent.); Hayyim ha-Levi Polacco (¢. 1840); Hai
Cohen (1847-52); Moses Pereira (1852-64); Elia Shi-
man Mani (1864-78); Rahamim Joseph Franco (1878-
1901); Hezekiah Medini (former chief rabbi of Ka-
rasu-Bazar in the Crimea; known as the “ Hakam
Bashi Wakili”; acting chief rabbi since 1901).
a ee eee see nt ete
GENERAL VIEW OF HEBRON.
(¥rom a photograph by the American Colony, Jerusalem.)
David lived there until the conquest of Jerusalem,
and was there anointed as king (II Sam. ii. 1, 11; ii.
2 et seg.; Vv. 1 et seg.). Absalom’s revolt began there
(II Sam. xv. 9 e¢ seg.); Rehoboam fortified the city
(II Chron, xi. 10).
Hebron was one of the towns which possessed a
Jewish community after the return from Babylon
(Neh. xi. 25), but the Idumeans appear to have after-
ward acquired it, since they were expelled by Judas
Maccabeus (I Macc. v. 65). Occupied by the Ro-
mans, it-was taken by Simon, son of Gioras, one of
the leaders of the insurrection; but the Roman gen-
eral Cerealis retook it by storm, killed the garrison,
and burned the city (Munk, “La Palestine,” p. 57).
Jews did not inhabit Hebron after the destruction
of the Temple, nor under the Romans, Byzantines,
Arabs, or Crusaders. Benjamin of Tudela found
only a single Jew (1171) at St. Abraham, as Hebron
was called by the Crusaders. He asserts, however,
that the Church of St. Abraham had been a syna-
gogue under the Turkish rule. Forty years later R.
Samuel bar Shimshon, who explored Palestine in
1209, makes no mention of Jews in Hebron.
Hebron possesses four synagogues within the
ghetto and four batte ha-midrash without. The
oldest synagogue, that of Abraham Abinu, is sup-
posed to date back three centuries. It was restored
in 17388 and enlarged in 1864. The others are Kene-
set Eliyyah Mani (like the former, Sephardic), and two
Ashkenazic. There are three yeshibot, the oldest hav-
ing been founded by Israel Zebi (d. 1781); the sec-
ond was formed by the union of four older yeshibot.
It possesses the library of Vivas, a native of Leg-
horn, and is very rich in Spanish works. Hebron
possesses four Talmud Torahs for Sephardim and
one for Ashkenazim. There are three mutual-aid
societies and a free dispensary. The Sephardic
community is administered by the chief rabbi and
a council of seven members; the Ashkenazic by the
chief rabbiand acouncil of three. Most of the Jews
are supported by the “ halukkah,” but there area few
carpenters and shoemakers. Among the antiquities
are the Double Cave, revered by the Mohammedans;
the ruins of Abraham’s house; the tombs of Gad,
Nathan the prophet, Abner (David’s commander-in-
chief), and others. The modern name of the town is
3138
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hebron
Hecht
Al-Khalil (lit. “the friend” [7.e., of God], a name by
which Abraham was known; comp. Isa. xli. 8).
Numerous rabbinical authors have lived at He-
bron, including Elijah de Vidas (1525), author of
“Reshit Hokmah”; Solomon Edni (1622), author of
“ Meleket Shelomoh”; Moses ha-Levi (1668), author
of “Yede Mosheh”; Israel Zebi (1731), author of
“Urim Gedolim”; Abraham Conque (1740), author
of “Abak Derakim”; Hayyim Abraham Israel Zebi
(1776), author of “Be’er Mayim Hayyim”,; Aaron
Entrance to the Mosque at Hebron, Containing the Tra-
ditional Cave of Machpelah. .
(From a photograph by the American Colony, Jerusalem.)
Alfandari (1772), author of “ Yad Aharon ” and “ Mer-
kebet ha-Mishneh ”; Mordecai Ruvio (1785), author
of “Shemen ha-Mor”; Judah Divan (1792), author of
“Zibhe Shelamim”; Elijah Sliman Mani (d. 1878),
author of “ Kisse Eliyahu”; Rahamim Joseph Franco
(d. 1901), author of “Sha‘are Rahamim ”; Hezekiah
Medini, author of “Sedeh Hemed.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim; Hazan, Ha-
Ma‘alot i-Shelomoh, Alexandria, 1889; S. Munk, La Pales-
tine, Paris; Benjamin II., Acht Jahre in Asten und Af-
rika; Abraham Hayyim Penso, Minhat Kena’ot, Jerusalem,
1879; Lunez, Jerusalem, 1895-1901.
D. M. FR.
3. Third son of Kohath, son of Levi and founder
of the Levitic family, the Hebronites (Ex. vi. 18;
Num. iii. 19, 27; xxvi. 58). The Hebronites are
often mentioned in the enumerations of the Levites,
under the name either of “ Ha-Hebroni” (Num. iii.
27, xxvi. 58; I Chron. xxvi. 28, 30, 31) or of “Bene-
Hebron” ({ Chron. xv. 9, xxiii. 19). In the time of
David the chief of the Hebronites was called Jeriah
(I Chron, xxiii. 19, and elsewhere). In the fortieth
year of David’s reign the Hebronites were settled
af Jazer in Gilead, of whom 2,700 mighty men were
appointed by the king superintendents over the two
and one-half tribes, and 1,700, under Hashahiah,
held similar positions on the west of the Jordan (2.
xxvi. 30, 31).
4. One of the tribe of Judah, a descendant of
Caleb (20. ii. 42, 43),
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HECHIM. Sce H6OcHUEIMER.
HECHINGEN. Sce HouENZzOLLERN.
HECHT: Family, resident at Boston, Mass.
Jacob H. Hecht: Born at Heinstadt, Germany,
March 15, 18384; died Feb. 24, 1908. He went to
America in 1848; resided in California from 1859 to
1869, when he removed to Boston, Mass. He mar-
ried Lina Frank (Jan. 23, 1867). From the beginning
of his residence in Boston he took an active inter-
est in the affairs of the community. He was for
over fifteen years president of the United Hebrew
Benevolent Association and was one of its charter
members; he was the first president of the Fecdera-
tion of Jewish Charities; treasurer of the Hebrew
Industrial School, founded by his wife; and the
first president of the Elysium Club. He was ap-
pointed trustee of the state hospital by the late Gov-
ernor Ames, and was successively reappointed by
Governors Russell, Wolcott, and Crane. He was the
first chairman of the Boston branch of the Baron de
Hirsch Society for the Amelioration of the Condi-
tion of Russian Refugees.
Lewis Hecht: Born at Heinstadt, Germany,
June 27, 1827. He went to America in April, 1848,
stayed fora short time in Baltimore, Md., went to
San Francisco, Cal., in June, 1853, and to Boston
in 1862. IIe was for many vears a director of
the United Hebrew Benevolent Association and of
the Leopold Morse Home, a member of the ad-
visory board of the City Institutions, and a director
of the New York and New England Railroad
Company.
Lina Frank Hecht: Wife of Jacob H. Hecht;
born in Baltimore, Md., 1848. In 1889 Mrs. Heeht
founded in Boston the Hebrew Industrial School, the
purpose of which was to Americanize and educate im-
migrant Jews. Her husband acted as its treasurer,
and made liberal provision in his will for its main-
tenance. Mrs, Hecht was an active member and
officer of the Women’s Educational and Industrial
Union. She is a director of the Leopold Morse
Home, and for many years was president of the He-
brew Women’s Sewing Society. She is a member
and officer of the Jewish Publication Society of
America, the Civil Service Reform Association,
the Jewish Chautauqua, the National Council of
Jewish Women, the board of trustees of the Feder-
ation of Jewish Charities, the board of trustees of
the Associated Charities, and isa trustee of the Bath
Department of the City of Boston.
Louis Hecht: Brother of Jacob H. Hecht; born
in Heinstadt, Germany, Oct. 5, 1840. He went to
America in 1848, lived in Baltimore for nine years,
and then removed to San Francisco, Cal. He en-
gaged in business there with his brothers, Col. Mar-
cus H. Hecht, Isaac Hecht, Jacob H. Hecht, and
Abraham E. Hecht. In 1872 he removed to Boston,
Mass., and in the following year married Rosa, a
sister of Lina Frank Hecht. Louis Hecht has been
for many years the president of the Elysium Club;
he was the first president of the Leopold Morse
Home, and is a director of the Federation of Jewish
Charities.
A. G. Mo.
Hecht
Hefez
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
314
HECHT, EMANUEL: German educationist;
born 1821 in Nordheim, Bavaria; died Feb. 25, 1862,
in Hoppstidten, Birkenfeld-Oldenburg. On gradu.
ating in 1842 from the Royal Training College for
Teachers at Wirzburg, Hecht was appointed by
the district government of Lower Franconia special
instructor of candidates for admission to his alma
mater, a position which he soon relinquished in
order to devote himself to his life-work of teaching
Jewish youth. During tlyree years’ service in a
small community in Lower Franconia he published
numerous essays in Jewish periodicals, a Biblical
history for Jewish elementary schools, and a He-
brew primer. On the invitation of David Einhorn
he went in 1845 to Hoppstiidten as teacher in the
Jewish communal school. In conjunction with
E. Goldmann, Einhorn’s successor in the office of pro-
vincial rabbi, Hecht secured in 1856, aftera campaign
of vigorous agitation, full recognition by the state
of the Jewish communal schools in Birkenfeld on
equal terms with the Protestant and Catholic schools,
and of Jewish communal teachers on the same foot-
ing as their Christian colleagues. In 1858 he was
elected member of the “ Provincialrath ” (diet) of the
principality.
In 1859 Hecht was charged with having reviled
the state religion in his “ Unterscheidungslehre
Awischen Juden- und Christenthum,” but on trial
before the provincial court was completely exoner-
ated. As coeditor with A. Treu of Minster, he
published in 1858 a religious journal entitled “Der
Israclitische Haus- und Schulfreund,” which was
discontinued after its first year. Hecht’s literary
labors earned for him the honorary degree of Ph.D.
from the University of Bonn,
Among the historical and pedagogical studies
published by Hecht are a monograph on the Jews of
Treves (Trier), and a pamphlet entitled “Der Vor-
singerdienst der Israeliten nach Seiner Gesetzlichen
Entwickelung.” He is best known as a writer of
devotional works and of text-books on religion. His
writings include: “Biblische Gesch.” Fulda, 1842
(American ed. revised by Samuel Adler and trans-
lated into English by M. Mayer, New York, 1859);
“Tsrael’s Gesch. von der Zeit des Bibelabschlusses bis
zur Gegenwart,” Leipsic, 1855 (the 8d ed., ¢. 1877,
is such in name only, being virtually a new work
by M. Kayserling; Eng. transl. of Ist ed. by Max
Lilienthal, Cincinnati, 1857); “Handbitiehlein ftir
Leseschtiler des Hebriischen,” Fulda, 1842; “ Ver-
such das Hebriiische Durch Deutsche Worter zu
Erlernen,” Kreuznach, 1858; “ Die Hebriische Vor-
schule,” 2b. 1859; “ Kleine Hebritische Grammatik,”
2b. 1859; “Das Judenthum: ein Religionsbuch fir
Hodhere Schulen,” 25. 1860; “ Liederbuch fiir Israe-
litische Schuwlen,” 76. 1860; “Der Uebersetzungs-
Iehrer,” 7b. 1859; “Der Pentateuch Grammatisch
Zergliedert,” Brunswick, 1858: “ Geschiftsaufsitze
fiir Schulen,” 7¢.; “Hister’s Lesebiicher ftir die
Israelitischen Schulen Bearbeitet,” Essen, 1855:
“Unterscheidungslehre Zwischen Juden- und Chiris-
tenthum,” Hoppstiidten, 1859; “Sefer Chajim, mit
Uebersetzung und Neuen Gebeten,” Brilon; “Kelch
des Heils: Gebetbuch fiir Frauen und Jungfrauen,”
2b.; “Der Trostbecher,” Berlin, 1861; “Der Penta-
teuch in Lehrreichen und Erbaulichen Betrachtun-
gen, Erziihlungen und Gedichten.” Berlin, 1862; “ Die’
Heilsquelle: Volistiindiges Hebriiisches Gebetbuch
mit Deutscher Uebersetzung Nebst einem Anhange
mit Deutschen Gebeten,” Brilon, 1860; “ Ueber Sab-
bath und Fetertagsschulen und deren Einrichtung,”
Fulda, 1842.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ben Chananja, 1862, pp. 90 et seq.; Sinai,
1862, pp. 112 ef. sey.; Steinschneider, Hehr. Bibl. v. 39, art.
607, and elsewhere.
a H. H. M.
HECKSCHER, FERDINAND: German act-
or; bornat Berlin 1806; died at Sondershausen Feb.
28, 1891. Heckscher, who had a fine bass voice,
began his theatrical career as a singer, but, finding
his opportunities In this ficld too limited, he aban-
doned music entirely (1883) and devoted his energies
to the drama.
He studied under Benelliand at the private theater
Urania, Berlin, and made his début at the Kénig-
stidtische Theater in that city in 1825. From 1826 to
1830 he was at Sondershausen; from 1830 to 18382 at
Bremen ; 1832-84 at Konigsberg ; 1884-41 at the Hof-
theater, Dresden, where he played in company with
Emil Devrient, Carl Weymar, and F. W. Porth; from
1841 to 1845 at Breslau; and until 1846 as director of
the theater at Sondershausen, He retired shortly
after. He appeared as a star at the Hoftheater,
Berlin, and in Cassel, Coburg, Brunswick, Liibeck,
Konigsberg, and Danzig.
Heckscher’s principal réles were Ingomar, Stephan
Foster, Wetter von Strahl, Wallenstein, Otto I1I., Don
Ramiro, Feseo, and Moliére in Gutzkow’s “Das Ur-
bild des Tartuffes.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fliiggen, Biihnenlexvikon, 1892, p. 132; Eisen-
berg, Bithnentlerikkon, s.v.
S. E. Ms.
HECKSCHER, SAMUEL BEN MEFR: Ger-
man scholar; lived at Altona in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries; author of a work entitled
“ Kinah ‘al Serefah,” in Hebrew and German, on the
great fire which raged at Altona in 1711 (see Stein-
schneider, “Cat. Bodl.” col. 2426; Benjacob, “Ozar
ha-Sefarim.” p. 528).
«G, M. SEL.
HEDER (lit. “chamber,” “room”): Colloquial
name for a Jewish old-fashioned elementary school.
The Talmudical expression “tinokot shel bet rab-
ban” (children, or, rather, babies, of the teacher’s
house; school-children) may indicate that the cus-
toni of giving instruction in the home of the teacher
dates back to the early centuries of tle common era.
The heder of Germany early in the last century,
as described by Jost, differs little from the Russian
and Polish heder, except that boys and girls were
seated together. There is little doubt that during
the past centuries the heder underwent but slight
modification, and that its first radical modifications
came when it began to give way to schools arranged
more in accordance with the modern spirit.
The typical heder was held in the room, seldom
large, in which the “rebbe” (corrupt form of
“rabbi”) and his family lived, and
where he or other members of his house-
hold, often the “rebbitzin” (rabbi’s
wife), carried on other businesses or oc-
cupations to supplement the small income obtained
from teaching. The hoursof study were very long,
A Typical
Heder.
315
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hecht
Hefez
sometimes beginning early in the morning and last-
ing, in the winter, to nine or ten at night. The
youngest children were taken to and from the heder
by the “belfer” (“behelfer,” or “assistant ”), who
usually maltreated them and ate part of the food
which they took with them to school. In the heder
the children were divided into “kittot,” or classes,
and while the rebbe was teaching one class, a second
class, at the same long table, was repeating (“ha-
zern,” from “hazar” = “to repeat”) a diffcrent les-
son; and as all pupils were required to read as
loud as possible, yelling at the top of the voice being
preferable, the clamor of the heder could be heard far
away, While the din inside was such that one person
could hardly hear what the other was saying.
The atmosphere of the heder was unhealtliful, as-
nobody cared for ventilation or for comfort; the
time allowed for play was very brief; and vacations
were given only in the months of Nisan and Tishri,
the principal festival months. Various punish-
ments were meted out to disobedient or inattentive
children, and chastisement often meant cruel flog-
ging; it is no wonder, therefore, that the heder was
to a very large extent a cause of physical deteriora-
tion, and that many remember with horror the
school-days spent there. J. L. Gordon’s semi-
humorous description of his teacher Reb Todros,
and of the armory of instruments of torture with
which he enforced discipline and attention (“Col-
Jected Works,” i. 112-118, Odessa, 1889), may be
somewhat exaggerated, but in all essentials is, to a
very large extent, true.
This system of education was but slightly modi-
fied in the smaller cities of Russia by the advent of
the HASKALAH, or progressive movement; in the
larger cities the change for the better became more
marked in the present generation. While it is still
true that the “melammed,” as the teacher is called
by everybody except his pupils, is
Modern usually an incompetent and often an
Improve- ignorant man who has failed in every
ments. other occupation, there were always
true rabbinical scholars in the profes-
sion; and many of the “maskilim,” who were ac-
quainted with modern ideas, attempted to introduce
more recent methods when fate placed them in the
ranks of the “melammedim.”
At the present time, and especially in the larger
cities, the heder has risen from its former low state.
The “heder metukkan” (improved heder) is a new
institution that has appeared during the last few
years, in which new methods of instruction have
been introduced with varying success. Much is ex-
pected, but little has hitherto been accomplished,
by the method known as “‘ibrit be-‘ibrit” (Hebrew
in Hebrew), the translating of the Hebrew words of
the Pentateuch or the Hebrew text-book by other
Hebrew words, and not in Yiddish, as formerly.
All improved methods of Jewish education naturally
imply shorter hours and the inclusion of secular
subjects, and consequently the new hadarim can not
impart as much Hebrew and rabbinical information
as was possible under the old régime, when the
pupil was confined for about ten years from twelve
to fourteen hours daily in the old-style heder.
The heder which appeared in the United States
with the advent of the Russian Jews is but a faint
reflection of the original institution, The hours of
study are short, the boys are not submissive, and
the rebbe, who is in most cases unable to speak
English, is more often a martyr than a tyrant.
Some of the hadarim in New York
In are held in spacious rooms that are
the United used for no other purpose, are fur-
States. nished with the conveniences usual in
modern schools, and are adniinistered
by learned and intelligent. teachers. The propor-
tion of hadarim held in small synagogues is much
larger in New York than in Russia, because they are
not in the way of the “bahurim,” or adults, who
in Russia study at the synagogue or bet ha-midrash
throughout the day.
There is a considerable heder, or, rather, anti-
heder, literature of the time when haskalah was
propagated more zealously than now. Some excel-
lent parodies, like Reuben Zimlin’s “ Haggadah 1i
Melammedim” (Odessa, 1885), portray the faults and
the troubles of the melammedimn, and give un idea of
the low esteem in which they were held. The heder
as distinguished from both the Taimud Torah, or large
communal school, and the yeshibah, or Talmudic
school for the older boys, has been the subject of
much adverse legislation in Russia, and is still nom-
inally under the ban of that government.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gottlober, in Ha-Boker Or, iv. 1089; Zeder-
baum, in Kohelet, Supplement to Ha-Metiz, pp. 1-4, St. Peters-
burg, 1881; Strassburger, Gesch. der Hrziehung und des
Unterrichts bet den Israeliten, pp. 151 et seqg., Breslau, 1885 ;
D. Blaustein, in Helpful Thoughts (reprinted in MeKenna’s
Our Brethren of the Tenements and the Ghetto), pp. 14-15,
New York, 1899; Kahana, Rabbi Yisrael Ba‘al Shem-Tob,
pp. 10-11, Jitomir, 1900.
P. WI.
H. R.
HEDYOT (='Ide7ry¢): Term used in Mishnah,
Talmud, and Midrash to designate a private person,
a commoner, not belonging to the class of kings,
priests, officers, etc. (¢.g., Sanh. 90a, “three kings
and four hedyotot”); also an ignorant man; one of
low character; an uncultured, ill-mannered indi-
vidual (“ha-hedyot kofez be-rosh”). “The lowest
man rushes ahead” and gives his opinion first in the
presence of prominent men (Meg. 12b). “Hedyot” is
used as opposed to “sons of kings” (Num. R. viii. 4);
of man asopposed to God (i. ; Kid. 28b); of a com-
mon priest as distinguished froma high priest (Yeb.
59a); of a Samaritan as opposed to an Israelite
(Sanh. 21b); of an untrained as opposed to a skilled
worker (M. K. 10a); “ Jeshon hedyot” (vulgar or pop-
ular parlance) is spoken of in contradistinction to
the language of the learned (B. M. 104a); “meshal
hedyot ” (@ proverb or popular saying) occurs fre-
quently in the Midrash; “shitre hedyot” (private
writings, letters, or documents) are opposed to Bib-
lical books (Shab. 116b); “parah hedyotit” means
acow of common stock, not trained for plowing
(Ruth R. i. 19).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jastrow, Dict. i. 3388; Levy, Newhebr. Wor-
terb. 1.4538; Bacher, Aus dem Worterbuche Tanchum Je-
ruschalmis, Hebrew part, p. 26.
D. S. MAN.
HEFEZ. See GENTILI.
HEFEZ B. YAZLIAH (also called HEFEZ
ALLUF): Halakist; lived toward the end of the
tenth century. Rapoport assumes him to have been
Hegel
a Palestinian, but it is more probable that he lived
in Kairwan. He was the author of a work, vow lost,
in which, as its name “Sefer ha-Mizwot” indicates,
the 618 commandments were enumerated (see Com-
MANDMENTS, Tur 613). Unlke his predecessors
in this field, Hefez, besides un enumeration of the
laws, gave, in brief, reasons for their existence.
He was thus, perhaps, the first in the ficld of the
“Ta‘ame ha-Mizwot,” which afterward had so many
exponents. Moreover, the "Sefer ha-Mizwet” con-
tained uot only the Biblical ordinances, but also their
Talmudic-rabbinical amplitications and interpreta-
tions. Hefez gave what may be described as a brief
sununary of Biblical, Talmudic, and geonic litera-
ture, including also formulas for prayer. The book
was highiy esteemed by the Spanish and Gernian-
French authorities, and the decisions of its author,
who was referred to as “Gaon,” “Resh TKallah,”
and “ Alluf,” had such authority that even Maimon-
ides acknowledged himself under obligation to him
(comp. his responsum in “ Pe’er ha-Dor,” No. 140).
Hefez was a gramimarian and a philosopher as well
as a halakist, and, what is very remarkable, he man-
aged to express his philological and philosophical
opinions even in his “Sefer ha-Mizwot.” Jonah ibn
Janah, Judah ibn Balaam, Solomon Parhon, and
Tanhum Yerushalmi quote grammatical as well as
lexicographical remarks from Hefez’s “Sefer ha-
Mizwot.” To judge from these quotations, Hefez
not only explained the Biblical verses of a legisla-
tive pature which he had quoted in his enumeration
of the 618 laws, but also at times referred to pas-
sages from Scriptural books other than those of the
Pentateuch; even post-Biblical literature was drawn
upon for the interpretation of Biblical passages.
Hefez was a philosopher of authority, as a quota-
tion from his work in Judah b. Barzillai’s commen-
tary to the “Sefer Yezirah” indicates (pp. 55-56),
As Kaufmann has already noted, Bahya ben Joseph
ibn Pakuda’s proof of the existence of God from the
combination of the four elements, notwithstanding
their opposing natures (“ Hobot ha-Lebabot,” i. 6),
is werived from the “Sefer ha-Mizwot” of Hefez.
Bahya’s teaching concerning the unity of God and
the anthropomorphism of the Scriptures may prob-
ably also be traced back to Hefez, whose work is
quoted by Bahya in the introduction to his book
(comp. Kaufmann in Judah b. Barzillai’s Commen-
tury, p. 835). The tosafists, like the other German-
French authors, quote legal decisions from the works
of Hefez, while assuming the author of them to have
been R. Hananeel. It has been clearly demonstrated,
however, that not Hananeel, but Hefez, was the
author of the work. The misunderstanding arose
through a false interpretation of the abbreviation
rot YEN D) as Seoon ‘Dp. Whether the “book
Hefez” is any other than the “Sefer ha-Mizwot” is
still in doubt; it is possible that the “ book Hefez ”
may mean the “book by Hefez,” and therefore the
“Sefer ha-Mizwot.” If both refer to the same book,
the “Sefer ha-Mizwot ” must have heen a voluminous
codex, as the quotations from the “book Hefez”
cover all departments of Jewish law—ritual law.
civil law, ete. Onthe other hand, Rapoport’s ciaim,
which makes Hefez the author also of the “ Mikzo’ot ”
(see HANANEEL b. HusHIEL), has been proved to be
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
i ee = ee
316
without foundation. Nor was Hefez the author of
the “ We-Hizhir,”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Berliner, Wigdal Hananel, pp. 17-20 (Ger-
man part); Bloch, in R. FE. J. vy. 87-40; Benjacob, Ozar ha-
Scfarim; First, in Orient, Lit. x. 110-111; L. Levysohn, th.
X. 247-250; Reifmann, th. xii. 617; Rapoport, Toledot R.
Hananel, pp. 30-33; tdem,in Kobak’s Jeschurun, viii. d7-
65; tdem,in Warnheim’s Kebuzat Hakamim, pp. 52-60.
8. S.
HEFKER: Ownerless property, rendered so
either by the formal renunciation of the owner, or
by an act of the court (Git. 86b), or by the death of
proselyte who has left no Jewish heirs (B. B. 149a;
Maimonides, “ Yad,” Zekiy yah, i. 6). Property found
in seas, rivers, or deserts is also supposed to be own-
erless, and comes under the category of hefker (Shul-
han ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 278, 12, 274, Isserles’
gloss; comp. B. K. Sia, the ten institutions estab-
lished by Joshua; see TAKKANAH). In all these cases
property of this kind is acquired by the first who
cares to take possession of it. The renunciation of
ownership in property, whether movable or immov-
able, in order to be valid must be made in the pres-
ence of three men (Ned. 45a). The formula of such
a renunciation is very simple: “This my property
shall be hefker.” If no one takes possession of the
property during the first three days, the previous
owner may retract his original statement, but not
after that, although he can always acquire possession
of it in the same manner as any one else (Ned. 44a;
comp. R. Nissim ad loc.; “Yad,” Nedarim, ii. 17;
Hoshen Mishpat, 278, 9). The renunciation is valid
only when made in general terms, not when it
is declared hetker only to a certain class and not to
another class, as when one declares it hefker for the
poor and not for the rich (Peah vi. 1; Yer. Peah vi.
1; B. M. 800; comp. “ Noda‘ Biyehuda,” series ii.,
to Yoreh De‘ah, 154). As to whether property is
legally hefker if one or two individuals have been
specifically excepted by the owner, compare “ Na-
halat Zebi” to Hoshen Mishpat, 20, 1.
With a few exceptions, the manner of acquiring
is the same in case of hefker as in other cases (see
ALIENATION AND ACQUISITION). While usufructuary
possession fora period of time is snflicient to establish
a claim to real estate when the claim is that it was
sold or given away (see HazaKan), such possession
is not sufficient in the case of hefker, where posses-
sion must consist of actual acquisition of the object
(B. B, 54a), Painting one portion of a wall in a
house, or plowing a field with the intention of
taking possession of it, is sufficient (“ Yad,” Ne-
darim, ii.; Hoshen Mishpat, 275). Allthe poor-laws
that pertain to land are disregarded in the case of
hefker property. If, however, the previous owner
takes possession of it again, he is obliged to observe
all those laws, except that of separating the tithes
(“ma‘aser”: Ned. 44a; “ Yad,” Mattenot ‘Aniyim, v.
24). One who has acquired possession of an ownerless
ox need not make restitution for the injuries the ox
had committed before he acquired it (B. K. 13b;
Hoshen Mishpat, 406, 2, 3). See INHERITANCE;
Poor LAws; PROSELYTEsS.
8. 5. J. H. G.
HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIED-
RICH: German philosopher; born at Stuttgart
1770; died at Berlin 1831. After studying at the
317
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hoge
University of Ttibingen he kecame tutor at Bern
and Franktfort-on-the-Main, and lJecturer (1801) and
professor (1805) of philosophy at Jena. In 1808 he
became director of a gymnasium at Nuremberg; in
1816, professor at Heidelberg; and in 1818, professor
at Berlin.
Hegel may be said to have been the founder of a
school of thought dominant in Germany until the
rise of modern natural sciences in the beginning of
the later half of the uineteenth century; even now,
though discredited in the land of his birth, it is to
a certain extent represented by prominent thinkers
in England and America. His system has been de-
scribed as “logical idealism.” According to him,
all thatisactual or real is the manifestation of spirit
ormind; metaphysics is coincident with logic, which
develops the creative self-movement
His of spirit as a dialectic and necessary
Philosophy process. God is this self-unfolding
of History. spirit, and in the course of the self-
realizing, free process of unfolding,
creation leaps into being. The world is a develop-
ment of the principles that form the content of the
divine mind.
The influence of Hegel’s system was especially
potent in giving the first impulse toward the elabo-
ration of a philosophy of history. From his point
of view history is a dialectic process, through which
the divine (the absolute mind), in ever fuller meas-
ure, is revealed and realized. This absolute is the
unlimited and as such, in the fate of the various na-
tions which represent successive limited and finite
objectifyings of certain particular phases of the dia-
lectic movement, exercises His highest right, and
thus operates in history as the Supreme Judge. This
interpretation of history has since become funda-
mental in the theology of some of the leaders of the
Jewish Reform movement. It has been made the
basis for assigning to Israel a peculiar task, a mis-
sion. Furthermore, it has helped to enlarge and
modify the concept of revelation. Applying these
principles to Jewish history, the Jewish Hegelians
(Samuel Hrrsce especially) have discovered in that
history also the principle of development, a succes-
sion of fuller growths, of more complete realizations
in form and apprehension of the particular spirit or
idea represented by Israel in the economy of pro-
gressive humanity.
Hegel was also the first seriously to develop a
philosophy of religion. In his lectures on this sub-
ject he treats first of the concept of re-
His ligion, then of the positive religion,
Philosophy and finally of the absolute religion.
ofReligion. Religion is defined as “thinking the
Absolute,” or “thinking consciousness
of God”; but this thinking is distinct from philoso-
phy in so far as it isnot in the form of pure thought,
but in that of feeling and imaginative representa-
tion (“ Vorstellung”), The Godhead reveals Himself
only to the thinking mind, therefore only to and
through man. Religion, in the main, is knowledge
of God, and of the relation of man to God. There-
fore, as rooted in imaginative representation, not in
pure idea, religion operates with symbols, which are
mere forms of empirical existence, but not the specu-
lative content. Yet this content of highest specu-
lative truth is the essential, and is expressed in the
absolute religion. Through the “cultus” (worship)
the Godhead enters the innermost parts (*das In-
nere”) of His worshipers and becomes real in their
self-consciousness. Religion thusis “the knowledge
of the divine spirit [in Himself] through the medium
of the finite mind.” This distinction between sym-
bol and content, as well as the conception of religion
as the free apprehension, in an ever fuller degree,
of the divine through the finite (human) mind, was
utilized by Samuel Hirsch in his rejection of the view
that Judaism is Law, and that the ceremonies, re-
garded by him as mere symbols, are divinely com-
manded, unchangeable institutions, The idea (or
“Lehre ”) is the essential. This idea realizes itself,
imperfectly at first, in symbol, but with its fuller
unfolding the symbols become inadequate to con-
vey the knowledge of God. Jt was in this way that
Hegel’s philosophy of religion became of importance
for modern Jewish thought.
IIlegel himself, when treating of positive or defi-
nite (“ bestimmte ”) religion, dealt with Judaism as
only one of the temporary phases through which the
knowledge of God passed in the course
Hegel’s of its evolution into the absolute relig-
View of ion-—Christianity. He divides “be-
Judaism. stimmte Religion” into (4) natural re-
ligions and (6) the religion of “spiritual
[“ geistigen ”] individuality.” Inthe first group are
included, besides the lowest, called by him the “im-
mediate ” religions, or “religious of magic,” the Ori-
ental religions—the Chinese “religion of measure ”;
the Brahman “religion of fantasy”; the Buddhis-
tic “religion of inwardness” (“Insichsein”). Mid-
way between this group and the second he places
Zoroastrianism, which he denominates the “religion
of good,” or “of light,” and the Syrian religion, des-
ignated as the “religion of pain.” In the second
group he enumerates the “religion of sublimity ”
(Judaism), the “religion of beauty” (the Greek),
and the “religion of utility ” (“ Zweckmissigkeit ”),
or “of intellect ” (the Roman).
In thus characterizing Judaism, Hegel practically
restates, in the difficult, almost unintelligible, tech-
nical phraseology of his own system, the opinion com-
mon to all Christian theologians since Paul. The
unity (of God) as apprehended by Judaism is al-
together transcendental. God is indeed known as
“Non-World,” “Non-Nature”; but He is merely
cognized as the “Master,” the “Lawgiver.” Israel
is the particular people of this particular God.
Israel is under the Law; yea, Israel is forever indis-
solubly bound up with a particular land (Palestine),
The influence of Hegel is discernible in the wri-
tings of Samson Raphael Hirsch, who turned Hegel’s
system to good account in defense of
Orthodoxy. Samuel Idirsch, on the
other hand, was induced to write his
“ Religionsphilosophie der Juden” by
the desire to show that his master
Hegel had misunderstood Judaism.
He showed that the central thought in Hegel’s sys-
tem, that man is God’s image and that through him
the divine is realized on earth, is fundamental also
to Judaism. The universal implications of the
God-consciousness, vindicated by Hegel for Chris-
His
Influence
on Jewish
Thinkers.
Hegesippus
Heidenheim
tianity alone, were certainly before that Jewish, in the
dialectic process through which the God-conscious-
ness finally rose to the climactic harmonizing of Na-
ture and God (the transcendental and the natural) in
the “absolute religion” (Christianity). The Jewish
God-idea is not barrenly transcendental. The an-
tithesis between God and non-God is overcome in
the concept of Man (not merely one God-Man) as
combining the divine and the natural (sce Gop).
The theory of Hegel that Judaism is Law, that
its motive is fear, that the holiness and wisdom of
God as cognized by it are attributes merely of the
sublime, unapproachable Sovereign, and as such are
beyond the reach of man, as well as the other view
that Judaism is detinitively Palestinian, is contrary
to the facts of Jewish history. Even the Bible
shows that religion as reflected by it had progressed
beyond thisstage. The Hegelian method of regard-
ing man and mind as under the law of growth, and
God, not as a fact, but as a force, prepared the way
for modern theories of evolution and the science of
comparative religion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hegel’s Werke, especially Vorlesungen iiber
die Philosophie der Religion, Bertin, 1852; Samuel Hirsch,
Die Religionsphilosophie der Juden, Leipsiec, 18438; Piiei-
derer, Gesch. der Reliqionsphilosophie, Berlin, 1883; Piin-
jer, Gesch. der Religionsphilosophie, Brunswick, 1880, 1883 ;
Windelband, History of Philosophy (trans).), New York,
3898: Zeller, Gesch. der Deutschen Philosophie seit Leih-
nitz, 2d ed., Munich, 1875.
iE. G. H.
HEGESIPPUS: 1. One of the earliest writers
of the Christian Church; lived at Rome, whither he
had gone about 150 from Palestine or Syria, by
way of Corinth; died about 189. According to
Eusebius, he was by birtha Jew; and though this is
only an induction on the part of Eusebius, it may be
accepted as true. He wrote, in five books, a work
entitled ‘Yrouvawara Tlévre, or fete Suyypdpupara,
a historical apology for Christianity, in which he at-
tempts to prove the truth and continuity of Christian
doctrine in the apostolic churches and also the suc-
cession of bishops. It was indirectly aimed against
Gnosticism and heresies in general. Of Jewish he-
retical sects he mentions seven (Eusebius, “ Hist,
Eccl.” iv. § 21): Essenes, Galileans, Hemerobaptists,
Masbotheans, Samaritans, Sadducces, and Pharisees.
He cites the apocryphal gospels of the Hebrews and
of the Syrians, Jewish traditions, and Judso-Chris-
tian literary productions. He is thus an important
authority for Jewish heresies and for the earliest
history of the Christian Church. Only fragments
of the ‘Yrouviuara have been preserved—in the
“Historia Ecclesiastica” of Eusebius and (one ex-
tract) in Photius, “ Bibliotheca,” p. 282.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hiigenfeld,in Zeitschrift ftir Wissenschaft-
liche Theologie, 1878, p. 8304; idem, Ketzergesch. pp. 30, 84;
Harnack, Gesch. der Altchristlichen Litteratur, i. 483;
idem, Chronologie der Altchristlichen Litteratur, i. 180 et
seqg.; Holtzmann, Lehrbuch der Neutestamentlichen The-
ologie, p. 104; the literature cited by Weizsacker, in Her-
zog-Hauck, Real-Eneye. vii. 531.
2. Presumed name of the author of a free Latin
translation, in five books, of the “ Warsof the Jews”
of Josephus; lived in the second half of the fourth
century. The name is merely a corruption of “Jo-
sephus”; it occurs as “Josephus” as early as the
fifth century, in Encherius, and as late as the tenth,
in Widerkind of Saxony. In the latter part of the
Ambrosian manuscript (8th or 9th cent.) the head-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
318
ing “Josippi Liber Primus” has been changed by a
later hand to “Egesippi.” «A Bern manuscript of
the ninth century has “ Hegesippus”; while a Vati-
can manuscript of the ninth and tenth centuries has
“ Ambrosius” as the author, though without any
foundation. The text of Josephus is treated very
freely in Hegesippus—mostly in a shortened form.
It was first printed at Paris, 1510, and has been often
reprinted. It was used by theauthorof the Hebrew
“Yosippon.” See JoseruHus, FLAVIUS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Schiirer, Gesch. i. 73 (and the authorities there
cited), 124; Rapoport, in the introduction to Stern’s ed. of
Parhon’s “Aru, p. X., Posen, 1844; Zunz, G. V. p. 159.
HE-HALUZ (lit. “the armed,” or “the van-
enard ”); Hebrew magazine or year-book which ap-
peared irregularly between 1852 and 1889, Its Ger-
man title, “ Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen tiber
Jidische Geschichte, Literatur, und Alterthums-
kunde,” indicates the nature of its contents. It was
edited and published by Joshua Heschel ScHorr as
the realization of a plan mapped out by his friend and
teacher Isaac Erter, who had died one year before
the first volume appeared. Geiger, A. Krochmal,
J. 8. Reggio, M. Dubs, and M. Steinschneider were
among the contributors to the earlier volumes, the
major portion of which, however, was written by
the editor. The articles in the lafer volumes were
written by Schorr exclusivety. The dates and
places of publication are as follows: vols. i.-iil.
Lemberg, 1852-56; iv.~vi. Breslau, 1859-61; vii.-
viii. Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1865-69 ; ix.-xi. Prague,
1873-80; xil.-xili, Vienna, 1887-89.
“He-Haluz” was the most radical of Hebrew
periodical publications, and Schorr’s bold attacks on
the great rabbinical authorities, and even on the
Talmud, aroused intense opposition. Entire works,
like A. M. Harmolin’s “ Ha-Holez ” (Lemberg, 1861)
and Meir Kohn Bisrritz’s “ Bi’ur Tit ha-Yawen”
(German title, “O. H. Schorr’s Talmudische Exe-
gesen,” Presburg, 1888), were written to disprove its
statements, and few men were subjected to so much
vindictive criticism and gross personal abuse as its
editor, who was equally unsparing in his counter-
attacks. Many of his extreme views on Talmudical
subjects were, however, rejected even by radical
critics (see Geiger, “Jiid. Zeit.” iv. 67~80).
5 P. Wt.
HEIDELBERG: University town in the grand
duchy of Baden, Germany; it has a population of
40,240, including 882 Jews. The community there
dates from the middle of the thirteenth century, as is
shown by historical references to the presence of Jews
in the neighborhood of Heidelberg during the reign
of Ludwig IT. (1258-94). In 1300 the protected Jew
Anselm lived in the town itself; in 1321 there were
several others there; and in 1849 Jews were among
those who suffered during the Black Death. How-
ever, it is probable that but few were martyred, for
the elector Rupert I. made Heidelberg at that time
a place of refuge for Jews fleeing from Worms,
Speyer, and other places. From the middle of the
fourteenth century onward Jews were regularly re-
ceived in Heidelberg under comparatively favorable
conditions. The “ Hochmeister” (rabbi) Lebelang
was granted protection, and permission to open at
Heidelberg or in some other place in the Palatinate a
319
school whose pupils were also assured of protection.
The cemetery was enlarged in 13869. 1n 1381 Heidel-
berg became the seat of the federated neighboring
communities. The elector Rupert II. expelled all
Jews in 1890, and gave their cemetery, synagogue,
houses, and manuscripts to the university, although
on becoming king he permitted Jews to stay in other
cities of his domains.
Jews are not mentioned again at [Icidelberg until
the middle of the seventeenth century, when five
members of the famous Oppenheimer family were
living there. At that time Heidelberg seems to have
heen the seat of the electoral dayyan Isaac Margolis.
During the French invasions of 1689 and 1698 the
Jews of Heidelberg and the refugees from Mann-
heim staying with them suffered greatly. In 1704
thirteen Jewish families were living at Heidelberg,
including the first district rabbi, [Hirsch Friinkel, who
was succeeded by David Ullmann (d. 1762). In 1763
the elector invested Hirsch Moses Mergentheim with
the office of chief rabbi of the Palatinate. Olympia
Fulvia Morata, born at Ferrara of Jewish parents,
was offered the chair of Greek at the university in
1554, but was prevented from accepting by ill
health. Baruch Spinoza was called to a chair of
philosophy in 1698, but declined. Among the teach-
ers of Hebrew at the university were the baptized
Jews Paulus Staffelstein (called May 18, 1551) and
Emanuel Tremellius (called July 8, 1561), and also
Johann Reuchlin, Sebastian Minster, Simon Gry-
neus. The University of Heidelberg was perhaps
the first in Germany to admit Jews as privat-
docenten, among these being H. B. Oppenheim
(1842; political economy) and Alexander Fried-
lander (1843; law), grandson of Rabbi Joseph Fried-
linder. The first Jewish regular professor in Heidel-
berg was the Orientalist Gustav Weil, appointed
1861. At present (1903) the university includes
among its professors Georg Jellinek (international
law).
Heidelberg became part of the grand duchy of
Baden in 18038; by the edict of 1808 the Jews were
granted full civic liberty. Heidelberg belongs, un-
der the “ grossherzoglicher Oberrath ” of the Israel-
ites of Baden, to asynagogal district that includes the
communities of Baierthal, Gross-Sachsen, Heidel-
berg, Hemsbach, Hockenheim, Ketsch, Leutershau-
sen, Liitzelsachsen, Meckesheim, Nussloch, Rohr-
bach, Reilingen, Sandhausen, Schwetzingen, Wall-
dorf, Weinheim, and Wiesloch.
The synagogal districts of Ladenburg and Sins-
heim with their communities are also under the
jurisdiction of the district rabbi of Heidelberg. H.
Pinkus is now rabbi (1908), his two immediate pred-
ecessors having been Hillel Sondheimer and Solo-
mon Ftirst. There are many societies and foun-
dations in the community, including a B’nai B’rith
Friedrichsloge.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lowenstein, Gesch. der Juden in der Kur-
pfaiz, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1895; Salfeld, Martyrologium :
Statistisches Jahrh, des Deutsch-Israelitischen Gemeinde-
bundes, Berlin, 1908.
D. S. Sa.
HEIDENHEIM, PHILIP: German rabbi and
teacher; born at Bleicherode June 14, 1814. Jn 1834
he was called as teacher to Sondershausen, where he
THE JEWISTHT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hegesippus
Heidenheim
worked under JT. Wolffson, whom he succeeded in
1837 as principal and preacher. In 1840 he was
appointed teacher at the “Realschule,” where he
taught (1840-86) mathematics, geography, German,
Latin, and history.
In 1845, having received his rabbinical diploma
from Rabbi Léb Blaschke in Schénlanke and from
Rabbis J. J. Oettinger and Michael Sachs in Berlin,
he was appointed “ Landesrabbiner” of the princi-
pality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen ; and shortly
afterward the few scattered Jewish communities
in the principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt were
added to his jurisdiction.
Tn 1848 he attended the conference of German teach-
ers held in Eisenach, and was elected one of its offi-
cers. It was due to his initiative that in the first
section of the constitution, which originally read,
“The foundation of all education is Christian,” the
word “Christian” was changed to “moral and relig-
ious ” (“sittlich-religids”). Four hundred members
voted in favor of the amendment, proposed by Hei-
denheim ; and thissoembittereda missionary who was
present that he exclaimed: “ We have sold Christ to
the Jews.” The liberal tendency of the time appears
also from the fact that this gathering took place on
Rosh ha-Shanah (New-Year’s Day), and that the
Jewish community granted to its rabbi leave of ab-
sence for the occasion. At Passover, 1902, Heiden-
heim celebrated the sixty-fifth anniversary of his in-
augural sermon. He died June 14, 1906.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1877, p. 666; 1878, p. 294:
1879, p. 651; 1881, pp. 746 ef seq.
8. 1).
HEIDENHEIM, WOLF (BENJAMIN) BEN
SAMSON: Germanexegete and grammarian; born
at Heidenheim in 1757; died at Rédelheim Feb. 23,
18382. At an early age Heidenheim was sent to
Firth, where he studied Talmud under Joseph Stein-
hardt, author of “Zikron Yosef,” and, from 1777,
under Hirsch Janow.
Besides Talmudic litera-
ture, Heidenheim de-
voted himself to the
study of Hebrew gran.-
mar, and particularly of
the Masorah. In 1782
he left Firth, probably
on account of Janow’s
opposition to Mendels-
sohn’s translation of the
Pentateuch, of which
Heidenheim was an ad-
mirer. He wentto Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, where
he made the acquaint-
ance of the most promi-
nent scholars, among
them Wolf Breidenbach and Solomon Dubno. There
began his literary activity, which lasted fifty years.
Heidenheim, encouraged by Dubno, conceived the
idea of issuing a revised edition of the Penta-
teuch, with a commentary of his own. ‘The first
work edited by him was Tbn Ezra’s “Moznayim,” to
which he added a critical commentary (Offenbach,
1791). Seven years later Heidenheim began his crit-
ical edition of the Pentateuch, which he entitled
Wolf Heidenheim.
Heidenheim
Heilbut
“Sefer Torat Elohim.” It contained the Targum,
the commentaries of Rashi and Rashbam, the * Min-
hat Shay” of Solomon Norzi(commen-
His Pen- tary), his own glosses and Masoretic
tateuch. references, and his supercommentary
on Rashi entitled * Habanat ha-Mik-
ra.” He based his commentary chiefly on the ac-
cents, adding numerous grammatical notes. But
the undertaking. on the business side, was too diffi-
cult for him alonc, and he was compelled to stop at
Gen, xiii, 16.
He next entered into partnership with Baruch
Baschwitz, an encrectic business man; through the
assistance of Breidenbach they obtained from the
Count of Solms-Rédelheim, under favorable condi-
tions, a license to establish a printing-press at Rédel-
heim, whither they removed in 1799. Heidenheim
immediately began an edition of the Mahzor, witha
Hebrew commentary by himself and a German trans-
lation by himself and Breidenbach (1800). In order
to give a correct text, Heidenheim had
secured the most ancient manuscripts,
among them being one of 1258, as well
as the earliest Italian and German edi-
tions. At theend of the Mahzor to Shemini ‘Azeret
there is printed Heidenheim’s “ Ha-Piyyutim weha-
Payetanim,” an essay on the liturgists.
In 1806, Baschwitz having withdrawn, Heiden-
heim became sole proprietor. In that year he
published his “ Mebo ha-Lashon,” a treatise on He-
brew grammar, and in 1808 his “ Mishpete ha-Te‘a-
mim,” a treatise on the accents according to the
ancient grammarians. Ten years later Heidenheim
recommenced his edition of the Pentateuch, but with
a larger scope. Jt was published in four separate
editions in 1818-21; one edition, entitled “Me’or
‘Enayim,” contains the text, the commentary “ ‘En ha-
Kore,” and theauthor’s treatise (‘En ha-Sofer”) on
the square characters ; another edition, entitled “ Mo-
da‘ la-Binah,” contains the text, the commentary of
Rashi, and the author’s supercommentary ; the third
edition, entitled “ Tikkun Sofer,” is an unvocalized
text for scribes; the fourth contains the text, with a
German translation, anda commentary entitled “ Min-
hah Hadashah.” Weidenheim also published: the
Pesah Haggadah (German transl. ; 1822); the Pirke
Abot (German transl. ; 1823); “Siddur
Safah Berurah,” the daily prayers with
a German translation (1823); “ Ma‘aseh
Ta‘tu‘im,” a polemic against the caba-
list Nathan Adler (anonymous, but ascribed to Hei-
denheim); “Seder Tish'ah be-Ab” (German transl.,
with notes; 1826); Selihot (German transl., with a
Hebrew commentary; 1884). He also added valu-
able notes to various works which issued from his
press, among them being the “ Mebo ha-Mishnah”
of Maimonides, and Solomon Papenheiin’s “ Yeri‘ot
Shelomoh.” Heleft more than a dozen unpublished
works, mostly on Hebrew grammar.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: &. Baer, in Allg. Deutsche Biog.; Carmoly, in
Revue Ortentale, iii. 803 et seq.; Louis Lewin, in Wonats-
schrift, Xliv. 127-128 ; xlv. 422-432, 549-558 ; Berliner’s Maga-
zin, ¥. 41 et seg.
g. M. SEL.
- HEIDINGSFELD : Bavarian city, on the Main,
near Wiirzburg. It has a population of 4,154, in-
cluding 100 Jews (1903). That it contained one of
His
Mahzor.
His
Tefillah.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
3820
the oldest Jewish settlements may be seen from the
“* Martyrologium ” of Nuremberg (ed. Salfeld, p. 238),
which mentions a woman by the name of Zira among
the victims of the Franconian persecution of 1298.
In 1898 King Wenceslaus expressly released the city
from the obligation of paying Jewish debts. In 14238
it was stated in the privileges granted the city by
King Sigismund that no one should be permitted to
receive a Jew or cause him to settle there except by
royal command; but in 1481 the city obtained from
the king the privilege of admitting Jews with the
rights enjoyed by their coreligionists in other free
cities.
King Sigismund sold the city to the Von Guten-
stein family, from which it passed to Bishop Lorenz
of Wirzburg, who bought it in 1498 for the bishop-
ric. Because of a charter which the seven Jewish
families living there had obtained from their former
lord, they were allowed by the bishop to remain for
a yearly payment of 120florins. Inthe course of the
next centuries the Jewish community in Heidings-
feld increased considerably, and as a result the little
town became a trading center.
In the fifteenth century Heidingsfeld supported a
rabbinate; and in the eighteenth century it became
the seat of a chief rabbinate which included all the
district communities of Wirzburg. On May 23,
727, the election of Jacob Léw as district rabbi was
confirmed by the bishop, and on Aug. 10, 1742, that
of Léw Baruch Cohn. From 1798 Abraham Bine
occupied the position. The office was discontinued
when all corporations were dissolved by the Bavarian
edict of 1813 (see Bavaria). The court agent Selig-
mann should also be mentioned, who, by a patent
dated 1726, was exempted, with all his people, from
taxes when traveling on the business of the bishop-
ric. Heidingsfeld passed into the possession of the
Bavarian crown along with the bishopric of Wirz-
burg. The Jews living there gradually deserted
their narrow ghetto; many of them, especially after
freedom of residence was proclaimed, settled in the
neighboring Wtrzburg. The community still pos-
sesses a parochial school.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Himmelstein, Die Juden in Franken, in
Archiv des Historischen Vereins fiir Unterfranken und
Aschaffenburg, xii.; Heffuer, Die Juden in Franken, Nurem-
berg, 1855; Heinrich Epstein, Hin Beitrag zur Gesch. der
Juden im Ehematigen Herzogtum Ostfranken, in Monats-
schrift, 1880; Lowenstein, Zur Gesch. der Juden in
Franken, in Zeitschrift fiir Gesch. der Juden in Deutsch-
land, iii; Landes. und Volkskunde des Kénigreichs
Bayern, iv., $ 1.
D, A. E.
HE(FER, RED. See RED HEIFER.
HEILBRON, DAVID: Dutch physician; born
at The Hague July 4, 1762; died at Amsterdam
1847. He was educated at the University of Leyden,
graduating (M.D.) in 1784. From 1785 to 1800 he
practised in hisnative city. Inthe latter year he re-
moved to Amsterdam, where for many years he be-
longed to the board of health, and where he practised
for the remainder of his life.
Heilbron is the author of: “ Verhandeling over
het Bezigen van Purgeermiddelen in de Borstziek-
ten,” 1790; “ Verhandeling over de Oorzaken van
het Beslag op de Tong,” 1795, German transl. 1795;
“Verhandeling over de Ziekteteekenen uit de
321
Oogen in Heete Ziekten,” 1798; “ Verhandeling over
de Teekens of Verschijnselen der Oogen in Slec-
pende Zickten,” 1801; “Verhandeling over de
Middelen Tegen de Besmetting van de Ware Vee-
pest,” 1824,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hirsch, Biog. Lex. Vienna, 1884.
8.
HEILBRONN: Town of Wirttemberg in the
district of the Neckar. There was an important
community there in 1298, when RINDFLEISCH and his
hordes slew nearly 200 Jews (Oct. 19). Among the
victims were one rabbi and one punctator (“nak-
dan”). At the beginning of the fourteenth century
the Jews of Heilbronn paid taxes amounting to 666%
florins (about $1,500). In 1316 they were turned
over to the city by Ludwig the Bavarian for a pe-
riod of six years, after the debts due them had been
canceled, in recognition of the city’sloyalty. Byan
agreement of July 8, 1822, between the city and Duke
Frederick of Austria the citizens were released from
liability for everything that they had taken from the
Jews. In1349 the latter were attacked in their street
on the Hasenmarkt, their goods were plundered
and burned, and their synagogue was set on fire;
but in 1857 the community had built another.
They suffered severely under the arbitrary decrees
of King Wenceslaus; during the war between the
Suabian towns; under the shameful policy, as re-
gards the Jews, of kings Rupert and Sigismund;
and during a war that had broken out on their ac-
count between the city and Heinrich Mosbach of
Ems. At the end of the fifteenth century they were
ordered to leave the city despite the repeated inter-
cessions of Emperor Frederick II. The few Jews
who still remained were expelled by the city council
in 1523 and 1529, and down to the middle of the seven-
teenth century the municipal authorities refused to
allow Jews to enter the town. In 1645 a few were
admitted under special restrictions; in 1667 a very
severe decree was issued regarding Jewish business
men visiting the city. In the following century
there were no Jews at Heilbronn, and not until the
law of April 25, 1828, had raised the status of the
Jews of Wirttemberg were they readmitted. On
May 5, 1831, a Jew was made acitizen; in 1861 there
were twenty-one Jewish families, who dedicated a
synagogue on Nov. 21 of that year.
The scholars of Heilbronn during the Middle Ages
included R. Johanan, son of R. Eliakim; the puncta-
tor Abraham, and the teacher Isaac, all of whom were
murdered in 1298; the Talmudist Salomon Spira
flourished there in the second half of the fifteenth cen-
tury. In 1903 there were 920 Jews in a population
of 87,889. They havea fine synagogue in the Moor-
ish style, various philanthropic institutions, a society
for the study of Jewish history and literature, and a
B’nai B’rith lodge. Since 1864 Heilbronn has replaced
Lehrensteinsfeld as the seat of the district rabbinate,
which now includes the communities of Affaltrach-
Eschenau, Bonfeld, Kochendorf, Neckarsulm, Leh-
rensteinsfeld, Weinsberg, Massenbach with Hausen,
Oedheim, Oehringen, Sontheim, Horkheim, and
Thalheim. Its present rabbi is L. Kahn (1908), his
predecessors having been Moses Engelbert (1864-91)
and Berthold Hisenstein (1891-92).
VI.—21
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Heidenheim
Heilbut
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Salfeld, Martyralogium ; Jager, Gesch. von
Heilbronn, Heilbronn, 1828; Wiener, in Achawa-Jahrbuch,
pp. 56 et seg., Leipsic, 1865; Statistisches Jalirb. des Deutsch-
lsraelitischen Gemetndebundes, Berlin, 1903,
D. S. Sa.
HEILBRONN (HEILPRIN), ABRAHAM
BEN MOSES ASHKENAZI: Chief rabbi of
Lemberg; born in 1578; died Jan. 2, 1649. [lis father
was related to R. Solomon Edels. Abraham Heil-
bronn wrote: “ Birkat Abraham,” a homily which he
delivered on the day of his “bar mizwah ” (Prague);
“ Ahabat Ziyyon,” a commentary on the Pentateuch
and the five Megillot (Lublin, 1689). In the preface
to the latter work he asserts that he also wrote a
commentary on the Prophets and the Hagiographa,
and he refers to a work of his entitled “Sha‘are
Ziyyou.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. i., No. 118; iii., No. 118;
Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 691; Buber, Arshe Shem, pp.
6-7; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 20; Michael, Or ha-Hay-
yim, p. 96.
G. M. SEL.
HEILBRONN, JACOB BEN ELHANAN:
German rabbi and mathematician; flourished in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. After occupy-
ing various rabbinates he settled at Padua. He
wrote: “Seder Melihah,” a treatise in Judeo-Ger-
man on the law of salting meat, at the end of which
there is an elegy on the death of Abigdor Zuidal
(Venice, 16027); “ Nahalat Ya‘akob,” a collection of
responsa, Which contains, besides his own responsa,
some contributed by others (Padua, 1622); “Sho-
shannat Ya‘akob,” multiplication tables, with arith-
metical puzzles for exercise and primary instruction
(a supplement to his edition of the “Orhot Hayyim”
of R. Eleazar ha-Gadol; Venice, 1623); an Italian
translation of Benjamin Aaron Solnik’s “ Mizwot
Nashim,” on women’s three obligations (Padua,
1623). Ftirst (“ Bibl. Jud.” i. 871) doubts whether
the Italian translation was made by Heilbronn or
whether the latter was the author and Solnik the
translator. The Italians spell his name “ Alpron”
(Mortara, “Indice ”).
BiBLIOGRAPHY: Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p.
173; Steinsehneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1214; idem, Jewish Lit-
erature, p. 261.
D. M. SEL.
HEILBRONN, JOSEPH BEN ELHANAN:
German Hebrew scholar; lived at Posen in the
sixteenth century. Nepi-Ghirondi’s “Toledot Ge-
dole Yisrael” (p. 203) mentions a Joseph Heilbronn
who died at Padua in 1622, but who can not be
identified with Joseph ben Elhanan. Heilbronn
wrote: “Em _ ha-Yeled,” an elementary Hebrew
grammar for the use of children, with conjugation
tables and explanations in German (Prague, 1597);
“Me’irat ‘Enayim,” the 618 commandments arranged
according to Maimonides (Prague, n.d.); “Kol ha-
Kore,” a short Hebrew grammar for use in schools
(Cracow, n.d.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1472,
K. M. SEt.
HEILBUT, ABRAHAM BEN JUDAH: Ger-
man Talmudist; lived at Altona in the middle of the
eighteenth century. In July, 1751, he wrote there
“Binah Rabbah,” a commentary tothe Midrash Rab-
bah and on the Midrashim to Psalms, Proverbs, and
Samuel. Chief attention is given to words not found
Heilbuth
Heilprin
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
S22
in the “‘Aruk.” The work is still unpublished. He
was also the author of “‘Aruk IKaton,” a vocabulary
of the Talmud (also unpublished); and of “ Kaf Na-
hat,” a commentary on Pirke Abot (Altona, 1779).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Neubauer, Cat, Bodl. Hehr, MESS. No. 148;
Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 246, No. 281.
K. M. SEL.
HEILBUTH, FERDINAND: French painter;
born at Hamburg in 1826; died Nov. 19, 1889, at Paris.
where he had been naturalized ten years previously.
His work is characterized by lively coloring and
accentuation of expression. He exhibited at the
annual salons from 1858 onward. Of his works may
be cited: “ Une Réception chez Rubens”; “ Luca Si-
gnorelli”; “Le Fils du Titien ct Béatrice Donato”;
“La Tasse i Ferrare”; “Le Mont de Piété” (now in
the Luxembourg); “ Au-Bord de Ja Tamise”; “ Beau
Temps”; “Réverie”; “Epreuve de Musique de
Palestrina”; “L’Autodafe”; “Aux Bords de la
Seine.” Heilbuth excelled as a portrait-painter.
He was made chevalier of the Legion of Honor in
1861; officer in 1881.
BIBLIOGRAPHY; Nouveau Larousse Tlustré.
8. V. E.
HEILPRIN : Besides the numerous Heilbrons,
Heilbronners, Heilpruns, and Hceilbruns who are
known to have lived between the middle of the six-
teenth century and the present time, there are four
distinct branches of the Heilprin family. The pro-
genitor of the oldest of these was Zebulun Eliezer,
whose son Moses of Brest-Litovsk was brother-in-
law of Samuel Edels (d. 16382). Moses was the
author of “Zikron Mosheh” (.ublin, 1611). The
following tree includes his known descendants, omit-
ting the females in most instances (the abbreviation
“yr.” signifies “rabbi”):
|
The genealogy of another branch, which includes
several rabbis and prominent leaders of communities
and of the Four Lands, is as follows:
Lipman
Abraham of Lublin
(1655)
Jacob
(d. 1636)
Jebiel Michael Benjamin Wolf
(Lublin, 1688)
|
an as
Meir Abraham Moses Hirsch
(r. Opatow; (Opatow) | (d. 1750)
Lublin, David Saul of
1714) (1751) Zolkiev (1731)
David daughter Moses
Meir
(dayyan of Lublin ;
later in Moghilef,
ic
Jacob Mordecai Eliezer
(1i79)
The genealogy of a third branch is that made by
Belinson of the family of Jehiel Hirsch Heilprin,
who went from Brody in 1821 to Odessa, where he
was dayyan until 1885; he then succeeded Reuben
Hardenstein in the rabbinate of Odessa, which Heil-
prin held until his death, Jan. 18, 1877 (“ Allg. Zeit.
des Jud.” 1877, p. 126, where the name is erroneously
given as “ Michael Hirsch”), The places following
the names in the family tree on the opposite page de-
note in most instances the rabbinates,
Zebulun Eliezer
Moses
Abraham of Lemberg
(d, 1649)
Benzion
Israel, rabbi of
Krotoschin (a son-in-law
of Nathan Shapiro, author of
“ Megalleh “Amukkot’’)
Samuel Helman
(ry. Mannheim and
Metz 3 a 1706)
Eliezer Lipman
(r. Chelm)
Israel daughter Mosesof Uri Phoebus
(r. Zaslav) Glogau (d. Metz, 1770)
Tsaac
(r. Tertkov, 1786)
Abr. Mordecai
(r. Brody, 1772)
GENEALOGICAL TREE OF THE OLDEST BRANCH OF
Mordecai of
Yaroslav
Eliezer
(r. Firth; d. 1700)
Ehezer Lipman
Isaac
(r. Tiktin)
Moses Judah Selki
{darshan in
| Posen)
Lipman
(r. Tarnigrod)
Joel
(r. Lutsk
and Lemberg 3
d. Ostrog 1704) Israel
daughter
= Moses Katzen-
ellenbogen
David
(r. Ostrog:
d. 1748)
daughter
= Phineas
Hurwitz of
Frankfort
(‘* Hafia’ab ”’)
Eliezer Lipman
Ephraim of
Jerusalem
THE HEILPRIN FAMILY.
323
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Heilbuth
Heilprin
The fourth branch is that of Jehiel b. Solomon b.
Jekuthiel of Minsk, author of “Seder ha-Dorot,”
whose son Moses succeeded him in the rabbinate,
and whose grandson, Léb b. Isaac, published his
work. He was probably connected with the third
branch of the Heilprin family. A large number of
the Heilprins now living in Russia claim descent
fromhim. Phinehas Mendel, father of Michael Heil-
prin, was also probably descended from one of the
several prominent Heilprins who lived in his native
city, Lublin. Among other Heilprins are: Abra-
ham b. Moses Heilprin (see HErLBRONN); Baruch
b. Zebi Heilprin, author of “ Mizwot ha-Shem,” on
the 618 commandments (Lemberg, 1792); Gedaliah
Heilprin of Minsk, author of “Kohelet ben She-
lomoh” (Wilna, 1879); Joel b. Isaac Heilprin
(Ba‘al Shem I.) of Ostrog, Volhynia (1648-49);
Joel b. Uri Heilprin (Ba‘al Shem II.) of
He was taken by his father to the United States in
1856. Some years later he returned to Europe, where
he was educated. From 1876 to 1878 he continued
his studies at the Royal School of Mines, London;
at the Imperial Geological Institution of Vienna,
and at Florenceand Geneva, subsequently returning
to the United States. He was professor of inverte-
brate paleontology and of geology at the Academy of
Natural Sciences, Philadelphia (1880-1900) ; curator
in charge of the museum of that institution (18838-
1892); professor of geology at the Wagner Free Insti-
tute of Science in Philadelphia (1885-90); and has
been president of the Geographical Society of Phila-
delphia for seven years. Heilprin has also demon-
strated his ability as anartist, and in 1880 exhibited
“Autumn’s First Whisper” at the Pennsylvania
Academy of Fine Arts, and “Forest Exiles” at the
Boston Museum of Fine Arts in 1888.
Abraham of Kovle (Volhynia)
Israel (Svirz)
Michael (Berzon) Tobiah
(Bels)
| | ordecai
Joseph Wolf Mordecai Elhanan Jacob Solomon Mattes
ie il (Svirz) (Sharigrad) (Zvanitz)
Zerah (Berzon)
Berish Hayyim
= | (Lublin) (Rushony)
Joseph (Berzon) Jehiel Michael Eihanan Israel Minsk
7 Yom-Tob Lipman
Jehiel Hirsch __ five Phoebus Israel _Berish Shebah ae
(Odessa) daughters (Berzon) Nahman (Primish- (Suravli)
(Zvinograd) lan)
Jacob Leibush Solomon Isaac
Gitel Upman
Hayyim Herz
Hannah Hornstein
GENEALOGICAL TREE OF THE LATER BRANCH OF THE HEILPRIN FAMILY.
Zamoscz, flourished 1720; Joseph b. Elhanan
Heilprin (see HEILBRONN); Nahman Heilprin,
assistant rabbi (“rosh bet din”) in Brest-Litovsk,
1774; Sauland Isaac, sons of Samuel Heilprin,
and joint authors of “ Hora’at Sha‘ah ” (Berlin, 1765),
solutions of the difficulties left unsolved in the
“hiddushim ” of R. Samuel Edels.
Heilprins are to be found in almost all Ashkenazic
communities, but they are not necessarily of the same
family, since most of the family names borne by the
Jewsof Austria, Germany, and Russia were assumed
indiscriminately by order of their respective govern-
ments toward the end of the eighteenth century or
at the beginning of the nineteenth.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Belinson, ‘Ale Hadas, p. 23, Odessa, 1865;
EFisenstadt-Wiener, Da‘at Kedoshim, pp. 23, 29, 57; Eisen-
stadt, Rabhane Minsk, p. 25, Wilna, 1898; Flirst, Bibl. Jud.
i. 372-373; Zedner, Cat. Hehr. Books Brit. Mus. pp. 25, 284,
3323 Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 140.
J. P. WI.
HEILPRIN, ABRAHAM BEN MOSES.
See HEILBRONN, ABRAHAM BEN Moses ASHKENAZI.
HEILPRIN, ANGELO: American naturalist,
geologist, and traveler; son of Michael Heilprin;
born March 31, 1858, at Satoralja-Ujhely, Hungary.
In 1886 Heilprin went to Florida for the purpose
of investigating the geological structure of the pen-
insula; in 1888, to Bermuda for a similar purpose.
Two years later he set out on a scientific expedition
to Mexico, and in pursuit of his investigations he
ascended Iztaccihuatl, Orizaba, and Popocatepetl,
and ascertained their altitudes by barometric meas-
urements. While on this journey he explored the
central plateau, and on his return contributed valu-
able additions to the geological knowledge of that
region. In 1892 Heilprin led the Peary Relief Expe-
dition to Greenland. After the eruption of Mount
Pelée, by which the city of Saint-Pierre, Martinique,
was entirely destroyed (May 8, 1902), Heilprin vis-
ited the island, and climbed to the crater of Mount
Pelée while the volcano was in action; he revisited
it in 1903.
The following are his chief publications: “ Con-
tributions to the Tertiary Geology and Paleontology
of the United States” (1884); “Town Geology, the
Lesson of the Philadelphia Rocks” (1885); “The
Geographical and Geological Distribution of Ani.
mals ” (1887); “The Geological Evidences of Evolu-
tion ” (1888); “ The Bermuda Islands ” (1889); “ Prin-
Heilprin, Eliezer
Heilprin, Phinehas
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
324
ciples of Geology ” (1890); “ The Arctic Problem and
Narrative of the Peary Relief Expedition ” (1898) ;
“The Earth and Its Story ” (1896); “ Alaska and the
Klondike ” (1899); “Mount Pelée and the Tragedy
of Martinique” (1902). He died July 17, 1907.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Appleton’s Eneyc. of American Biog., Who's
Who in Amer ica; International Encyclopedia.
A. F. H. V.
HEILPRIN, ELIEZER B. MORDECAI:
Polish rabbi; born probably in Yaroslav, Galicia, in
1648; died at Fiirthin 1700. Ile was rabbi succes-
sively in Gross Meseritz, Moravia; Tomaszow, Rus-
sian Poland; and Firth, Bavaria. lHeilprin was the
author of “Siah ha-Se‘uddah,” festive discourses
delivered on the occasion of finishing the study of
several tractates of the Talmud. This work and
some of his responsa and novelle are still extant
in manuscript (Neubauer, “Cat. Bod]. Hebr. MSS.”
Nos, 469, 470).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ozerot Hayyim (Michael Catalogue), manu-
script part, Nos. 267, 788-789, 805, Hamburg, 1848; Michael,
Or ha-Hayyin, pp. 29-210; Fuenn, Keneset ¥ israel. p. 123;
Eisenstadt-Wiener, Da‘at Kedoshim, pp. 60, 63, 66.
K, P. WI.
HEILPRIN, JEHIEL BEN SOLOMON:
Lithuanian rabbi, cabalist, and chronicler; born
about 1660; died at Minsk about 1746. He was a
descendant of Solomon Luria, and traced his gene-
alogy back through Rashi to the tanna Johanan ha-
Sandlar. He was rabbi of Glusk, government of
Minsk, till 1711, when he was called to the rabbinate
of Minsk, where he officiated also as head of the ye-
shibah till his death. Heilprin was one of the most
eminent Talmudists of his time. He was opposed
to casuistry, and on this account succeeded in group-
ing around him a great number of liberal-minded pu-
pils. Fora long time he had to sustain a hard strug-
gle with AryEn Lésp B. ASHER, who, while still
a young man, had founded a yeshibah at Minsk,
which at first was very flourishing. Aryeh Lob
attacked Heilprin’s method of teaching; and the
antagonism between them spread to their pupils.
Later, Arych Lib, being obliged to assist his father
in the district rabbinate, neglected his yeshibah,
which was ultimately closed, and Heilprin was no
longer molested.
Heilprin devoted a part of his time to the study of
Cabala, on which subject he wrote a work. He was
opposed to giving approbations to new books, de-
viating, as he himself says, only twice from his gen-
eral principle in this regard. The two works so
favored were the “‘Ir Homah” of Abraham Judah
Elijah and the “Magen ha-Elef” of Aryeh Loéb of
Plock.
Heilprin is especially known through his “ Seder
ha-Dorot.” This work consists of three independent
volumes or parts. The first of these, entitled “ Ye-
mot ‘Olam,” is a history from the Creation down to
his owntime. Theauthor always endeavors to give,
by means of calculation, the dates of Biblical person-
ages, He bases his work on the “ Yuhasin ” of Abra-
ham Zacuto, on the “Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah” of
Gedaliah ibn Yahya, and on the “Zemah Dawid” of
David Gans. It seems that this first part was writ-
ten when the author was still young; for the last
event which he registered was one occurring in 1697.
The second part, “Seder ha-Tanna’im weha-Amo-
ra’im,” contains lists of the Tannaim and Amoraim
in alphabetical order with their dates. Part III. is
a kind of catalogue containing first the names of all
the authors, then those of their works, both arranged
in alphabetical order. Heilprin based this part on
the “Sifte Yeshenim ” of Shabbethai Bass, but added
a great number of other titles. He states in the
preface the many advantages of a knowledge of the
chronological order of the Talmudists, which indeed
in certain cases is absolutely necessary. The whole
work is followed by notes on the Talmud, also ar-
ranged in alphabetical order. It was published for
the first time by Heilprin’s grandson, Judah Lob
Heilprin, at Carlsruhe in 1769, There exist severa
other editions, the latest being the revised one of
Naphtali Maskileison, Warsaw, 1882.
Of Heilprin’s numerous other works, mentioned
in the “Seder ha-Dorot,” the only one which has
been published is “*Erke ha-Kinnuyim,” a diction-
ary of synonyms and homonyms occurring in the
Bible, Talmud, and other works, chiefly cabalistic
(Dyhernfurth, 1806).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Rossi, Dizionario, i. 166; Naphtali Mas-
kileison in the preface to his edition of the Seder ha-Dorot,
as above; Benzion Eisenstadt, Rabbane Minsk, pp. 14-16,
eens 1898.
M. SEL.
HEILPRIN, JOEL BEN ISAAC: Polish
Hasidic rabbi; lived at Ostrog in the middle of the
seventeenth century. He was known as “Ba‘al
Shem I.,” and, owing to his Talmudic and caba-
listic learning, enjoyed a great reputation among
his contemporaries, who called him “a man of
God.” In the cabalistic “Toledot Adam ” (Zolkiev,
1720) it is recorded that in 1648 he miraculously
saved some Jews who, pursued by enemies, had
taken refuge ina ship. Some of his writings were
printed in the cabalistic “ Mif‘alot Elohim ” (Zolkiev,
1724). See Ba‘aL SHEM.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Neneset Yisrael, pp. 4382-433.
D. S. MAN.
HEILPRIN, JOEL BEN URI (also known as
Ba‘al Shem II.): Gahcian thaumaturge; lived at
Satanow in the first half of the eighteenth century.
Possessed of a fair knowledge of medicine and phys-
ics, he pretended to effect cures and perform mira-
cles by means of the Cabala and the Holy Name. In
1720 he published anonymously a work entitled
“Toledot Adam,” describing various remedies at-
tributed to prominent cabalists. The preface of the
work constitutes a continuous panegyric of Heil-
prin and his miracles. Heilprin had many pupils,
who, on the death of their master, formed a band of
charlatans who shamelessly exploited the credulity
of their contemporaries.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: K. P. Moritz, Salomon Maimon’s Lehens-
gesch, i. 217; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 433; Zedner, Cat.
ee Books Brit. Mus. LB
. DR.
HEILPRIN, LOUIS: American encyclopedist ;
son of Michael Heilprin; born in Miskolez, Hun-
gary, July 2, 1851. He emigrated with his parents
to the United States in 1856, and was educated pri-
vately. He contributed articles to the second edi-
tion of the “American Cyclopedia,” of which his
father was one of the associate editors. He is the
author of the “Historical Reference Book” (New
York, 1884; 6th ed., 2. 1899), a standard book of
825
reference. He became editorially connected with
the “New International Encyclopedia” in 1902, and
later was associated with his brother, Angelo
Heilprin, in the preparation of a new edition of
“Lippincott’s Gazetteer of the World.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who's Who in America, Chicago, 1899.
A. P. WI.
HEILPRIN, MICHAEL: Polish -American
scholar, author, and philanthropist; born in Piotr-
kow, Russian Poland, Feb. 23, 1828; died in Summit,
N. J., May 10, 1888. He was the son of Phinehas
Mendel Heilprin, and
was brought up in
an atmosphere of en-
lightened Orthodoxy
which was not antag-
onistic to the acquisi-
tion of secular learn-
ing. His father was
his only teacher, and
his good memory,
combined witha great
capacity for work,
helped him to lay
the foundation of his
encyclopedic knowl-
edge. Heilprin mar-
ried early, and in 1843
emigrated to Hun-
gary. Ie established
himself as bookseller
in the town of Miskolez. He thoroughly mastered
the Hungarian language; and his articles and poems
in the cause of liberty attracted attention during
the stormy days of 1848 and 1849. He became
acquainted with Kossuth and other
Associ- leaders, and, when the short-lived in-
ation with dependent government was estab-
Kossuth. lished, became secretary of the literary
bureau which was attached to the Min-
istry of the Interior, presided over by his friend
Szemere. After the collapse of the Revolution he
went to Cracow and remained for some time with
his father’s friend, Isaac Mieses, with whose
nephew, the philosopher Fabius Mieses, he formed
a friendship which lasted throughout his life.
From Cracow Heilprin went to France, where he
remained less than a year, and where he suffered
froin a malady of the eyes which for a long time
incapacitated him for work. At the close of 1850 he
returned to Hungary and settled as a teacher in Sa-
toralja-Ujhely. He then devoted his leisure to the
study of the English language and English litera-
ture, and in 1856 went to England with the intention
of settling there; but, following the advice of Kos-
suth, whom he met in that country, he proceeded
to the United States.
Heilprin settled in Philadelphia, where for two
years he taught in the schools of the Hebrew Educa-
tion Society. In the excitmg times preceding the
Civil war he “saw but one struggle here and in
Hungary,” his sympathies being actively enlisted in
the anti-slavery cause. In 1858 he was introduced
to Ripley and Dana, the editors of “ Appleton’s New
American Cyclopiedia,” and they were so impressed
Michael Heilprin.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Heilprin, Eliezer
Heilprin, Phinehas
with the extent and accuracy of his knowledge that
he was forthwith engaged by them to read and ver-
ify the geographical, historical, and bi-
ographical articles which were to ap-
pear in that publication. He also
contributed a mass of valuable arti-
cles to the “ Cyclopredia,” among them ‘‘ Hebrews,”
“Hungary,” and “Poland.” In 1858 he took up
his residence in Brooklyn, where he became inti-
mate with several members of the Kossuth family.
In 1863 he removed to Washington, where he re-
mained for two years, again engaging in book-sell-
ing. He also founded there a periodical called “ The
Balance,” which existed for a short time. In 1865
he returned to New York, and at once began to con-
tribute book reviews and articles on European pol-
itics to the newly established “Nation,” on which
he remained a constant collaborator until his death.
From 1871 to 1876 he was engaged as associate edi-
tor on the second edition of the “American Cyclo-
peedia.”
When the persecution of the Jews in Russia in
1881 sent a flood of refugees to America, Heilprin
threw himself heart and soul into the work of relief.
He took an intense interest in the colonization plans
of the earlier arrivals, and soon became absorbed in
the work of the Emigrant Aid Society. His self-
sacrificing activity, described by him in a letter to
Fabius Mieses in 1887 as “a laborious striving which
almost amounts to martyrdom,” ended only with his
life.
Most of Heilprin’s literary work was anonymous;
and his wide know ledge of history and geography,
as well as his remarkable linguistic attainments (of
which his extraordinary knowledge of Hebrew was
but a part), and the consummate ability with which
he treated political and even strategic questions in
his articles, were therefore known only to those who
were personally acquainted with him. The only
work which bears his name is “ The Historical Poetry
of the Ancient Hebrews ” (2 vols., New York, 1879-
1880), in which he fully accepts the theories of mod-
ern Bible critics. A collection of “ Bibelkritische
Notizen,” “ printed as manuscript,” with a preface
by Rabbi B. Szold (Baltimore, 1893), contains com-
parisons of various passages of the Bible.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Chadwick, Unitarian Review, Sept., 1888;
A. Gunzig, F. Mieses, in Czar ha-Sifrut, v.33; Wiernik, Ha-
Modia' le-Hodashim, v. 1, No. 10, New York, 1901; idem, in
Jewish Comment, Sept. 27 and Oct. 4, 1901; Abraham Hoch-
muth, in Magyar Zsidé Szemle, v. (1888), 560-569,
A. P. Wr.
HEILPRIN, PHINEHAS MENDEL: Polish
Hebraist; born in Lublin Nov., 1801; died in Wash-
ington, D. C., Jan. 30, 1868. Trained in the study of
the Talmud and its commentaries, his critical mind
was attracted by the writings of Maimonides. After
mastering the Arabic and the Greek philosophy of
the Hebrew sages, he became a diligent student of
modern German philosophy. He marricd early, and
established himself as a cloth-manufacturer and wool-
merchant in Piotrkow. He removed in 1842 to north-
ern Hungary, but left that country after the failure
of the Revolution of 1848, in which his eldest son,
Michael, took part. He went to the United States
in 1859, finally making Washington his home.
Heilprin was a fine example of the old-style schol-
Work in
America.
Heilprin, Phinehas
Heine, Heinrich
arly merchant. He was the lifelong friend of Isaac
MIeEsEs, who resided in Piotrkow in his younger days;
and he often visited 8. L. Rapoport and other Jew-
ish scholars. Jost knew and honored him “als ein
Mann von tiichtiger Gesinnung” (“Orient, Lit.”
1845, No. 1). His chief work, which, like almost all
his writings, is directed against the Judso-German
reformers, is “Teshubot be-Anshe Awen ” (Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, 1845) ; it is a sane and broad ar-
gument against the position of the reformers, espe-
cially on the questions of marriage and divorce, and
although the author is very personal in his attacks,
especially on Holdheim, the work is probably the
fairest of that nature written in Hebrew,
This work called forth a protest (“'Tokef ha-Tal-
mud,” Ofen, 1848) from an ultra-Orthodox rabbi of
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
326
HEIM, MICHAEL: Austrian jurist; born Aug.
18, 1852, at Jakosié, Slavonia. He studied law at
the University of Vienna (1871-75), and became
royal assistant attorney (“Staatsanwaltsubstitut ”)
at the court of Essegg (1883-90) and district judge at
Brod-on-the-Saave (1890-98). In 1898 he was ap-
pointed attorney-general, a rare distinction fora Jew
in Austria. On Aug. 24, 1903, he was appointed first
president of the royal tribunal of Mitrovicz.
8. H. E. K.
HEINE: The family made illustrious by the
poet can be traced back on the father’s side to one
Isaac Heine (Hehne), who lived at Biickeburg in the
electorate of Hanover, and visited the Leipsic fair
in 1697. The following sketch pedigree gives his
chief descendants:
Isaac Heine (17th cent.)
Aaron David Simon Heine (Biickeburg)
Heymann (Hayyim) Heine,
or Hertz Buckeburg
(d. Sept. 18, 1780)
Bella = Judah L6b Heine
Itzig Neuwied
=(1) Edel Gans, (2) Mathe Eva Popert = (2) Bendix Schiff
= oe |
Isaac
(d. Oct. 16, 1828)
: Samson
(d. Dee, 2, 1828) =
Betty von Geldern
Armand Michael
Heinrich Max vy. Gustav
(d. 1856)
= Mathilde
Mirat
Alice =
(1) Due de Richelieu
(2) Prince de Monaco
Geldern
Baron Ludwig Marie =
von Embden
Charlotte (d. 1880) (da. 1865) =
Geldern vy. Heine- = Moritz
Embden
Lazarus Simon
Levy
(d. 1858)
|
Salomon
(d. 1844)
Meyer Samuel Hertz
(Harry)
Hermann Therese = Amalie =
A. Halle Friedman
Frederike =
C. M. Oppen-
heimer
Charles
Cecile Furtado
Principe della Rocca
Principe della Rocca Principe di Bitetto
GENEALOGICAL TREE OF THE HEINE FAMILY.
Hungary, Isaac Zebi Margareten. In the preface he
declares that Heilprin, whose work is “well thought
of in this vicinity,” admitted too much, and weak-
ened the case of the conservatives by his suggested
emendations of the text of the Talmud. Phinehas
Mendel is not known to have replied. His other
works are: “Eben Bohan,” on Maimonides; “ Bi’ur
Millot ha-Higgayon,” on logic; “Sekel Tob” (Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, 1846), acriticism on Geiger’s edition
of the “Kobez Wikkuhim”; “ Derek Yesharah,” on
the proper treatment of the Talmudical text by crit-
ics (“ Bikkurim,” i. 96-108, Vienna, 1864), which is
supposed to be the introduction to a large work
against irresponsible critics. In “ Orient, Lit.” 1845,
No. 1, an article written by him precedes Jost’s re-
view of his “Teshubot be-Anshe Awen.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Morais, Eminent Israelites of the Nineteenth
Century, pp. 126-130, Philadelphia, 1880; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-
Mendels. p. 140, Leipsic, 1891; Lippincott, Dictionary of
Biography, s.v., 8d ed., Philadelphia, 1901; Giinzig, Toledot
... Fabius Mieses, pp. N-12, Cracow, 1890 (reprint from
Ozar ha-Sifrut, iii.).
H. R. P. Wi.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Karpeles, in Kaufmann Gedenkbuch, pp.
457-506 ; Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1902, pp. 278-274.
HEINE, EPHRAIM VEITEL. Sce Epura-
IM, VEITEL-HEINE.
HEINE, GUSTAV, FRETHERR VON
GELDERN: Austrian publicist; born June 18,
1812, at Diisseldorf; died Nov. 15, 1886, at Vienna;
brother of Heinrich Heine. On completing his pre-
liminary education at Hamburg he studied at the
universities of Halle and Gottingen. He first en-
gaged in agriculture, then in business, and then en-
tered the Austrian army, rising to the rank of first
lieutenant. In 1847 he founded in Vienna “Das
Fremdenblatt,” a periodical that became the official
organ of the Austrian Foreign Office. In 1867 the
Order of the Iron Crown of the third class was con-
ferred upon Heine; and soon afterward he was
knighted. In 1870 he was elevated to the rank of
“Freiherr,” with the cognomen “Geldern,” his
mother’s family name.
One of his sons, Maximilian Heine, writes
327
under the name of “ Heldern,” and is the author of
the libretto to the operetta “ Mirolan.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fremdenblatt, Nov. 16, 1886 ; Embden, Hein-
rich Heine’s Familienleben, p. 65, Hamburg, 1892; Eisen-
berg, Das Geistige Wien, p. 197.
8. B. Te.
HEINE, HEINRICH (after baptism, Chris-
tian Johann Heinrich Heine; among his fam-
ily, Harry): German lyric poet and essayist; born
at Dtisseldorf Dec. 18, 1797; died in Paris Feb. 17,
1856; son of Samson Heine and Betty von Geldern.
Though named after his father’s brother Hertz, he
was chiefly influenced in his early days by his mother
and her uncle, Simon von Geldern, a@ curious mix-
ture of traveler, “ schnorr-
er,” and adventurer. His
father left his education
to his mother, Betty von
Geldern, who, touched by
the new ideasof the French
Revolution, and some-
thing of a freethinker, had
him educated in a desul-
tory manner by equally
freethinking Jesuits and
French refugees. Thereis
little evidence that he had
any specifically Jewish ed-
ucation, though he records
in his “Memoirs” that he
learned to conjugate the
Hebrew verb “pakad.”
As he also refers to the
root “ katal,” it is probable
that he had to relearn He-
brew later from Gesenius.
The time of his youth
was the most favorable the
German Jews had _ scen,
owing to the influence of
Napoleon, and Ileine was
always conscious of, and
grateful for, the Jewish
emancipation due to him.
At the age of seventeen,
in 1815, he was sent to
Frankfort to try his fortune in a banker’s office,
where for the first time he became aware of the
restrictions by which Jews were oppressed in the
German cities. At first he could not bear it, and
went back to Diisseldorf; the next year he went
to Hamburg to enter the office of his uncle, Solomon
Heine, who was becoming one of the chief merchants
of that city. The office-work proving distasteful to
him, he ventured to set up in business for himself
in 1818, but failed. Meanwhile the most important
influence upon his life came through his frustrated
love for his cousin Amalie, which brought out some
of the tenderest, and, when he was thwarted, some
of the most cynical, strains of his muse. When
Solomon Heine found that his daughter was likely
to be entangled with her cousin, who had shown no
capacity for business, a rigid embargo was put upon
any intercourse between Heine and the young girl,
who shortly afterward, in 1821, married J. Fried-
linder of Absinthhein. Perhaps asa kind of com-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Heinrich Heine.
Heilprin, Phinehas
Heine, Heinrich
pensation, his uncle sent Heine in 1819 to study law
at Bonn and afterward at Gottingen, Whence he was
rusticated; going next to Berlin, he
Early came under the influence of the Hege-
Influences. lians. Herehis first volume of poenis
appeared, and here for the first time he
came in contact with real Jewish influences. He
became a member of the circle around Rahel, and in
the household of Veit became acquainted with
Moser, Gans, Dr. Rosenheim, Daniel Lessmann, and
Joseph Lehmann. He also visited the Mendels-
sohns, and at Chamisso’s louse became acquainted
with Hitzig (Embden, “Family Life,” pp. 44-47,
New York, 1892). He came in touch with Zunz and
his followers, and by them
was drawn into the circle
which was attempting to
create Jewish science by
the Verein fiir Cultur und
Wissenschaft des Juden-
thums. When the “Zeit-
schrift” appeared, Heine
complained of its German
(“ Briefe,” ed. Karpeles, p.
117).
The chief influence,
however, was exercised
by Moses Moser, whom
IIeine somewhere calls a
supplement to “Nathan
the Wise.” They, with
Ludwig Marcus and
Emanucl Wolf, were in-
spired by the idea of
uniting modern culture
and ancient Judaism, and
Heine joined cagerly in
their enthusiastic hopes,
which were, however, des-
tined soon to be frustrated.
In the reaction many of
the members of the Verein
submitted to baptism,
which at that time was the
only key to an official ca-
recrin Prussia. The effect
on Heine was rather to divert his attention from
Jewish matters to German literature, and from 1822
to 1827 he produced a series of poems and sketches
of travel which practically placed him at the head
of German literature, culminating as they did in the
“Buch der Lieder,” one of the most exquisite vol-
umes of lyric verse produced by a German poet.
Much, however, that he wrote was offensive to the
bourgeois and the bureaucracy of Prussia, but the
coarseness of the suggestions was often redeemed by
the piquant stvle in which they were put forth, and
his light shafts of satire managed to pierce the most
pachydermatous of mortals. His wit was essentially
Jewish, and was clearly derived from the Berlin cir-
cles in which he had recently moved. It was while
under their influence that he attempted his sole ef-
fort at a romance in his “ Rabbi von Bacharach,” a
historical romance of the Middle Ages dealing with
the persecution of the Jews by the Crusaders; it
was unfortunately left unfinished.
Heine, Heinrich
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
328
Meanwhile the question of alivelihood had forced
him to take up the problem of his continued formal
connection with the Jewish commu-
nity. The example of Eduard Gans
had shown him the hopelessness of ex-
pecting an academic career for a pro-
fessing Jew, Defiantly yet reluctantly he deter-
mined on nominally changing his faith, and was
received into the Protestant Church (June 28, 1825)
as a preliminary to his LL.D. at Géttingen and to his
career at the Prussian bar. He himself did not at-
tempt to diseuise the motives which Jed to this re-
nunciation He declared that he was “merely bap-
tized, not converted.” In writing to Moser he said:
His Con-
version.
“From my way of thinking yon can well imagine that baptism
is an indifferent affair. I do not regard it as Important even
symbolically, and { shall devote myself all the more to the
emancipation of the unhappy members of our race. Still I hold
it as a disgrace and a stain upon my honor that in order to ob-
tain an office in Prussia—in beloved Prussia--I should allow
myself to be baptized.”
Heine took a morbid pleasure in going to the tem-
ple at Hamburg to listen to Dr. Salomon preaching
against baptized Jews. He was soon to Jearn that
his sacrifice—if it was a sacrifice—was of little avail.
*“*Tam hated alike by Jew and Christian,” he wrote, Jan. 9,
18%; ‘‘I regret very deeply that [ had myself baptized. Ido
not see that I have been the better for it since. On the con-
trary, I have known nothing but misfortunes and mischances,”’
Almost immediately after his baptism he published
his “Buch Le Grand ” (1827), which was so revolu-
tionary in tone and apologetic toward Napoleon,
then in the depth of disrepute, that he considered it
wise to await publication in England. The climate
and the Philistinism of the England of those days
were both repulsive to him, and he soon returned to
Hamburg to produce his masterpiece, “Buch der
Lieder.” Despairing of any government employ
from Prussian officials, he went to Munich, but
found all attempts vain after the antinomian display
he had made in the “ Buch Le Grand.” He accord-
ingly went to Italy, and further irritated public
opinicn by the loose descriptions of his Italian ad-
ventures in his “Biider von Lucca.” After his
father’s death he produced the third volume of
his “ Reiscbilder,” the circulation of which was at
once prohibited by the Prussian government, which
showed clearly by this means its determination not
to give him an official career. The French Revolu-
tion of 1830 found him, therefore, prepared to aban-
don his native land, and in May, 1831, he took up
his permanent abode in Paris, where at that time his
Jewish birth was rather an ad vantage than otherwise.
The next eighteen years of his life were devoted
in the main to a series of propagandist efforts which
were Jewish in method if not in aim. Heine con-
stantly strove to act the same part of mediator be-
tween French and German culture as the Spanish
Jews had acted between the Christians
Mediator and Moors of Spain. In particular he
Between collaborated with Ludwig Bdérne,
France and though not in direct association with
Germany. him, in the attempt to create an intel-
lectual party in Germany which would
apply to German institutions and conceptions the
freedom and force of French revolutionary ideas.
By this means the two helped to create the party of
“Young Germany ” in literature and politics. At
the same time he attempted to render the profundi-
ties of German thought accessible to the French
public, and thus prepare the way for a closer sym-
pathy between the minds of the two nations. Dur-
ing all this time he wrote little, if anything, dealing
with Jewish subjects. His associates in Paris were
by no means so exclusively Jewish as in Berlin and
Hamburg. He was admitted to intimacy with
Balzac, George Sand, Alfred de Mussct, Alexandre
Dumas, and, in fact, with all that was brilliant in
French literature and art. Yet many of his most
intimate friends were of the Jewish circle. Alexan-
dre Weill, David d’Angers, A. Mels, A. Karpeles,
the Oppcnheiins, the Friedlands, and to some extent
the Paris Rothschilds, came into more or less inti-
mate relations with him while he was able to go out
into society.
Both Heine and Borne were particularly suited for
the function they performed in transporting French
ideas—or, rather, practical suggestions for carrying
them out—to Germany, so rich in its own ideas, but
hitherto with so little capacity for putting them into
practise. As Jews, both were able to view the
movements with a certain dispassionate detachment,
and could disentangle the permanent from the tran-
sitory element in current events. Heine, however,
was no revolutionist in act. He trusted to the in-
fluence of ideas rather than to any direct intermed-
dling in political affairs. This caused disagreement
between himself and Borne, who attacked him vir-
ulently. Heine preserved silence during Bérne’s
life, but after his death wrote an analysis of Bérne’s
weaknesses. The exploit did Heine no credit, and
brought upon him a duel with one Stranss, an ad-
mirer of Bérne. Fears for the result of a duel led
Heine to legitimate his relations to Mathilde Mirat
(1841).
Heine supported himself partly by his literary
efforts, partly by a pension from the French govern-
ment, and to some extent by an allowance from his
uncle Solomon Heine, which was continued after
some bickerings by his cousin Charles, after Solo-
mon’s death, with a promise that the allowance
should be continued to Madame Heine after the
poet’s death.
About, 1847 Heine was seized by the illness that
ultimately brought him to @ comparatively early
grave. Whatever its nature, whether
His softening of the spinal cord, muscular
‘‘Mattress atrophy, or locomotor ataxia, there
Grave.” can be little doubt that his irregular
life had led to his neuropathic condi-
tion. After May, 1848, he never rose from his bed
for over eight years, during which time, bravely
bearing the most excruciating pain, he showed a
heroic patience which redeemed in large measure
the want of taste and dignity shown in his early
attitude. His thoughts frequently turned back to
the creed of his youth, and he often gave pathetic
recognition of his appreciation of the finer sides of
Judaism and of the Jewish people. In his “ Roman-
zero” he gave what is still, perhaps, the most stri-
king picture of Judah ha-Levi, derived doubtless
from Michael Sachs’s “ Religidse Poesie.” The more
329
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Heine, Heinrich
irreverent “Disputation ” showed that he was just
as irreverent in dealing with sacred Jewish subjects
as his enemies accused him of being toward Christian-
ity. In his “ Prinzessin Sabbath” he enshrined for
all time the sublimer sides of Jewish home-worship.
Jt was while on his “mattress grave” that Heine
gave utterance to his most penetrating comments on
matters Jewish:
‘“The Jews may console themselves for having lost Jerusalem,
and the Temple, and the Ark of the Covenant, and the golden
vessels, and the precious things of Solomon. Such a loss is
merely insignificant in comparison with the Bible, the imperish-
able treasure which they have reseued. If I do not err, it was
Mahomet who named the Jews ‘the People of the Book,’ a
the Jews. I have never spoken of them with sufficient rever-
ence, and that, of a truth, on account of my Hellenic tempera-
ment, which Was opposed to Jewish asceticism. My preference
for Hellas has since then decreased. LIsee now that the Greeks
were merely handsome striplings. The Jews, however, have
always been men, strenuous and full of power. not only at that
time, but even at the present day, in spite of eighteen hundred
years of persecution and misery. I have since then learned to
value them better, and, if every kind of pride of birth were
nota foolish contradiction in a champion of revolution and
democratic principles. the writer of these pages might be proud
that his ancestors belonged to the noble House of Israel, that he
is a descendant of those martyrs who have given to the world
one God and a moral law, and have fought and suffered in all
the battle-fields of thought.”
That contrast between the Hellenic and the Hebraic
HEINE MEMORIAL, NEW YORK.
(From a photograph.)
name which has remained theirs to the present day on the earth,
and Which is deeply characteristic. A book is their very father-
land, their treasure, their governor, their bliss, and their bane.
They live witbin the peaceful boundaries of
this book. Here they exercise their inalien-
able rights. Here they can neither be driven
along nor despised. Here are they strong and
worthy ofadmiration. Absorbed in the city of this book, they
observed little of the changes which went on about them in the
real world: nations arose and perished; states bloomed and
disappeared ; revolutions stormed forth out of the soil; but they
lay bowed down over their book and observed nothing of the
wild tumult of the times which passed over their beads.”’
After a brilliant reference to Moses as a remarkable
artist, since he created that masterwork “ Israel,” he
continues:
““As it was with the artificer, so was it with his handiwork,
On Bible
and Jews.
influences in civilization was a favorite one with
Heine, and led him on one occasion to refuse to con-
sider Christians as essentially different from Jews,
the slight difference between them being distin-
guished by calling Christians “ Nazarenes.”
“IT say ‘Nazarene,’ in order to avoid the use of either ‘ Jew-
ish’ or ‘Christian,’ expressions which are for me synonymous,
for I use them to characterize only a nature, not a religious be-
lief. ‘Jewish’ and ‘Christian’ are with me entirely synony-
mous terms, as contrasted with the word * Hel-
‘*Hellene” Jenic,’ with which word I signify no definite
and people, but a eertain direction of spirit and
‘‘ Hebrew.” manner and intuition, the result of birth as
well as education. In this relation I may say
all men are either Hebrews with tendencies to asceticism and to
excessive spiritualization and with a hatred of the plastic, or Hel-
Heine
Heinemann
lenes, with cheerful views of life, with a pride in self-develop-
ment and a love of reality.”
This conception was later on taken up by Matthew
Arnold, and formed the basis of his theory of culture
as stated in his “Culture and Anarchy.” It is prob-
ably at the root of Heine’s argument for Jewish
emancipation, which is mainly based, as will be dis-
cerned, on the claims of Jews to represent the relig-
ious or Hebraic principle in civilization.
“This emancipation will be granted, sooner or later, out of
love of justice, out of prudence, out of necessity. Antipathy to
the Jews has no longer a religious ground with the upper classes,
and it is transformed more into social spite against the over-
powering might of capital, against the exploitation of the poor
by the rich. Hatred of the Jews has, indeed, another name
with the people. <As for the government, it has at last arrived
at the intelligent view that the state is an organic body which
can not attain perfect health so long as one of its limbs, were it
only the little toe, isin inflamimation. . . . Jewish disabilities are
just corns on the feet of the German state. And did govern-
ments but consider how horribly the spinal column of all re-
ligions, the idea of deism itself, is threatened by the new doc-
trines—for the feud between science and faith will be no longer
a tame skirmish, brt soon a wild battle to the death—did gov-
ernments consider this hidden necessity, they would be grateful
that there are yet Jews in the world, that the ‘Swiss Guard of
Deism.’ as the poet has called them, yet stands on its legs, that
there exists still a ‘people of God.’ Instead of
On Jewish endeavoring to make them abjure their faith
Emancipa- by legislative penalties, they would rather en-
tion. deavor to keep them therein by offering them
rewards: they would buiid up their synagogues
at the cost of the state on condition only that they make use of
them, that the people outside may know there is yet some faith
in the world. Abstain from spreading baptism among the Jews:
that is merely water, and dries up rapidly. Rather encourage
cireumcision—that is, faith by incision in the flesh: in the spirit
such incisions are no longer possible. Hasten on, hurry on, the
emancipation, that it come not too late, and while Jews are yet
to be found in the world who prefer the faith of their fathers to
the welfare of their children.”’
Heine’s high opinion of the ethical value of Jewish
history during the last two thousand years is ex-
pressed in the following passages:
“The Jews were the only individuals who preserved their
spiritnal freedom in the Christianization of Europe.”’
** Jewish history is beautiful, but the later Jews injure the old,
whom one would set far above the Greeks and Romans. I think
if there were no more Jews, and it were known that a single
examnle of this race existed anywhere, people would travel a
hundred leagues to see him and to shake hands; and now people
turn out of our way!”
“The story of the later Jews is tragic: yet, if one wrote a
tragedy on the subject, one would be laughed at—which is the
most tragic reflection of all.”
“Phe Jews have had highly civilized hearts in an unbroken
tradition for two thousand years. I believe they acquire the
culture of Europe so quickly because they have nothing to learn
in the matter of feeling, and read only to gain knowledge.”
It was during his latter days that he gave utter-
ance to that most profound of judgments on the
Jewish character:
‘** Jews, when they are good, are better, and, when they are
bad, are worse, than Gentiles”’;
and the bitterest of all sayings about Judaism:
** Judaism is not a religion; it is a misfortune."
In his last will he declared his belief in an Only
God whose mercy he supplicates for his immortal
soul.
In considering Heine in his relations to Judaism,
to which aspect of his career the present sketch has
been confined, it must be recognized that his earlier
training and environment did not tend to encour-
age him to devote his great powers to the service of
his race and religion. Except for the few years at
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
330
Berlin, he does not appear to have come under any
specifically Jewish influence of a spiritual kind; yet
the Berlin influence was deep enough to stamp his
work with a Jewish note throughout his fe. His
wit and his pathos were essentially Jewish. His
mental position asa Jew gave him that detachment
from the larger currents of the time which enabled
him to discern their course more clearly and impar-
tially. His work as a journalist, while largely in-
fluenced by French examples, was in a measure
epoch-making in German-speaking countries, and
he was followed by numbers of clever Jewish news-
paper writers, who gave a tone to the feuilleton of
central Europe which it retains at the present day.
In almost all aspects of his prose work he was Jew-
ish to the core; only in his verse was the individual
note predominant.
Heine’s Jewish birth has not been without influ-
ence on his reputation even afterdeath. Fora long
time historians of German literature refused to ad-
mit his significance, owing in a large measure to
Chauvinistic and religious prejudices. When an
attempt was made in 1897 to erect a memorial to the
poet in Diisseldorf, his native place, permission was
refused by the government on the ground of Heine’s
anti-German utterances. The memorial that had
been made for the purpose was accordingly offered
to the municipality of New York, which has placed
it on Mott avenue and 161st street. It is commonly
known as the Heine or Lorelei Fountain.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Gesch. xi.; G. Karpeles, Heinrich
Heine und das Judenthum, Berlin, 1890; idem, Heinrich
Heine: Aus Seinem Leben und aus Seiner Zeit, Berlin,
1901; Matthew Arnold, Hssays on Criticism, Ist ed., pp. 178-
183; Lady Magnus, Jewish Portraits, pp. 382-56; G. Brandes,
Hauptstré6mungen der Litteratur des 19. Jahrhunderts,
vi.: Strodtmann, H. Heine’s Leben und Werke, Berlin, 1873 5
D. Kaufmann, Aus: Heinrich Heine’s Ahnensaal, Breslau,
1896. See bibliography in the Memoir of W. Sharp, in the
Great Writers series.
sg. J.
HEINE, MAXIMILIAN: German physician ;
youngest brother of Heinrich Heine; born at Ditssel-
dorf (1805 according to Embden; Strodtmann gives
1807); died at Berlin Nov. 6, 1879. He was edu-
cated at the gymnasia of Diisseldorf and Liineburg
and at the universities of Berlin and Munich, gradua-
ting (M.D.)in 1829. In that year he joined the Rus-
sian army as surgeon; he took part in General Die-
bitsch’s march over the Balkans in 1880, and in the
suppression of the Polish uprising in 1882. Return-
ing to Russia, he settled in St. Petersburg and was
appointed surgeon to the military school. Upon
his resignation from the army he received the title
of “councilor of state.”
With Thiclmann and Knebel, Heine founded the
“ Medizinische Zeitung Russland’s,” a journal which
appeared from 1844 to 1859, and which he edited.
He is the author of: “ Medico-Topographische Skizze
von St. Petersburg,” St. Petersburg, 1844; “ Bei-
trige zur Gesch. der Orientalischen Pest,” 7b. 1846
(containing a description of the pest at Odessa);
“Fragmente zur Gesch. der Medizin in Russia,” 70.
1848; “Reisebriefe eines Arztes,” 7. 1853. Heine
also wrote works of a more distinctively literary
character, among them being: “Skizze von Gretsch ” ;
“Die Wunder des Ladoga Sees”; “Bilder aus der
Tirkei”; “Briefe von St. Petersburg”; “Gedichte.”
331
These essays excited only a passing interest, and
little more can be said for his eagerly expected but
sadly disappointing “Erinnerungen an Heinrich
Heine und Seine Familie,” Berlin, 1868.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Strodtmann, H. Heine’s Leben und Werke,
Berlin, 1873: Hirsch, Biog. Lev. Vienna, 1888; De Kay, The
Family Life of Heinrich Heine, from the original of Emb-
den, New York, 1892,
8. F. T. H.
HEINE, SOLOMON: German merchant and
philanthropist ; born in Hanover 1767; died in Ham-
burg Dec. 26, 1844. Going to TWamburg when he was
sixteen and practically penniless, by 1797 be had be-
come one of the chief members of the banking firin
of Heckscher & Co., with which he continued until
1819, when he established an independent business
which grew to be one of the most important bank-
ing firms in Europe. He extended his operations
far and wide, especially devoting himself to dealing
in foreign loans and stocks. Having his capital in so
many different undertakiugs, he was not embarrassed
by the crisis of 1825, nor even by the great fire at
Hamburg in 1842, when he checked a panic by of-
fering a million thalers on the loan market. Toward
the loan for rebuilding the city, which amounted to
32,000,000 thalers, he contributed no less than 8,000, -
000; while he donated the insurance paid on hisown
mansion, which had been burnt down, to the fund
raised to repair the damage caused by the fire. He
was @ munificent contributor toward all Hamburg
charities, and built a Jewish hospital still known by
his name. Ile was an enthusiastic supporter of the
movement for the emancipation of the Jews, and
left directions that any Jewish institution to which
his heirs might contribute should be thrown open to
all persons, without distinction of creed, when the
Jews of Hamburg should be emancipated.
He assisted his nephew, the poet, with a subven-
tion of 6,000 francs per annum during his life in
Paris, and left him a legacy of 16,000 francs, though
Sclomon is reported to have died worth 30,000,000
francs. His son Charles increased this fortune and
left no less than 65,000,000 francs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Joseph Mendelssohn, S. Heine, Hamburg,
1845; Allgemeine Deutsche Biog. :
Ss. uv.
HEINEFETTER, KLARA (Madame
Stockl): German singer; born at Mayence Feb. 17,
1816; died at Vienna Feb. 24, 185%. In 1829 she ac-
companied her eldest, sister, Sabine, to Paris, where
the latter sang at the Italian opera with Sontag
and Malibran. Malibran made a deep impression on
Klara, who decided to devote her life to art. She
remained another year at Paris with her sister, and
as the latter, on the invitation (Nov., 1831) of Du-
port, director of the Vienna Imperial Opera, went to
the Austrian capital, Klara followed and obtained an
engagement at the same theater. Her début as
Agathe in Weber’s “ Freischiitz ” was so successful
that she secured an engagement for three years.
In 1886 she accepted the invitation of the director
of the Royal Opera at Berlin, Count Spontini, to
star. Spontini made every effort to keep her in
Berlin, but she decided to sign a contract with the
director of the Court Theater, Mannheim, to appear
in that city. Thence she went to Budapest, where
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Heine
Heinemann
she married (June 27, 1837) the well-known actor,
Franz Stdéckl of the Vienna Imperial Opera, at
which theater, a short time afterward, she resumed
her former position, singing in the operas of Gluck,
Weber, Spontini, and Mozart. Shestarred in Buda-
pest, Prague, Hamburg, and Hanover. Her Valen-
tine in “ Les Huguenots” provoked an indescribable
enthusiasm, and the Queen of Hanover, who at-
tended the play, sent the singer a valuable bracelet
as a souvenir. In 1840 (June 19) she sang for the
first time in London, as Jessonda, at St. James
Theater, under the direction of Schumann, and her
success was so great that she immediately obtained
an engagement for the following year. In 1841 she
sang at Drury Lane Theater for sixty-three evenings.
In Oct., 1848, Mme. Stockl visited her sister at
Vienna; and then the Imperial Opera succeeded in
concluding an engagement with her for three and a
half years. During this time she made short starring
tours to Budapest, Gratz, and Munich. Her great-
est success was as Lucrezia in “ Lucrezia Borgia,”
then (Nov. 24, 1843) given for the first time in the
German language. Donizetti, who was at the time
on a visit to Vienna, was so impressed with Mine.
St6éckl’s performance that he decided to give his
opera “Dom Sébastien,” on which he was at work,
to the Vienna Opera, on condition that Mme. Stick]
should sing the part of Zayda. The opera was pro-
duced Feb. 6, 1845, under the personal direction of
Donizetti; and this was the climax of the singer’s
career. Like her sister Sabine, Mme. Stéckl died
insane.
Her other sisters, Kathinka (born 1820; died
Dec. 20, 1858), Fatima, Eva, and Nanette, were
also singers of no little importance. Kathinka made
her début in 1840 at Paris; went in 1842 to Brussels;
returned in 1850 to Paris; starred at Hamburg, Ber-
lin, Vienna, and Budapest; and finally settled at
Freiburg-im-Breisgau.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jitidischer Plutarch, 1848, ii. 76-85; Meyers
Konversations- Lexikon. g
HEINEFETTER, SABINE: German soprano
opera-singer; born Aug. 19, 1809, at Mayence; died
insane Feb. 18, 1872, at Illenau, Baden. Beginning
life as a strolling harpist, she was noticed by a
Frankfort musician, who instructed her in music.
She afterward (1825) studied under Spohr at Cassel,
and under Tadolini in Paris. In 1829 she sang at
the Paris Italian opera with Sontag and Malibran,
and in 1835 accepted an engagement at the Dresden
court theater. Her success in Berlin, Vienna, Milan,
and other cities was remarkable, her chief réles be-
ing Romeo, Anna Bolena, Norma, and Rosine. In
1844 she appeared for the last timeat Frankfort. In
1853 she married a French merchant, Marquet, in
Marseilles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Baker, Biog. Dict. of Musicians; Jidischer
Plutarch, ii. 76-85; Meyers Konversations-Lexikon.
HEINEMANN, HEINRICH: German actor;
born at Bischofsburg, East Prussia, Sept. 15, 1842.
After graduating from the Friedrich-Wilhelm gym-
nasium, Berlin, he went on the stage, making his
début in Breslau in 1864. After a short stay at
Flensburg he acted in Kénigsberg (1865-67), Wtrz-
Heinemann
Helbo
burg (1867-69), Breslau (1869-71), Vienna (1872-74),
and Breslau (1874-78). Since 1878 he has been en-
gaged at the Court Theater at Brunswick.
Heinemann plays principally serious and comic
character réles, ¢e.g., Mulvolio, Zettel, Vansen, Thimo-
teus Bloom, Bolzau, Der Geizige, and Der Hingebildete
Kranke. WHcehas also been very successful as a play-
wright, more than thirty plays having been written
byhim. Among theseare: “ Der Schriftstellertag ” ;
“Herr und Frau Doktor”; “Auf Glatter Bahn”;
“Die Zeisige”; “Das Tiigliche Brot”; “ Die Letzte
Liige”; and “Echo.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Eisenberg, Biog. Lex.
S. F. T. H.
HEINEMANN, JEREMIAH: German au-
thor; born at Sandersleben July 20, 1778; died in
Berlin Oct. 16, 1855; son of Rabbi Joachim Heine-
mann. In 1808 he was appointed secular member
of the consistory of Westphalia. On the dissolution
of that body he acted in Berlin as inspector of a
teachers’ seminary, which had but a short existence ,
afterward he became the principal of a school, and
finally devoted himself entirely to literary work.
From 1817 he published “Jedidja,” a “religious,
moral, and pedagogical periodical,” of which eight
volumes were issued (Berlin and Leipsic) up to 1831,
and which subsequently appeared as “ Neue Folge”
(Berlin, 1833), and still later under the title “ All-
gemeines Archiv des Judenthums: Zeitschrift fiir
Religion, Kultus, Geschichte, und Literatur ” (Berlin,
1842-43).
Of Heinemann’s works the following may be
mentioned: “ Katechismus der Jtidischen Religion,”
Rédelheim, 1812; “Grundlehren der Religion der
Israeliten,” Berlin, 1818; “Leitfaden zum Unter-
richte in der Religion der Isracliten,” 2b. 1819; “ Al-
manach fiir die Israelitische Jugend,” 7b, 1818-20;
“Taschenbiicher zur Belehrung der Jugend,” 20.
1818-20. Heinemann developed, besides, great ac-
tivity as translator of the iturgy and of some parts
of the Bible. Thus he prepared a new edition of
the Pentateuch, with Moses Mendelssohn’s trans-
lation and a brief commentary of his own, “ Bi’ur la-
Talmid” (2. 1831-33); “Der Prophet Jesaia,” a
German translation of Isaiah, with a commentary
(20. 1842); a new edition of the festival prayers, with
a German translation by Moses Pappenheimer and
others (Leipsic, 1840-41); and compiled a prayer-
book for the use of women in the synagogue (id.
1838), to which he added a “ Hebriiisch-Deutsches
Kursorisches und Alphabetisches Worterbuch”
(1839-40).
Not without value is his “Sammlungen der die
Religiése und Biirgerliche Verfassung der Juden in
den Preussischen Staaten Betreffenden Gesetze, Ver-
ordnungen, Gutachten, Berichte und Erkeuntnisse ”
(Berlin, 1821-28; Glogau, 1831; Berlin, 1835).
His brother, Moses Heinemann, published a
translation of Kohelet, with a grammatico-exegetical
commentary (Berlin, 1831), and compiled, under the
title “ Die Betende Jiidin,” a collection of prayers for
women (70. 1889).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserling, Bibliothek Jitdischer Kanzel-
recner, i. 411; First, Bibl. Jud. i. 373 et seq. MK
8 P z
HEIR. See INHERITANCE.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
332
HEITLER, MORITZ: Austrian physician;
born at Korompa, Hungary, March 21, 1847. He
was educated at the gymnasia at Hédmezé-Vasar-
hely and Szegedin, and at the University of Vienna
(M.D, 1871). From 1871 to 1876 he was assistant
physician at the Allgemeine Krankenhaus at Vien-
na; he became privat-docent at Vienna University
in 1876, and professor in 1898.
Heitler wrote the following articles: “ Histolo-
gische Studien tiber Genuine Croupédse Pneumonie,”
in “ Medizinische Jahrbiicher,” 1874; “Ueber Rela-
tive Schliessungsunfihigkeit der Herzklappen”
(1880), “Ueber Akute Herzerweiterung” (1882),
“Ueber Primire Interstitielle Pneumonie” (1884),
and “Zur Klinik des Icterus Catarrhalis” (1887), in
“Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift”; “ Ueber die
Thermischen und Mechanischen Einfliisse auf den
Tonus des Herzmuskels,” in “Centralblatt fiir die
Gesammte Therapie,” 1894; “Arhythmie Durch
Reizung des Pericardiums,” in “Wiener Klinische
Wochenschrift,” 1898 ; “ Ueber Reflectorische Pulser-
regung,” in “Centralblatt ftir Innere Medicin,”
1901; ete. He also wrote “Ovid’s Verbannung,”
Vienna, 1898.
8 KF. T. H.
HEKAL. Sce Ark oF THE LAW; TEMPLE.
HEKAL HA-‘IBRIYYAH. Sce Perropica.s,
HEKALOT RABBATI; HEKALOT ZU-
TARTI: Two mystic writings attributed to Ish-
macl ben Elisha; indiscriminately referred to by
the various names of “Sefer Hekalot,” “ Pirke Heka-
lot,” “Pirke Rabbi Yishmael,” “ Pirke Merkabah,”
“Ma‘aseh Merkabah,” “Hilkot Merkabah.” They
are also quoted as the “Book of Enoch,” and con-
tain material found in that old apocryphon.
They are based upon the remnants of the apocalyp-
tic books of the mystic Essenes (see APOCALYPTIC
LITERATURE; EscHatoLoGy; EsskNeEs) found in
Mishnah (Hag. ti.1) and Talmud. They originated,
according to [fai Gaon (“Teshubot,” No. 1), among
the mystics of the geonic period known as the
“Yorede Merkabah ” (riders in the heavenly chariot),
who, by asceticism and prayer, entered a state of
ecstasy in which the heavens opened before them
and disclosed their mysteries. These mysteries, and
the means by which the “Merkabah-ride” can be
achieved, are described in the “ Hekalot Rabbati,” of
which thirty fragments have survived. It is not
clear as yet what distinguishes the “ Hekalot Zu-
tarti” from the “ Hekalot Rabbati,” as the former is
known only through quotations by Hai Gaon and
others,
The “Hekalot Rabbati” begins with praises of
those found worthy to see the “ Chariot-Throne”
(M22907 mpy). Nothing that happens or that
is about to happen in the world is concealed from
them. As the goldsmith distinguishes between
precious and base metals, so can the Merkabah-riders
distinguish between the pious and the wicked. Any
wrong done them is severely punished. They are
so exalted that they may not stand up before any
save a king, a high priest, or the Sanhedrin. This
is followed by a description of the Chariot-Throne
and the terrors which the sight of it inspires, so that
even the myriads of angels, who have it before their
333
eyes continually, are sometimes seized with an ec-
static trembling. Next comesa chapter on the mar-
tyrs during the persecutions of the
Contents of Roman emperor Lupinus (Hadrian 2),
‘“‘ Hekalot.” among whom were the Merkabah-ri-
ders Akiba, Nehunya ben ha-Kanah,
and Ishmael ben Elisha, the supposititious author of
the work. Thisis followed by an enumeration of the
angels, and of the formulas by which they can be in-
voked. A description of the seven heavenly halls
(“hekalot”) follows. Each hall is guarded by eight
angels, whose names the author derives from activi-
ties associated with the name of God; for instance, Ma-
takel (“ Gracious God”), Baradel (“ Hail God”). The
door of the seventh hall is guarded by terrible war-
riors with drawn swords, whose cyes send forth stars
of fire, and from whose mouths issues burning coal;
there are also guards who ride on terrible horses,
horses of blood and of hail, which consume rivers of
fire.
The seeker of the mysterious Chariot-Throne gains
these halls by formulas which have the virtue of
compelling the angels to grant him admission.
METATRON serves hin as guide. To undertake the
perilous Merkabah-ride one must possess all relig-
ious knowledge, observe all the commandments and
precepts, and fast frequently. To enter the state
of ecstasy in which the Merkabah-ride is taken, one
must remain motionless, with the head between the
knees, absorbed in contemplation, and murmuring
prayers and hymns. The last chapters contain
hymns of praise (each closing with the refrain
“Thrice Holy!”); a conversation between God,
Israel, and the angels about the mysteries, initiation
into which confers instant wisdom; and an ex)lana-
tion of the mysteries of certain prayers and charms.
The “Hekalot Rabbati,” like the Sui‘ur Koman,
the Book of Enoch, and other mystic writings of
the geonic period, with which it is closely con-
nected, contributed very little to the speculative
system of the Cabala. It exercised,
Influence. however, a great influence on the de-
velopment of liturgical poetry, the
Kedushah hymns being modeled upon the views
found in this work. Eleazar Kalir is believed to
have used it in the composition of the “ Yozarot”
for “Shabbat Shekalim.” The “Hekalot Rabbati”
was published, with additions by Joseph Gikatilla,
under the title “Pirke Hekalot” (Venice, 1601; re-
printed at Cracow, 1648, in the collection “ Arze
Lebanon”). It was republished, without Gikatilla’s
additions, by Jellinek (“B. H.” ii. 41 et seq., iii. 91
et seqg.), and by Wertheimer in a separate edition,
with some variations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jellinek, Beitrdige zur Gesch. der Kabhala,
fi. 61; idem, B. H. ti. 15 et seq., tii. 15 et seq.; Zunz,
. V. p. 167; Ginsburg, The Kabbalah. p. 103, London,
1865; Bloch, in Winter and Wiinsche, Die Jtidische Littera-
tur, lii. 325; idem, in Monatsschrift,1893, pp. 18 et seq.; 8.
Karppe, Etude sur (Origine et la Nature du Zohar, pp. 105
et seqg.. Paris, 1901; Gratz, Gesch. v. 193.
K. I. Br.
HEKDESH (Bet Hekdesh la-‘Aniyim: lit.
“house consecrated to the needy”): Hebrew name
for an asylum or a hospital; found in many medi-
eval Jewish documents (see CHARITY; JEW. ENCYC.
v. 71, s.v. Eaypt; and comp. Bédarride, “Les Juifs
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Heinemann
elbo
en France,” p. 137). Its origin goes back to pre-
Christian times (see Kohler in “ Berliner Festschrift,”
1903. p. 201; Isaac Lampronti in “Pahad Yizhak,”
sv. YIP m2 and wspn). See Hospirat.
A.
K.
HEKSCHER, EPHRAIM BEN SAMUEL
SANVEL: President of the Jewish congregation
at Altona at the beginning of the eighteenth cen-
tury. Ile was theauthor of: “Dibre Hakamim we-
Hidotam,” giving the sources and interpretations of
many rabbinical laws (Altona. 1748); “ Adne Faz,”
responsa on the Shulhan ‘Aruk, especially on Orah
Hayyim (7. 1743); “Liwyat Hen,” novelle on the
Talmud (part 1, 26, 1782; part 2, edited by his son
Issachar, 7b. 1748).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. 1. 376; Steinschneider, Cat.
Boal. col. 903.
D. S. Man.
HELA. See ELA.
HELAM (od'n, oxdn) : A place east of the Jor-
dan where the Syrians under Hadarezer were de-
feated by David (II Sam. x. 16, 17). The Vulgate,
following Aquila, and in consideration of the differ-
ent spellings of the name in the two verses, ren-
ders pb'n “their army.” Helam may be identified
with the Alamatha of Ptolemy, on the west of the
Euphrates and near Nicephorium.
E.G, H. M. SEL.
HELBO: Amora who flourished about the end of
the third century, and who is frequently mentioned
in both Talmuds. IJt seems that Helbo was at first
in Babylon, where he studied under Huna, the head
of the Academy of Sura, and that, like the other
Babylonian amoraim, he was called “Rab” (Ned.
40a). Later he settled in Palestine, where he was
ordained rabbi. He is mentioned as having spoken
in the names of Abdima of Haifa (Yer. Ber. iv. 4)
and of Hama b. ‘Ukba(Yer. Meg. ii. 3). In Palestine
he consulted on halakic matters R. Isaac Nappaha
(Git. 60a) and R. Samuel b. Nahmani (B. B. 123a).
Helbo handed down a large number of haggadic
sayings of Samuel b. Nahmani. Helbo is mentioned
in the Talmud as a teacher of ethics, his sayings
being delivered in the name of Huna. Among
them may be quoted: “He who goes out of the
synagogue must not take long steps”; “One
should pay great attention to the Minhah prayer”;
“He who enjoys the banquet of a bridegroom
without gladdening the latter commits a five-
fold sin” (Ber. 6b); “He who sees a torn scroll of
the Pentateuch must rend his garment in two places ”
(M. IX. 26a). Helbo also said, in the name of ‘Ula,
that he who sees the ruined cities of Judah must
recite Isaiah Ixiv. 9-10. In Gen. R. xliii., in the
name of R. Eleazar, Helbo is mentioned as a tradi-
tionist with R. Berechiah and R. Ammi. A Hel-
bo b. Hilfa b. Samkai is also mentioned (Gen. R.
li.), who may be identical with the subject of this
topic. Yer. Ber. vii. 1 contains a reference to a R.
Helbo b. Hanan.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abraham Zacuto, Yuhasin, ed. Filipowski;
raeiW ae Seder ha-Dorot, ii.; Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor.
E. C., M. SEL.
Held
Hellenism
HELD, ANNA: French comedienne; born
Sept. 19, 1880, in Paris; educated at Fontainebleau.
Her début was made in “ Miss Helyett ” at the Folies
Manguy, Paris, Sept. 19, 1895. Since then she has
appeared in many plays, her most successful parts
having been Mile. Wars in Jean Richepin's “ Man’-
selle Napoleon,” and 7he Little Duchess in the com-
edy of that name, with which she made a starring
tour of the United States in 1908. In 1902 she mar-
ried Florenz Ziegfeld, Jr., of Chicago, IIL.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Private sources; in Who's Who in America,
1903, different dates for her birth and début are given.
A.
HELDAI (45m): 1. Captain of the service of
the Temple for the twelfth month in the time of
David; a native of Netophah and a descendant of
Othniel (I Chron. xxvii. 15). In the parallel list in
I Chron. xi. 30 his name is given as “Heled.” 2.
One of those who returned from captivity with Ze-
rubbabel, and who, with others, gave Zechariah gold
and silver for the making of crowns as memorials
(Zech. vi. 10-14), In verse 14 the name is changed
to “Helem”; the Peshitta gives “Holdai” and
“ Huldai.”
E, G. H. M. SEL,
HELENA: Queen of Adiabene, wife of Mono-
baz I., and mother of Monobaz II. ; died about 56c.k.
Her name and the fact that she was her husband’s sis-
ter (Josephus, “Ant.” xx. 2, § 1) show that she was
of Greek origin. She became a convert to Judaism
about the year 30. She was noted for her generos-
ity; during a famine at Jerusalem she sent to Alex-
andria for corn and to Cyprus for dried figs for
distribution among the sufferers from the famine
(Josephus, t.c. § 5). Inthe Talmud, however (B. B.
lla), this is laid to the credit of Monobaz IT.; and
though Brill (“ Jahrb.” i. 76) regards the reference
to Monobaz as indicating the dynasty, still Rashi
maintains the simpler explanation—that Monobaz
himself is meant. The Talmud speaks also of im-
portant presents which the queen gave to the Temple
at “erusalem (Yoma 87a): “Helena had a golden can-
dlestick (Mw 533] made over the door of the Temple,”
to which statement is added (7b. 37b; Tosef. 82)
that when the sun rose its rays were reflected from
the candlestick and everybody knew that it was the
time for reading the Shema‘. She also made a
golden plate on which was written the passage of
the Pentateuch (Num. v. 19-22) which the high
priest read when a wife suspected of infidelity. was
brought before him (Yoma é.c.). In Yer. Yoma iii.
8 the candlestick and the plate are confused. The
strictness with which she observed the Jewish law
is thus instanced in the Talmud: “Her son [Iza-
tes] having gone to war, Helena made a vow that
if he should return safe, she would become a
Nazarite for the space of seven years, She ful-
filled her vow, and at the end of seven years went
to Palestine. The Hillelites told her that she must
observe her vow anew, and she therefore lived as a
Nazarite for seven more years. At the end of the
second seven years she became impure, and she had
to repeat her Nazariteship, thus being a Nazarite
for twenty-one years. R. Judah said she was a Naz-
arite for fourteen years only ” (Nazir 19b). “R. Ju-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
334
dali said; ‘ The booth [erected for the Feast of ‘lab-
ernacles}] of Queen Helena in Lydda was higher
than twenty ells. The rabbis used to go in and
out and make no remark about it’” (Suk. 2b).
When Helena died Monobaz If. caused her re-
mains to be removed to Jerusalem, where they were
buried in the pyramidal tomb which she had con-
structed during her lifetime, three stadia north of
Jerusalem (comp. Eusebius, “Hist. Eccl.” ii., ch.
12). The catacombs are now called the “Tombs of
the Kings.” A sarcophagus with the inscription
anaby m1¥, in Hebrew and Syriac, found some years
ago, is supposed to be that of Helena (“C. I. 8.” ii.
196). See ADIABENE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Josephus, Ant, xx. 4, § 3; Brill’s Jahrb. i.
70-78; Gritz, Gesch. 3d ed., iii. 4038-406, 414; Schiirer, Gesch.
3d ed., lii., 119-122.
a. M. SE.
HELEZ (y5n): 1. One of David's thirty guards,
and captain for the seventh month of the service
of the Temple; an Ephraimite (II Sam. xxiii. 26;
I Chron. xi. 27, xxvii. 10), In the first passage he is
called “the Paltite,” in the last two “the Pelonite.”
Kennicott (“ Dissertation,” pp. 188 et seg.) thinks the
latter the correct form. 2. A man of Judah, and a
descendant of the family of Hezron (I Chron. ii. 39).
E. G. H. M. SEt.
HELICON: Court fool, and a favorite of the
Roman emperor Caligula (87-41); an Egyptian by
birth. He appears to have been especially fond of
deriding the Jews. With APELLES OF ASCALON he
helped bring about the failure of the embassy of
Alexandrian Jews to Caligula, headed by Philo.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. 4th ed., iii. 340.
. M. SE.
HELIN, ABRAHAM BEN JACOB MOSES:
German rabbi; lived in the seventeenth and eight-
eenth centuries. Helin was on his father’s side a great-
grandson of Solomon Luria, and was chief rabbi of
Warta (Poland) and Glogau. During his stay at Vi-
enna, Helin wrote: “Zera‘ Abraham,” a commentary
on the Midrash Rabbah, published with the text by
his son Joseph, Amsterdam, 1725; “ Hiddushim,”
novellz on the Haggadah of the Jerusalem Talmud,
printed with the “ Yefch Mar’eh,” 2b. 1727. He also
edited his father’s “ Yede Mosheh,” a commentary
to the Midrash Rabbah, to which he added a preface
and notes (Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1705).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 131.
D. M. SEt.
HELIN, JACOB MOSES BEN ABRAHAM
ASHKENAZI: Polish Talmudist; born about
1625; died about 1700. He studied at Lublin un-
der R. Naphtali ha-Kohen and R. Heshel, and was
the son-in-law of L6b Heller, rabbi of Satanow.
Helin was the author of “ Yede Mosheh,” a com-
mentary with critical notes on Midrash Rabbah,
indicating the Talmudical sources from which the
legends are taken, published by his son Abraham
with a preface and notes (Frankfort-on-the-Oder,
1705; 2d ed., 1718; now printed in all the editions
of the Midrash).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dembitzer, Kelilat Yof, ii. 59d; Steinschnei-
der, Cat. Bodl. col. 1214.
H. R. B. FR.
335
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Held
Hellenism
HELIODORUS: Treasurer or, according to II
Macc. iii.7, R. V., chancellor of Seleucus IV., Philo-
pator. At the instigation of Apollonius, Seleucus
seht Heliodorus to Jerusalem to seize the treasure of
the Temple. The high priest Onias resisted him,
pleading that the money in the treasury was reserved
for widows and orphans; but Heliodorus forced his
way into the Temple. There he was stopped’ by
the apparition of a horseman charging upon him,
while two young men scourged him pitilessly.
Heliodorus was carried out of the Temple insensible ;
and only by the offering of the high priest was he
restored to consciousness, Heliodorus therefore left
the treasure untouched, and returned to Seleucus
With an account of his experience. Questioned by
him as to whom he should next send to Jerusalem
for the treasure, Heliodorus advised him to send his
worst enemy, the enemy whose destruction he most
desired (II Macc. iii. 7~iv. 1).
In IV Mace. iv. 1-15 substantially the same ad-
venture is reported, with Apollonius in the place of
Heliodorus. Appian (“De Rebus Syriacis,” p. 45)
states that in 175 s.c. Selencus was murdered by
Heliodorus, one of his courtiers (rig rév rept riyv avaqy),
who attempted to seize the Syrian crown. It can
not be said with certainty that this was the same
Heliodorus.
E.G. H.
HELIOPOLIS (ON): Egyptian city, whence
came Poti-pherah, Joseph’s father-in-law (Gen. xli.
45, 50; xlvi. 20). It is mentioned also in Ezek. xxx.
17, where the punctuation }}X, Awen, is to be cor-
rected to }ix, On. The versions render “Heliopo-
lis” in all cases “ Heliupolis.” An addition in the
Septuagint (Ex. i. 11) mentions Heliopolis among
the cities built by the Israelites. The inscriptions,
however, show that it was perhaps the most an-
cient of all Egyptian cities—certainly the most
sacred about 8000 B.c. Its god, Atumu (Etém), was
then the most prominent of the many forms under
which the sun-god appeared in Egypt (being iden-
tified especially with the setting sun), so that the
city bore the name “house of the sun” (comp. the
Greck “Heliopolis” and the equivalent Hebrew
“Beth-shemesh ”; Jer. xliii. 138 [doubted by Winck-
ler, “Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen,” p. 180,
who considers “ Beth” as an erroneous repetition of
the final syllable of the word “mazzebot ”]).
It is remarkable that sanctity is still attached to
the sacred well and tree among the insignificant
ruins near Matariyyah, a few miles north of Cairo,
which are protected by Christianization of the old
myths (whence the place had the earlier Arabic name
“ “Ain al-Shams” [fountain of the sun]). The tem-
ples, of which only one obelisk from the twelfth
dynasty has been preserved, were famous for their
size and beauty, as were the priesthood for their
learning, for which they were praised by Herodotus,
A trace of this respect may possibly be found in the
Biblical mention of Joseph’s Egyptian relatives.
Politically, the city was never of importance, al-
though it was the capital of the thirteenth nome of
Lower Egypt. Its position near the caravan road
from Syria seems to have given,it great commercial
importance; hence the numerous Jewish settlements
M. SE.
in and around it, among which were Castra and Vi-
cus Judeorum. Italready had Canaanitish quarters
about 1200 B.c. Therefore the Septuagint consid.
ered it as a Jewish place (see above); Juba, in Pliny,
vi. 177,as Arabic. During the Roman period it di-
minished rapidly in population and importance; the
Arabs found it deserted.
The hieroglyphic form is “’-n-w’’; the Biblical
pronunciation is attested also by the Assyrian “ Unu”
(Delitzsch, “Wo Lag das Paradies?” p. 318, where
the identity is, however, disputed; comp. also “C. I.
S.” 102a, 2, for mention in a Phenician inscription).
J. W. M. M.
HELKATH HAZZURIM (pyr npbn): Name
of the place where the combat between Joab’s and
Abner’s men took place, in which all on both sides
were slain (II Sam. ti. 16). It appears from the pas-
sage that the name means “the field of the sword-
edges.” The Septuagint translates “ the field of those
who lay in wait,” reading o“yn, a form accepted
by several of the modern critics. Thenius reads
nvyn (“the field of the adversaries”).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HELKTAS. See Anantras, SON oF Onras IV.
HELL. See GEHENNA.
HELLENISM (from éAAmvivev, “to speak
Greek,” or “to make Greek ”): Word used to express
the assimilation, especially by the Jews, of Greek
speech, manners, and culture, from the fourth century
B.C. through the first centuries of the common era.
Post-exilic Judaism was largely recruited from those
returned exiles who regarded it as their chief task to
preserve their religion uncontaminated, a task that
required the strict separation of the congregation
both from all foreign peoples (Ezra x. 11; Neh. ix.
2)and from the Jewish inhabitants of Palestine who
did not strictly observe the Law (Ezra vi. 22; Neh.
x. 29). This separation was especially difficult to
maintain when the victorious campaign of Alexan-
der the Great had linked the East tothe West. The
victory was not simply a political one. Its spiritual
influence was much greater. The Greek language
became a common language for nearer Asia, and
with the language went Greek culture, Greek art,
and Greek thought. The influence thus exerted did
not entirely drive out the local languages or the
local civilization. The Hellenic spirit was itself
profoundly modified by contact with the Orient;
and out of the mingling of the two there arose a
pseudo-Greek culture which was often different in
spirit from the true culture of Hellas.
Except in Egypt, Hellenic influence was nowhere
stronger than on the eastern shore of the Mediter-
ranean. Greek cities arose there in continuation, or
in place, of the older Semitic foundations, and
gradually changed the aspect of the country. Such
cities were Raphia, Gaza, Ascalon, Azotus, Jabneh,
Jaffa, Ceesarea, Dor, and Ptolemais. It was espe-
cially in eastern Palestine that Hellenism took a firm
hold, and the cities of the Decapolis (which seems
also to have included Damascus) were the centers of
Greek influence. This influence extended in later
times over the whole of the district east of the Jor-
dan and of the Sea of Gennesaret, especially in
Hellenism
Trachonitis, Batanzea, and Auranitis. The cities in
western Palestine were not excepted. Samaria and
Panias were at an early time settled
by Macedonian colonists. The names
of places were Hellenized: “ Rabbath-
Ammon” to “Philadelphia”; “ Ar-
moab” to “Ariopolis”; “Akko” to
“Ptolemais.” The same occurred with personal
names: “Honi” became “Menelaus”; “Joshua”
became “Jason” or “Jesus.” The Hellenic influ-
ence pervaded everything, and even in the very
strongholds of Judaism it modified the organization
of the state, the laws, and public affairs, art, science,
and industry, affecting even the ordinary things of
life and the common associations of the people.
A glance at the classes of Greek words which
found their way into the Hebrew and the Jewish-
Aramaic of the period, as compiled by I. Léw (in 8.
Krauss, “ Lehnwéorter,” pp. 623 eé seg.), shows this
with great clearness. The Hellenists were not con-
fined to the aristocratic class, but were found in all
strata of Jewish society (Wellhausen, “I. J. G.” p.
194), though the aristocrats naturally profited more
from the good-will of Hellenistic rulers than did
other classes. The Jews thus became sharers in a
world-culture if not in a world-empire. It was a
denationalizing influence from the strictly Jewish
point of view; this was the principal reason for the
dislike which many Jewish teachers felt for things
Hellenic. In addition to this, Hellenism in its East-
ern dress was not always the Hellenism of Greece
proper. It was in some respects a bastard culture.
It led its new votaries to the highest flights of phi-
losophy; but through the allegorical explanations
which, coming from Stoicism, were applied to the
Bible, especially in Alexandria, a real danger men-
aced the development of Jewish life and thought,
the danger of ANTINOMIANISM (see JEW. ENCyC, i.
630). By the introduction of Grecian art a door
was opened to debauchery and riotous living; and
though Judaism was hardly menaced by the intro-
duction of direct idolatry, the connection of this
cul.ure with sublimated Greek polytheism became
a real danger to the Jewish religion. This well-
grounded fear inspired the rise of the Hasideans and
explains the change of sentiment on the part of the
Rabbis toward the use of the Greek language (see
GREEK LANGUAGE AND THE JEWS). For this reason
the Hellenists are called viot wapavouor (“ wicked
men”; [I Macc. i. 11), or avdpe¢ avout kal aoePeic
(“wicked and ungodly nen”; 2d. vii. 5). By some
they are supposed to be referred to in Ps. i. (“sin-
ners,” “scoffers”) and cxix. (“men of pride”); in
Dan. xii. 10 (“the wicked”; comp. xi. 14, 32).
How early traces of Hellenism are to be found in
Jewish literature can not be ascertained. It has been
supposed by some that such traces are to be seen in
Prov. vili., where Wisdom is described as the artist
or master workman who, fashioned by God before
the world, was ever by Him in His creative work
(Montefiore, “Hibbert Lectures,” 1892, p. 880); by
others, that some of the universalist passages in
Isaiah were inspired in this period; and the Book of
Ecclesiastes has been suspected of containing Stoic
and Epicurean doctrines, and even references to
the teachings of Heraclitus. But these theories are
Range of
Hellenic
Influence.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
336
open to much doubt; the influence of Greek pliilos-
ophy and thought came in later. It is seen in some
of the Apocrypha and in the writings of the Hel-
lenistic Jews in Egypt (Cheyne, “Origin and Relig-
ious Contents of the Psalter,” pp. 423 et seg.), The
Greek words in Daniel prove nothing, as that
book is generally conceded to be of Maccabean
origin.
The work commenced by Alexander the Great
was furthered by the first Ptolemies and Seleucids,
who treated their Jewish subjects with much benev-
olence, though even at this time the high priest
Onias III. fought bravely against the introduction
of Hellenism. But the high-priestly
Reaction family was divided owing to the in-
Against trigues of the Tobiads, especially of
Hellenic Joseph; and the high priests, instead
Influence. of defending their patrimony, degraded
it. Of suchakind were Menelaus and
Jason, the latter of whom is said to have sent con-
tributions to Hercules’ games at Tyre, and to have
built an arena in Jerusalem, which the priests were
wont to frequent in place of the Temple (II Macc.
iv. 18, 19). The introduction of the Greek games
was peculiarly offensive to the religious party, not
only because of the levity connected therewith,
but also because Jewish participants were under
the necessity of concealing the signs of their or-
igin. This Hellenization might have gone much
further had not Antiochus Epiphanes attempted to
substitute pagan worship for Jewish. By sodoing he
brought on the Maccabean revolt, which bade fair
to sweep the new influence off the field. Ithad, how-
ever, entered too deeply into the flesh to be entirely
eradicated, though the newly aroused spirit proved
an efficient control. There were still high priests
who headed the Hellenist party. Such a one was
Alcimus, who went to Jerusalem with Bacchides, at
the head of the Syrian army sent by King Deme-
trius. Greek legends on Jewish coins became the
rule after the days of Herod; specimens exist which
date back even to the time of Alexandra Salome. The
Hasmoneans Aristobulus and John Hyrcanus leaned
also to the Hellenists. But it was especially with the
advent of the Idumean Herod and his dynasty that
Hellenism once more threatened to overwhelm Jew-
ish culture. Herod’s theater, his amphitheater, his
hippodrome, and his palace, though such buildings
existed also in Jericho, Tiberias, and Tarichza,
were thoroughly Greek buildings in the very midst
of Jerusalem; his Temple also showed this influence
in its architecture. The inscription forbidding
strangers to advance beyond a certain point in the
Temple was in Greek; and was probably made nec-
essary by the presence of numerous Jews from
Greek-speaking countries at the time of the festivals
(comp. the “murmuring of the Grecians against the
Hebrews,” Acts vi. 1), The coffers in the Temple
which contained the shekel contributions were
marked with Greek letters (Shek. iii. 2). It is there-
fore no wonder that there were synagogues of the
Libertines, Cyrenians, Alexandrians, Cilicians, and
Asiatics in the Holy City itself (Acts vi. 9).
It was, however, in Alexandria that Jewish Hel-
lenism reached its greatest development. Here,
freed from the national bonds which held it firmly
337
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hellenism
to tradition in Palestine, Hellenistic Judaism became
more Hellenistic than Jewish (sce ALEXANDRIA).
It is not true to say with Giidemann
At (“ Monatsschrift,” xlvii, 248) that Hel-
Alexandria. lenism had no appreciable influence
upon the development of Judaism; its
influence was appreciable for many centuries; but
it was driven out of the Jewish camp by the national
sentiment aroused in the Maccabean and Bar Kokba
revolts, and in forming the bridge between .Juda-
ism and Christianity it lost whatever permanent in-
fluence it might have possessed. Since that time,
even in Egypt, the ciassical home of Hellenism, rab-
binical Jewish communities have flourished that
have borne no perceptible trace of the movement
which made Alexandria great.
The Hellenistic Jewish literature is the best evi-
dence of the influence exercised by Greek thought
upon the “people of the book.” The first urgent
need of the Hellenistic Jews in Alexandria was a
Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible. Thestrange
legends which are connected with the origin of this
translation, and which go back to the Letter of Aris-
teas, are discussed under ARISTEAS and BIBLE; it
is sufficient to say that the whole translation was
probably completed by the middle of the second
century B.c. It was highly esteemed by the Hel-
lenistic Jews; Philo (“ De Vita Moysis,” ii., 8 67) calls
the translators not merely épyyvetc, but tepodavrar
xat Tpodytat, who partook of the spirit of Moses.
Even the prejudiced Palestinian teachers accepted
it and praised the beauty of the Greek language
(Sotah vii. 3; Meg. i. 9). They permitted girls to
study it, and declared it to be the only language
into which the Torah might be translated (Yer. i. 1).
The Jews called themselves Palestinians in religion,
but Hellenes in language (Philo, “De Congressu
Queerende Erud.” § 8), and the terms wuri¢ (“ we”)
and ‘Efpaio: (“the Hebrews”) were contrasted (idem,
“De Confusione Linguarum,” § 26). The real Hel-
lenes, however, could not understand the Greek of
this Bible, for it was intermixed with many Hebrew
expressions, and entirely new meanings were at
times given to Greek phrases. On the other hand,
Judaism could not appreciate for any length of time
the treasure it had acquired in the Greek Bible, and
the preservation of the Septuagint is due to the
Christian Church, which was first founded among
Greeck-speaking peoples. The mother church did
not altogether give up the Greek translation of the
Bible; it merely attempted to prevent the Christians
from forging a weapon from it. After the second
century it sought to replace the Septuagint with
more correct translations. AQUILA, a Jewish prose-
lyte, endeavored to put an end to all quarrels with
the Christians by slavishly following
Greek the original Hebrew in his new trans-
Versions lation; Theodotion. following the Sep-
of tuagint, sought to revise it by means
the Bible. of a thorough collation with the orig-
inal. As it became evident that the
controversy could not be ended in this way, the
Jews ceased to dispute with the Christians concern-
ing the true religion, and forbade the study of Greek.
They declared that the day on which the Bible had
been translated into Greek was as fateful as that on
VI.—22
which the golden calf had been worshiped (So-
ferim i.); that at the time when this translation was
made darkness had come upon Egypt for three days
(Ta‘an. 50b); and they appointed the 8th of Tebet
as a fast-day in atonement for that offense. Not
only was the study of the Greek Bible forbidden, but
also the study of the Greek language and literature
in general. After the war with Titus no Jew was
allowed to permit his son to learn Greek (Sotah ix.
14); the Palestinian teachers unhesitatingly sacri-
ficed general culture in order to save their religion.
Hellenistic literature, however, was for the time
being too great an intellectual factor to be entirely
set aside in the Diaspora. No strong line of demar-
cation was drawn between the sacred books origi-
nally written in Hebrew and those written in Greek ;
because the former also were available only in Greek
translations. Greek versions of various sacred
books were accepted, such as the Greek Book of
Ezra; as were also the Greek additions to Ezra and
to the books of Esther and Daniel, the Prayer of
Manasses, the pseudepigraphic Book of Baruch, and
the Epistle of Jeremiah.
The Jews outside of Palestine were so different
from the peoples among whom they lived that they
were bound to attract attention. The Jewish cus-
toms were strange to outsiders, and their religious
observances provoked the derision of the Greeks,
who gave expression to their views in satiric allu-
sions to Jewish history, or even in malicious fabrica-
tions. It was especially in Egypt that the Jews
found many enemies in Greek-writing literati. Fore-
most among these was the Egyptian priest Manetho,
at the time of Ptolemy II., Philadelphus (285-247
B.c.), who wrote a history of Egypt in Greek in
which he repeats the fables current concerning the
Jews. Josephus (“Contra Ap.” ii., $8 14, 36) and
Eusebius (“ Hist. Eccl.” ix. 19) mention as an oppo-
nent of the Jews a certain Apollonius Molo. Frag-
ments from the work of a certain Lysimachus deai-
ing with the Exodus are mentioned by Josephus (28.
i., §$ 84-35), likewise a fragment by Cheremon (2.
i., §§ 32-33), an Egyptian priest as well as a Stoic
_ philosopher, who also dealt, in his “Egyptian His-
tory,” with the same subject. The most interesting,
many-sided, and untrustworthy of all the opponents
of the Jews in Alexandria was APION, whose attacks
were repelled by Josephus in the tract cited above.
There were many Hellenistic Jews who went be-
yond the confines of their own literature and imi-
tated the works of Greek writers in the domain of
history and poetry. The most important historical
productions of this kind are the fragments of Jew-
ish and Samaritan historical works preserved by
Alexander Polyhistor and by the Church Fathers
Clement of Alexandria and Eusebius (see especially
Freudenthal, “Hellenistische Studien,” Nos. i., it,
Breslau, 1875). These histories were intended not
only for Jews, but also for educated
Hellenistic pagans who knew Greek. Following
Jewish the example of Alexandrian chronol-
Historians. ogists, Demetrius, a Jew living in
Egypt under Ptolemy II., wrote a
work on the Jewish kings (IIepi 7év év tj "Tovdaia
Baoitéwv, Clemens Alexandrinus, i. 21, 141), Al-
though the fragments of this history that have been
Hellenism
preserved deal chicfly with Jacob, Moses, etc., and
contain no allusions to the Jewish kings, there are
no grounds for doubting the correctness of the title.
Demetrius cared less for facts than for the chronol-
ogy of the several events which he treated, even as
regards the life of Jacob. (Foran excellent restora-
tion of this text see Freudenthal. Ze. pp. 219-228,
comp. pp. 35-82; Schiirer, “Gesch.” pp. 349-351;
Hilgenfeld, in “Zeit. fiir Wissenschaftliche The-
ologie,” 1897, xviii. 475.) The Judean Eupolemus is
more concerned with narrating events in his book
“On the Kings in Judea,” fragments from which,
intermingled with work by anether hand, have also
been preserved by Alexander Polyhistor. Though
Eupolemus bases his narrative on the Biblical ac-
counts, he draws upon other traditions, and also
upon his imagination. The Egyptian Jew Arra-
pANus adopts the method of fabricating history that
was popular at Alexandria. He transforms * Moses ”
into “ Musseus,” teacher of Orpheus, conqueror of the
Ethiopians, and inventor of the hieroglyphics, of
philosophy, and of many other things. All that is
great and splendid in Egypt is ascribed to Moses,
who appears as the greatest benefactor of that coun-
try. By this means the author sought to counteract
the enmity which the Egyptians and the Greeks in
Egypt showed toward the Hebrews; for this reason
Moses is described as having founded the Egyptian
religion, introduced circumcision among the Egyp-
tians, divided the country into nomes, etc.
The work “On the Jews,” attributed to Aristeas,
also aims to glorify Judaism in the eyes of the
pagans; the story of Job is here told with many
elaborations (¢.g., Job was formerly called “ Jobab ” ;
Gen. xxxvi. 83). This interpretation may be ex-
plained as due to the similarity in Greck between
the two names. Fragments from two Samaritan
historians have likewise been preserved by the Hel-
lenists. Josephus (“ Ant.” i. 15) refers to a Samari-
tan (quoted also by Eusebius, “ Preparatio Evan-
gelica,” ix. 20) who, under the name K~/eddnuo¢g 6
mpooyrne 0 Kai Md2yoc, tells the story
Hist orians. of three sons of Abrahanrand Keturah
who joined Hercules in a campaign
against Libya. Passages from another anonymous
Samaritan chronicle were combined by Alexander
Polyhistor with extracts from the work of Eupo-
lemus, mentioned above. Freudenthal (/.¢. pp. 82-
103, 207 et seg., 223-225), by separating these pas-
sages, Which are preserved in Eusebius (¢.¢c. ix. 17-
18), has brought order out of confusion. Jason of
Cyrene (the author of IL Maccabees), the author of
IiI Maccabees, and Philo of Alexandria must be in-
cluded among the Hellenistic writers who treated of
later Jewish history.
Jason of Cyrene, who, according to Niese, lived
in the second century B.c., wrote a work in five
books, from which the author of IIT Maccabees (ta-
king his own statement in ii. 23-28) made extracts
amounting in quantity to abont one-fifth of the
original. The historical portion proper of II Mac-
cabees (ii. 19-xv. 39) narrates the history of the Jews
from the end of Seleucus IV., Philopator’s reign
(175 B.c.) down to the victory of Judas Maccabeus
over Nicanor (March, 160 3.c.); it covers, therefore,
about the same period as I Maccabees, and the ques-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
338
tion of its trustworthiness has been sharply debated.
! Despite its rhetorical character, portions of it may
still be used asauthentic historical sources. Itmust
have been written before 70 c.e. (though Niese’s
date, 125-124 b.c., seems quite Improbable), since it
presupposes that, at the time of its composition, the
Temple was still standing. The rhetorical styJe of
the Greek in which it is written precludes the prob-
ability of its being a translation from some other
language. The two letters from Palestinian Jews
which, inviting the Greeks to the celebration of
Hanukkah, serve as an introduction to the book
(i. 1-10a, i. 10b-ii, 18), have no connection otherwise
with its contents, and were apparently added later
(comp. Abrahams in “J. Q. R.” xiii, 508 e¢ seq.).
III Maccabecs, a history merely in form, is a fic-
titious story. It recounts an alleged attempt of
Ptolemy I1V., Philopator to enter the Temple, and
narrates that on being unsuccessful, he ordered a
persecution of the Jews of Alexandria, although
they were in no way responsible for the miscarriage
of his plans. The persecution, however, came to
naught, as two angels benumbed the power of the
king and his army, while the latter was trodden
under foot by its own elephants. The king there-
upon relented in regard to the Jews, and permitted
them to kill their faithless compatriots who had
made it appear that his failure to enter the Temple
at Jerusalem was chargeable to the Jews of Alex-
andria.
The philosopher Philo also belongs in a cer-
tain sense to the Hellenistic historians. He under-
took the task of showing how God had constituted
the world materially and spiritually through the
Creation and the Law (“ De Opiticio Mundi”; comp.
“De Abrahamo,” i.; “De Premiis et Peoenis,” i.;
“De Vita Moysis,” ii., § 8), and through the history
of the Patriarchs. He describes in five books, two
of which, “In Flaccum” and “De Legatione,”
have been preserved, the persecution of the Jews
under Caligula. By way of introduction he also
treats of the persecutions by Sejanus in the reign of
Tiberius.
Thallus wrote a chronicle of the world from the
Creation down to about the time of Tiberius. He
may be identical with the Samaritan Thallus men-
tioned by Josephus (“ Ant.” xviii. 6, § 4). Jose-
phus, the foremost Jewish historian, must also be
named here. His ‘Iovdaixy *Apyaroaoyia igs a narra-
tive of Jewish history from its beginning down to
his own time. His object in writing this work in
Greek was to win the respect of the educated Ro-
mans for the conquered Jewish people. His other
large work, “De Bello Judaico,” is an inflated and
not always sincere account of lis own experiences
(see JosEPHUS, FLavivus). His contemporary Justus
of Tiberias dealt with the same subjects, but less
successfully, and his works have therefore not been
preserved.
In the ficld of poetry only the epic and the drama
were cultivated, traces of which, but no fully de-
veloped products, are found in ancient Hebrew lit-
erature. The poem of a certain Philo, on Jerusalem
(Ilepi ra ‘Tepoodsrua), must be classed as an epic; but
only three fragments of it (given by Eusebius,
“ Preeparatio Evangelica,” ix. 20, 24, 37) have been
339
THE JEWISIL ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hellenism
preserved. These treat of Abraham, Joseph, and
the fountains and conduits of Jerusalem, in hexam-
eters that betray the author’scomplete
ignorance of the laws of scansion. This
Philo is probably identical with the
PiAwy 6 MpeoBrrepog mentioned by Josephus (“ Contra
Ap.” i., § 28). Josephus takes him to be a pagan,
but a pagan could hardly have written such slipshod
hexameters. (On Philo’s poem see Franz Delitzsch,
“ Gesch. der Jiid. Poesie,” 1886, pp. 24, 209.) A simi-
lar poem on Shechem, by the Samaritan Theodo-
tus, of which a long fragment has been preserved by
Eusebius (2.¢. ix. 22), recounts the history of the
city according to the Bible, with various amplifica-
tions from other traditions and from Greek mythol-
ogy.
There was also a dramatist named EZEKIELUS
among the Hellenists, mentioned by Clement of
Alexandria (“Stromata,” i. 23, 155) and Eusebius
(2.c. ix. 29, § 14). Under the title "Hgaywyf, extracts
from a single work of his, dealing with the Exodus,
have been preserved by the Church Fathers men-
tioned above. His power of imagination was very
poor; and he appears to have depended chiefly upon
the Bible for his material. The verse-form, how-
ever, is fairly good.
Considering the chasm between the Jews and the
pagans, it is remarkable with what zeal and clever-
ness the Hellenistic Jews sought under pagan masks
to make propaganda for Judaism. They wrote
works in the name of pagan authorities, and these
stole their way into the circle of pagan readers. As
forgeries of this kind were common in the Hellen-
istic period, no blame attached to any famous man for
having committed them, and the Jews could not be
expected to be superior to their time. The Sibyl-
line Books are distinguished from all
The other works of this kind by their lofti-
Sibyllines. nessof purpose. It was their avowed
object to reform paganism, while other
contemporaneous works were merely intended to
glorify the Jewish name; the former endeavored to
act as Jewish missionaries, while the latter sought
merely to make an impression. Collections of the
Sibylline Oracles were kept in different places; they
were an easy medium for religious propaganda, and
Hellenistic Judaism, subsequently also Christianity,
made clever use of them. The ancient Sibyl was
made to address the pagans in Greek hexameters,
threatening dire punishment for pagan idolatry and
pagan vices, and promising forgiveness for repent-
ance and conversion. The collection of the Sibyl-
lines was made from the most diverse sources.
The earliest sentences, aside from a few pagan
oracles, are chiefly Jewish in form, while most of
the later ones are of Christian origin. The greater
part of the fifth book of the Sibylline Oracles is
probably of Jewish origin, with Christian interpola-
tions that can not be inall cases distinguished. The
dates which are assigned to some of the oracles vary
between the first century c.E. and the time of Ha-
drian. It is difficult to distinguish the Jewish pas-
sages in books i.-ii., xi.-xiv. The Church Fathers
quote an apocalyptic work belonging in this cate-
gory, which they ascribe to the Median Hystaspes.
Jewish and Christian apologists often quote verses
Poetry.
by Greek poets that are marked by a pure religious
insight. While some of these lines are genuine, and
are merely cleverly interpreted, others are unmis-
takable forgeries. Most of them occur in the wri-
tings of Clement of Alexandria and in the pseudo-
Justinian work “De Monarchia.” Both authors
drew from the same source, the work of Hecatzus
on Abraham, as Béckh has shown. Schirer places
these forgeries as early as the third century B.c,
(“ Gesch.” i. 453-461),
A work, “On the Jews,” or “On Abraham,” under
the name of “Hecatzeus of Abdera,” is quoted by
Aristeas, Josephus, Clement of Alexandria, and Ori-
gen. The book from which they quoted may have
contained genuine extracts from this
Hecatzeus THecatszus, traces of whose work are
of Abdera foundin DiodorusSiculus. It appears
and from the extant fragments of the spu-
Aristeas. rious work that the life of Abraham
served as the point of departure for a
glorifying description of Judaism. To this class also
belongs the Letter of Aristeas to Philocrates on the
Greek translation of the Jewishlaw. The letter prob-
ably originated about 200 B.c. (Schtirer, “Gesch.” i.
pp. 466-473). It is difficult to form any opinions on
the Hoijua Novflerixov, assigned to the ancient gno-
niic poet Phokylides of Miletus (6th cent. B.c.). It
includes, in 230 hexameters, maxims of vuari-
ous kinds, which, as far as their contents are
concerned, closely follow the Old Testament, es-
pecially the Pentateuch; it contains even many
verbal reminiscences of the Biblical command-
ments. Bernays assumed that the author was a
Jew, but Harnack believes that he was a Chris-
tian. In general, the poem lacks both Jewish and
Christian characteristics. If its author was a Jew
he nevertheless avoided everything that might of-
fend a pagan reader. It should be assigned rather
to the first century c.E. (published with notes by
Bergk, “ Poets Lyrici Greci,” 3d ed., iti. 450-475).
A collection of maxims, ascribed to a certain “ wise
Menander,” was published by Land (1862), from
a Syriac manuscript in the British Museum; this
must be classed with the Jewish Wisdom literature.
Smaller, and probably of Jewish origin, are the so-
called “ Heraclitic Letters” (ed. Bernays, 1869), and
a “Diogenes Letter” (in Bernays, “Lucian und die
Kyuniker,” 1879, pp. 96-98; Schiirer, J.c. pp. 478-
483). Ona freedman, Cecilius of Calacte, probably
of Jewish origin, who lived as rhetor in Rome, see
Jew. Encyc. iii. 482.
Greek ethics cast in the mold of the Jewish Wis-
dom literature is presented in the Wisdom of Solo-
mon, Solomon appearsas the speaker,
Greek addressing a hortatory discourse to
Philosophy his royal colleagues who rule over
in Jewish the heathen peoples. He shows them
Garb. the folly of impiety, and especially of
idolatry, and exhorts them to follow
true wisdom and toserve God. Although the author
may have addressed himself principally to Jewish
readers, yet the descriptions of the dangers of im-
piety and the folly of idolatry presuppose also a
pagan audience, or one that included at least Jews
who had adopted pagan practises. In his concep-
tion of Wisdom he follows Prov. viii. and ix. and
Hellenism
Heller
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
340
Ecclus. (Sirach) xxiv.; but Wisdom becomes in his
hands an independent being, existing apart from the
Deity, and, in a way, acting as the mediator between
the divine activity and the world. The terms in
which he describes this mediation show the influence
of Greek philosophy, especially of Stoicism, recalling
the doctrine of divine reason immanent in the world.
The book follows the Platonic psychology, accord-
ing to which the soul has an independent existence,
living only for a time in the earthly house of the
body, that crumbles again into dust. The author
was probably an Alexandrian Hellenist who took
up the thought that was subsequently further de-
veloped by Philo (see Wisbom, Book oF).
Although the author of the Wisdom of Solomon
touches upon Greek philosophy, he yet remains
within the limits of the Palestinian Wisdom literature.
But Aristobulus was a full-fledged
Alexandrian, thoroughly acquainted
with Greek philosophy and accepting
it. He wasacontemporary of Ptolemy
VI., Philometor, living about 170-150 b.c. He wrote
a voluminous work on the Mosaic laws, which was
not @ commentary but a free paraphrase of the
text of the Pentateuch, together with a philosophic
explanation of its laws. He directly addresses
Ptolemy Philometor and an exclusively pagan au-
dience. He undertakes to show that the Peripatetic
philosophy was influenced by the Pentateuch and
the Hebrew Prophets (Clement of Alexandria,
“Stromata,” v. 14, 97); he essays to prove that all
the Greek philosophers and many Greek poets, as
wel] as Aristotle, borrowed from the Pentateuch,
and that the entire Greek culture is derived from
the Old Testament. He especially endeavors to re-
move from the Old Testament conception of God
the reproach of anthropomorphism by explaining
the anthropomorphic allusions as symbols for spiri-
tual relations. There is no reason for doubting the
genuineness of this work of Aristobulus, as both
older and more recent authorities have done, since
it belongs both in thonght and in expression to Hel-
lenist?c literature. The interspersed Greek verse,
which is obviously spurious, but which Aristobulus
certainly regarded as genuine, was inserted in agree-
ment with a practise general in Hellenistic litera-
ture, so that its presence is no argument against the
genuineness of the work (see Jew. Encyc. ii. 97).
The so-called Fourth Book of Maccabees contains
a philosophical discourse which, on account of its
edifying character, may also be called a sermon,
although it was probably not deliv-
The Fourth ered in asynagogue, its theme being a
Book of philosophical proposition. It derives
Maccabees. its name from the fact that it refers to
the execution of a mother and her
seven sons, as related in IT Macc. vii., and endeav-
ors to prove by the principles of argumentation fol-
lowed by Greek rhetoricians that pious reason is
able to conquer all emotions, In his religious con-
victions the author is entirely a Jew. Although he
uses the Greek terminology in unfolding his doctrine
of God, his views are wholly Biblical.
The Church Fathers ascribe this work to Josephus,
but the statement can not be accepted, as that author
in his “ Antiquities” does not draw upon IT Macca-
Aristo-
bulus.
bees as does the work in question. The book is
assigned to the first century c.g. (J. Freudenthal,
“Ueber die Flavius Josephus Beigelegte Schrift
tiber die Herrschaft der Vernunft,” Breslau, 1869).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Schiirer, Gesch. ii. 21 et seq.; Wellhausen, I.
. G. pp. 182 et seq.: M. Friedlander, Zur Eimtstehung des
Christenthums, pp. 143 et seq., Vienna, 1884; Joél, Blicke
in die Religionsgesch. i. Breslau, 1880; idem, Das Juden-
thum in der Vorchristlichen Welt, 1897; Siegfried, in Zeit-
schrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Theologie, 1875, xviii. 465 et
seq.; Willrich, Juden und Griechen vor der Makkabdischen
Erhebung, 1895. C. S.—G.
HELLER, ISIDOR: Austrian author; born May
5, 1816, at Jung-Bunzlau, Bohemia; died at Arco,
Tyrol, Dec. 19, 1879. He was studying to become a
rabbi when (1837) his unsteady disposition drove him
to France to join the French foreign legion. After
many adventures he returned home, and received, on
account of a novelin the magazine “ Libussa,” a call
to Budapest to edit the magazine “ Der Ungar.” He,
however, resigned this position in 1847, and joined
the editorial staff of Gustav Ktthnes’ “Europa” at
Leipsic.
Returning to Budapest in 1848, Heller became the
editor of the “ Morgenréthe,” in which he especially
opposed Kossuth’s party in Hungarian politics, for
which reason he was obliged to leave Hungary. He
then went to Berlin, but was forced to leave the city
in 1852 on account of his “Sendschreiben eines Oes-
terreichers an die Deutsche Nation,” and he became
private secretary to the Austrian minister, Baron
Bruck, whom he accompanied to Constantinople.
Heller returned to Vienna in 1855, and in 1859 es-
tablished the “ Fortschritt.” He was also one of the
founders of the “Neues Fremdenblatt” (1864). TIIl-
ness prevented further activity, and he lived the rest
of his life in seclusion. Heller’s works, at one time
widely read, include: “Ginge Durch Prag”; “ Das
Judenbegribniss”; “Der Zeitgeist” (Budapest,
1847); “ Die Reaction ” (Berlin, 1852); “ Oesterreichs
Lage und Hilfsmittel” (Leipsic, 1852); and “ Me-
moiren des Baron Bruck” (Vienna, 1877),
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Szinnyei, Magyar Irék Elete; Pester Lloyd
Abendblatt, 1879, No. 297, L. Vv
6. < ;
HELLER, JEHIEL B. AARON: Russian
rabbi; born in Koidanov, government of Minsk.
1814; died at Plungian, government of Kovno,
Nov. 14, 1861. He wasa descendant of Rabbi Yom-
Tob Lipmann Heller. Jehiel was successively
rabbi at Glusk (1836-43), Volkovisk (1843-54), Su-
walki, and Plungian (till his death). He was a
noted preacher, and delivered sermons in pure Ger-
man on various notable occasions.
He wrote the following works: “Shene Perakim
leha-Rambam,” or “ Kebod Melek,” on patriotism
(this book was translated into German and published
for the government by Dr. Leon Mandelstamm), St.
Petersburg, 1852; “‘Ammude Or,” responsa on the
four parts of the Shulhan ‘Aruk, Kénigsberg, 1856;
“Kinah le-Dawid,” a funeral sermon on Rabbi Da-
vid Lurie (Bichover), published as an appendix to
the latter’s “ Kadmut Sefer ha-Zohar,” 7d. 1856; “Or
la- Yesharim,” commentary on the Haggadah of Pass-
over, 2). 1857; “‘Oteh Or,” commentary on the Song
of Solomon, Memel, 1861.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinsehneider, ‘Ir Wilna, pp. 91, 99, 100,
191; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 522.
H. R. N. T. L.
341
HELLER, JOSHUA BEN AARON : Russian
rabbi and preacher; born 1814; died at Telshi, gov-
ernment of Kovno, June 2, 1880. After having been
for several years preacher in Grodno, Heller was ap-
pointed chief rabbi of Polangen, Courland, and after-
ward chief rabbi of Telshi. Heller was the author
of several works, of which the following have been
published: “ Dibre Yehoshua‘,” a homiletical and
philosophical work in three parts (Wilna, 1856) ; “ Ho-
sen Yehoshua‘,” a guide to the removal of the causes
which hinder the study of the Law (7b. 1862); “Tole-
dot Yehoshua‘,” a commentary on Pirke Abot (2d.
1866); and “Ma‘oz ha-Dat,” an essay intended to
prove that the oral law is true and necessary (2).
1873). Heller also contributed to the Hebrew peri-
odical “ Ha-Lebanon.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 429; Ha-Meliz,
nt col. 222; Van Straalen, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus.
Dp.
H. R. M. SEL.
HELLER, MENAHEM. See HELLER, ZEpr
HIkscH.
HELLER, SELIGMANN: Austrian poet and
journalist; born at Raudnitz, Bohemia, July 8, 1831;
died in Vienna Jan. 8, 1890. After completing his
course at the University of Vienna, where he studied
philology and law, he engaged in business with his
father. In 1866 he became teacher of German ata
commercial school at Prague, and was at the same
time member of the editorial statf of “ Bohemia.” He
taught also at the Talmud Torah at Prague. In
1873 he went to Vienna, where he became dramatic
critic for the “ Deutsche Zeitung,” and, subsequent-
ly, teacher of the history of literature at the Handels-
akademie.
Heller published “ Ahasverus,” an epic poem on
the Wandering Jew, Leipsic, 1866 (2d ed., 7d. 1868):
“Die Letzten Hasmonier,” Prague, 1865; and “Ge-
dichte,” Vienna, 1872.
After Heller’s death his translations of medieval
Hebrew poems were edited by his friend D. Kauf-
mann and published under the title “Die Echten
Hebriischen Melodien,” Treves, 1892 (2d ed., Bres-
lau, 1908).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon; D. Kauf-
mann, Die Echten Hebrdischen Melodien, Introduction,
Treves, 1892.
S. F. T. H.
HELLER, STEPHEN: Hungarian pianist and
composer; born at Budapest May 15, 1815; died in
Paris Jan. 14, 1888. He was originally destined
for the law, but soon decided to devote his life to
music.
At the age of nine he had already been sufficiently
advanced to play with his teacher, F. Brauer, at the
theater in Budapest, the concerto by Dussek for two
pianos. Shortly afterward he went to Vienna to
study with Charles Czerny, and later with Anton
Halm. In 1827 he gave concerts in Vienna, and
from 1829 to 1832 made a concert tour with his father
through Hungary, Poland, and Germany.
After passing the winter of 1830 at Hamburg, he
returned to Budapest by way of Cassel, Frankfort,
Nuremberg, and Augsburg. In the last-mentioned
city he was taken ill, and was soon afterward adopted
by a wealthy patron of music. In 1838 Heller went
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hellenism
Heller
to Paris, where he entered that brilliant musical cir-
cle of which Liszt, Chopin, and Berlioz were con-
spicuousmembers. Here Heller eventually achieved
high distinction both as a concert performer and as a
teacher. In 1849, and again in 1862, he visited Lon-
don, on the latter occasion playing with Halle at the
Crystal Palace (May 3) Mozart’s E-flat concerto for
two pianos. With these brief interruptions the last
twenty-five vears of his life were spent at Paris.
Heller's numerous compositions, solely for piano-
forte, are celebrated for their originality, grace, and
elegance. As regards a specific knowledge of the
instrument, Heller was considered superior even to
Mendelssohn ; and his poetry of sentiment, pure and
rich melody, and fertility of rhythmical invention
place him among the very first composers of his
genre.
Heller wrote in all about 150 opus numbers, of
which the following are the most popwar; * Traum-
bilder,” op. 79; “ Promenades d’un Solitaire,” op. 78,
80, 89; “ Nuits Blanches” (or * Blumen-, Frucht-, und
Dornenstiicke ”), op. 82; “ Dans les Bois.” op. 13, 36,
86, 128; “ Eglogues,” op. 92; 8 “ Bergeries.” op. 106;
“Voyage Autour de Ma Chambre.” op. 140; “Ta-
blettes d’un Solitaire,” op, 158; “ TWerbstblitter,” op.
109; “ Balletstiicke,” op. 111; 8 “ Ballades,” op. 115;
3 “ Préludes,” op. 117; “Tarantelles,” op. 58, 61, 85,
137, etc. ; “ Etudes,” op. 16. 45, 46, 47, 90, 125; besides
sonatas, mazurkas, scherzi, caprices, nocturnes,
songs without words, and variations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Grove, Dict.of Music and Musicians; Fétis,
Biographie Universelle des Musiciens; Baker, Bioy. Dict.
of Musicians, New York, 1900.
g, J. So,
HELLER, YOM-TOB LIPMANN BEN NA-
THAN BEN MOSES LEVI: Rabbiand liturgical
poet; bornat Wallerstein, Bavaria, 1579; died at Cra-
cow Sept. 7, 1654. Erroneously the editor of the
“Megillat Ebah” concludes from his epitaph that
Heller died April 28; Hock (“Gal ‘Ed,” p. 65) gives
Aug. 2.as the date, while David Gans (* Zemah Da-
wid,” p. 59) places his death in 1649. Heller was
brought up by his grandfather, Moses Heller, chief
rabbi of the German communities. He was sent to
Friedburg, where he studied under Jacob Ginzburg.
Thence he was invited to Prague by a rich mer-
chant, Aaron Ashkenazi, who later became his father-
in-law. There he studied under Judah Léw b.
Bezaleel, head of the yeshibah of Prague. Accord-
ing to Azulai (“Shem ha-Gedolim,” i. 74), Heller’s
second master was Solomon Ephraim Lenczyza, chief
rabbi of Prague. At Prague Heller perfected his
rabbinical studies; and in 1597, when scarcely eight-
een years old, he was appointed dayyan in that
city.
In Oct., 1624, Heller was called to the rabbinate of
Nikolsburg, Moravia, and in March, 1625, became
rabbiof Vienna. There he reorganized the commu-
nity and drew up its constitution. According to
Hock (.¢.), it was Heller who obtained for the Jews
the privilege of having Leopoldsiadt as their special
quarter.
In 1627 Heller was called to the chief rabbinate of
Prague. On account of the Thirty Years’ war the
government imposed heavy taxes on the Jewish
communities of Bohemia, including that of Prague,
Heller
Heman
which had to pay a yearly tax of 40,000 thalers. As
Heller was the chief rabbi he was compelled, against
his will, to preside over the commission which had
the task of apportioning that sum
As Chief among the members of his commu-
Rabbi _initics. Although he acted with the
of Prague. greatest conscientiousness, some com-
plained of unfair allotment, They ac-
cused Heller and the elders of the commission before
the civil authorities of having spared the rich and laid
the burden of the tux on the poorer people. Emperor
Ferdinand H. addressed a severe censure to Heller,
rarning him not to repeat such proceedings. Hel-
ler’s enemies, not satisfied, accused him before the
emperor of having written against Christianity.
The emperor commanded the governor of Prague to
send Heller in chains to Vienna, but the supplica-
tions of the leading Jews of Prague combined with
the esteem which the Christian officials had for Hel-
ler spared him that indignity. The Jews pledged
themselves that he would present himself before
his judges even if allowed to go alone. Heller ac-
cordingly set out for Vienna on Tues-
In Prison. day, Tammuz 5, 5389 (June 25, 1629),
and arrived there on the following
Sunday. On Tammuz 17, the Jewish fast-day, he
was imprisoned together with common criminals,
The Jews of Vienna, however, obtained his transfer
to another prison.
A clerical commission was appointed to inquire
into Heller’s guilt. It met on July 15, and
among other questions Heller was asked how he
dared to eulogize the Talmud after it had been
burned by papal order. Heller justified himself
very adroitly ; but the verdict was that Heller prop-
erly deserved death. The emperor, however, com-
muted the punishment to a fine of 12,000 thalers, to
be paid immediately, the incriminated writings to be
destroyed. The fine was far beyond Heller’s means;
but the order was explicit that in default of pay-
ment Heller was to be stripped and flogged in the
public squares of Vienna and Prague. The Jews
again interfered in his behalf, and the fine was re-
duced to 10,000 florins, to be paid ininstalments. By
the help of generous Jews, Heller was enabled to pay
the first instalment of 2,000 florins. Finally, after a
confinement of forty days, he was liberated (Aug.
14), but deprived of his office and left without means,
His enemies, in addition, obtained an imperial deci-
sion to the effect that Heller might not officiate as
rabbi in any town of the Austrian empire. He re-
turned to Prague Sept. 26, and was confined to his
bed for three months. His friends in the meantime
secured a partial withdrawal of the decision regard-
ing the rabbinate.
Helped by friends, Heller was able to wait for bet-
ter times and to pay the remaining instalments of his
fine. In 1632 he wascalled to the rabbinate of Nemi-
row, government of Podolsk, Russia, and three years
later he became rabbi of Vladimir, Volhynia. He at-
tended the fairs of Yaroslav and Kremenetz, where
the Council of the Four Lands met, and obtained the
renewal of the synodal decrees against simony in the
rabbinate. But he thereby made for himself many
enemies, who calumniated him before the governor
of Volhynia. The latter directed Heller to quit the
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
34%
town, but the more influential Jews of Warsaw suc-
ceeded in having the order withdrawn.
In theautumn of 1643 Heller received an invitation
to the rabbinate of Cracow, which he gladly ac-
cepted. Joshua Heschel. the author of * Maginne She-
lomoh,” was head of the yeshibah
there. Four years later Heschel died,
and Heller succeeded him in the di-
rection of the yeshibah. At Cracow
Heller relaxed the Jewish marriage laws, because,
owing to the persecutions which the Jews had suf-
fered at the hands of the Cossacks, many women did
not know whether their husbands were still alive or
not. He established the 5th of Tammuz, the day
on Which his troubles began, as a perpetual fast-
day in his family, and the Ist of Adar as a day of
mirth to commemorate his nomination to the rab-
binate of Cracow.
Heller was twice married and had four sons and
five daughters. The sons, whom he mentions in
his works, were: Moses of Prague, Samuel of Nemi-
row, Abraham (b. 1615) of Lublin, and Lob of Brest-
Litovsk. Moses Zacuto wrote an elegy on Heller’s
death (Venice, 1654).
Heller was a recognized authority in matters of
Rabbi at
Cracow.
ritual. He explained the Talmud without recourse
to casuistry. Although he appreci-
His ated the Zohar and other cabalistic
Knowledge works, he never deviated from plain
and Works. interpretation as regards the Hala-
kah. He was also versed in the secu-
lar sciences. Hiscommentary on the Mishnah shows
that he was a good mathematician; and his notes on
the “Gib‘at ha-Moreh” of Joseph b. Isaac ha-Levi
prove that he occupied himself with philosophy.
His judgment was impartial; he praised the “ Me’or
‘Enayim ” of Azariah dei Rossi in spite of the anath-
ema that his master, Low b. Bezaleel, whom he held
in great esteem, had launched against the book and
its author. He was also a good linguist and a He-
brew stylist; his authority as such was recognized
by Samuel Archevolti, who sent Heller his “ ‘Aru-
gat ha-Bosem” for examination (“Tos. Yom-Tob,”
on Tamid, end of ch. vii.).
Heller was a prolific writer, as can be seen from
the following list of his works, some of which are
still unpublished :
Zurat ha-Bayit, on the temple of Ezekiel, written when Heller
was very young. Prague, 1602.
Commentary on the * Behinat ‘Olam’ of Jedaiah Bedersi.
Prague, 1598.
Tub Ta‘am, a cabalistic supercommentary, following the
‘*Pardes Rimmonim”’ of Moses Cordovero, on Bahya’s com-
mentary to the Pentateuch.
Tosefot Yom-Tob, notes and glosses to the six orders of the
Mishnah ; first published with the text, Prague, 1614-17; then re-
vised by the author, Cracow, 1643.
Notes on the ‘“*Gib*at ha-Moreh ” of Joseph b. Isaac ha-Levi.
Prague, 1612.
Ma‘adanne Melek and Lehem Hamudot, a double commentary
on Asheri’s “ Piske Halakot’’ to Berakot, and on ‘* Halakot
Ketannot”’ to Hullin, Bekorot, and Niddah. Prague, 1628.
Pilpela Harifta, the fourth part of the preceding commentary,
on the order Nezikin. Prague, 1619.
Judzo-German translation of Asheri’s ethical work, **Orhot
Hayyim.”’ Prague, 16:26.
Malbushe Yom-Tob, critical notes on Mordecai Jaffe’s ** Le-
bush ” to the Orah Hayyim.
Sermon delivered by Heller at Vienna on the disappearance of
the cholera. Prague, 1626.
343
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Heller
Heman
Supercomimentary on Ibn Ezra’s commentary to the Penta-
teuch (Neubauer, “ Cat. Boal. Hebr. MSS.”* No. 235).
Leket Shoshannim, @ grammatical treatise on <Archevolti’s
***Arugat ha-Bosem’’ (Neubauer, I.c. No. 2271, 4).
Notes on the Eben ha-*Ezer of both Jacob b. Asher and Joseph
Caro (printed with the ** Hiddushe ha-Rashba ** on Ketubot).
Derush Hiddush ha-Lebanah, an astronomical treatise on the
increase and decrease of the noon. Wilna, 1866.
Darke Hora’ah, a guide to decisions in ritual laws when the
authorities disagree.
Torat ha-Asham, on the * Torat Hattat"* of Muses Isserles (3 .
vols.; Neubauer, l.c. Nos. 772-773).
She’elot u-Teshubot, some of whieh were printed in the re-
sponsa collection ** Zemah Zedek,”* others in ** Geonim Batra’e,”’
but most of them unpublished.
Seder Shemot Gittin (Neubauer, U.c. No. 808, 1).
Megillat Ebah, autobiography, published by Moses Kérner,
with a German translation by Miro. Breslau, 1836.
Parashat ha-Hodesh, on Maimonides’ * Yad,’’ Kiddush ha-
Hodesh (Neubauer, l.c. No. 631, 1).
Berit Melah, treatise in Judzeo-German on the law of salting
meat. Amsterdam, 1718,
Heller also wrote two sclihot to be recited on the
14th of Heshwan in commemoration of the sufferings
at Prague in 1618-20. In 1650 he wrote three other
selihot, in which he describes the massacres of the
Jews under Chmielnicki in 1648. These selihot are
recited on the 20th of Sitwan. He was also the
author of the “ Mi she-Berak,” recited every Satur-
day.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Megillat Ebah, Breslau, 1836; Gratz, Gesch.
8d ed., x. 39, 43, 55, 69; Carmoly, in Revue Orientale, ii. 289-
304; M. Zunz, *I7 ha-Zedek, pp. 93-104; Jost, in Sulamith, vii.,
part ii., p. 141; Zunz, Literaturgesch. pp. 426-427; idem,
Z. G. pp. 281, 292, 293, 296, 297, 870; Brann, in R. BE. J. xxi.
271-277; Hock, Gal'‘Ed, p. 63; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl.
cols. 1408-1410; Landshuth, ‘Ammude ha-Abodah, pp. 83-
85; Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 74: Fuenn, Keneset Yis-
rael, pp. 441-443.
G, M. SE.
HELLER, ZEBI HIRSCH (also called Her-
schele Harif): Hungarian rabbi; died at Alt-Ofen
Oct, 28, 1834. Teller was rabbi at Bonyhad. In
1834 he was called to Alt-Ofen as successor to Moses
Miinz, but had hardly begun his ministry when he
died. Zebi Hirsch Chajes, rabbi of Zolkiev; 8. J.
Rapoport, chief rabbi of Prague: and Moses Tau-
bers, rabbi of Sniatyn, were his pupils. He was the
author of “Hiddushe Tib Gittin,” novelle, pub-
lished with the responsa of his son, Menahem Heller
(Zolkiev, 1844; 2d ed., Przemysl, 1876); and “ Tap-
puhe Zahab” (Ungvar, 1865). There is also a re-
sponsum by him in Joshua Orenstein’s “ Yam ha-
Talmud.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Walden, Shem ha-Gedolim he-Hadash, i. 38;
Steinschneider, Cat. Boal. col. 2752; Bichler, Zsiddk Torté-
nete Budapesten, p. 821; Magyar Zsido Szemle, vii. 591.
Ss. L. V.
HELMET (315 or yaip): In olden times the hel.
met seems to have been worn only by kings, military
officers, and other important officials. At least, it is
mentioned only of Goliath and Saul that they had
brazen belmets (I Sam. xvii. 5, 38). Not until later
did a helmet form part of the complete armor of an
ordinary soldier. Chronicles relates that Uzziah
equipped the whole Jewish army with helmets and
armor (II Chron. xxvi. 14). Theauthenticity of this
account may be uncertain, but it tends to show
that the wearing of a helmet was a general custom
at that time. In Jer. xlvi. 4, also, the helmet is
reckoned a necessary part of the armor. It must
not be supposed, however, that these helmets were
of brass; they were leather caps. The head-cover-
ings of the Syrian and Hittite warriors were of this
kind, ag they are pictured on the Egyptian monu-
ments (see illustrations in W. Max Miller’s “ Asien
und Europa,” pp. 302-384). These were round, flat
caps, fitting the head close-
ly, with a projection at the
back to protect the neck.
The Egyptian soldiers
wore similar caps, only
theirs were broader at the
back and covered the ears
also. In Egypt, too,
metal helmets were rare;
they were more common
among the Assyrians. oie
Helmets were usually Coin of Herod the Great, Show-
ing Helmet with Cheek-
Pieces.
(After Madden.)
hemispherical. The round
cap, fitting tightly to
the head, is still worn in
the East, but not frequently. The hemispherical
helmet, if made of leather, usually had metal rings,
or else two metal bands on the outside, to give it
firmness. As a rule side-pieces protected the ears.
The shape of the metal helmets was thesame. Both
leather and metal helmets were ornamented with
bands and flaps of the most varied form.
E. G. H. I. BE.
HELPFUL THOUGHTS. See PERIODICALS.
HELTAY, FRANZ: Hungarian deputy; born
in Szentes March 15, 1861; studied law and political
economy in Budapest. After having become a mem-
ber of the editorial staff of the “Nemzet” and “ El-
lenér,” he edited (1887-88) the “ Nemzet Gazdasigi
Szémle ” (Review of Political Economy). Since 1887
he has also edited the “ Vasuti és Kézlekedési Koéz-
lény ” (Railway News), the official organ of the Hun-
garian Ministry of Commerce.
Heltay is a member of the committee of statistics
and of the tariff commission at the Ministry of Com-
merce, and vice-president of the Journalists’ Pension
Fund. His principal work is “ Az Ipartérvény Re-
vizidja” (Revision of the Trade Laws), Budapest,
1883.
In 1896 Heltay was elected to the Hungarian
Reichstag from Okland.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pallas Lex.
8 L. V.
HEMAN (jo): 1. Son of Joel and grandson of
the prophet Samuel; surnamed “the Singer”; a Ko-
hathite (I Chron. vi. 19). He was one of the three
chief Levites appointed by David to superintend the
musical service in the Temple (db. vi. 18-30, xv. 17,
xxv. 1). He had fourteen sons, all of whom assisted
in the choir under their father, and each of whom was
the head of one of the twenty-four courses of the Le-
vites established by David (20. xxv. 4-31). Heman
was also called “the king’s seer in the matters of
God” (76. xxv. 5), the same term being applied to
Asaph (IJ Chron. xxix. 30) and to Jeduthun (2d.
xxxv. 15). 2. Sonof Mahol; one of the men re-
nowned for wisdom (I Kings v. 11 [A.V. iv. 813). In
I Chron. ii. 6 this Heman is mentioned as the son of
Zerah, son of Judah. As to the Heman to whom the
Eighty-eighth Psalm is ascribed, it is difficult to de-
termine whether he is to be identified with No. 1 or
Hemdan
Henle, Friedrich
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
344
with No. 2 of this article. The fact that other
psalms are ascribed to Asaph and Jeduthun, He-
man’s two companions, might indicate identification
with Heman the Singer. The first part of the title,
“A Psalm for the sons of Korah,” would confirm this
supposition. But he is called there “Heman the
Ezrahite,” and the following psalin is superscribed
“Ethan the Ezrahite”; so that it seems that these
two were the sons of Zerah (“ Ezrahite ’’ = “ Zar-
hite”), renowned for their wisdom. In this case the
tithe of Ps. Ixxxvili. would be composed of two
contradictory parts.
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HEMDAN (y"9n): The eldest son of Dishon the
Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 26). In the parallel list in I
Chron. i. 41 this name is changed to “ Hamran”
(an).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HEMENT, FELIX: French educator; born at
Avignon Jan. 22, 1827; died at Nanterre (Seine) Oct.
5, 1891. Hément was a schoolmaster all his life,
rising to the position of primary inspector of the de-
partment of the Seine, and retiring in 1886 with the
title Honorary Inspector-General of Public Instruc-
tion. During the war of 1870 Hément was entrusted
with special work relating to the defense of the fort
of Vanves, He afterward gave innumerable lectures
throughout France for the purpose of aiding the
advancement of popular instruction. Those which
he delivered in the department of Aisne in 1888
brought about a conflict with Mgr. Thibaudier,
then Bishop of Soissons, which caused some stir at
the time.
Hement’s works cover a wide sphere of learning.
The following deserve special mention:
Menus Propos sur les Sciences, 1866. La Force et la Matiére,
1867.
L’Homme Primitif, 1868. Dela Force Vitale, 1870.
Famille, Propriété, Patrie, 1872. Premiéres Notions d’Histvire
Naturelle, 1874.
Simples Discours sur la Terre et sur I’Homme, 1875 (crowned
by the French Academy). De I'Instinct et de l’Intelligence,
1880.
L’O1r.zine des Etres Vivants, 1882. Les Infiniment Petits, 1885.
Les Etoiles Filantes et les Bolides, 1885. La Seience Anecdo-
tique, 1889. Entretiens sur la Liberté de la Conscience, 1890.
Tfément was decorated with the Legion of Honor.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Vapereau, Dictionnaire Universel des Con-
temporains.
S. V. =E.
HEMERDINGER, MICHEL: French jurist;
born at Colmar, Alsace, May 1, 1809; died in Paris
June 22, 1880. After taking the degree of bachelor
of letters at Strasburg (1829), he entered the rab-
binical school at Metz. In 1830 he went to Paris to
study law, and was admitted to the bar in 1883. In
1838 he was employed at the assizes and the court
martial. In 1838-40 he was secretary of the Society
of Attorneys, among the members of which were
Grévy, Arago, Barbier, and Leblond; in 1845 he be-
came a member of the Central Jewish Consistory ; in
1848, acting prosecutor of the republic; in April-
June of the same year he was special government
commissioner for Alsace, adjusting differences among
the Jews; and from 1870 to 1879 he was a justice of
the peace in Paris. S.
HEMEROBAPTISTS (nan ‘Say; lit.“ morn-
ing bathers”): Division of Essenes who bathed every
morning before the hour of prayer in order to pro-
nounce the name of God with a clean body (Tosef.,
Yad., end; the correct version being given by R.
Simson of Sens: “The morning bathers said to the
Pharisees: ‘We charge you with doing wrong in
pronouncing the Name in the morning without hav-
ing taken the ritual bath’; whereupon the Pharisees
said: ‘We charge you with wrong-doing in pro-
nouncing the Name with a body impure within’ ”).
In the time of Joshua b. Levi (8d cent.) a remnant
still existed, but had no clear reason for their prac-
tise (Ber. 22a). The CLEMENTINA speak of John
the Baptist as a Hemerobaptist, and the disciples
of John are accordingly called “ Hemerobaptists ”
(“ Homilies,” ii. 28; comp. “Recognitions,” i. 54);
similarly, Banus, the teacher of Josephus (“ Vita,”
§ 2), was a Hemerobaptist. Hegesippus (see Euse-
bius, “ Hist. Eccl.” iv. 22) mentions the Hemerobap-
tists as one of the seven Jewish sects or divisions
opposed to the Christians. Justin (“ Dial. cum
Tryph.” § 80) calls them simply “ Baptists.”
According to the Christian editor of the “ Didas-
calia” (“ Apostolic Constitutions,” vi. 6), the Hemero-
baptists “do not eat until they have bathed, and do
not make any use of their beds and tablesand dishes
until they have cleansed them.” This obviously
rests upon a misunderstanding of their true charac-
ter. Epiphanius (“ Panarion,” i., heresy xvii.) goes
stil! further, and says that the Hemerobaptists deny
future salvation to him who does not undergo bap-
tism daily.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. iit. 700.
K
HEN: There is no mention of the hen in the Old
Testament, though “ barburim abusim ” (I Kings v.
3) is taken in B. M. 86b for “fattened hens.” Many
of the Talmudic references to the hen (“ tarnegolet ” ;
“gabrit”; “pahya”) are quoted under Cock in
JEW. ENcyc. iv. 188 e¢ seg. The Talmud mentions
that the hen perches for sleep on elevated places
(Shab. 85b). As such places are often over chim-
neys, the lower eyelid of the hen overlaps the upper
one in sleeping, in order to protect its cyes against
the smoke (7. 77b). The egg of the hen takes ten
days to mature (Ber. 8a). A cock and a hen, on ac-
count of the fecundity of the latter, were carried
before the bridal couple on the wedding-day (Gif.
57a). The skins of grapes on account, of their fat-
tening properties were a favorite food for hens (B.
M. 86b). The employment of hens in thrashing is
mentioned in B. M. 91b.
E. G. H. I. M. C.
HEN. See GRACIAN.
HENA: Rabshakeh’s enumeration of the mon-
archies reduced by the King of Assyria terminates
with the words “ Hena‘ we-‘Iwwah” (II Kings xix.
13; Isa. xxxvii. 13). These two words are supposed
by several critics to be the names of two cities, and
according to Biisching (“ Erdbeschreibung,” xi. 268,
757) it is the city now called “‘Anah” by the Arabs,
and situated on the Euphrates. F. Hommel, how-
ever, takes these two words for names of constella-
345
tions (“ Expository Times,” April, 1898). The Jew-
ish commentators, as wellas the Targum, consider
them as two verbs.
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HENDLE, ERNEST: French statesman: born
at Paris Feb. 15, 1844; died Feb. 7, 1900. Hendlé
was educated for the bar and had a brilliant career
as attorney at the Court of Appeal. His success at-
tracted the attention of Jules Favre, who appointed
him his secretary. When Favre became minister for
foreign affairs (1870), HendJé remained with him, and
accompanied him to Ferriéres during the memorable
negotiations with Bismarck. The Government of
National Defense sent Hendlé to administer provi-
sionally the department of the Nord. On March 20,
1871, Hfendlé became governor (“préfet”) of the
Creuse, and the following year obtained a similar
post in the department of Loir-et-Cher. Hendlé re-
sigued when the Reactionaries came into power, but
in 1876 he became prefect of the Yonne. Later he
was governor of the department of Sadne-et-Loire
and dealt ina masterly way with the strikes at Mon-
ceau-les-Mines. He was transferred to Rouen in
1876, and remained there until his death. Hendlé
was made commander of the Legion of Honor in
July, 1886. He was a son-in-law of Albert Conn.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jewish Chronicle, Feb. 16, 1900.
8.
V. Ez
HENDRICKS: Amcrican family whose gene-
alogy may be found on page 346.
HENGSTENBERG, ERNST WILHELM:
German Bible exegete; born Oct. 20, 1802, at Frén-
denberg, Westphalia; died at Berlin May 28, 1869;
studied theology and Oriental languages at the
University of Bonn.
He was the author of: “Christologie des Alten
Testaments,” Berlin, 1829-85 (2d ed., 1854-58; Eng-
lish translation by Keith, 1835-39); “Beitrage zur
Einleitung ins Alte Testament,” 2). 1881-89 (Eng-
lish translation, Edinburgh, 1847-48); “ Die Biicher
Mosis und Egypten,” 7b. 1841; commentaries on
the Psalms (1847), Canticles (1853), and Ecclesiastes
(1859). In the last-named he gives up the theory of
the Solomonic authorship of Kohelet, as he already
had done in the article “Ecclesiastes” in Kitto’s
“Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature ’’ (1845). These
three commentaries have been translated into Eng-
lish. In 1867-68 appeared his commentary on
Ezekicl. He wrote also a special work on the
relations of the Jews to the Christian Church,
“Die Juden und die Christliche Kirche,” Berlin,
1857. After his death were published “ Geschichte
des Reiches Gottes Unter dem Alten Bunde” (2
vols., 1869-71; also translated into English), and a
cominentary on Job (1870-75).
In all his works Hengstenberg was a firm advocate
of the traditional Christian views of the Old Testa-
ment and protested strenuously against the higher
criticism of his day. |
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bachmann and Schmalenbach, Ernst Wil-
helm Hengstenberg, Gtitersloh, 1876-92.
J. F. T. H.
HENIKSTEIN, ALFRED, FRETHERR
VON: Austrian general: born Aug. 11, 1810, at
Ohber-Dobling ; died Jan. 29, 1882, in Vienna. He was
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hemdan
Henle, Friedrich
the son of the banker Joseph von Henikstein. After
being baptized he joined (1828) a regiment of engi-
neers, becoming major in 1848. The following year
he became colonel; and in 1854 was appointed major-
general, He fought in the Austro-Italian war of 1859,
won the rank of “ Feldmarschallieutenant,” and was
created baron. In 1863 he was placed in command of
the fifth army-corps in Verona, and in the following
year was appointed chief of the general staff. In
the Austro-Prussian war he was Benedek’s chief of
staff. After the defeat of the Austrian arms and
the costly blunders made by commanding officers,
the public demanded an investigation, and Benedek
and Henikstein were suspended and ordered to ap-
pear before a court martial. After some time the
court was dismissed without having given judg-
ment. Leaving the army, Henikstein passed the rest
of his life in retirement in Vienna.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon,
S. F. T. H.
HENLE, ELISE: German novelist and drama-
tist; born in Munich 1830; died at Frankfort-on-the-
Main Aug. 18, 1892; she was a niece of the poetess
Henriette Ottenheimer. After her marriage to the
manufacturer Leopold Levi of Esslingen, her house
became the rendezvous of a dlistinguished society cir-
cle. She was of a deeply religious nature, with a
keen sense of humor. Her first literary productions,
such as the narrative “ Die Wacht am Rhein ” and the
novel “ Das Zweite Jigerbataillon,” appeared anony-
mously in several periodicals. She entered the dra-
matic field successfully with the political comedy
“Der Zweite September,” which was soon followed
by the drama “ Percy ” (a free adaptation of Galen)
and the text of the opera “Murillo.” Her comedies,
“Durch die Intendanz” and “ Die Wiener in Stutt-
gart,” met with marked success in several German
theaters.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserling, Die Jiidischen Frauen, p. 240;
Allg. Zeit. des Jud. lvi. 423.
S. M. K.
HENLE, ELKAN: One of the earliest cham-
pions of the emancipation of the Jews in Bavaria;
born Dec. 7, 1761, in Firth; died there Oct. 14, 1883.
He was the author of: “Ueber die Verbesserung
des Judenthums” (anon., Offenbach, 1808; for the
most part reprinted in “Sulamith,” ii. 1, 361);
“Ueber die Verfassung der Juden iin K6nigreiche
Baiern und die Verbesserung Derselben zum Nutzen
des Staates ” (Munich, 1812); ‘“ Die Stimme der Wahr-
heit in Beziehung auf den Kultus der Israeliten ”
(Firth, 1827).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Furst, Bibliotheca Judaica, i. 381.
:
HENLE, FRIEDRICH GUSTAV JACOB:
German anatomist; born at Firth, Bavaria, July 19,
1809; died at Gottingen May 18, 1885. He received
his education at his native town, where he and his
parents were baptized. In 1827 he went to the Uni-
versity of Bonn to pursue the study of medicine.
Here he joined the Burschenschaft, and took part
in its political activities. For this he was suspended
from the university and was transferred to the Ber-
lin “ Hausvogtei,” a place of detention, to which, at
that time, many students were sent. Upon being
Aaron Hendricks,
died 1771
Uriah Hendricks, m. (1) Esther Gomez (d. 1775)
(a. 1798, New York city) (2) Rebecca Lopez
| | |
Riche Hendricks, Rebecca Hendricks, Hannah Hendricks, Harmon Hendricks, Charlotte Hendricks, Esther Hendricks,
m. Abraham Gomez m. Salomon Levy m. Jacob de Leon m, Frances Isaacs, m. Benjamin Gomez, m..... Judah
(issue ; see GOMEZ pedigree) (issue) (issue) d. 1854 b. 1769, d. 1828
| (issue ; see GOMEZ pedigree)
Uriah Henry Hendricks Montague Emily Grace Hermoine Hetty Hendricks Hannah
Hendricks (b. 1804, d. 1861), Hendricks Hendricks Hendricks(d.), (d. 1864), Hendricks,
(b. 1802, m. Harriet Tobias (b. 1811, (d. 1879), m. Alfred m. Aaron Lopes m. Benjamin
d. 1869), d. 1884), m.Benjamin ‘Tobias Gomez, d. 1860 Hart
m. Fanny — —_———_—_——. ———— ew m. Rachel Nathan, (issue) (issue 3 see (issue)
Tobias (ie | | | | | Nathan d. 1870 (issue) GOMEZ pedigree)
2 sons Justina Rosalie Miriam Irene A. Eleanor
dead Hendricks, Hendricks, Hendricks, Hendricks, Hendricks
(no issue) im. Henry 8. m. Henry &§. m. Harmon =m. Clarence I. | | | |
Henry Allen, Hendricks Nathan Henriques Mortimer Harmon Albert Charles Sarah Agnes
(issue) d. 1903 (issue) Hendricks, Hendricks, Hen- Hendricks, Hen- Hen-
m. Justina m. Blanche dricks, m. Louise dricks, dricks,
Isaaes (d.) Hendricks m. Helen Salomon m. Flo- m. Aaron
ee fede im. oilice coat |
| | | |
L : : : ; (issue Eckman rian H. Wolff
Henrietta Adelaide _ Joshua Edmund Francis Harmon Constance Fanny Isabel Blanche’ Alice 5 other | ane} Florance (issue)
Hendricks, Hendricks, Hendricks Hendricks Hen- Washing- Hendricks, Hen- Hen- Hen- Hen- daugh- —S ee (issue)
m. David m. Jeffer- (b. 1881, Qricks ton Hen- m. Julius drieks, dricks, dricks, dricks, ters |
po erine son Tobias da. 1898), dricks 1 Lyons m.Ed- m.Josh- m.Har- m. Ed- |
issue) (issue) In. Emma issue) Win uaBrush mon ward f se
3randon Einstein Hendricks Brandon mo. Sophia Phillies others
(issue) (issue) (issuie)
Edgar Henry Harmon Clifford Brandon
Hendricks Hendricks, Hendricks,
(d. 1894), m. Myrtilla d. 1901
m. Lillian Florance
Henry (issue)
J. (issue) E. N.S.
GENEALOGICAL TREE OF THE HENDRICKS FAMILY.
347
pardoned he went to Heidelberg, where he became
a disciple of Tiedemann, graduating in 1882 as M.D.
After spending two years in Paris, where he took
a postgraduate course, he returned to Germany and
became assistant to Johannes Miller at the anatom-
ical institute of Berlin University. In 1887 Henle was
admitted to the medical faculty as privat-docent
through the influence of Alexander von Humboldt.
Three years later he was called to the university at
Zurich as professor of anatomy and physiology, and
in 1844 to Heidelberg as associate professor of anat-
omy, succeeding Tiedemann as professor in 1849.
In 1852 he was called to Gottingen, at the university
of which city he held the position of professor of
anatomy until his death.
Henle’s writings have become standard works;
and his discoveries are important. Special men-
tion may be made of his discoveries concerning: the
cylindrical epithelium in the intestinal tract; the
cuticular root-sheath of the hair; the microscopical
structure of the cornea; the endothelium of the
blood-vessels; the structure of the hepatic cells; and
the loops of Henle in the kidneys.
From 1888 to 1842 Henle wrote reports on anatomy
and pathology for Miller’s “ Archiv fir Anatomie
und Physiologie”; from 1844 to 1848 he contrib-
uted to Canstatt’s “Jahresberichte tiber die Fort-
schritte der Gesammten Medizin in Allen Lindern,”
essays on general anatomy; and from 1849 to 1855
on both special and general anatomy.
In 1844 he founded, in conjunction with Pfeuffer,
the “ Zeitschrift fir Rationelle Medizin,” which ap-
peared until 1869.
Of Henle’s more important works may be men-
tioned: “ Ueber Schleim- und Eiterbildung,” Bruns-
wick, 1838; “ Vergleichende Anatomische Beschreib-
ung des Kehlkopfes,” Leipsic, 1889; “ Pathologische
Untersuchungen,” 2. 1840; “Handbuch der Allge-
meinen Anatomie,” 7b. 1841; “Handbuch der Ratio-
nellen Pathologie,” Brunswick, 1846-52; “Handbuch
der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen,” 2d.
1855-76, 2d ed. 1876-79 (his principal work); “ Ana-
tomischer Handatlas zum Gebrauch im Seziersaal,”
ib, 1874-77; “ Anthropologische Vortriige,” 7b. 1876-
1880; “ Grundriss zur Anatomie des Menschen,” 1880,
3d ed. 1888; “Das Wachstum des Menschlichen Na-
gels und des Pferdehufs,” Géttingen, 1884.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Merkel, Jacob Henle, Brunswick, 1891;
Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, s.v.; Brockhaus, Konver-
sations-Lexthon, s.v.3 Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie,
s.v.; Waldeyer, in Hirsch’s Biog. Lex. s.v.; Pagel, Biog.
Lex. 3.v.: Kussmaul, Jugendertinerungen eines Alten
Arztes, 5th ed., pp. 2384 et seq., Stuttgart, 1902.
S. F. T. H.
HENLE, SIGMUND VON: Bavarian deputy;
born June 80, 1821; died at Munich Oct. 9,1901. He
was a descendant of Léob Berlin, the district rabbi
of Bamberg in 1789-94. Highly esteemed by King
Ludwig II., he was entrusted with many law cases of
the royal house; he was also an intimate friend of
Duke Maximilian. From 1873 to 1881 he sat in the
Bavarian Diet as representative of the city of Mu-
nich, and was a member of the most important com-
mittees, as those on law and finance. To the end of
his life he was a faithful supporter of liberalism, and
successfully opposed all attempts to curtail the rights
of his coreligionists. Shortly after his sixtieth year
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
¢
Henle, Friedrich
Henriques, Amos
—
his sight became seriously affected, and he was com-
pelled to resign his professional and political work.
On this occasion the Order of Merit of the Bavarian
Crown, which ennobles the bearer, was conferred
upon him; a few years later he was created privy
councilor. As a member of the boards of trustees of
the Riesser-Stiftung and of several Jewish societies,
he was interested even in advanced age in the in-
teliectual and material welfare of his coreligionists.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mltinchener Neueste Nachrichten, Oct.
10, 1901; A. Eckstein, Beitrtige zur Geschichte der Juden
in Bayern, 1902, pp. 36-38.
g. F. P.
HENOCH, EDUARD HEINRICH: German
physician; born at Berlin June 16, 1820. After ta-
king the degree of M.D. there (1848), he began to prac-
tise as a Specialist in diseases of children. Until 1850
he was assistant at the children’s dispensary of the
university. In that year he became privat-docent;
in 1858, assistant professor. In 1872 Henoch became
director of the hospital and dispensary of the depart-
ment of pediatrics at the Charité. In 1893 he resigned
that position, received the title of “ Medicinalrath,”
and lived in retirement at Meran until 1898, when he
removed to Dresden. Among his works may be men-
tioned: “Klinik der Unterleibskrankheiten,” 8 vols.,
Berlin, 1852-58, 8d ed. 1803; “ Beitriige zur Kinder.
heilkunde,” two parts, 7b. 1861-68; “Vorlesungen
tiber Kinderkrankheiten,” 7. 1881, 10th ed. 1899.
Henoch translated from the English of Budd “ Die
Krankheiten der Leber,” Berlin, 1846, and edited
Canstatt’s “Handbuch der Medizinischen Klinik,”
Erlangen, 1854-56, and West’s “Pathologie und
Therapie der JXinderkrankheiten,” 4th ed., Berlin,
1865.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lex. Vienna, 1901.
8.
T. H.
HENOCHS, MOSES: Talmudist; lived at Jeru-
salem about 1570. He was the author of “ Mar’ah ha-
Sorefet,” a devotional work, translated into Judeo-
German by Phinehas b. Judah Heilprin under the
title “ Brandspiegel ” (Basel, 1602).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1823.
D B. Fr.
HENRIQUES: This American family, con-
nected with that of the same name in Amsterdam and
London, traces its pedigree back to Jacob Henriques,
who settled in theisland of Jamaica in the early part
of the eighteenth century. See subjoined pedigree
on page 348.
HENRIQUES, AMOS: English physician; born
in Jamaica 1812; died June 5, 1880. He went to Eng-
land in 1830-to study medicine, entered St. Thomas’
Fospital, and in due course obtained his diploma as
surgeon. In 1883 he went to France and graduated
in medicine at the University of Paris. At this time
he took part in some of the émeutes against King
Louis Philippe. In 1834 Henriques went to Italy,
and obtained also there degrees in medicine. He
began practise in Athens, and shortly afterward
went to Constantinople. Here he obtained gov-
ernment employment and received a commission to
organize a medical staff for the Turkish army.
The defeat of the Turks at the battle of Nezid in
1839 put an end to Henriques’ careerin Turkey. He
Henriques, David
Henry, Michael
was tuken prisoner, but, escaping from his captors,
became a wanderer without any means of support.
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GENEALOGICAL TREE OF THE HLENRIQUES FAMILY.
He made his way to Egypt, where he formed the
acquaintance of Marquis Litta, with whom he trav-
eled as medical attendant through northern Europe.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
348
In 1840 he returned to England, but soon afterward
emigrated to Jamaica, and practised there success-
fully for seven years. He then returned to England
and engaged in general practise in London, obtaining
also there considerable success.
Henriques published a few medical essays which
attracted some notice. During the outbreak of chol-
era in 1849 he issued several pamplilets on the nature
of that disease. He also replied to Sir John Forbes’s
work *° Nature and Art in the Cure of Disease ” at-
tempting to refute the doctrine that nature is more
important than science in the treatment of disease.
Henriques was decorated with the Turkish Order
of the Medjidie of the second class, and with the Or-
der of King Charles III. of Spain.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. June 18, 1880.
J. G. L.
HENRIQUES, DAVID QUIXANO: Anglo-
Jewish reformer; born May 18, 1804; died in Lon-
don March 6, 1870; son of Abraham Q. Henriques.
Ile was a director of the City Bank and the Bank of
Australasia. In early life an active worker of the
Portuguese synagogue, and one of its managers, he
afterward was one of the foremost workers in the
foundation of the West London Synagogue, in the
councils of which congregation he held a high posi-
tion. He was treasurer of the West London Syna-
gogue from 1847 to 1862.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. March 11, 18, 1870.
Ji G. L.
HENRIQUES, JACOB QUIXANO: West-In-
dian merchant; born at Spanish Town, Jamaica,
1811; died in London Oct. 17, 1898. A son of
Abraham Q. Henriques, he was early associated in
business with his brother David, in the firm of Hen-
rigues Brothers, West-Indian merchants. In Ja-
maica he was the founder of a Jewish school for boys
and girls. Going to London soon after 1840, he
took an active part in the formation of the West
London Synagogue. He soon resided permanently
in London, and became warden of the synagogue
in 185% and again from 1861 to 1864. In 1882 he
was elected chairman of the council, and manifested
great interest in the provision of religious education
for the youth of the congregation. He was a liberal
subscriber to Jewish charities.
In 1864 he dissolved partnership with the firm and
retired from business in favor of hisson. Henriques
was for some time a director of the Colonial Bank,
and was subsequently chairman of the London Char-
tered Bank of Australia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Oct. 21, 1898.
a. G. L.
HENRIQUES, ROBERT MARTIN: Danish
musician, composer, and author; born in Copen-
hagen Dec. 14, 1858. He received instruction in
violoncello from Bendix and Neruda, and in 1877
went to Dresden to study under Griitzmacher and
Kretschmer. He hasappeared at concerts in Berlin,
Leipsic, Hanover, Dresden, and Paris. Henriques
has written for violoncello, piano, and orchestra,
ainong his compositions being “ Romance og Capri-
cietto,” “ Mirchen,” and “Olaf Tryggvason.” The
last-named, an overture, has been played in Copenha-
gen, Stockholm, and Berlin. He has written various
349
songs, including “Melodier i Moll” and “I Ny og
Ne,” and (with Oscar Madsen) several novels of
local color, among which may be mentioned “ Ved
Hoéjen Mast” (1892), “ Tjenestefolk,” and “ Student-
ens Glade Liv ” (1893). Henriques is musical critic
for “ Dannebrog ” and “ Vort Land” of Copenhagen,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. F. Bricka, Dansk Biografisk Lexicon.
S. F.C
HENRIQUEZ (ENRIQUEZ), ISABELLA :
Spanish poetess; lived at Madrid; died after 1680.
She distinguished herself in the different academies
at Madrid. Isaac (Fernando) Cardoso dedicated to
her his work, *“ Del Color Verde,” on the color green,
which is the symbol of hope (Madrid, 1634). She
openly embraced Judaism, and settled at Amster-
dam. It is reported that she distributed amulets al-
leged to protect against physical harm. D. L. de
Barrios quotes a “decima” from her manuscript
“Obras Poeticas.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. L. de Barrios, Sol de la Vida, p. 63; idem,
Relacion de los Poetas, p. 56; Kayserling, Sephardim, p.
250; idem, Bibl. Esp.-Port.-Jud. p. 52.
G. M. K.
HENRY II. or HENRY DE TRASTA-
MARA: King of Castile; born at Seville in 183838;
died in 1879; illegitimate brother of Pedro I. He
was as hostile to the Jews as Pedro had been friend-
ly. His long-cherished hatred of his brother burst
forth when a Jew named Jacob, an intimate of the
king, praised the latter excessively to Henry. In
his fury he stabbed the Jew with a dagger. Pedro
would have revenged himself on Henry forthwith,
but his courtiers restrained him by force. Henry
saved himself by a hasty flight. This was the im-
mediate cause of the civil war which brought untold
suffering upon the Jews of the country. A few
years afterward Henry beheaded his brother near
Montiel (March 14, 1369), and then ascended the
throne of Castile. In order to appease his ally,
Bertrand du Guesclin (Beltran Claquin) and his
wild, rapacious troops, he imposed a war contribu-
tion of twenty thousand gold doubloons on the al-
ready heavily oppressed community of Toledo, and
issued au order to take all the Jews and Jewesses of
Toledo as prisoners, to put them on the rack, to give
them neither food nor drink, and in case they still
refused to raise this enormous sum, to sell their prop-
erty, both movable and immovable, at auction. In
spite of this action he was compelled, owing to his
financial straits, to have recourse to Jewish financiers.
He made Don Joseph Pichon his chief tax-collector
(“contador major”), and appointed several Jews
farmers of the taxes. When complaints were made
to him on the subject, he answered that he would
willingly lease the taxes to Christians at a cheaper
rate, but that none would take them.
The demands of the Cortes in Toro (1869) and in
Burgos (1874 and 1377) against the Jews harmonized
perfectly with Henry’sinclinations. He ordered the
Jews to wear the humiliating badge, and forbade
them to use Christian names. He further ordered
that for short loans Christian debtors should repay
only two-thirds of the principal. Shortly before his
death Henry declared that Jews should no longer be
permitted to hold public office.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Henriques, David
Henry, Michael
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cortes de Leon y de Castilla, ii. 171, 208, 281,
Madrid, 1836; Isaac b. Sheshet, Responsa, No. 197; Histoire
de M. Bertrand du Guesclin, pp. 94 et seg., Paris, 1666;
Rios, Hist. ii. 305, 471.
G M, Xs.
HENRY, EMMA: English poetess; born Sept.
17, 1788; died Dec. 80, 1870; daughter of the Rev.
Solomon Lyon, professor of Hebrew at Cambridge,
and wife of Abraham Henry. She enjoyed in early
life the advantages of a broad education and the
society of cultured university men; and when her
father’s eyesight failed, she devoted her abilities to
the support of the family. Mrs. Henry enjoyed the
distinction of being the first English Jewess to en-
gage inauthorship. In1812she published a volume
of verse which met with some success: and she con-
tinued to produce occasional poems which were often
recited at public celebrations.
She was the mother of Michael Henry.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Jan. 6, 18713; Picciotto, Sketches
of Anglo-Jewish History, p. 314.
J. G. IL.
HENRY, HENRY A.: Anglo-American
rabbi and Hebraist; born in London 1800; died at
San Francisco, Cal., Sept. 4, 1879. He was educated
at the Jews’ Free School, London, of which he was
afterward principal until 1842. In this capacity
he was the acknowledged bulwark of the London
Jewry, especially in resisting the endeavors of the
Society for the Conversion of the Jews. Ele was one
of the founders of the Jews’ Hospital and Orphan
Asylum, In 1886 Henry compiled a volume of the
daily prayers according to the German and Polish
rites, and in 1840 published a “ Biblical Class Book
for Jewish Youth” and a “Synopsis of Jewish His-
tory.” While principal of the Free School, he offi-
ciated frequently in London synagogues, and in
1844 became rabbi to the St. Alban’s Congregation,
where he remained until 1849. Here he made pulpit
addresses in English a regular practise—a novel fea-
ture in those days.
In 1849 he embarked for America under engage-
ment to the congregation at Louisville, Ky. He
was, however, unavoidably delayed at Cincinnati,
and accepted a position tendered to him there at the
B’nai Jeshurun Synagogue. In 1851 Henry proceeded
to Syracuse, N. Y., where he served three years as
rabbi. From Syracuse he removed to New York
city, where he resided till 1857. While in New
York he served the Henry Street congregation and
superintended its religious school. He officiated
later in the Clinton Street Synagogue. After some
time he established a boarding-school for Jewish
youth, which he maintained until his departure for
Yalifornia. He arrived there in 1857 and accepted
the call of the Congregation Shearith Israel in
San Francisco, which he served as rabbi till 1871.
During his residence in California he for some time
edited “ The Pacific Messenger.”
Henry’s library was presented after his death to
the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Bis Oceans Jew. Chron. Oct. 3, 1879; Jew. World, Sept.
ws
J. G. L.
HENRY, MICHAEL: English journalist and
mechanician; born at Kennington, London, Feb. 19,
1880; died in London June 15, 1875. He was edu-
Henschel
Herder
cated at the City of London School; in 1844 he
went to Paris as clerk in a counting-house, and later
entered the office of the “ Mechanics’ Magazine.”
In 1857 he established a business as patent agent,
which he carried on until his death. At the same
time he assisted Dr. Benisch on the “Jewish Chron-
icle,” and, upon the retirement of the latter in 1868,
became its editor.
In 1847 he founded the General Benevolent As-
sociation, of Which he was the honorary secretary.
He was a member of the Jews’ College Council and
of the Board of Deputies, and sat on the committees
of other educational charities. He devoted himself
chiefly to the Stepney Jewish Schools, of which he
was honorary secretary and personal supervisor.
Henry wrote a pamphlet on “ Patent Law,” which
was highly commended by a committee of the House
of Commons. A number of his essays were collected
and published under the title “Life Thoughts,”
1875.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Jane 25, 1875; Morais, Eminent
Israelites, pp. 139-142; memoirs pretixed to Life Thoughts ;
Jews’ College Journal, June, 1875.
J. G. L.
HENSCHEL, AUGUST WILHELM EDU-
ARD THEODOR: German physician and bota-
nist; born in Breslau Dec. 20, 1790; died there July
24, 1856; educated at the medical and surgical col-
lege at Breslau, the Ober-Collegium, Berlin, and the
universities of Heidelberg and Breslau (M.D. 1818).
He practised medicine in Breslau from 18138 to 1816,
and in the latter year was appointed privat-docent in
pathology at the university of that city.
In 1820 Henschel embraced Christianity, and soon
after published his first important work, “ Von der
Sexualitit der Pflanzen,” which attracted consider-
able attention in the world of science. He was ap-
pointed assistant professor at his alma mater in 1821,
and in 1882 professor of anatomy, physiology, and
pathology.
Henschel is best known through his researches
into the history of medicine, the results of which he
pub'ished in the medical periodical “Janus, Zeit-
schrift fiir Gesch. und Litteratur der Medicin,”
Breslau, 1846-49. Of his other works may be men-
tioned: “ Vertheidigung der Entziindlichen Natur
des Croups” (in Horn’s “ Archiv fiir Med. Erfabr-
ung,” 1813); “Commentatio de Aristotele Botanico et
Philosopho,” Breslau, 1824; “Ueber Einige Schwie-
rigkeiten in der Pathologie der Hundswuth,” Bres-
lau, 1829; “ Zur Gesch. der Medicin in Schlesien,” 2d.
1837; “Das Medicinische Doctorat, Seine Nothwen-
digkeit und Seine Reform,” zd. 1848.
BIBLIOGRAPHY! Hirsch, Biog. Lex.; De le Roi, Juden-Mis-
sion, Vol. ii, p. 241.
g, F.C.
HENSCHEL, ELIAS H.: German physician;
born at Breslau April 4, 1755: died in 18389;
father of A. W. HlexscnEt. He commenced life
as an errand-boy, and for some time was valet
to a physician. He did not, however, miss any
opportunity of acquiring knowledge, in which he
was encouraged and materially aided by a pro-
fessor of anatomy named Morgenbesser, who also
induced several of his coreligionists to take a sub-
stantial interest in him. Henschel was enabled to
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
350
commence the study of anatomy at the age of
twenty-five. In 1785 he entered the University of
Halle (M.D.1787). Henschel devoted himself espe-
cially to obstetrics, and was appointed public ac-
coucheur at Breslau. He was one of the first to
treat the thigh tumor of lying-in women as a special
malady, and was instrumental in introducing vac-
cination in Silesia, Notwithstanding his numerous
duties and extensive practise, Henschel spenta great
deal of his time in the hospital for the Jewish poor,
acted as an accoucheur in many benevolent institu-
tions, and, in the troublous times of 1813, added to
his other activities the care of a lazaretto at Neu-
stadt containing 228 beds, He also rendered useful
services during a cholera epidemic; and about this
time he published his “Guter Rath bei Annéhrung
der Cholera” (Breslau, 1831). Healso wrote “ Ueber
die Gew6hnlichsten Krankheiten der Schwangern ”
(4b. 1797) and “Ein Beitrag zur Heilung der Kopf-
geschwulst der Neugeborenen Kinder ” (1828).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hirsch, Biographisches Lexikon der Hervor-
ragenden Aerzte.
8. J. D. B.
HENSCHEL, GEORG (ISIDOR): German
composer and barytone singer; born Feb. 18, 1850,
at Breslau, where he studied with Wandelt and
Schiffer. He made his first appearance as a pianist at
twelve yearsof age. Atthe Leipsic Conservatorium
(1867-70) he was a pupil of Wenzel and Mosclieles
(pianoforte), G6tze (singing), and Richter (theory
and composition). Subsequently he studied in Ber-
lin under Schulze (singing) and Kiel (composition),
After making several concert tours through Europe,
in 1877 he went to England, where he lived for
three years. In 1881 Henschel became conductor of
the Boston Symphony Orchestra, at Boston, Mass..
and he retained the position till 1884. In 1885 he
settled permanently in London, where in the follow-
ing year he founded the London Symphony Con-
certs, From 1886 to 1888 he was professor of sing-
ing at the Royal College of Music, London.
Of Henschel’s compositions the more important
are: “Stabat Mater,” oratorio, first performed at
the Birmingham Musical Festival of 1894; the One
Hundred and Thirtieth Psalm, for chorus, soli, and
orchestra; a canon-suite for string orchestra; “ Zi-
geuner Serenade,” for orchestra; “Friedrich der
Schine,” opera; “A Sea Change, or Love's Cast-
away,” comic operetta (libretto by W. D. Howells);
“Nubia,” grand opera, first performed at Dresden
in 1899,
On the death of his wife (née Lilian Bailey)
Henschel retired from the concert platform, and has
since lived on his estate at Aviemore in the Scottish
Highlands, occasionally conducting his own works
or lecturing on Johannes Brahms. A requiem com-
posed by Henschel in memory of his wife was first
performed in Boston, Mass., Dec. 2, 1902, and has
since been given in Holland, Germany, etc.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Baker, Biog. Dict. of Musicians, New York,
1900; Riemann, Musik-Lexikon ; Grove, Dict. of Musie and
Musicians.
S. A. P.
HEP! HEP! A cry stated to have been used by
the Crusaders during their attacks upon the Jews.
It appears, however, to have been first used during
351
the so-called “ Hep! Hep!” riots of 1819 at Frankfort-
on-the-Main and along the Rinne (see Griitz, “ Gesch. ”
xi. 357); e.g., on Aug. 2, 1819, by anti-Semitic stu-
dents at Wiirzburg us a term of reproach to Professor
Brendel of that university, who had written in favor
of the Jews. The students themselves claimed that
the word was derived from “ HWierosolyima est per-
dita”; others claim that it is a contraction for “ He-
briier,” while a further attempt has been made to
derive it from “Hab! Hab!” The brothers Grimm,
in their dictionary, trace it from a call to animals in
the Franconian district, especially to the goat, and
suggest that it was applied to Jews because of their
beards. Their earliest quotation is from W. Hauff
(1802-27), A person named Brouse is stated to have
been condemned to three months’ imprisonment for
having used the expression against a Jew and his
wife (“ Arch. Isr.” 1848, p. 47). During the anti-
Semitic movement in Germany a pamphiet appeared
in favor of the Jews with the title “Hepp! Hepp!
Siisssaure St6éckerei in 1 Vorschrei und 7 Gejohlen ”
(Jacobs, “The Jewish Question,” No, 25). The ex-
pression has since become a synonym for an out-
break against the Jews, and is thus used by George
Eliot in her essay “The Modern He~! Hep! Hep!”
in “Impressionsof Theophrastus Such.” Itis stated
that on some occasions in 1819 the Jews replied to
the cry of “Hep! Hep!” with the similarly sounding
one of “Jep! Jep!” meaning “Jesus est perditus ”
(“ Notes and Queries,” 4th series, ili. 580).
J.
HEPHER: 1. A son of Gilead (Num. xxvi. 382,
xxvii. 1; Josh. xvii. 2-3). The clan was known as
the Hepherites (Num. xxvi. 32). 2. Oneof David’s
captains (I Chron. xi. 36). 8. Member of the tribe
of Judah (I Chron. tv. 6). 4. Royal city of the
Canaanites, the site of which is unknown (Josh. xii.
17; comp. I Kings iv. 10).
KE, G. HL M, Sc.
HEPHZI-BAH (ma-y5n, “my delight in her”):
1. Name to be borne by the restored Jerusalem (Isa.
\xii. 4), in token that God will not abandon it. 2.
Name of the queen of King Hezekiah and mother
of Manasseh (II Kings xxi. 1),
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HEPNER, ADOLF: German-American jour-
nalist; born at Schmiegel, Posen, Nov. 24, 1846;
educated at the gymnasium at Lissa, the rabbinical
seminary at Breslau, and the universities of Breslau
and Berlin.
IIe became a socialist in 1868, and two years later
was associated with Liebknecht and Bebel in editing
a socialistic paper at Leipsic. Soon afterward he
was accused with them of high treason, but was ac-
quitted in 1872. Being expelled from Leipsic in
the following year, he removed to Breslau, and be-
came a publisher, but feiled in business.
In 1882 Hepner emigrated to the United States,
and in 1886 settled in St. Louis, Mo., where he is
now (1903) living. Up to 1897 he edited the daily
labor paper “St. Louis Tageblatt,” and since that
year he has been the editor of the “ Westliche Post.”
Besides many essays for the papers of his political
party, Hepner has written “Good Night, Schatz,”
a one-act play (1894).
A. oo F. T. H.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Henschel
Herder
HERALDRY.
HERBS. Sce Borany.
HERCZEGHY, MORIZ: Hungarian physician
and author; born in Budapest Ang. 19, 1815; died
in Vienna Dec. 23, 1884. We studied medicine in
Budapest and Vienna, and afterward took part in the
Revolution of 1848 in the latter city. “He went from
Vienna to Paris, and thence in 1860 to Italy, where
he became chicf physician in Garibaldi’s army. He
returned to Hungary in 1865, but left again in 1868
for Constantinople, where for eight years he acted as
chief military physician, Being severely wounded
during the Russo-Turkish war, he had to give up
his practise, and then traveled in Europe and in the
East.
The more important of Herczeghy’s literary works
deal with political topics, and include: “ Weder
Deutsch noch Russisch, Soudern Oesterreichisch,”
Vienna, 1849; “Das Bombardement des Fiirsten
Windischgritz zu Prag,” 76. 1849; “Mein Tagebuch
1848-50,” 7. 1850; “Mémoires sur Mon Séjour 4
Paris,” Milan, 1853. Ue wrote also treatises on cre-
tinism (1864) and on epidemics (1874).
Hercezeghy’s chief work, however, was a sociolog-
ical study on the woman question, published in
French (Paris, 1864) and in Hungarian (Budapest,
1883),
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pallas Lez.
S. L. V.
HERCZEL, MANO DE SZENTPETERI:
Hungarian physician; born in Szegedin July 1,
1861; studied successively in his native city, in
Ujvidék, in Budapest, in Vienna, in Strasburg, and
in Paris. After having taken his degree of M.D.
(1884), he practised for two years in Nothnagel’s
clinic in Vienna, and was thereafter for five years
assistant to Czerny at Heidelberg, where in 1889 he
became privat-docent in surgery. In 1892 he was
appointed chief of the Szt. Istvan Hospital in Buda-
pest. His specialty is the treatment of diseases of
the kidneys.
Herczel is the author of the following works:
“Ueber die Wirkung des Anilin, Acetanilin und
Kampheranilin,” Vienna, 1887; “Ueber Operative
Behandlung der Nicrensteine,” Vienna, 1887;
“Veber die Operative Fixation der Wanderniere,”
Vienna, 1892; “Ueber Grosse Defecte der Blasen-
Scheidewand,” Vienna, 1894.
In 1902 Herczel was elevated by Emperor Francis
Joseph I. to the Hungarian nobility, and he assumed
the name of “ Szentpéteri.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Szinnyel, Magyar Irék Elete.
S, L. V.
HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED VON:
German Protestant theologian, poet, and writer;
born at Mohrungen, East Prussia, Aug. 25, 1744;
died at Weimar Dec. 21, 1808. Hestudied theology,
philosophy, and the humanities at the University of
Konigsberg, where he acquired a vast knowledge of
German and foreign literature. In 1764-69 he was
teacher and preacher at Riga; in 1771-76, court
preacher and member of the consistory of Biicke-
burg; from 1776 until his death, court preacher and
member, later president, of the consistory of Weimar.
His works on Hebrew Biblical literature exercised
fSee CoaT oF ARMS.
Heredia
Heresy
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
852
great influence. His “Die Aelteste Urkunde des
Menschengeschlechts ” (Riga, 1774-76) develops the
idea that the oldest Biblical poems—the history of
Creation, of the Flood, and of Moses—are to be con-
sidered Oriental national songs. The usual inter-
pretation of the Mosaic history of Creation as a divine
revelation appears to Herder not only indefensible,
but pernicious, since it fills the mind with false ideas
and leads to persecution of the physical scientist.
In 1778 he wrote * Lieder der Licbe,” in which he
divested the Canticles of all mystical and allegorical
accretions. In these deeply felt love-songs he rec-
ognized the natural expressions of Jewish sentiment.
After having, in his letters on theology, extended
this view to the whole Bible, he published (Dessau,
1782-83) his famous “ Vom Geiste der Ebriischen
Poesie.” Inaletterto Hamann he wrote that “since
his childhood he had nourished it in his breast.” He
says that Hebrew poctry is the world’s oldest, sim-
plest, and most soulful poetry, full of the inner feel-
ing of nature and of the poetic consciousness of
God. He translated many of the Hebrew poems,
According to Griitz (“Gesch.” xi. 249), Herder,
although filled with admiration for Jewish antiquity
and for the Hebrew people of the Biblical age, and
foretelling a time when Christian and Jew would
work together for the development and refinement
of civilization, felt a dislike for the Jews which
manifested itself in his earlier relations with Moses
Mendelssohn. Not until after Lessing’s death did
he become more friendly toward Mendelssohn.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hettner, Literaturgesch. des Achtzehnten
Jahrhunderts, vol. v., Brunswick, 1872.
D. S. Man.
HEREDIA, PAULUS (PABLO) DE: Span-
ish anti-Jewish writer; born about 1405 in Aragon;
died at an advanced age after 1486. Baptized late
in life, he attacked Judaism, though he had at one
time defended it and his former coreligionists. In
order to assail the Talmud and its commentators,
which he had studicd in his youth, he wrote a mys-
tical work, “Iggeret ha-Sodot,” which he ascribed
to t..e Mishnaic teacher Nehuuya ben ha-Kana and
his alleged son Ha-Kana, asserting that he had
found it and translated it into Latin. In his igno-
rance, Paulus de Heredia put into the mouth of
Nehunya passages from the work of Judah ha-Nasi,
who lived much later, and in the work “Galie Ra-
zaya” made him answer eight questions, addressed
to him by his imperial friend Antoninus, in an en-
tirely Christian sense. He admits the chief mysteries
of Christianity, e.g., the doctrine of the Trinity.
Nehunya, who is made to say, “Ego ex iis unus
sum qui crediderunt in eum et baptisatus fui et am-
bulo in viis rectis,” finally exhorts his son to recog-
nize Jesus as the Messiah.
Heredia’s works “De Mysteriis Fidci” and “Co-
roua Regia,” on the immaculate conception (the lat-
ter dedicated to Pope Innocent VIII.), were also in-
tended to convert the Jews. The latter, however,
whom he assailed in the work “Ensis Pauli” with
all the fire of a fanatical neophyte, vouchsafed no
reply to his gross attacks on their faith. Paulus de
Heredia was alleged to have collaborated on the
Complutensian pclyglot, issued under the auspices
of Cardinal Ximenez.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nic. Antonio. Bibl. Hispania, i. 216; Wolf,
Bibl. Hebr. ii., tii., 1687: Rios, Estudios, pp. 456 et seq.:
idem, Hist. iii. 418, 424 et seq. ; Gratz, Gesch. viii, 231 et seq.
K. M. K.
HEREFORD: County town of Herefordshire,
England, situated on the River Wye, of some com-
mercial importance in early times. When Richard I.
returned from captivity, ten Jews of Hereford con-
tributed £15 11s. 11d. to a “donum” made by the
Jews of England at Northampton (1194). They
were under the jurisdiction of the sheriff, notwith-
standing the Bishop of Hereford claimed the right
to judge them (Tovey, “Anglia Judaica,” pp. 78-
79). In 1275 the “archa” wasremoved from Worces-
ter to Hereford, where it remained till the Expul-
sion. From some of the bondsstill extant the Jews
of Hereford appear to have adopted the corn trade
when refused permission by the “statute of Juda-
ism” in 1275 to take usury, but this may have been
merely an evasion of the statute. Twenty-four of
the burghers of Hereford were appointed in 1282 as
special guardians of the peace in favor of the Jews
(Cal. Patent Rolls, 1282-92, p. 15).
Four years later one of the important Jews of
Hereford invited some of his Christian friends to the
wedding of his daughter. This attracted the notice
of Bishop Swinfeld, who refused permission, and
threatened excommunication to any of his flock who
attended the wedding (“Household Expenses of
Bishop Swinfeld.” Camden Society, pp. cix.-cxi.,
127). When the Jews were expelled in 1290 the
king seized the debts due to the forty Jews of Here-
ford, composing about twenty families. The chief
person seems to have been Isaac of Worcester, who
had apparently moved there in 1275; he, with four
of his sons and two of his daughters, was engaged
in money-lending. The largest individual lender,
however, appears to have been Aaron, son of Elias
le Blund. Abraham “the Chaplain” is mentioned,
with two Evesques. Thirteen houses and the syna-
gogue also fell into the hands of the king, with rent-
als amounting to 55s. 6d. Since that time there has
been no congregation at Hereford.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jacobs, Jews af Angevin England, pp. 163,
376; Transactions Jew. Hist. Soc. Bing. i. 186-159; R. John-
son, Customs of Hereford, pp. 70-71. J
HEREM. See EXCOMMUNICATION,
HERES: 1. Citv in Egypt, mentioned in Isa.
xix. 18. “In that day there shall be five cities in the
land of Egypt that speak the language of Canaan,
and swear to the Lord of hosts; one shall be called
‘Ir ha-Heres” (A. V. “the city of destruction”;
R. V. margin, “Heres”). The Masoretic text,
Aquila, Theodotion, and Peshitta read DIN ay
“Oity of Destruction.” Symmachus, the Vulgate,
Men. 110a, Saadia, and some Hebrew manuscripts
read DIN Vy (“ City of the Sun”). The Septuagint
has wod¢ acedéx (“City of Righteousness”), There
are many differences of opinion regarding the proper
reading of this name. It is, however, probable that
* Heres ” is the correct reading, and that HELIOPOLIS,
in Egypt, is referred to by Isaiah. Thealteration of
“ “Tr ha-Heres” (City of the Sun) into “ ‘Irha-Heres ”
(City of Destruction) was influenced by a later antag-
onism toward the Onias temple. On the other hand,
353
the alteration of “Heres” into “Zedek” ([City of]
Righteousness) was a result of the desire for a dis-
tinct prediction regarding that temple. For other
opinions see Hastings, “Dict. Bible”; Geiger,
“Urschrift,” p. 79.
2. Mountain (D175 1) mentioned in Judges i. 35,
in connection with Aijalon and Shaalbim, as one of
the mountains from which the Danites were unable
to expel the Amorites. It has been conjectured,
and with probability, that, since “heres” is synony-
mous with “shemesh,” “Heres” here may mean
“ Bethshemesh ” (I Kings iv. 9; If Chron. xxviii. 18)
or Ir-shemesh” (Josh. xix. 41), between Judah and
an,
3. Hill (“the ascent of Heres”; Judges viii. 18,
R. V.) by which Gideon returned from the battle
with Zebah and Zalmunna. Its location is uncertain,
and the text is variously transmitted.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hastings, Dict. Bible; Cheyne and Black,
Encye. Bibl.
E. G. H. M. Sc.
HERESY AND HERETICS: The Greek term
aipeoce originally denoted “division,” “sect,” “relig-
ious” or “philosophical party,” and is applied by
Josephus (“B. J.” ii. 8, § 1, and elsewhere) to the
three Jewish sects—Sadducees, Pharisees, and Es-
senes (comp. Acts v.17, xxvi. 5, and, with reference
to the Christian sect, the aipeoc¢ of the Nazarenes,
xxiv. 5, 14; xxviii. 22). In the sense of a schism to
be deprecated the word occurs in I Cor, xi. 19, Gal.
v. 20, and particularly in IT Peterii. 1; hence aiperinde
(“heretic ”) in the sense of “ factions” (Titus ii. 10).
The specific rabbinical term for heresies, or relig-
ious divisions due to an unlawful spirit, is “minim ”
(lit. “kinds [of belief]”; the singular “min,” for
“heretic” or “ Gnostic,” is coined idiomatically, like
“goy” and “‘am ha-arez”; see GNOSTICISM). The
law “Ye shall not cut yourselves” (4Snn x5) is in-
terpreted by the Rabbis: “ Ye shall not form divisions
Cnet mtx wwyn x5], but shall form one bond ”
(after Amos ix. 6 [A. V. “troop ”]; Sifre, Deut. 96;
comp. JEW. Encyc. iv, 592, 8.0. DipAscaLta, Book
VI).
Besides the term “min” for “heretic,” the Talmud
uses the words “ hizonim” (outsiders), “apikoros,” and
“kofer ba-Torah ” (R. H. 17a), or “kofer ba-‘ikkar ”
(he who denies the fundamentals of faith; Pes. xxiv.
168b); also “ poresh mi-darke zibbur” (he who devi-
ates from the customs of the community; Tosef.,
Sanh, xiii.5; R.H.17%a). Of all these it is said that
they are consigned to Gehinnom for all eternity
(Tosef., Sanh. @.c.; comp. 7d. xii. 9, apparently be-
longing to xili. 5: “He who casts off the yoke [of
the Law], and he who severs the Abrahamic cove-
nant; he who interprets the Torah against the ha-
lakic tradition, aad he who pronounces in full the
Ineffable Name—all these have no share in the world
to come ”).
The Mishnah (Sanh. x. 1) says the following have
no share in the world to come: “ He who denies that
the Torah is divinely revealed [lit. “comes from
Heaven ”|, and the apikoros.” R. Akiba says, “also
he who reads heretical books” (“sefarim hizonim ”),
This is explained in the Talmud (Sanh. 100b) to
mean “sifre Zedukim ” (Sadducean writings); but
this is an alteration by the censor of “ sifre ha-Minim ”
VI.—23
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Heredia
Heresy
(books of the Gnostics or Heretics). The Biblical
version, “That ye seek not after your own heart”
(Num. xv. 39), is explained (Sifre, Num. 115; Ber.
12b)as “ Ye shall not turn to heretic views (“minut ”]
which lead your heart away from God” (see Mai-
monides, “ Yad,” ‘Akkum, ii. 8).
In summarizing the Talmudic statements concern-
ing heretics in Sanh. 90-103, Maimonides (“ Yad,”
Teshubah, iii. 6-8) says:
** The following have no share in the world to come, but are
cut off, and perish, and receive their punishment for all time for
their great sin: the minim, the apikoresim, they that deny the
belief in the Torah, they that deny the belief in resurrection of
tbe dead and in the coming of the Redeemer, the apostates.
they that lead many to sin, they that turn away from the ways
of the [Jewish] community. Five are called ‘minim’: (1) he
who says there is no God and the world has no leader; (2) he
who says the world has more than one leader: (3) he who
ascribes to the Lord of the Universe a body and a figure; (4) he
who says that God was not alone and Creator of all things at
the world’s beginning; (5) he who worships some star or con-
stellation as an intermediating power between himself and the
Lord of the World.
* The following three classes are called ‘ apikoresim’: (1) he
who says there was no prophecy nor was there any wisdom that
came from God and which was attained by the heart of man:
(2) he who denies the prophetic power of Moses our master ;
(3) he who says that God has no knowledge concerning the
doings of men.
“The following three are called ‘koferim ba-Torah’: (1) he
who says the Torah is not from God: he is a kofer even if he
says a single verse or letter thereof was said by Moses of hisown
accord; (2) he who denies the traditional interpretation of the
Torah and opposes those authorities who declare it to be tradi-
tion, as did Zadok and Boethus; and (3) he who says, as do the
Nazarenes and the Mohammedans, that the Lord has given a
new dispensation instead of the old, and that he has abolished
the Law, though it was originally divine.”’
It is noteworthy, however, that Abraham ben
David, in his critical notes, objects to Maimonides
characterizing as heretics aJl those who attribute
corporeality to God; and he insinuates that the
cabalists are not heretics. In the same sense all
Biblical critics who, like Ibn Ezra in his notes on
Deut. i. 2, doubt or deny the Mosaic origin of every
portion of the Pentateuch, would protest against the
Maimonidean (or Talmudic; see Sanh. 99a) concep-
tion of heresy. See ArprKOROS; ARTICLES OF FAITH;
JUDAISM ; GNOSTICISM. K.
On Legal Status: The status of heretics in
Jewish law is not clearly defined. "While there are
certain regulations scattered throughout the Talmud
concerning the minim, the nearest approach to the
English term “heretic,” these are mostly of a hag-
gadic nature, the codes taking little cognizance of
them. The governing bodies of the Synagogue fre-
quently exercised, from motives of self-defense, their
power of excommunication against heretics. The
heretic was excluded from a portion in the world to
come (Maimonides, “ Yad,” Teshubah, iii, 6-14); he
was consigned to Gehenna, to eternal punishment
(R. H. 17a; comp. Ex. R. xix. 5; see APIKoRos, and
compare D. Hoffmann, “ Der Schulchan Aruch und
die Rabbinen tiber das Verhialtnis der Juden zu
Andersgliubigen,” 2d ed., Berlin, 1894); but the
Jewish courts of justice never attended to cases
of heresy; they were left to the judgment of the
community. |
There are, however, in the rabbinic codes, laws
and regulations concerning the relation of the Jew
to the heretic. The sentiment against the heretic
was much stronger than that against the pagan.
Heresy
Hermon
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
354
While the pagan brought his offerings to the Tem-
ple in Jerusalem and the priests accepted them, the
sacrifices of the heretic were not accepted (iul. 18b,
et al.). The relatives of the heretic did not observe
the laws of mourning after his death, but donned
festive garments, and ate and drank and rejoiced
(Sem. ii. 10; “ Yad,” Ebel,i. 5,6; Yoreh De‘ah, 345,
5). Serolls of the Law, tefillin, and mezuzot writ-
ten by a heretic were burned (Git. 45b; Shulhan
‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 39,1; Yoreh De‘ah, 281, 1);
and au animal slaughtered by a heretic was forbid-
den food (Hul. 18a; Yoreh De‘ah, 2, 5), Books writ-
ten by heretics did not render the hands impure
(“ Yad,” She’ar Abot ha-Tum’ot, ix. 10; comp. Yad.
iv. 6; see Purrry); they might not be saved from
fire on the Sabbath (Shab. 116a; Orah Hayyim, 334,
21). <A herctic’s testimony was not admitted in evi-
dence in Jewish courts (Hoshen Mishpat, 84, 22; see
“Be’er ha-Golah” ad loc.); and if an Israelite found
an object belonging to a heretic, he was forbidden
to return it to him (Hoshen Mishpat 266, 2).
The “mumar le-hak‘is” (one who transgresses
the Law, not for personal advantage, but out of
defiance and spite) was placed by some
Classes of of the Rabbis in the same category as
Heretics. the minim (‘Ab. Zarah 26a; Hor. 11a).
Even if he habitually transgressed one
law only (for example, if he defiantly violated one of
the dietary laws), he was not allowed to perform any
religious function (Yoreh De‘ah, 2,5; SHaK and
“Pithe Teshubah,” ad loc.), nor could he testify in
a Jewish court (Sanh. 27a; “Yad,” ‘Edut, x. 3;
Hoshen Mishpat, 34, 2). One who violated the Sab-
bath publicly or worshiped idols could not participate
in the “‘erub hazerot” (‘Er. 69a; “ Yad,” ‘Erubin,
ii. 16; Orah Hayyim, 385, 8; see ‘ERus), norcould he
write a bill of divorce (Shulhan ‘Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer,
123, 2). One who would not permit himself to be cir-
cumcised could not perform the ceremony on an-
other (Yoreh De‘ah, 264, 1, Isserles’ gloss). While
the court could not compel the mumar to divorce
his wife, even though she demanded it, it com-
plied him to support her and her children and to
pay her an allowance until he agreed to a divorce
(Eben ha-‘Ezer, 154, 1, and “Pithe Teshubah,” ad
loc.). At his death those who are present need not
tear their garments (Yoreh De‘ah, 340, 5, and “ Pithe
Teshubah,” ad loc.). The mumar who repented and
desired readmittance into the community was obliged
to take a ritual bath, the same as the proselyte
(Yoreh De‘ah, 268, 12, Isserles’ gloss, and “ Pithe
Teshubah,” ad lec.; comp. “Sefer Hasidim,” ed.
Wistinetzki, §$ 200-209). If heclaimed to bea good
Jew, although he was alleged to have worshiped
idols in another town, he was believed when no ben-
efit could have accrued to him from such a course
(Yoreh De‘ah, 119, 11, and “Pithe Teshubah,” ad
loc.). See APosTAsy; ATHEISM; GNOSTICISM.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Krauss, Begriff und Form der Hiiresie nach
Talmud und Midraschim, Hamburg, 1896; Goldfahn, Ueber
den Ursprung und die Bedeutung des Ausdruckes jr,
in Monatsschrift, 1870.
E. C. J. H. G.
HERITAGE. See INHERITANCE.
HERMANMIESTETZ: City in Bohemia.
Jews were living there as early as 1509, engaged in
commerce and money-lending; but the Jewish com-
munity proper dates from 1591. The Jews were
confined toa ghetto under the protectorate of the
overlords of the city. One of these, Count Johann
Wenceslaus Spork, built asynagogue in 1760, which
was modernized in 1870. The Jewish parochial
school was transformed intoa German public school.
Since 1891 Hermanmiestetz has been the seat of a dis-
trict rabbi, the dependent communities being Chru-
dim, Roubowitz, and Drevikau. The following have
officiated as rabbis in Hermanmiestetz: Bunem (d.
1734); Selig-Landsteiner (d. 1743); Hayyim Traub
(d. 1790); Elias Treitel (d. 1823); Samuel Brod (d.
1850); Moses Bloch, till 1855 (since 1877 professor at
the rabbinical seminary at Budapest); Benjamin
Feilbogen, till 1863; S. Rosenberg, 1864-68; Dr.
Nehemias Kronberg, the present incumbent, called
in 1891, Judah Lob Borges (d. 1872), a member of
the community distinguished for his Talmudic and
literary attainments, officiated temporarily whenever
there was a vacancy in the rabbinate.
The community supportsa burial society, a society
for nursing the sick, a Talmud Torah, and a women’s
society. The cemetery must have existed as early
as the sixteenth century; for it is recorded in a doc-
ument that in 1667 a field was bought from a citi-
zen for the purpose of enlarging the burial-ground.
In 1908 the Jews of Hermanmiestetz numbered 300,
those of the whole district aggregating 1,100.
D N. K.
HERMANN, LUDIMAR: German physiolo-
gist; born in Berlin Oct. 21, 18388; M.D. Berlin, 1859.
He engaged in practise in his native city, and in 1865
became privat-docent at its university. In 1868 he
was appointed professor of physiology at Zurich,
and in 1884 he accepted a similar chair at the Uni-
versity of Kénigsberg. His chief works include:
“Lehrbuch der Physiologie,” 12th ed., Berlin, 1900;
“Handbuch der Physiologie” (together with other
physiologists), 6 vols., Leipsic, 1879-81; “ Leitfa-
den fiir das Physiologische Praktikum,” 7b. 1898:
“QLehrbuch der Expcrimentellen Toxikologie,” Ber-
lin, 1894; “Physiologische Jahresberichte,” begin-
ning with 1878. His essays, most of which have ap-
peared in Pfliiger’s “ Archiv fiir die Gesch. der Physi-
ologie” and in Poggendorft’s “ Annalen fir Physik,”
cover nearly the whole field of physiology and part
of that of physics. Most of them deal with mus-
cular and nervous physiology, the organs of sense,
and the nature of phonetics.
HERMENEUTICS.
METHODOLOGY; TALMUD.
HERMES, BOOKS OF: Hermes (the Greek
Mercury), in popular belief the leader of souls to
Hades, was in later times identified in Egypt with
the loca! god Thot, who was also the messenger of
the gods and the heavenly scribe and inventor of
writing. Forty-twosacred books, coutaining all the
wisdom and secret lore of the Egyptians, were
ascribed to Hermes-Thot (see Plutarch, “De Iside et
Osiri,” Parthey’s ed., 1850, Ixi. 154, 255, notes;
Clement of Alexandria, “Stromata,” vi. 4). Necro-
mancers and Gnostics also ascribed their magic and
mystic lore to Hermes (Dieterich, “ Abraxas,” 1891,
pp. 63-70, 165). The names of Moses, Thoth, and
See BIBLE EXEGESIS;
355
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Heresy
Hermon
Hermes served as pseudonyms for many a writer of | pind), and this alone explains why they were con-
magic bocksorhymns, As many as 2,000, and even
36,525, books on mystic lore were said to have been
written by Hermes (lamblichus, “De Mysteriis,”
viii. 1). Jactantins (“Institutiones Divine,” iv. 6,
vii. 18) quotes the Adyog TéAeos, a dialogue of
Hermes with sculapius, along with the Sibylline
and the Hystaspes oracles, as containing Messianic
prophecies; which goes to show that the Books of
Hermes were used like the Jewish pseudepigrapha
in religious arguments,
What share the Jews had in the composition of the
Books of Hermes has not yet been fully ascertained ;
trasted by the Sadducees (Yad. J.c.) with the sa-
cred Scriptures,
Various other suggestions have been made as to
the meaning of these words. They are interpreted
as “Books of Homer” (pyy'917) by Mussatia in his
notes to the ‘Aruk, by Derenbourg in his “ Pales-
tine” (p. 183), and by Krauss in his “ Lehnworter ”
(ii. 280) ; as “Pleasure Books” (? “ Himeros”) by
Cassel tn his edition of “ Me’or ‘Enayim ” (p. 84); as
“Chronicles” (BiStca ‘Nyunpiora), “ Daily Books,” or
“ Journals,” in “ Monatsschrift ” (1870, p.188). But
these are certainly not of such acharacter as to come
MOUNT HERMON.
(From a photograph by Bonfils.)
certain it is that Christians composed some of the
later ones. It was these Books of Hermes (D*p)17 2D,
corrupted into DON HD) that were always on the
lips of Elisha ben Abuyah or fell from his lap (Hag.
16b), and that were declared not to possess the char-
acter of holy writings which make the hands that
touch them unclean (Yad. iv. 6; Yer. Sanh. x. 28a
[a passage corrupted by negligent copyists; see
Jo#l, “Blicke in die Religionsgesch.” 1888, i. 70-
75]; Hul. 60b, uncensored ed.; Midr. Teh. and
Yalk., Ps. i.). Geonic tradition was still aware of
the fact that the “Sifre Homerus,” as it spelled
the words, were heretical books (see Hai Gaon to
Yad. U.c.; R. Hananeel to Hul. J.c.; the ‘Aruk, 8.2.
into discussion as “sifre minim,” or heretic writings.
According to Jewish writers there existed under the
name “ Hermes” a number of works in Arabic litera-
ture also (see Steinschneider, “Hebr. Bibl.” 1861,
p. 675; 1862, p. 91; edem. “Hebr. Uebers.” 1893,
p. 514).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kohler, in J. Q. R. v. 415: Perles, in R. E.
J. iii. 114 (comp. Kohut, tb. iii. 546); Kohut, Aruch Com-
pletum; Levy, Neuhebr. Worterb.; Jastrow, Dict. s.v.
oyypnor: Krauss, Lehnwoérter, ii. 230; Schiirer, Gesch. 3d ed.,
iii. 482; Friedmann, Ha-Goren, iii. 33; Zéckler, Apokry-
phische Bticher des Alten Testaments, 1891, pp. 485 et seq.
HERMON (ann): Mountain on the northeast-
ern border of Palestine; the culminating point of the
Anti-Lebanon range, at the springs of the Jordan
Hermon
fferod I.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
$56
and adjoining the plateau of Bashan (Deut. iii. 8;
Josh. xi. 17, xii. 1; I Chron. v. 23). The name is
translated by some “prominent peak,” by others
“sacred mountain ” (see Gesenius, “ Th.”), both being
suitably applied toit. The Sidonians called it “Si-
rion” (Yow), and the Amorites “Shenir” ('3y:
Deut. iii. 9; both appellations signify “ breast-
plate ”), evidently on account of its rounded top,
which, covered with snow, gleamed and shone in
the sunlight. It is also called “Sion” (HN*y: Deut.
iv. 48), probably on account of its height. But it
appears from Cant. iv. 8 and J Chron. v. 28 that
Shenir was the name of a part of Mount Hermon,
probably of one of its three peaks, which are collect-
ively called “Hermonim” (= “the Hermons”: Ps.
xlii. 7, Hebr.). The name “Sanir” occurs in a cunei-
form inscription (see Halévy in “R. E. J.” xx. 206).
Because of its snow-covered top Hermon is called
“Pur Talga” inthe Targumimand “ Har ha-Sheleg ”
(snow-mountain) in Sifre (ed. Friedmann, p. 47b).
“Mount Hermon” (D7 I) occurs in Deut. iii.
8; Josh. xi. 17; xii. 1, 5; xiii. 5, 11; I Chron. v. 23;
“Hermon” alone in Josh. xi. 38; Ps. 1xxxix. 12,
cxxxiti. 8; Cant. iv. 8. Hermon was before the in-
vasion held by the Hivites (Josh. xi. 3); it was the
northern landmark of the Israelites: “from the river
of Arnon unto mount Hermon” (Deut. iii. 8 e¢ ai.).
When the half-tribe of Manasseh conquered their
allotted territory, they are said to have “increased
. unto mount Hermon” (I Chron. v. 23). In one
passage (Ps. Ixxxix. 12) Hermon seems to be used
as a synonym for “north,” just as the sea (O°) is used
as a synonym for “west.” The name “Baal-her-
mon” (Judges tii. 3) would indicate that it was at one
time the seat of a shrine. It was a religious center
in the Roman period also, and was surrounded by
small temples, built on theslopes. A temple on the
summit is referred to by Eusebius and Jerome
(“Onomastica Sacra,” s.c. “AZrmon”). In Enoch
(vi. 6) the sunmit of Hermon is mentioned as the
place where the wicked angels alighted in the days
of Jared, and its name is explained as referring to
the oath which they had sworn uponit. Hermon
was famous for its dews (Ps. cxxxiii. 8), which have
been celebrated by modern travelers also (Tris-
tram, “Land of Israel,” 2d ed., p..608), and the part
called “Shenir” was abundant in cypresses (Ezek.
xxvii. 5). Hermon is now called “Jabal al-Shaikh ”
(the mountain of the chief), so called as the residence
of the religious sheik of the Druzes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Robinson, Researches, iii. 357: Hastings,
Dict. Bible ; Winer, B. R.; Cheyne and Black, Encye. Bibl.
E.G. H. M. SEL.
HEROD I. (surnamed the Great): King of
Judea 40-4 B.c.; founder of the Herodian dynasty ;
born about 73 B.c.; son of Antipater, and, conse-
quently, of Idumean origin. It is said that when
he was a boy of twelve an Essene named Menahem
predicted that he would reign over Judea. Indeed.
nature had endowed him with the qualities of as-
cendency. He was of commanding presence; he
excelled in physical exercises; he was a skilful di-
plomatist; and, above all, he was prepared to com-
mitany crime in order to gratify his unbounded am-
bition.
At the age of twenty-five (the age fifteen given
by Josephus is generally believed to be erroneous)
Herod was appointed prefect of Galilee by his father,
who was procurator of Judea. By his first act
Herod showed that he intended to please the Romans
at any cost. Contrary to the Jewish law, which
granted to the vilest criminal the right of trial by the
Sanhedrin, to which tribunal alone belonged the au-
thority to pass sentence of death, Herod executed a
band of fanatics who had attacked heathen towns
and robbed caravans. This assumption of power,
for which he was highly lauded by the Romans, in-
furiated the leaders of the national party, who per-
ceived Herod’sultimateaims. Bringing pressure to
bear upon the weak Hyrcanus IL., they obtained per-
mission to arraign the prefect before
His First the Sanhedrin. Instead of present-
Exploit. ing himself before that august body
clad in black, as was the usual custom,
Herod appeared arrayed in purple and attended by
a strong guard, capable of meeting any emergency.
He did not condescend to offer the slightest defense
COPPER COIN OF HEROD THE GREAT.
Obverse: BAZIAEQS HPQAOY round a helmet. In field to left
ET (year 3-38 or 35 B.c.); in field to right a monogram.
Reverse ; Macedonian shield, with disk surrounded by rays.
(After Madden, ‘‘ History of Jewish Coinage. ”)
of his conduct, but tendered a letter of Sextus
Cesar, governor of Syria, in which Hyrcanus was
threatened with dire consequences should Herod
not be cleared of the charges preferred against
him. Overawed, the judges did not dare to utter a
word in his condemnation till the president of the
tribunal, Shemaiah, rose to rebuke their pusillanim-
ity and warned his colleagues that some day they
would pay dearly for their weakness. At this turn
of affairs Hyrcanus adjourned the session until the
following day, and recommended the culprit to
leave Jerusalem secretly during the night. Herod
then took refuge with Sextus Cesar, who appointed
him prefect of Coele-Syria. Herod collected an army
and advanced on Jerusalem with the purpose of
chastising the Sanhedrin; but he was dissuaded from
his intended vengeance by his father and his brother
Phasael.
The disturbance throughout the Roman empire
caused by the murder of Julius Cesar (44 B.c.) did
not impede Herod’s advancement, who knew how
to turn every circumstance to his advantage. The
protégé of Sextus Cesar became, at the assassina-
tion of the latter, the friend of the Roman gov-
ernor of Syria, Cassius, whose favor he won by
promptly levying the hundred talents which Galilee
was required to contribute to the war-tax of seven
hundred talents imposed upon Judea. He was con-
357
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hermon
Herod I.
firmed in his position of prefect of Coele-Syria, and
evenreceived from Cassius a promise that he would
be acknowledged King of Syria when the war
against the triumvirs should be ended. Meanwhile
his father was poisoned (43 B.c.) by the hireling of
one Malich, who aspired to an influential position
in Judea. Herod hastened to take the place of his
father, but did not neglect to avenge his death.
Malich was enticed to Tyre and there slain by hired
assassins, with the connivance of Cassius. How-
ever, after the departure of the latter, Judea was in
a state of revolt. Antigonus, the younger son of
Aristobulus JI., made an attempt, with the assist-
ance of Ptolemy, the son of Menneus of Chalcis, to
secure the sovereignty of Palestine. Herod suc-
ceeded in quelling the revolt and in de-
Betrothed feating Antigonus. On his return to
to Jerusalem he was greeted as a trium-
Mariamne. phant general by Hyrcanus, who, see-
ing in him the deliverer of the country,
gave him in marriage to his beautiful granddaughter,
Mariamne, daughter of Alexander and Alexandra.
The battle of Philippi (42 B.c.) put an end to the
rule of the murderers of Julius Cesar, The national
COPPER COIN OF HEROD THE GREAT.
Obverse : a tripod with tray ; on either side a palm-branch.
Reverse: BA[CI]JAEQC (indistinct) round a wreath, withiu
which is an X.
(After Madden, “ History of Jewish Coinage.’’)
party in Jerusalem now hoped to see the downfall
of Herod and of his brother Phasael, who had been
overzealous in support of the opponents of the vic-
torious triumvirate. Some Jewish nobles met the
victor, Antony, at Bithynia and complained of the
maladministration of Judea. But Herod succeeded
by bribes and flatteries in winning the favor of An-
tony, who remembered that while he (Antony) was
fighting under Gabinius in the East, Antipater had
rendered him many services. The charges against
Herod were several times renewed, but they were of
no avail. Hyrcanus himself pleaded the cause of
the Idumean brothers, and they were appointed by
Antony governors of Judea with the title “tet-
rarch.”
The year 40 was the turning-point in Herod’s life.
With the help of the Parthians, who in that year
overran Syria, Antigonus was proclaimed King of
Palestine. Phasael was taken in an ambuscade and
forced to commit suicide, Herod escaping a similar
fate by flight. After passing through great hard-
ships and greater dangers, he succeeded in reaching
the fortress of Masada, where he left his family in
the care of his brother Joseph. After having un-
successfully attempted to obtain help from the Nab-
ateans of Petra, Herod went to Alexandria. There
Cleopatra offered him a generalship in her army:
but he declined it, and, braving all dangers, went
to Rome. The triumvir Octavianus
Elected was won over as Antony had been,
King by and, both pleading Herod’s cause be-
the Roman fore the Senate, that assembly invested
Senate. him with the ardently desirea king-
Ship. At the conclusion of the session
Herod, walking between Antony and Octavianus
and preceded by the consuls, went to the Capitol to
return thanks to the gods.
The new king disembarked at Acre, and was soon
at the head of asmall army. The Roman generals
Ventidius and Silo received the order to assist him in
the conquest of Judea, which naturally was not will-
ing to acknowledge his sovereignty; but they had
been bribed by Antigonus, and their support was in-
effectual. It was only in the spring of the year 37 that
Herod, assisted by a large Roman force under the
command of Caius Sosius, laid siege to Jerusalem.
While the works were in course of construction,
he went to Samaria to celebrate his marriage with the
Hasmonean princess Mariamne, to whom he had
been engaged for five years, after repudiating his
first wife, Doris, the mother of Antipater.
After a siege of several months Jerusalem fell
(probably in July) into the hands-of the Romanus.
For several days the troops, unrestrained, indulged
in murdering and pillaging, and Herod, to stop
these horrors, had to pay out of his private fortune
large sums to the legionaries. Antigonus was car-
ried away captive by Sosius to Antioch, where by
Antony's orders, instigated by Herod, he was exe-
cuted.
Herod inaugurated his reign with acts of venge-
ance and cruelty. Forty-five of the most wealthy
and most prominent of Antigonus’ partizans were
executed, and their estates confiscated in order to
fill the empty treasury. Herod’s agents showed
themselves so greedy as to shake the dead bodies
in order that any gold hidden in their shrouds might
be disclosed. All the members of the Sanhedrin,
with the exception of Pollio (Abtalion) and She-
maiah, were slain. Of the members of the Hasmo-
nean family with whom Herod had to contend, his
bitterest enemy was his mother-in-law,
Enmity of Alexandra. As the aged Hyrcanus,
Alexandra. who had now returned from his Par-
thian exile, could not reenter the high-
priesthood, owing to the physical mutilation which
had been inflicted upon bim by Antigonus, Herod
chose as high priest an utterly unknown and insig-
nificant Babylonian Jew of the sacerdotal family,
named Hananeel. This selection offended Alexan-
dra, who considered that her young son Aristobulus,
brother of Mariamne, was entitled to this office.
She complained to Cleopatra; and Herod, fearing
that the latter might exert her influence upon An-
tony, deposed Hananeel and gave the office to Aris-
tobulus, his brother-in-law, who was then sixteen
years old (35 B.c.). When the young high priest
appeared before the public at the Feast of Taber-
nacles, arrayed in the gorgeous robes of his oftice,
great enthusiasm prevailed, and a demonstration
was made in his favor. Herod, who saw in him a
possible rival, took umbrage, and determined to get
Herod I.
rid of him. At the close of the feast he went with
the priest to Jericho, where Alexandra had invited
them to an entertainment. After the meal, while
Aristobulus was refreshing himself with others in
the bath, he was pushed under water, as if in sport,
by some of the bathers who had been bribed by
Herod, and held down until he was drowned.
Herod feigned the most profound grief; but no one
was deceived by his tears, and least of all Alexan-
dra. She again invoked the help of Cleopatra, and
Herod was summoned to Laodicea (34 B.c.) to justify
himself before Antopy. He did not, however, go
empty-handed, and as a result was dismissed with
honors.
With this event began the first act of the drama
of which Herod’s own household became later the
theater. Before leaving Jerusalem Herod had com-
mitted Mariamne to the care of his uncle and brother-
in-law Joseph, directing him to slay her in case he
(Herod) should not return. On arriving at Judea,
Herod’s sister Salome, who wished to get rid of her
husband, Joseph, and at the same time to revenge
herself on the haughty princess, who taunted her
with her low birth, charged them with
Execution adultery. At first Herod gave no
of heed to the calumny; but when he
His Uncle learned that Mariamne knew of the
Joseph. secret command he had given to Jo-
seph, he concluded therefrom that Sa-
lome’s charges were well founded, and caused Jo-
seph to be executed, without affording him an
opportunity of being heard. In the same year
Herod had the mortification of being obliged to
receive at Jerusalem his enemy Cleopatra, who
came to inspect the Palestinian coast and the
most precious of Herod’s domains, the district
of Jericho, which had been given to her by An-
tony.
During the civil war between Antony and Octa-
vianus (82 B.c.), Herod, who would have helped his
protector Antony, was by a happy chance sent by
Cleopatra to combat the Nabatzean king Malich. At
firs. Herod’s army suffered a crushing defeat, but
in the end he was victorious. On returning home
Herod learned of the defeat of his protector Antony.
The question now was how the new master of Rome
would treat the friend of his defeated
Execution enemy. Herod promptly decided upon
of his course of action, and resolved to
Hyrcanus. go and meet Octavianus. He con-
trived, however, to have the aged
Hyrcanus removed, the only one who might prove a
dangerous rival, as being nearer to the throne than
himself. Upon the pretended charge of having con-
spired against Herod with the Arabian king, Hyr- -
canus was executed.
In the spring of the year 80 b.c. Herod met Octa-
vianus at Rhodes. With considerable adroitness he
pointed out the great friendship that had existed
between himself and Antony and the benefits the
latter had derived from it. This friendship he was
now ready to give to Octavianus, to whom he
would be equally true. Octavianus believed Herod,
and confirmed him in all his titles. Herod succeeded
so well in gaining Cesar’s favor that in the follow-
ing year Octavianus gave him back Jericho and the
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
358
other cities that Antony had taken from his domains,
adding to them the towns of Gadara, Hippos,
Samaria, Gaza, Anthedon, Joppa, and Strato’s
Tower,
While his political affairs were thus prospering,
his household became the scene of a tragedy of
which Mariamne was the heroine. Be-
Execution fore he had gone to Rhodes Herod
of had given the order to a certain So-
Mariamne. hemus to slay Mariamne should he not
return. Mariamne came to know this,
and gave to Herod on his return proofs of her aver-
sion. The charge of unlawful intercourse was re-
peated by Salome; and Herod saw again in the be-
trayal of his secret ordera proof of guilt. Sohemus
was immediately executed; Mariamne, after a judi-
cial investigation by a sort of privy council, was
condemned and executed (29 B.c.).
After the execution Herod, tortured with remorse,
plunged into wild excesses to distract his thoughts.
While he was hunting in Samaria he fell ill. A
rumor of his death got abroad at Jerusalem. Alex-
andra then began to scheme so that in the event of
Herod’s death she might secure the throne. She tried
to gain over the commanders of the two fortresses
in Jerusalem; this was reported to Herod, and he
caused her to be executed (28 B.c.). Herod’s recov-
ery was the signal for fresh crimes and bloodshed.
The members of a family called “the sons of
Baba” had signalized themselves under Antigonus
by their zeal for the Hasmonean prince. In the
moment of danger they were saved by Costoba-
rus, who, after the execution of Joseph, had
married Salome, the sister of Herod. Salome, hav-
ing by this time become tired of ber husband,
betrayed all his secrets to Herod, who immediately
put to death Costobarus and the sons of Baba
(25 B,C.).
The throne was now firmly established. Of all
the members of the Hasmonean family who could
give him umbrage there remained only the daughter
of Antigonus. Herod then entered upon the pros-
perous period of his reign. Splendid public works
were commenced and new cities were built. Thus
Herod rebuilt the city of Samaria, to which he gave
the name of “Sebaste,” in honor of the
Builds Roman emperor. The small town on
Sebaste the seacoast called the Tower of Strato
and was transformed into a magnificent
Ceesarea. city with anartificial harbor, onascale
of the utmost grandeur, and named
“Crsarea.” Temples in honor of Augustus were
multiplied in all directions. To celebrate the quin-
quennial games which had been instituted in almost
allof the Roman provinces, likewisein honor of Au-
gustus, Herod erected in Jerusalem a theater, an
amphitheater, and a hippodrome. Citadels and
cities rose in bhoncr of the different members of
Herod’s family: Antipatris, in honor of his father;
Cypros, commemorating his mother; Phasaelis, as a
memorial to his brother; and the two strongholds
named Herodium in honor of himself. Military
colonies were planted at Gaba in Galilee, and at
Heshbon; and the fortresses Alexandrium, Hyrca-
nia, Macheerus, and Masada were rendered impreg-
nable.
359
Of all Herod’s building operations, however, the
most magnificent was the restoration of the Temple
at Jerusalem. This work, begun in
Restora- the eighteenth year of Herod’s reign,
tion of the was completed in its essential parts in
Temple. eight years. [ts beauty was prover-
bial. “He who has not seen Herod’s
building has never seen anything beautiful,” was a
common proverb of the day (comp. Suk. 51b; B. B.
4a; see TEMPLE).
Moreover, Herod did not content himself with
erecting architectural monuments in his own coun-
try only; Ashkelon, Acre, Tyre, Sidon, Byblus, Bery-
tus, Tripoli, Damascus, Antioch, Rhodes, Chios,
Nicopolis, Athens, and Sparta also received proofs of
his generosity in many a monuniental structure.
He defrayed, too, the cost of the erection at Rhodes
of atemple devoted to the Pythian Apollo, and gave
a fund for prizes and sacrifices at the Olympian
games.
All the worldly pomp and splendor which made
Herod popular among the pagans, however, ren-
dered him abhorrent to the Jews, who could not
forgive him for insulting their religious feelings by
forcing upon them heathen games and combats with
wild animals. The annexation to Judea of the dis-
tricts of Trachonitis, Batanea, Auranitis, Zenodorus,
Ulatha, and Panias, which Herod through his adula-
tions had obtained from Augustus, could not atone
for his crimes. In the eyes of the pious Jew Herod’s
government was not better than that of Antiochus
Epiphanes. Like him, but by other
Opposition means, Herod endeavored to Hellenize
of Judea. But the approbation of the
the Pious. pagan world was dearer to him’than
the religious feelings of the Jews.
The most important functions of the state were en-
trusted to Greeks. Nicolas of Damascus and his
brother Ptolemy were Herod’s counselors; another
Ptolemy was at the head of the finances. It is not
surprising, therefore, that from time to time there
were conspiracies against Herod’s life. These con-
spiracies were quelled with the utmost cruelty.
The fortresses, especially Hyrcania, were crowded
with prisoners, who after a short detention were put
to death. At the slightest sign of uprising the sol-
diers, all mercenaries—Thracians, Germans, and
Galatians—struck right and left. Only once during
his long reign did Herod give evidence of interest in
his Jewish subjects. This was during the years of
the famine, 24-23 n.c, He deprived himself of his
silver plate and bought from Egypt great quanti-
ties of corn, which he divided gratuitously among
the inhabitants.
The last years of Herod’s reign were, like the first,
full of horrors. The actors in the tragedy which
had ended in the execution of Mariamne resumed
their work of slander on the return of her two sons,
Alexander and Aristobulus, from Rome (17 B.c.),
where they had been educated. Endowed with
the physical beauty of their mother, which was en-
hanced by the polished manners they had acquired in
Roman society, Alexander and Aristobulus were
very much liked by the inhabitants of Jerusalem,
who still remembered their mother and her ancestors,
the legitimate sovereigns of the country. This pop-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Herod I.
ularity, which possibly rendered them a little vain
and imprudent, was a thorn in the side of Herod’s
sister Salome, who was fullof gloomy hatred against
the Hasmonean ‘race. In concert with her brother
Pheroras, tetrarch of Pera, she plotted the ruin of
the two brothers, although one of them, Aristobu-
lus, had become her son-in-law by marrying her
daughter Berenice. Herod was inces-
Intrigues santly warned of the danger threaten-
Against ing him from them. It was said that
His Sons. they openly avowed their intention of
avenging their mother’s death. To
wound their pride and to show them that there was
another possible heir to the throne, Herod gave a
high post at court to Antipater, who with his
mother, Doris, Herod’s first wife, had been kept in
seclusion. This act was a most unfortunate one, as
Antipater from this time endeavored by every means
to get rid of his stepbrothers in order to remove
every barrier between himself and the throne. The
breach between the father and his sons Alexander
and Aristobulus widened to such an extent that
Herod took them to Aquilea and accused them be-
fore Augustus. The latter effected a reconciliation;
but it was not of long duration. ;
As soon as Herod and his sons returned home,
Antipater, supported by Salome and Pheroras, re-
sumed his machinations. Letters were forged, and
avowals of guilt extorted from tortured slaves. A
new reconciliation was effected by Alexander’s
father-in-law, Archelaus, King of Cappadocia; but,
like the first, it did not endure. By the instrumen-
tality of a Lacedemonian named Eurycles, at that
time resident at the court, Antipater brought a fresh
accusation against the two brothers; and having ob-
tained the consent of Augustus to impeach them,
Herod traduced them at a mock trial held at Bery-
tus, where they were condemned without having
been granted a hearing. Soon afterward they were
strangled at Sebaste by Herod’s directions (6 B.Cc.).
Antipater’s villainies did not remain long unpun-
ished. The investigation which had been made into
the sudden death of Pheroras revealed all the plots
hatched by Antipater to rid himself of his father,
The guilty son, who, being at that time at Rome,
anticipated no trouble, was induced under false pre-
tenses to come home, and on his arrival was brought
to trial before Varus, the governor of Syria. As his
guilt was manifest, Herod had him put in chains and
reported the matter to Augustus, asking his permis-
sion to carry out the sentence of death. Meanwhile
Herod was attacked by an incurable disease. In-
stead of becoming gentler and more merciful, the
thought of death only led him to greater cruelty.
For an attempt to tear down the Roman eagle from
the Temple gate, made, on the rumor of his death,
by some young men led by two teachers of the Law,
Judah ben Sarifai and Mattathias ben Margalot,
forty-two persons, including the teachers, were
burned alive. During his sickness Herod meditated
only upon ways and means by which he might make
the Jews mourn the day of hisdeath. When he had
returned from the baths of Callirrhoe to Jericho, he
is said to have given orders that upon his death the
most distinguished of the nation, whom he had
caused to be shut up in the arena of that place,
Herod II.
Herodias
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
3860
A
should be slain, so that there might bea great lumen-
tation on his passing away. In his delirium he tried
to kill himself, and the palace resounded with lamen-
tations. Antipater, whose prison was
Execution near, on hearing these cries, concluded
of Herod was dead and endeavored to
Antipater. bribe his jailer to set him free; but
the latter reported it to Herod, who at
once gave orders for Antipater’s execution. On
hearing this, Augustus said: “It were better to be
such a man’s swine than his son” (see, however,
JEW. Encyc. i. 640, s.o. ANTIPATER).
Five days after the execution of Antipater Herod
died at Jericho, leaving his throne to his son Arche-
laus. The corpse was transported with great pomp
from Jericho to Herodium, where the burial took
place. The day of his death was marked in the
Jewish calendar as a festival.
Herod had in succession ten wives: (1) Doris, mother
of Antipater; (2) Mariamne, mother of Aristobulus
and Alexander as well as of two daughters; (38, 4)
two of his own nieces, whose names are not men-
tioned, and by whom he had no children; (5)a
second Mariamne, daughter of Simon Boethus
(whom Herod appointed high priest), and mother
of Herod Philip; (6) a Samaritan named Malthace,
mother of Archelaus, Herod Antipas, and a daugh-
ter named Olympias; (7) Cleopatra of Jerusalem,
mother of ason named Herod and of Philip, tetrarch
of Iturea; (8) Pallas, mother of Phasael; (9) Pheedra,
mother of Roxana; and (10) Elpis, mother of Salome.
The connection of Herod with the alleged massa-
cre of the Innocents as related in the New Testa-
ment is now generally admitted by independent
Christian thinkers to be legendary.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Josephus, Ant. xv., xvi., xvii. 1-8; idem, B.
J. i. 18-33; Ewald, Gesch. des Volkes Israel, iy. 548-585;
Gratz, Gesch. iii. 197-245; Hitzig, Gesch. des Volkes Israel,
ji. 534-559; Schneckenburger, Zeitgesch. pp. 175-200; De
Sauley, Histoire d’ Hérode Roi des Jitifs, Paris, 1867; Well-
hausen, [sraelitische und Jilidische Gesch. 2d ed., pp. 307-
329: J. Derenbourg. Essai sur V Histoire et la Géographie de
la Palestine, pp. 149-165; Stanley, History of the Jewish
Church, pp. 458 et seq.; F. W. Farrar, The Herods; Schiirer,
SNe i. 860-418; Renan, Histoire du Peuple d’fsrael, v.
J I. Br.
HEROD II.: King of Chalcis; son of Aristobu-
lus and Berenice; grandson of Herod I. and the first
Mariamne; brotherof Agrippa I. and Herodias; died
48-49 c.e, He first married Mariamne, granddaugh-
ter of Herod I. From this union came Aristobulus,
who married Salome, the daughter of Herodias, and
the widow of the tetrarch Herod Philip. After the
death of his first wife Herod IT. married Berenice,
daughter of his brother Agrippa I., by whom he had
two sons, Berenicianus and Hyrcanus, At the re-
quest of Agrippa I. the emperor Claudius granted
Herod (41 c.£.) the kingdom of Chalcis. Three years
later, at the death of Agrippa, Herod was appointed
governor of the Temple, with the right of nomina-
ting the high priest. During the four years in
which he exercised this right he appointed two high
priests—Joseph, the son of Carnus, and Ananias, the
son of Nebedeus.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Josephus, Ant. xviii. 5, 84; xx. 1,83; 5, § 2;
Gratz, Gesch.iv.; Scbitrer, Gesch. i. 556, 587, 722 et seq.:
Farrar, The Herods, p. 193.
J. I. Br.
HEROD AGRIPPAI. See Agrippa I.
HEROD AGRIPPA II. Sce Acrirpa II.
HEROD ANTIPAS. See Antipas (HEROD
ANTIPAS).
HEROD PHILIP. See PuiLtip HERop.
HERODIAN DYNASTY, PEDIGREE OF:
On page 861 is a genealogical tree of the family of
Herod, which succeeded the Hasmoneans. The fam-
ily was of Idumean origin, its most distinguished
representative being Herod the Great. Antipater
and his direct descendants are numbered consecu-
tively, the numbers being placed before the names,
whereas references are made to such numbers in pa-
rentheses when the names recur in marriages. Fre-
quent names, like Herod, Cypros, or Mariamne, are
distinguished by Roman numerals. Herod the
Great's wives are distinguished by letters in pa-
rentheses. Names of women are in italics.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Josephus, Ant. xiv. 7,83; 11,83; 12,81; 18,
810; 15,810; xv. 1,83: 7, 885,9; xvi. 11,87; xvii. 1,83;
3,84; 7, 11,87; xviii. 5,84; 7,82; xix. 5,85; 9,81; xx. 7
§§ 1-3: idem, B. J. i. 28, 88 4, 6; ii. 2, 8 6; Tacitus, His-
tori, li. 2: Acts xxiv. 24, xxv. 18; McClintock and Strong,
Cyc. iv. 210; Cheyne and Black, Encyc. Bibl. ti. 2041-2042 ;
Schirer, Gesch., i. 780.
J. F. T. H.
HERODIANS: Priestly party under the reign
of King Herod and his successors; called by the
Rabbis “ Boethusians,” as adherents of the family of
Boethus, whose daughter Mariamne was one of the
wives of King Herod, and whose sons were succes-
sively made high priests by him. They followed
the Sadducees in their opposition to the Pharisees,
and were therefore often identified with the former
(see Griitz, “Gesch.” 4th ed., iii. 2, 698; Borriu-
s1ans). According to the Gospels, their plot against
the life of Jesus was supported by the Pharisees
(Mark iii. 6, xii. 18; Matt. xii. 16); wherefore Jesus
warned his disciples, saying “ Beware of the leaven
of the Pharisees and of the leaven of Herod” (Mark
viii. 15; Matt. xvi. 6 has “ Pharisees” and “Sad-
ducees”). “Leaven” is explained in Matt. xvi. 12
to mean “teaching,” that is, “bad teaching” (comp.
“ge’or sheba-‘isah ” = “ the leaven in the dough,” cor-
responding to the “yezer ha-ra‘”; Ber. 17a). This
shows that the Herodians represented a religious
party. In Luke xii. 1 the Herodians have been
omitted altogether, and the Pharisees alone are rep-
resented as the enemies of Jesus; and in Luke xx.
19 the scribes and chief priests are mentioned in
place of the Pharisees and the Herodians (see also
Mark xii. 18; Matt. xxii. 15-16).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cheyne and Black, Encye. Bibl.: Hastings,
Diet. Bible; Herzog-Hauck, Real-Eneye.; Riehm, Hand-
worterb. des Biblischen Alterthums (these offer explana-
tions not in harmony with the Gospels or with the historic
situation) ; Geiger, Das Judenthum und Seine Gesch. 1869,
1.172; idem, Jiid. Zeit. vi. 256; Renan, Life of Jesus, ch. xxi.
K
HERODIAS: Daughter of Aristobulus and Ber-
enice and granddaughter of Herod I. and of his sister
Salome. She was first married to her uncle Herod
(not Philip, asin Mark vi. 17; see Schiirer, “ Gesch.”
i. 435, note 19), sou of Herod I. by the second Mari-
amne, with whom she lived in Rome upon the rev-
enues assigned to them by Herod I. and Salome.
From this union issued Salome, the wife of the tet-
rarch Herod Philip. While on a visit to Rome
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Herodium
Herschell
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
362
Herodias’ uncle and brother-in-law, Herod Antipas,
fell inlove with her and proposed marriage, to which
she readily assented. He then divorced his first wife,
the daughter of Aretas VI., King of Arabia, and,
contrary to Jewish law, married Herodias. This
union brought misfortune to Antipas, It first in-
volved him in a war with Aretas, who wished to
avenge his abandoned daughter; then Herodias,
who had married Antipas from motives of ambition,
urged him to appeal to Caligula for the royal title,
an appeal which brought about hisdownfall. Hero-
dias, however, showed great fortitude in adversity ;
she preferred going with Antipas into exile at Lug-
dunum to remaining with her brother, Agrippa L,
and sharing the advantages of his elevation, as pro-
posed by Caligula.
The Gospels attribute to Herodias the execution
of John the Baptist, whom she hated for having de-
nounced her unlawful marriage. While celebrating
Antipas’ birthday, Salome, the daughter of Hero-
dias, so delighted the tetrarch by her dancing that
he promised her to fulfil any wish she might ex-
press. At the instigation of her mother she de-
manded that the head of John should be brought
to her in a charger (Matt. xiv. 3 et seg.; Mark vi. 17
ef seqg.). This, however, is not corroborated by Jo-
sephus, who assigns political reasons for the execu-
tion of John.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Josephus, Ant. xviii.5; Winer, B. R. i. 486;
Keim, in Schenkel’s Bibellexikon, iii. 46-49; Schirer, Gesch.
i. 435 et seq.
J. I. Br.
HERODIUM : Fortified city three leagues south
of Jerusalem; founded by Herod I. It was built on
a rocky and rugged hill. Its citadel contained
royal apartments of great strength and splendor,
and served as a sarcophagus for Herod. In the
times of the Romans Herodium was the chief town
of a toparchy; it was one of the last strongholds
taken by the army of Vespasian. Herodium is iden-
tical with the modern Jabal al-Furaidis, known as
the Frank Mountain,” on the top of which the re-
mains of the citadel are still to be seen. It is prob-
able that in Biblical times the site of Herodium was
ealled “Beth-haccerem,” as the description of that
place given by Jeremiah (vi. 1) coincides with the
so-called “Frank Mountain.”
Herod founded another fortress to which he gave
the same name—Herodium; it was situated in the
mountainous region extending toward Arabia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Robinson, Researches, iii.. Appendix, p. 41;
Tobler, Topographie von Jerusalem, ii. 565; De Saulcy,
Voyage en Terre Sainte, i. 168 et seq.; Schiirer, Gesch. i.
890, note 66.
J. I. Br.
HERON (7538): Enumerated among the un-
clean birds (Lev. xi. 19 [R. V. margin, “ibis ”];
Deut. xiv. 18; comp. Targ. 13°8, where the context
points to some bird of the Ardeide family). There
are at least seven species of heron common in Pales-
tine, especially in the marshy regions; and the addi-
tion of “after its kind” (“leminehu ”) in the pas-
sages mentioned above would imply that various
species were included under “anafah.”
In the Talmud the heron is characterized, in allu-
sion to the etymology of its name (“anaf”), as a
cruel and irascible bird, and is contrasted with the
pious stork (Hul. 68a; comp. Rashi to Lev. xi. 19).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tristram, The Natural History of the Bible,
p. 241; L. Lewysohn, Zoologie des Talmuds, p. 169.
E. G. H. I. M. C.
HERRERA, ALONZO DE (known also as
Abraham Cohen de Herrera): Cabalist; born in
Spain; diedin Amsterdam, Holland, 1631. Accord-
ing to D. L. de Barrios, Herrera was descended from
the famous Spanish commander, Fernandez Gonzalo
de Cordova (“the Great Captain”). He represented
the Sultan of Morocco at Cadiz, and fell into the
hands of the English at the capture of that city.
Upon his liberation he removed to Amsterdam,
where he openly confessed Judaism and adopted the
name “Abraham.” Herrera was initiated into the
mysteries of the Cabala by Israel Sarue, to whom
he refers in his writings as his teacher and master.
Herrera was fully as conversant with such writers
on mystic Jore as Moses Cordovero, Moses ibn Gab-
bai, Judah Hayyat, and Hayyim Vital, as with Plato
and his more recent followers, of whom Herrera
gives Marsilio Ficino the preference.
Herrera substituted the principles of the Lurianic
school for the true principles of the Cabala, which
he greatly distorted by admixture of ideas from the
Neoplatonic school. On account of the didactic
method pursued in his essentially Neoplatonic es-
says, he has served the modern historians of philos-
ophy as a guide in their treatment of the Cabala.
His works (written in Spanish, but never pub-
lished), “Puerta del Cielo” and “Casa de Dios,”
were, in accordance with his will, translated into
Hebrew (Amsterdam, 1665) by Hakam Isaac da Fon-
seca Aboab, and in 1677 were partly translated into
Latin by Baron von Rosenroth in his “ Kabbala
Denudata,” vol. i., pts, 8 and 4; vol, ii., pt. 3.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Franck, Die Kabbala, p.7 (translated from
the French by A. Jellinek); Gratz, Gesch. der Juden, ix. 516,
x. 125; Kayserling, Biblioteca Espanola-Portugueza-Ju-
daica, p. 52.
K. M. K.
HERRMANN, LEO: French painter; born in
Paris July 12, 1858. He was a student at the Ecole
des Beaux-Arts at Paris, and exhibited his first pic-
ture, “A Bout d’Argument,” in the Paris Salon of
1875. It was followed in 1876 by “La Bonne His-
toire.” Since then he has beenaconstant exhibitor in
the Salon. Among his paintings may be mentioned:
“Le Scandale du Jour” .(1877); “ Au Rendez-Vous”
(1887); “Le Gofiter” (1889); “Au Cabaret” (1896),
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Curinier, Dict. Nat. iii. 322.
8. F. T. H.
HERSCHEL, SIR WILLIAM: English as-
tronomer; born at Hanover Nov. 15, 1788; died at
Slough, near Windsor, England, Aug. 22, 1822. His
Jewish descent is acknowledged by his biographer,
Holden, and it is also indicated by the fact that his
grandfather was named Abraham, his father Isaac,
and his eldest brother Jacob. His mother, Anna
Ilse Moritzen, does not, however, appear to have
been of the Jewish race. He was brought up by his
father as a musician, and in that capacity went to
England in 1755, in the band of the Hanoverian
Guards, and for a considerable time earned his living
as a teacher of music, obtaining a position as organ-
363
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Herodium
Herschell
ist at Bath in 1760. Meanwhile, however, he was
devoting all his spare time to the study of astron-
omy and the making of telescopes. By the aid of
one of his larger instruments he discovered the
planet Uranus, March 18, 1781, and at once obtained
a permanent position in the world of science, being
appointed astronomer to the king. He was made
an honorary member of most of the scientific socie-
ties of Europe.
Herschel’s researches mark an epoch in modern
astronomy. He was practically the founder of side-
real science, and made a complete re-
Founder view of the northern heavens three
of Sidereal times, fixing the positions of 2,500
Science. nebula, of which 208 had hitherto been
unknown. He was also the first to
conjecture the existence of binary stars, of which he
identified and described no less than 209, He deter-
mined the elements of Saturn more fully than had
previously been done, and above all he was the
first to throw light upon the constitution of the
Milky Way and its relation to the universe in gen-
eral. His views on the position of the solar system
in relation to the Milky Way still form the central
factor in the modern theory as to the constitution of
the universe. He is also known as the discoverer of
the infra-red solar rays.
In his review of the heavens he was assisted by
his sister, Caroline Lucretia, born at Hanover
March 16, 1750; died there Jan. 9, 1848. She read
to him, took notes, and at times even fed him while
his hands were engaged with telescopic work. She
herself was no insignificant observer; she discovered
no Iess than cight comets, and in 1828 received the
Astronomical Society’s medal for a catalogue of neb-
ule. Sir William’s son, Sir John William Her-
schel, though of considerable scientific importance,
was too far removed from Jewish influence for
notice here.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Holden, Sir William Herschel’s Life and
Works, 1881; A. M. Clerke, The Herschels and Modern
Astronomy, 1895; Dict. Nat. Biog. j
HERSCHELL, LORD FARRER: Lord Chan-
cellor of England; born 18387; died March 1, 1899.
His father was the Rev. Ridley H. Herschell. He
was educated at University College, London, and
at the University of Bonn, and took his degree at
London University in 1857. In 1860 he was called
to the bar, and in 1872 became a Q.C. and a bencher
of Lincoln’s Inn. Shortly afterward he was made
recorder of Carlisle, and held that office for seven
years. In 1874 he was elected member of Parlia-
ment for the city of Durham, which constituency he
continued to represent until 1885. In 1880 he be-
came solicitor-general in Mr. Gladstone’s ministry
and was knighted. In 1886 he was made a baron
and became lord chancellor. Lord Herschell was
elected president of the royal commission appointed
to inquire into the workings of the Metropolitan
Board of Works, was president of the Imperial In-
stitute, was a strong churchman, and a church-
warden at St. Peter’s, Eaton square. He possessed
remarkable intellectual gifts, not a slight portion of
which he inherited; and his speeches were charac-
terized by a combination of acuteness, lucidity, and
great argumentative power.
He died suddenly at Washington, in the United
States, while on a commission to settle the Alaska
boundary and other questions pending between the
United States and England.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron, March 3, 1899; The Times and
other London newspapers of this date.
J. G. L.
HERSCHELL, RIDLEY HAIM: Missionary
to the Jews; bor at Strzelno, Prussian Poland,
April 7, 1807; died at Brighton, England, April 14,
1864. The son of Jewish parents, he was educated
at Berlin University (1822), and was baptized in
England by the Bishop of London in 1880. He became
a missionary among the Jews, and was in charge of
schools and missionary work at Leigh, Essex, and
Brampton, Suffolk, from 1885 to 1838. In the last-
named year he opened an unsectarian chapel in Lon-
don, and in 1846 removed to Trinity Chapel, Edge-
ware road. He was a founder of the British Soci-
ety for Propagating the Gospel Among the Jews and
of the Evangelical AlNance (1845).
Herschell was the author of: “A Brief Sketch of
the State and Expectations of the Jews,” 1834;
“Plain Reasons Why I, aJew, Have Become a Catho-
lic and Not a Roman Catholic,” 1842; and “A Visit
to My Fatherland: Notes of a Journey to Syria and
Palestine, 1844.”
He also edited “The Voice of Israel,” a conver-
sionist journal (vols. i., ii., 1845-47), and produced
other works.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Boase, Modern English Biography, 1892; J.
vaUen; Memories of Gospel Triumphs Among the Jews,
J: G. L.
HERSCHELL, SOLOMON: Chief rabbi of
the Ashkenazim in England; born in London 1762,
during the rabbinate of his father, R. Hirsch Leviu;
died there Oct. 31, 1842. His family could boast
along genealogy of learned men, including R. Meir
of Padua. When he was only two years old
Herschell was taken from England by his father,
who left the English rabbinate in 1764 to fill a simi-
lar office in Halberstadt. He was educated in Ger-
many and Poland, Jewish theology and mathematics
being his favorite studies. He married at the age
of seventeen, and was first called to the ministry at
Prenzlau, Prussia. For nine years he ministered
there, when, at the age of forty, his reputation and
the circumstance of his being a native of London
procured for him the office of chief rabbi of the
Great Synagogue (1802). Gradually his jurisdiction
extended over all the Ashkenazim in England. The
period of his administration was marked by the
uniting of the scattered elements of English Jewry,
and by the growing prominence of the Ashkenazic
congregation in London and the removal of the bar-
riers that divided it from the Sephardim. His rab-
binate was notable also for the many important in-
stitutions which sprang into existence, and which
included the Neveh Zedek, the Jews’ Free School,
and several other institutions.
Though representing the spirit of a bygone age,
he was tolerant and just in disposition. When,
however, the Reform movement came toa head in
1841, toward the close of his rabbinate, the seces-
sionists found in him an uncompromising opponent,
Hertz
Herz, Cornelius
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
364
and the drastic measures he adopted in treating with |
them were one of the chief causes of the schism.
The excellent library which he had collected
passed at his death into the possession of the Lon-
don bet ha-midrash.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: European Magazine, 1842; Voice of Jacob,
Nov. 11, 1842; H. Adler, Chief Rabbis of England; Jew.
World, Dee. 19, 1879; Jew. Chron. Feb. 10, 1860; July 31
and Aug. 7, 1903; Morais, Bminent Israelites, s.v.; Picci-
otto, Sketches.
J. G. I.
HERTZ, HENRIEK: Danish poet; born Aug.
25, 1798, at Copenhagen; died there Feb. 25, 1870.
He studied law at the University of Copenhagen,
but, soon renouncing it,
he devoted himself to UE
literature. In 18382 acne
he embraced Christian-
ity. His first literary
production was a com-
edy, “ Herr Burchard og
Hans Familie” (1822),
which was followed two
years later by another
comedy, “ Flyttedagen,”
in which he treated of
the social life of Copen-
hagen. His views on
the great importance
in poetry of form as
compared with material
are laid down in his
“Gjengangerbreve eller
Poetiske Epistler fra
Paradis ” (1880), written
in the style of Baggesen.
Hertz wrote the vaude-
villes: “Arvingerne,”
“Debatten i Politiven-
nen,” “De Fattiges Dy-
rehave,” etc.; as well as
the following comedies
take . from life: “ Amors
Genistreger” (1830);
“Den Eneste Fejl”;
“Emma ” (1882); “Spa-
rekassen” (1836; in
German, Leipsic, 1879); “Beséget i Kjébenhavn.”
His dramatic works are: “Ninon” (German trans-
lation by Thaulow, Leipsic, 1852, and by Laeisz,
Hamburg, 1890), “Tonietta,” “De Deporterede,”
“Den Yneste.” His lyrical drama, “Kong Rene’s
Datter,” is one of his best-known works. It was not
only played in almost all the theaters of Denmark,
but has also been translated ten different times into
German (transl. by Leo, 14th ed., Leipsic, 1884).
Special mention should also be given Hertz’s “Svend
Dyrings Hus” (German transl. by Leo, Leipsic, 1848;
Eng. transl. by Sir Theodore Martin). Besides his
lyrical poems, “Digte fra Forskellige Perioder,” 4
vols., 1851-62, Hertz published some novels and two
contemporary sketches, “Stemninger og Tilstande,”
1839, and “ Johannes Johnsen,” 1858. His dramatic
works (*Dramatiske Veerker”) were published in
eighteen volumes, 1854-73.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jiidliseher Plutarch, 1848, ii. 85-86; Meyers
Konversations-Lexikon.
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Chief Rabbi Solomon Herschell.
HERTZ, JOSEPH HERMAN: American
; rabbi; born at Rebrin, Zemplén Comitat, Hungary,
Sept. 25, 1872; educated at the College of the City
of New York, at Columbia University (Ph.D.), and
at the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York. On
June 15, 1894, he became rabbi of the Congregation
Adath Jeshurun at Syracuse, N. Y., a position which
he retained until Aug, 11, 1898, when he became
rabbi of the Witwatersrand Old Hebrew Congre-
gation at Johannesburg, South Africa. Hertz was
one of those appointed to speak at the Uitlander
meeting for the removal of religious disabilities, in
Johannesburg July 26,1899. During the progress
of the South-African war
Hertz was expelled from
the Transvaal by the
Boer government for
protesting against Jew-
ish disabilities. He re-
turned after the British
occupation and resumed
his labors.
Hertz is the author of
the following works:
“The Ethical System of
James Martineau,” New
York, 1894; “Bachya,
the Jewish Thomas 4
Kempis,” in the Sixth
Biennial Report of the
Jewish Theological Sem-
inary Association, New
York, 1898; “The Jew
as a Patriot: a Plea for
the Removal of the
Civil Disabilities of the
Jews in the Transvaal,”
Johannesburg, 1898 ; and
several serinons.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jewish Year
Book, 1902-03.
J: V. E.
HERTZBERG, JO-
SEPH: Russian author;
born in Moghilef, on the
Dniester, at the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century ; died there 1870. He
receiveda sound education, and mastered the German,
French, and English, besides the Russian, languages.
He contributed largely to Hebrew periodicals, and
he translated into Hebrew the following works:
Mendelssohn’s “ Morgenstunden,” under the title
“Mo‘ade Shahar” (Leipsic, 1845); St. Pierre’s
“L’Harmonie de la Nature,” under the title “Sul-
lam ha-Teba‘” (Wilna, 1850); Kant’s “Kritik der
Reinen Vernunft”;: Munk’s “ Palestine”; and some
volumes of Griitz’s “Gesch. der Juden.” The last
three translations, and a volume of poems entitled
“ Alummat Yosef,” he left in manuscript.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 465.
H. R. V. R.
HERTZKA, THEODOR: Austrian economist
and journalist; born July 18, 1845, at Budapest.
He studied at the universities of Vienna and Buda-
pest, and in 1872 became a member of the editorial
365
staff of the “Neue Freie Presse” of Vienna. In
1879 he founded the “ Wiener Allgemeine Zeitung,”
which he edited until1886. Hertzka has been called
the “ Austrian Bellamy,” because in his “ Freiland,
ein Soziales Zukunftsbild ” (8d ed., Leipsic, 1890),
he followed in the steps of the author of “ Look-
ing Backward.” Other works by Hertzka are;
“Die Mingel des Oesterreichischen Akticngesetzent-
wurfs,” Vienna, 1875; “Das Wesen des Geldes,”
Leipsic, 1887 (in which he recommended the in-
troduction of the gold standard in Austria); “ Die
Gesetze der Handelspolitik,” 2b. 1880; “Das Perso-
nenporto: Ein Vorschlag zur Durchfiihrung eines
Billigen Einheitstarifs im Personen verkehr der Hisen-
bahuen,” Vienna, 1885; “Die Gesetze der Sozialen
Entwickelung,” Leipsic, 1886; and “ Wechselkurs
und Agio,” Vienna, 1894.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Lextkon.
HERTZVELD, ESTELLA DOROTHEA
SALOMEA: Dutch poetess; born at The Hague
July 14, 1887; died at Arnhem Nov. 4, 1881;
granddaughter of Chief Rabbi H. J. Hertzveld of
Zwolle. The Dutch poct Wilhuys had great in-
fluence on her poetical education, and through him
her first important poem, “Elias in de Woestiju,”
appeared in the “Israélietische Jaarboekje ” of 1852.
Estella Hertzveld, who was sincerely religious,
chose the subjects of her poems mainly from the
Bible; and there appeared successively in the
“Isratlietische Jaarboekje” “Tocht der Israélieten
Door de Roode Zee,” “De Opneming van Hlias,”
and “ Pauls Dood.”
To the list of her best productions belong “God
Redt” (1856), which she wrote for the benefit of the
victims of a flood; and “ Januari, 1861,” both of which
appeared in the “Tot Nut en Oefening.” Her poems
“Poétzij” and “Het Triomflied der Beschaving ”
have been printed as specimens in J. P. de Keyser’s
“History of Dutch Literature in the 19th Cent.”
Among other poems from her pen the following
may be mentioned: “Na den Storm” and “ Roem,”
1859; “ Het Gebed,” “ Abram,” and “ Bergen en Val-
leien,” 1860; “Maria Theresia,” 1861; “ De Priester-
zegen” and “Lied der Negerin, Ecn Dag Voor de
Vrijheid,’’ 1863; ‘“‘De Menschenhater,” 1864; and
“ Maximiliaan van Oostenrijk,” 1868. She also wrote
prayers and songs for the consecration of a new
synagogue and a new schoolhouse.
In anticipation of approaching death she arranged
a collection of her poems, which was dedicated to
her children and published at The Hague in Oct.,
1881. She died a few weeks later.
Her younger sister, Maria Hertzveld, was more
inclined toward narrative poetry. She translated
into Dutch Charlotte Montefiore’s “The Diamond
Isle,” and wrote some independent stories.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserling, Die Jtidischen Frauen, p. 298;
Allg. Zeit. des Jud. xivi. 113; De Nederlandsche Spectator,
Nov. 12, 1881; Brande, Biog. Woordenhboek.
8. M. K.
HERTZVELD, HARTOG: Dutch rabbi; born
at Glockau Nov. 19, 1781; died at Zwolle Jan. 30,
1864. He was the son of the rabbi of Koénigsberg,
and went as a young man to Amsterdam, where he
was educated by Rabbi Léwenstamm, whose daugh-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hertz
Herz, Cornelius
ter he married in 1797. Hertzveld was appointed
rabbi of Nijkerk, whence he was called in 1808 to
Zwolle. He was the first Jew who preached in the
Dutch language.
Hertzveld intended to organize the Jewish con-
gregations of Holland and to reform the service in
the synagogue. For this purpose he invited his
colleagues to asynod; but they suspected him of
Reform ideas similar to those which flourished in
Germany, and declined the invitation, To defend
himself against many attacks from the opposing
rabbis he wrete, March 17, 1842, a pastoral message.
Hertzveld was decorated by King William II.
with the Netherlands Lion, being the first Dutch
rabbi upon whom this honor was conferred.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Van der Aa, Bing. Woordenboek. de Tijd,
1846, with portrait; De Vriend des Vaderlands, 1839.
8. BR. Sx.
HERXHEIMER, SALOMON : German rabbi;
born Feb. 6, 1801, at Dotzheim, near Wiesbaden;
died Dec. 25, 1884, at Berenberg. At the age of
thirteen he began his theological studies at Mayence,
in the yeshibah of Rabbi Herz Scheyer, applying
himself assiduously at the same time to secular
studies under Michael Creizenach. Four years later
he left Mayence to accept a position as private tutor
at Herborn, Nassau, where he remained until 1824.
In that year he entered the University of Marburg,
where he studied pedagogy, history, and Oriental
languages.
After three years at Marburg, he went to Got-
tingen; after passing (1827) the necessary examina-
tion, he was appointed religious instructor at Esch-
wege, and became district rabbi Nov. 6, 1830. While
at Eschwege he wrote “ Yesode ha-Torah,” which
reached its twenty-ninth edition in 1883.
While untiring in his efforts for the moral eleva-
tion of the young, Herxheimer’s chief aim was the
development of agricultural pursuits among his co-
religionists. He also devoted much time and effort
to the amelioration of the condition of Palestinian
and Turkish Jews. In addition to the “ Yesode ha-
Torah” he wrote: “ Der Pentateuchim Hebriischen
Texte mit Worttreuer Uecbersetzung und mit Fort-
laufender Erklirung,” 1841; “Die Propheten und
Hagiographen im Text mit Uebersetzung und Fort-
laufendem Commentar,” 1841-48 (see JEw. Encyc.
iii, 198, s.o. BrpbLe TRANSLATIONS); “ Israelitische
Glauben- und Pflichten-Lehre,” 1836.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserling, Gedenkblitter, p. 30; 8. Salfeld,
Dr. ee Herxheimer, ein Lebensbild, Frankfort-on-the-
Main, 1885.
8. M. Gar.
HERZ, CORNELIUS: French electrician;
born in Besancon 1848; died in Bournemouth, Eng-
land, July 6, 1898. Herz’s parents were Germans
who had emigrated to France. He went through
the Besancon schools, studied medicine in Germany,
and settled in Paris, where he had a severe struggle
with poverty. Heserved through the Franco-Prus-
sian war of 1870-71 in the army of the Loire, be-
coming adjutant, and at the close of the war was
made foreign member of the Legion of Honor. He
then went to the United States, where he became a
naturalized citizen, obtained a medical diploma,
married Miss Sarony of Boston, and established an
electrical business in San Francisco. In 1877 he re-
Herz, Elise
Herz, Jacques
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
366
Soc a SS SSS Se
turned to Paris, and started an electric-light business,
founded the Electric-Force Transmission Company
under the Marcel Despretz patents, endeavored to
secure control of the telephone company, and formed
(in 1879) the Paris Electric-Light Company. Henow
rose rapidly, and in 1880 was made a grand officer
of the Legion of Honor. He was implicated in the
Panama Canal scandal as the chief intermediary
between the Panama Canal Company and the bribed
deputies, and claimed to have in his possession all
the documents and correspondence relating to that
imbroglo. Tracked by detectives, he fied to Italy,
thence to Germany, and finally found refuge in
England. The French courts condemned him to five
years’ imprisonment, and his name was expunged
from the roll of the Legion of Honor. The French
government applied persistently but unsuccessfully
for his extradition. In 1897 he offered to make a
full disclosure to the Panama Inquiry Committee,
but when the committee was about to start for
Bournemouth he withdrew his promise.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Appleton’s Annual Cyclopedia, 1898, p. 595;
Le Fiyaro (Paris), Dec. 12, 1892; G. Bennett Smith, Life
and Enterprises of Ferdinand de Lesseps, p. 331, passim,
London, 1893.
a. N. D.
HERZ, ELISE, VON LAMEL: Austrian
philanthropist; born at Prague Dec. 20, 1788; died
at Vienna July 25, 1868. Her home in Prague was
an intellectual center. On the death of her husband
in 1850 she went to Vienna, where she became an
henorary member of the Jewish community. She
founded the Children’s Asylum at Jerusalem, com-
missioning Ludwig August FRANKL with its organi-
zation. This asylum is intended chiefly for Jewish
children, but a limited number of Christian and
Mohammedan children are also received. See JE-
RUSALEM.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Letteris, Wiener Mittheilungen, 1855, Nos. 43,
51: Wertheimer, Jahrb. ftir Israeliten, 5617 (1856-57), p.
98; Wurzbach, Biog. Lex. des Kaisertums Oesterreich, viii.
405-406.
8, B. TE.
HERZ, HENRI: Austrian pianist; born at
Vienra Jan. 6, 1806; died at Paris Jan. 5, 1888.
He commenced his studies at Coblenz under the
guidance of his father, and later studied there
with Hiinten. In 1816 he entered the Conser-
vatoire at Paris, where, after a course of several
years with Reicha, Pradher, and Dourlen, he was
graduated, receiving the first prize for pianoforte-
playing. The concerts given by Moscheles at Paris
in 1820 exercised great influence upon Herz’s style,
which now became most brilliant.
In 1881 Herz accompanied the violinist Lafont to
Germany, and in 1838-39 they made another tour,
through Holland and France, but this was suddenly
terminated by the tragic death of Lafont, who was
thrown out of his carriage and instantly killed.
In 1888 Herz gavea series of concerts in England,
Ireland, and Scotland, playing twelve times in Dub-
lin alone. Four years later he was appointed pro-
fessor of piano at the Conservatoire at Paris, and
soon was held in high repute as a teacher. Being
unsuccessful in a business venture which he had
undertaken at this time, Herz in 1845 made a con-
cert tour through the United States, Mexico, the
West Indies, Peru, and Chile, returning to Paris in
1851. It was during this journey that, at the re-
quest of General Herrera, President of Mexico, he
composed the hymn which has since remained the
national anthem of that country.
Upon hisreturn to France Herz established a piano
manufactory, his instruments receiving the first prize
at the Paris Exposition of 1855. He resigned his
position at the Conservatoire in 1874,
Although immensely popular thirty or forty years
ago, very few of the compositions of Herz (com-
prising in all about 200 pieces) are played to-day.
They include pianoforte concertos, nocturnes,
dances, marches, and fantasies. His “ Air Tyrolien
Varié” (1818) and “Methode Compléte de Piano”
deserve special mention. His experiences in Amer-
ica were published in a series of letters to the
“Moniteur Universel,” and were pubiished in book
form under the title “Mes Voyages en Amérique,”
Paris, 1866.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Fétis, Biographie Universelle des Musiciens ;
2 Sune Larousse Illustré; Meyers Konversations-Lext-
8, J. So.
HERZ, HENRIETTE: German leader of soci-
ety; born in Berlin Sept. 5, 1764; died there Oct.
92, 1847. From her father, De Lemos, a physician,
descended froma Portuguese Jewish family of Ham-
burg, she inherited intellectual ability; from her
mother, energy and philanthropic spirit; and from
both, extraordinary beauty. Her queenlike bearing,
her finely cut and delicately colored Spanish type
of face, continued, even after she had passed middle
life, to arouse admiration. But the homage paid
her from childhood up left traces in her character;
she was vain and domineering.
Henriette’s education was conducted at home, in
part by her father, to whom she was fervently at-
tached. Her linguistic attainments were remarkable.
She knew French, English, Spanish, Italian, and
Greek, enough Hebrew to read the Bible and its com-
mentaries, and some Portuguese, Danish, and Latin.
In old age she attempted Turkish, and under Bopp
obtained a slight knowledge of Sanskrit. Besides,
she was interested in the sciences; and her literary
judgment was deferred to by authors of repute.
This almost scholarly equipment was acquired
chiefly after marriage, through her husband (much
older than herself), the physician Hofrat Markus
Herz, whom she married at fifteen (Dec. 1, 1779).
Henriette’s beauty, wit, goodness of heart, and so-
cial graces made his house the resort of the most
distinguished men and women in Berlin. Among
her friends and acquaintances were Jean Paul Rich-
ter, Schiller, Mirabeau, Riickert, Niebuhr, Johannes
von Miller, the sculptor Schadow, Solomon Maimon,
Gentz, Fanny von Arnstein, Madame de Genlis, and
Princess Luise von Radziwill. Her idol Goethe, to
whose cult her salon was devoted, she met once, in
Dresden (1810). Her intimates were her pupil in
Hebrew, Alexander von Humboldt, who corre-
sponded with her in the Jewish cursive script;
Friedrich von Schlegel, whose marriage to Dorothea
Mendelssohn- Veit became possible through her inter-
mediacy; and especially Schleiermacher, her daily
visitor during his first sojourn in Berlin. Schleier-
macher addressed her familiarly with “thou” and as
367
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Herz, Elise
Herz, Jacques
“ Jette,” and read Shakespeare, “ Wilhclm Meister,”
and the Greek poets with her. She in turn taught
Schieiermacher Italian, and stimulated him to under-
take independent literary work.
The intimacy of Henriette with Schleiermacher
was town talk: it even furnished a subject to the cari-
caturists. Yct it was a purely Platonic friendship.
However much Henriette may have subscribed to
the prevalent theories, her own conduct, regulated
by sound sense and a rigid conception of duty, was
above reproach. Iler relation to BORNE is an in-
stance in point. The youth of seventeen came to
live with the Herzs in 1802, and fell desperately in
love with his hostess.
Tactfully she diverted his
passion into quieter chan-
nels, and later she became
his friendly adviser.
Her husband trusted
Henriette implicitly, and
in turn inspired her, if
not with passionate love,
at least with devoted re-
spect. She mourned him
sincerely on his death in
1803. Left in straitened
circumstances, she had
to resort to teaching to
support her blind mother,
a sister, and herself.
Though material cares
had a depressing effect
upon her humor, she re-
jected, out of deference
to her mother, enticing
offers of marriage and of
positions, because they
involved acceptance of
Christianity. A few
weeks after her mother’s
death she yielded to
Schleiermacher’s impor-
tunities, and was baptized
(June, 1817). In her old
age, at the request of Al-
exander von Elumboldt, Frederick William IV. of
Prussia granted her a pension on the ground of her
public activities, especially her unremitting efforts
to relieve distress during the Napoleonic wars.
Excepta short period in Prenzlau, Hofritin Herz’s
life was spent in Berlin. Occasionally she took
short journeys to the Harz Mountains, to Rigen,
and to Dresden. In the galleries of Dresden she
discovered that she was more sensible to the beauties
of art than to those of nature. Her longest journey
was to Rome in 1819, with the family of Wilhelm
von Humboldt.
In the way of literary productions, Henriette
Herz left little. She published, in 1799 and 1800,
two works of travel translated from the English
with the help of Schleiermacher. Later she wrote
two novels, which, like her extensive correspond-
ence, she destroyed before her death. Her reminis-
cences (“Erinnerungen an Schleiermacher”) were
not, strictly speaking, her work; they were told by
her, but recorded by others.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ludwig Geiger, Allg. Deutsche Biographie,
vol. xii.; Julius First, Henriette Herz, Ihr Lebenund Ihre
Erinnerungen, 1850), 1858; Aus Schleiermacher’s Leben in
Briefen, 2d ed., 1860: Briefe des Jungen Biérne an Henri-
ette Herz, 1861; Kayserling, Die Jtidisechen Frauen, 1879,
Ae aa Nahida Remy, Das Jiidische Weib, n.d., pp.
g, H. S8.
HERZ, JACOB: German physician; born at
Bayreuth Feb. 2, 1816; died at Erlangen Sept. 27,
1871; educated at the gymnasium of Bayreuth and
the University of Erlangen (M.D. 1889). Estab-
lishing himself as physician in Erlangen, he became
in 1841 assistant at the surgical clinic of the univer-
sity. Notwithstanding the fact that he was un-
able to become a privat-
docent in the university
on account of his faith,
he delivered free lectures
there. In 1847 he was
appointed prosector. The
following year he spent
in Vienna, taking a post-
graduate course. Under
@ liberal government in
1862 he became privat-
docent with the title of
professor, and in 1863 as-
sistant professor. During
the Austro-Prussian war
(1866) he was very active
as surgeon, and in the
same year he _ received
the freedom of the city
of Erlangen for his serv-
ices. In 1869 he was
elected professor. During
the Franco-Prussian war
(1870-71) he again acted
as surgeon,
Herz was very success-
ful both as teacher and as
practising physician.
Among his works may
be mentioned: “De En-
chondromate,” Erlangen,
1848, a résumé of his oper-
ations on clubfeet; “ Versuch mit Schwefelither,”
in the Augsburg “ Allgemeine Zeitung,” 1847, Sup-
plement, No. 37; “Anatomische Beobachtungen
und Physiologische Versuche an den Leichen von
Zwei Hingerichteten” (together with Gerlach and
Dittrich); in “Prager Vierteljahresschrift,” xxxi.
65 ef seq.
The city of Erlangen erected a monument to him
in 1875.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Doctor Jacob Herz, Erlangen, 1871; A. yon
Brinz, Festrede, Erlangen, 1892; Hirsch, Biog. Lex.
g. F. T. H.
HERZ, JACQUES-SIMON: Pianist; born at
Frankfort-on-the-Main Dec. 81, 1794; died at Nice
Jan. 27, 1880. He went to Paris when a child, and
in 1807 was admitted to the Conservatoire, where
he studied piano under Pradher. Herz became a
distinguished pianist, and inaugurated a series of
very successful concerts. For some years he played
and taught in England. Returning to Paris in 1857,
he was appointed assistant professor of piano at the
Herz, Markus
Herzfeld, Jacob
Conservatoire, where his brother, Henri HERz, was
professor. Among Herz’s compositions may be
mentioned his two violin sonatas, a horn sonata, and
a Waltz.
BIBLIOGRAPHY :
Dates.
s, V. &#E.
HERZ, MARKUS: German physician and lec-
turer on philosophy; born June 17, 1747, at Berlin;
died there Jan. 19, 1803. The son of very poor
parents, he was destined for a mercantile career, and
in 1762 went to Koénigsberg, East Prussia. Hesoon
gave up his position as clerk and attended the uni-
versity, becoming a pupil of Kant, but was obliged
to discontinue his studies for want of means. He
thereupon became secretary to the wealthy Russian
Ephraim, traveling with
him through the Baltic
Provinces. In 1770 he re-
turned to Germany and
studied medicine in Halle,
where he became an M.D.
in 1774, in which year he
established himself in Ber-
lin, being appointed phy-
sician at the Jewish
hospital. In 1777 he com-
menced to deliver public
lectures on medicine and
philosophy, which were
well attended by the
students and the prin-
cipal personages of the
Prussian capital. Atsome
of them even members
of the royal family were
present.
Herz married in 1779
Henriette de Lemos (see
Henriette Herz); and
their house was for a long
time the rendezvous of
Bev'in’s political, artistic,
and literary celebrities.
In 1782 he became ill
through overstudy, and
had to give up his lectures
til] 1785, when a sojourn in Pyrmont restored his
health. In 1791 he received the title of professor of
philosophy at the academy and that of “ Hofrath,”
but lectured only a few years, giving most of his
time to his medical practise. Herz was a friend
and pupil of Moses Mendelssohn, and was also well
acquainted with Lessing.
Herz was the author of: “ Betrachtungen aus der
Spekulativen Weltweishcit,” Konigsberg, 1771;
“Freimithige Kaffeegespriche Zweier Jiidischer
Zuschauerinnen tiber den Juden Pinkus,” Berlin,
1772, a satirical essay; “ Versuch tiber die Ursachen
der Verschiedenheit des Geschmacks,” Mitau, 1776;
“Briefean Aerzte,” Berlin, 1777-84; “ Grundriss der
Medizinischen Wissenschaften,” 2b. 1782; “ Versuch
tiber den Schwindel,” 2d. 1786, 2d ed. 1791, an im-
portant study; “Grundlage zu den Vorlesungen
tiber die Ex perimental-Physik,” 7d. 1787; “ Ein Send-
schreiben an die Redaktion der Meassefim tiber das
Larousse, Dict.; Oettinger, Moniteur des
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Markus Herz.
368
zu Friithe Beerdigen der Todten bei den Juden,” 7d.
1789.
Compulsory vaccination was strongly condemned
by Herz, and in 1801 he wrote an open letter on the
subject to Dr. Dohmeyer, under the heading “ Ueber
die Brutalimpfung.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. J. Wunderbar, in Der Orient, Leipsic,
June 30, 1849, pp. 408 et seg. ; Ludwig Geiger, in Allg. Deutsche
Bingraphie, 1880, xii. 261 et seq. ; Oesterreichische Wochen-
schrift, Jan. 23, 1903, p. 59; Hirsch, Biog. Lex.
8. F. T. H.
HERZ-MEDELSHEIM.
HERZ, OF MEDELSHEIM.
HERZBERG-FRANKEL, LEO: Austrian
writer; born at Brody, Galicia, Sept. 19, 1827. At
the age of seventeen he went for a year to Bessara-
bia, and on his return
published “Bilder aus
Russland und _ Bessara-
bien,” and made contri-
butions to Wertheimer’s
“ Jahrbuch fiir Israeliten.”
After the Vienna revolu-
tion in 1848 Herzberg-
Frinkel) went to the
Austrian capital and was
employed on _ Saphir’s
“ Humorist,” and then on
the “ Oesterreichischer
Lloyd”; later he became
one of the editors of the
“Reichszeitung.” In 1856
Herzberg-Frinkel was ap-
pointed chicf clerk of the
Chamber of Commerce and
Industry at Brody. For
forty years he continued
to occupy this post; was
then pensioned, and now
livesin summer at Teplitz,
Bohemia, and in winter at
Meran, southern Tyrol, oc-
cupying his leisure with
literary work. In recogni-
tion of his long services as
member of the city coun-
cil, inspector of schools,
and president of the musical society, he received
from the Emperor of Austria the gold medal of
merit, and a special medal of honor for his faithful
work in the Chamber of Commerce.
Ierzberg-Frinkel’s chief publications are: “Die
Einsiedlerin auf Louisiana”; “ Polnische Juden,”
1866 (2d ed.,1877; 3ded., 1888), which was trans-
lated into French, Polish, Russian, and Hebrew;
“Geheime Wege,” Prague; and “Die Juden in Ga-
lizien,” 1897, an ethnographical contribution to the
“Oesterreich-Ungarn in Wort und Bild,” a col-
lective work published under the auspices of the
imperial prince Rudolf.
8. S. MAN,
HERZBERG-FRANKEL, SIGMUND: Aus-
trian historian; born at Brody, Galicia, March 7,
1857; son of Leo Herzberg-Frinkel. He studied
law at the University of Vienna (from 1874), and,
later, history at Leipsic, Berlin, and Vienna (Ph.D
See CERFBEER,
369
1880). He continued his studies as a member of the In-
stitut fiir Oesterreichische Geschichtsforschung. In
1887 he became privat-docent in medieval history at
the University of Vienna; in 1893 he was appointed
assistant professor, in 1895 professor, of general
history at the University of Czernowitz. His works
include: “Die Aeltesten Land- und Gottesfrieden in
Deutschland ” (1888); “Gesch. der Deutschen Reichs-
Kanzlei, 1246-1315 ”(1885); “Das Aelteste Verbri-
derungsbuch von St. Peter in Salzburg”; “ Kaiser-
urkunden in Abbildungen” (No. viii. of Sybel-
Sickel’s “ Kaiscrurkunden,” 1887); “ Die Nekrologi-
schen Quellen der Dioecese Saizburg”; “ Bestechung
und Pfriindenjagd am Deutschen Kdénigshofe ”
(1895); “Die Briiderschafts- und Wappenbiicher
von St. Christoph am Arlberg” (1900). He also
edited “Monumenta Germanie Necrologica ii.” and
“Johannis Wyclif de Simonia” (with Dziewicki,
1898). S.
HERZENSTEIN, GRIGORI MARKO-
VICH: Russian physician; born in St. Petersburg
1851; died there 1899. He graduated from the St.
Petersburg Medico-Surgical Academy in 1874 and
from 1887 was an adjunct professor there of medical
geography and statistics. His main and most impor-
tant work is his thesis for the doctorate, “Sifilis v
Rossii,” St. Petersburg, 1885. Among his other nu-
merous worksare: “ Sanitarnye Poryadki Vostochnoi
Voiny,” in “ Vrach,” 1881; “ Fizicheskiya Kachestva
Russkikh Novobrantzev,” in “Trudy Voennosani-
tarnavo Obshchestva,” iii.; “Ocherki Sanitar-
navo Sostoyaniya Yevreistva,” sketches on the
sanitary conditions of the Jews, in “ Voskhod,” 1884.
Herzenstein was a collaborator on the “ Medical
Encyclopedia” of Eilenburg and Afanasyev, editing
the department of medical geography and statistics.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lntztklopedicheski Slovar, vol. viii., St. Pe-
tersburg, 1893.
M. R.
H. R.
HERZENSTEIN, SOLOMON MARKO-
VICH: Russian zoologist; born 1854; died 1894;
graduated in natural sciences and mathematics from
the St. Petersburg University; appointed in 1880
custodian of the zoological museum of the Imperial
Academy of Science. We was commissioned in 1880,
1884, and 1887 to proceed to the Murman coast of
the Kola peninsula to study the mollusks and fishes
there; and his “ Materialy k Faunye Murmanskavo
Beregai Byclavo Morya,” published in the “ Trudy ”
of the St. Petersburg Obshchestvo Yestestvoispi-
tatelci, 1885, has become a standard work. Together
with N. L. Varpakhovski, he wrote “Zamyetki po
Ikhtologii Basseina Ryeki Amura,” 7d. 1887, and
“Nauchnye Rezultaty Puteshestvi Przevalskavo,”
e. 1888-91; “Ryby,” St. Petersburg, 1888-91;
“Tehthyologische Bemerkungen,” in “Bulletin de
VYAcadémie des Sciences de St. Petersburg,” xiii.,
book 1, 2, 1890-92.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Eintziklopedicheski Slovar, vol. viii., St. Pe-
tersburg, 1898.
H. R. M. R.
HERZFELD, ADOLF: German actor; born
April 9, 1800, at Hamburg; died at Vienna March
24, 1874; son of Jacob HerzreLp. He made his
début in Hamburg in 1821, where he played until |
VI.—24
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Herz, Markus
Herzfeld, Jaco¥
1829, when he was engaged for the Burgtheater,
Vienna. There he stayed for forty years, retiring
in 1869.
Herzfeld acted principally in dramas and come-
dies, lis rdles being those of the bon-vivant and the
man of the world.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Eisenberg, Biog. Lev.
S, F. T. H.
HERZFELD, ALBRECHT: Austrian actor;
born June 7, 1840, at Vienna; son of Adolf HERz-
FELD. He received hiseducation at the gymnasium
of his native town, and entered a wholesale business
house there as an apprentice. But, like his father,
he soon forsook mercantile life and became an actor,
appearing for the first time at Linz in 1857.
After taking part in the Austro-Italian war (1859)
as a volunteer, he filled theatrical engagements at
Briinn (1861-64); Leipsic (till 1870); the Hoftheater,
Mannheim (till 1877); the Stadttheater, Leipsic
(1877); the Stadttheater, Vienna (1878); and the
Hoftheater, Stuttgart (1879). In 1889 he left the
stage, and after a short stay in Vienna settled in the
mountains of Carinthia; but removed in 1900 to
Ratisbon, where he has since lived, devoting most of
his time to writing for the stage.
His son, Leo Herzfeld (born 1872), also an actor,
is engaged at the Stadttheater of Hermannstadt,
Transylvania.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Eisenberg, Biog. Lex.
8. F. T. H.
HERZFELD, JACOB: German actor and theat-
rical manager; born at Dessau Jan. 8, 1769; died at
Hamburg Oct. 24, 1826. After studying medicine
at Leipsic University he became an actor, making
his début 1n Vienna, In1791 he was engaged at the
Hamburg theater under Schréder, whose assistant
manager he became in 1798. In 1812 he was ap-
pointed manager of the Stadttheater, and retained
the position till his death.
Although a well-known actor, Herzfeld’s reputa-
tion rests on his managerial successes. An interest-
ing reference to his correspondence with Goethe is
found in H. Uhde’s work, “Das Stadttheater in
Hamburg, 1827-77.” Herzfeld also corresponded
with Schiller.
Herzfeld was married (1796) to the actress Karo-
line Amalie Stegmann (born at Kinigsberg 1766;
died at Hamburg Sept. 20, 1812).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Eisenberg, Biog. Lez.
Ss. A. Pu.
HERZFELD, JACOB: German chemist; born
at Milheim, near Cologne, June 17, 1859; educated
at the gymnasium and technical high school of
Charlottenburg, and the University of Berlin (Ph.D.
1886). In 1885 he became director of the dyeing de-
partment of the royal weaving and dyeing school
at Mtilheim, of which he became chief ia 1892. The
following year he entered the publishing-house
known as “ Fischer’s Technologischer Verlag,” Ber-
lin, and founded the “Electrochemische Zeitung.”
In 1895 he removed to Cologne in connection with
a firm of chemical manufacturers of which he had
become a member. Since 1900 he has lived in
Fiirth, Bavaria, occupied in scientific research.
Herzfeld is an authority on weaving, dyeing, and
Herzfeld, Levi
Heshwan
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
370
printing, and has written several books on this sub-
ject. Among these may be mentioned: “ Mikro-
skopische Untersuchung der Textilstoffe,” Berlin,
1885; “Bleichmittel, Beizen und Farbstoffe,” Ber-
lin, 1889, 2d ed. 1900; “Bleicherei der Garne und
Gewebe,” Berlin, 1891, 2d ed. 1903; “ Praktisches
Handbuch des Zeugdrucks” (with Dr, Lauber),
Leipsic, 1892; “Praxis der Fiirberei,” Berlin, 1893;
“Die Dampfwischerei,” 7b. 1894; “Moderne Baum-
wollstiickbleicherei,” Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1895;
“Technische Priifung der Garne u. Gewebe,” Vi-
enna, 1896 (English transl., London, 1900); “Chemie
der Seltenen Erden,” Berlin, 1900 (English transl.,
London, 1902).
8. F. T. H.
HERZFELD, LEVI: German rabbi and histo-
rian; born Dec. 27, 1810, at Ellrich; died at Bruns-
wick March 11,1884. Having chosen the rabbinical
career, he studied under Chief Rabbi Abraham Bing
at Wiirzburg, and under District Rabbi Egers at
Brunswick. In 1833
he went to the Uni-
versity of Berlin, at the
same time completing
his Talmudic studies
with Rabbis Oettinger
and Rosenstein, and
with Leopold Zunz.
Herzfeld took his de-
gree (Ph.D.) in 1836,
and shortly after was
called by Egers, who
had become blind, as
his assistant at Bruns.
wick. In 1842 he suc-
ceeded his master as
“Landesrabbiner,” re-
taining that office until
his death. In 1879 the
Duke of Brunswick conferred upon him the title
of professor.
Herzfeld displayed great activity, both as rabbi
and as writer. His historical works embody the
results of painstaking research and show the ana-
lytical power of the author; they are therefore indis-
pensable to the student of Jewish history and
Jewish religion. With Ludwig Philippson he con-
voked the first rabbinical convention at Brunswick,
where, as well as in the subsequent conventions at
Frankfort and Breslau, he advocated a moderate
Reform, remaining himself a strict observer of the
traditions.
Herzfeld’s writings include: “ Kohelet, Ueber-
setzt und Erliutert,” Brunswick, 1888; ‘“ Das
Deutsche in der Liturgie der Braunschweiger Syna-
goge,” 1844; “Vorschliige zu einer Reform der
Jiidischen Ehegesetze,” 7. 1846; “Geschichte des
Volkes Jisrael von der Zerstérung des Ersten Tem-
pels bis zur Einsetzung des Makkabiéers Schimon
zum Hohenpriester und Fiirsten,” 3 vols., 2b. 1847
(Nordhausen, 1855-57; abridged edition, 1870); a
volume of sermons, 1858 (2d ed. Leipsic, 1863);
“Minhat Zikkaron,” a primer for Jewish schools,
1861 (2d ed. 1866); “Metrologische Voruntersuch-
ungen zu einer Geschichte des [briischen, Respek-
tive Altjiidischen Handels,” 75. 1863-65; “Zwei
Levi Herzfeld.
Vortrige tiber die Kunstleistungen der Alten
Juden,” 7b. 1864; “Handelsgesch. der Juden des
Alterthums,” Brunswick, 1879; “Einblicke in das
Sprachliche der Semitischen Urzeit, Betreffend die
Entstehungsweise der Meisten Hebriischen Wort-
stimme,” Hanover, 18838.
8. G. R.
HERZL, SIEGMUND: Austrian merchant and
novelist; born at Vienna May 26, 1880; died there
Feb. 9, 1889. He wrote: “Liederbuch eines Dorf-
poeten,” 1853; “Lieder eines Gefangenen,” 1874;
“Prager Elegien,” 1880. He translated Petdfi’s
poems. Herzl retired from business in 1885.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Eisenberg, Das Geistige Wien, i. 207.
8. KF. T. H.
HERZL, THEODOR: Leader of political Zion-
ism; born in Budapest May 2, 1860; died July 3,
1904. In his boyhood, he was educated for the law
in Vienna, taking the required Austrian legal de-
grees; but he devoted himself almost exclusively to
journalism and literature. His early work was in no
way related to Jewish life. He acted as correspond-
ent of the “Neue Freie Presse” in Paris, occasion-
ally making special trips to London and Constan-
tinople. His work was of the feuilleton order,
descriptive rather than political. Later he became
literary editor of the “Neue Freie Presse ” (which
post he still holds). Herzl at the same time became
a writer for the Viennese
stage, furnishing com-
edies and dramas.
From April, 1896,
when the English trans-
lation of his “Juden-
staat” appeared, his
career and reputation
changed. Herzl has not
confessed to what par-
ticular incident the pub-
lication of his “Jewish
State” (see ZIONISM) in
the winter of 1895 was
due. He was in Paris
at the time, and was
no doubt moved by
the Dreyfus affair. His
forerunners in the field
of Zionism date through the nineteenth century, but
of this perhaps he was least aware. Herzl fol-
lowed his pen-effort by serious work. He was in
Constantinople in April, 1896, and on
Theodor Herzl.
Becomes his return was hailed at Sofia, Bul-
Leader of garia, by a Jewish deputation. He
the went to London, where the Macca-
Zionists. beans received himcoldly. Five days
later he was given the mandate of lead-
ership from the Zionists of the East End of London,
and within six months this mandate was approved
throughout Zionist Jewry. His life now became one
unceasing round of effort. His supporters, at first
but a small group, literally worked night and day.
Jewish life had been heretofore contemplative and
conducted by routine. Herzl inspired his friends
with the idea that men whose aim is to reestablish 4
nation must throw aside all conventionalities ana
work at all hours and at any task.
371
In 1897, at considerable personal expense, he
founded “Die Welt” of Vienna. Then he planned
the first Zionist Congress (see BAsEL CONGRESS).
He was elected president, and held as by a mag-
net the delegates through al! the meetings. He has
been reelected unanimously at every congress. In
1898 he began a series of diplomatic interviews. He
was received by the German emperor on several occa-
sions. At the head of a deputation, he was again
granted an audience by the emperor in Jerusalem,
He attended The Hague Peace Conference, and was
received by many of the attending statesmen. In
May, 1901, he was for the first time openly received
by the Sultan of Turkey, and has since been called
several times to Yildiz Kiosk on the business of the
Zionist movement. He has won the personal esteem
of the kaiser and the sultan, and has been repeat-
edly decorated by the latter.
In 1902-038 Herz] was invited to give evidence be-
fore the British Royal Commission on Alien Im-
migration. As a consequence he came into close
touch with members of the British government, par-
ticularly with Joseph Chamberlain, then secretary
of state for the colonies, through whom he negoti-
ated with the Egyptian government for a charter
for the settlement of the Jews in Al ‘Arish, in the
Sinaitic peninsula, adjoining southern Palestine.
On the failure of that scheme, which took him to
Cairo, he received, through L. J. Greenberg, an
offer (Aug., 1908) on the part of the British govern-
ment to facilitate a large Jewish settlement, with
autonomous government and under British suze-
rainty, in British East Africa. At the same time, the
Zionist movement being threatened by the Russian
government, he visited St. Petersburg and was re-
ceived by De Witte, then finance minister, and Von
Plehve, minister of the interior, the latter of whom
placed on record the attitude of his government
toward the Zionist movement. On that occasion
Herzl submitted proposals for the amelioration of
the Jewish position in Russia. He published the
Russian statement, and brought the British offer
before the sixth Zionist Congress (Aug., 1903), carry-
ing the majority with him on the question of inves-
tigating this offer,
In the Zionist movement he is officially chairman
of the “Grosses Actions-Comité,” and of the Vienna
executive committee; member of the Council of Ad-
ministration, and signatory to the deed of trust of
the Jewish Colonial Trust. Theodor Herzl holds his
position of leadership not only because of the idea
he represents, which has always moved the inner
consciousness of the Jewish people, but also owing
to his personal qualities.
His “Judenstaat,” admirable for its central
thought, the unity of the Jewish people, is vague
and weak in its want of historic grasp.
His ‘*Ju- When that element had been supplied,
denstaat”’? Herzl found himself combated by a
and ‘* Alt- large Jewish element, whom he de-
neuland.” pictedin his play “ Das Neue Ghetto.”
Whereas his first brochure and lis first
congress address lacked all religious thought, and
his famous remark that the return to Zion would be
preceded by a return to Judaism seemed at the mo-
ment due rather to a sudden inspiration than to
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Herzfeld, Levi
Heshwan
—
deep thought, subsequent events have proved that
it was a true prophecy. Mis latest literary work,
“ Altneuland,” is devoted to Zionism. The author
occupied the leisure of three years in writing what
he believed might be accomplished by 1923. It is
less a novel, though the form is that of romance,
than a serious forecasting of what can be done when
one generation shall have passed. The key-notes of
the story are the love for Zion, the insistence upon
the fact that the changes in life suggested are not
utopian, but are to be brought about simply by
grouping all the best efforts and ideals of every race
and nation; and each such effort is quoted and re-
ferred to in such a manner as to show that “Old-
Newland,” though blossoming through the skill of
the Jew, will in reality be the product of the be-
nevolent efforts of all the members of the human
family.
s. J. pe H.
HERZOG, JAKOB: Austrian writer; born at
Misslitz, Moravia, June 17,1842. He was educated
at Briinn, Vienna, and Graz. When only seventeen
years of age he wrote for Kuranda’s “ Ostdeutsche
Post.” For nearly two years he was secretary of the
Jewish community of Vienna. Since 1870 he has
edited the Vienna “ Montags-Revue,” founded by
him in conjunction with Michael Klapp.
Herzog is the author of the following plays:
“Fischer von Helgoland,” produced at the German
theater in Prague, 1888; “Die Rose,” at the Burg-
theater, Vienna, 1891, and at Prague, Hamburg,
Olmiitz, etc. ; ‘ Kaufmann aus Tyrol,” 1893, at Salz-
burg, 1894; “Prinz von Asturien,” 1893, at Prague
and Hamburg.
S F. T. H.
HESHEBON (awn): Town originally belonging
to Moab; mentioned in Num. xxi. 25 e¢ seg. ; Deut. i.
4, iii, 6, iv. 26, xxix. 7; Josh. ix. 10; xii. 2et seq. ; xiii.
10, 21; Isa. xv. 4: xvi. 8,9; Jer. xlviii. 2; Cant. vil.
5 (A.V. 4); Judith v.15; by Josephus (“ Ant.” xii. 4,
S11; xiii. 15, 84; xv. 8,$5;“B. J.” ii, 18, § 1; iii. 3,
§ 3), and in the “ Onomastica Sacra ” (117, 29 et seq.,
253, 24 et seq.). Heshbon, at one time the chief city of
Sihon, king of the Amorites, was, when captured
by the Israelites, assigned to the tribe of Reuben
(Num. xxxii. 3,37; Josh. xiii. 10,17, 21). However,
the hold of the Israelites upon the territory of Moab
was very insecure. It became a Jewish possession
in the time of Alexander Jannxus (Josephus, “ Ant.”
xiii. 15, $4). Jerome mentions Heshbon, under the
name “ Esbus,” as “a notable city of Arabia in the
mountains in front of Jericho, twenty Roman miles
from the Jordan.” Heshbon is mentioned also in the
Talmud (Yer. Shebu. vi. 1; see Neubauer, “G. T.”
pp. 11, 21). At the modern Hasban, in the Wadi
Hasban, are fourd remains of a castle, teniple, and
large reservoir; to the last Cant. vii. 5 (A. V. 4)
compares the eyes of the bride of Solomon.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hastings, Dict. Bible; Cheyne and Black,
Eneye. Bibl. ; Hamburger, R. B. T.; Reland, Palestina ex
Monumentis Veteribus Illustrata; Tristram, Land of
ue p. 840; Buhl, Geographie des Alten Paldstina.
Dp. ;
E. G. A. M. Se.
HESHWAN (MARHESHWAN): Theeighth
month in the Hebrew calendar. The name is not
found in the Bible, since it was introduced after the
Hesped
Hesse
Babylonian exile, as were the Hebrew uames of the
other months now in use, “Heshwan” is an arbi-
trary shortening of “Marheshwan,” which is the
Assyrian “Arahsamnu” (eighth month; see De-
litzsch, “ Assyrisches Handworterb.”). The name
is found in the Targumim (Jastrow, “ Dict.”) and
in Josephus (“ Ant.” 1. 8, § 8). According to R.
Eliezer (R. H.), the 17th of Heshwan was the begin-
ning of the Flood, but according to R. Joshua it
began in lyyar. Heshwan contains sometimes 29,
sometimes 380, days. The Biblical name for the
eighth month is BUL.
E. G. I.
HESPED. See FUNERAL ORATION.
HESS, ERNST FRIEDRICH: German con-
vert to Christianity and anti-Jewish writer; lived
in the sixteenth century. He was the author of
“Neue Judengeissel, cine Polemische Schrift Gegen
Juden und Judenthum” (Fritzlar, 1589; Paderborn,
1600 and 1606; Ratisbon, 1601; Erfurt, 1605; with
notes, Frankfort-on-the-Main and Leipsic, 17038;
Hamburg, n.d.). The book is cited in Latin wri-
tings under the title “Flagellum Judeorum.” Hess
was the first to spread the slander that the Jews soil
the meat which they sell to Christians.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud.; Strack, Sind die Juden
Verbrecher von Religionswegen? pp. 7 et seq., Leipsic, 1900,
D. S. Man.
HESS, ISAAC: Advocate of Jewish eman-
cipation in Wirttemberg; born in Lauchheim, near
Ellwangen, in 1789; died Oct. 6, 1866. Destined
for the rabbinate, he was sent to the Talmudic
school at Furth, in which he remained four years.
With the aim of elevating the Jewish schoo] system,
at the time in a very unsatisfactory condition, he
brought a memorial before the young king William
of Wiirttemberg (1817), urging the establishment of
a central bureau for Jewish education. The king
named a commission to deliberate on Jewish relig-
ious affairs. In 1821 Hess addressed a new memo-
rial to the assembly, which did not fail to accom-
plish its object.
In 1823 Hess moved to Ellwangen, where no Jew
had previously resided. Theinhabitants of the town
resented his presence, and the interference of the
governor, Mohl, was necessary to protect him from
violence. The Ellwangen Jewish orphan asylum,
the Wilhelmspflege, founded in 1831, was projected
by him.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jtidisches Volksblatt, xiil. 203 et seq.
8. M. K.
HESS, MENDEL: German rabbi; born at
Lengsfeld, Saxe-Weimar, March 17, 1807; died at
Eisenach Sept. 21, 1871. He was one of the first
Jewish theologians to combine a university educa-
tion with Talmudical training. From 1828 until
his death he was chief rabbi of the grand duchy of
Weimar, residing first at Lengsfeld and later at
Eisenach. Although the measure had aroused great
(dissatisfaction among the Jews, he strictly enforced
the decree of the government (June 20, 1828) or-
daining that Jewish services should be conducted
exclusively in the German language and that
the reading in Hebrew of sections of the Bible
G. B. L.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
372
should be followed by their translation into the
vernacular,
The position of rabbi as government official be-
came very unpleasant, as he was required to inform
against those who failed to attend the services, a re-
quirement which even the progressive Jews, who
approved of the ordinance, condemned. Intermar-
riages between Jews and Christians being allowed
in the grand duchy, Uess officially consecrated such
nuptials, notwithstanding the proviso that the off-
spring should be brought up in the Christian faith.
In the consecration of Jewish marriages he likewise
ignored time-honored traditional rabbinical regula-
tions, and it is said that in his disregard of Jewish
sentiment he went so far as to attend a theater on
the eve of the Day of Atonement (“ Allg. Zeit. des
Jud.” 1845, p. 62).
Fless was a member of the three rabbinical con-
ferences which (1844-46) convened at Brunswick,
Frankfort-on-the-Main, and Breslau, and as such
was an advocate of uncompromising radicalism.
After 1848 he felt the illiberality of enforced re-
forms, and petitioned the government to repeal
the law which made attendance at the Reform
services compulsory (“Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” 1853,
p. 474).
He edited “ Der Israelit des Neunzebnten Jahrhun-
derts” from 1839 to 1847, and, with Holdheim as
coeditor, in 1847 and 1848. Hess also published two
collections of sermons and addresses (Eisenach, 1839,
1843).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit, des Jud. 1837, pp. 25-27; 1888, p.
146; 1871, p. 863; First, Bibl. Jud. i. 390; Geiger’s Jitd.
Zeit. x. 204-207.
D. S.
HESS, MICHAEL: German educator and an-
thor; bornin Stadt-Lengsfeld, Weimar, April 9, 1782;
died at Frank fort-on-the-Main Feb. 26, 1860; brother
of Mendel Hess. His father, Rabbi Isaac Hess
Kugelmann, destined him for a rabbinical career.
After having studied at the yeshibah in Firth, he
went in 1804 to Frankfort-on-the-Main, where he
was chosen as teacher for the young baron James
vou Rothschild. In Oct., 1806, he was elected prin-
cipal of the Philanthropin, a newly established Jew-
ish school at Frankfort, in which position he re-
mained for forty-nine years. Hess also preached
occasionally in the “ Andachtssaal” connected with
the school. He championed the rights of his core-
ligionists, and believed in the radical reform of
Judaism.
Hess was the author of a number of pamphlets, as:
“Ueber den Unterricht in der Religion und Moral”
(1821); “ Ueber die Wichtigkeit der Sittlichen Erzie-
hung im Frihesten Alter” (1884); “ Ueber Anwen-
dung des Ehrtriebs in der Erziehung ” (1839); “ Ueber
Mangelhaftigkeit der Sittlichen Erziehung ” (1840);
“ Hindernisse der Sittlichen Bildung ” (1846); “ Ueber
die Wirkung der Gewolinheit auf Sittliche Bildung ”
(1852). He also wrote: “ Freimiithige Priifung der
Schrift des Herrn Prof. Riihs tiber die Anspriiche
der Juden auf das Deutsche Bitrgerrecht” (1816);
“Vorliiufige Bemerkungen zu der von Paulus Er-
schienenen Schrift: Die Jiidische Natiopalabsonder-
ung... mit einer Episte! der Iebrier an Dr.
Paulus” (1881).
Man,
373
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hespead
Hesse
BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Stern, Dr. Michael Hess, in Diesterweg’s
Piidagogisches Jahrbuch, 1862, pp. 1 et seg.: Jost. Newere
Gesch. der Juden, 1. 55, 201; Kayserling, Bibliothek Jii-
discher Banzelredney, i. 353.
g, M. Kk.
HESS, MOSES (MORITZ): Jewish socialist
and nationalist; born at Bonn June 21, 1812; died in
Paris April 6, 1875; buried in the Jewish cemetery at
Cologne. His grandfather, who had come from Po-
land, instructed him in Bible and Talmud, but on
the whole he was a self-taught man, having never
attended any institution of learning, nor received a
thorough technical or professional education of any
kind. However, he began his literary activity at an
early age, and became editor of the “Neue Rhei-
nische Zeitung.” Originally a National-Liberal, he
became a Democrat, and later a Social-Democrat,
joining Marx and Engels. Together with Karl
Griin he exerted about the middle of the last cen-
tury an important anarchistic influence in Ger-
many by developing and disseminating Proudhon’s
theories, both with his pen and from the platform.
Though he had already turned his back upon Juda-
ism, the Damascus affair reawakened his interest in
Jewish matters, and he conceived the idea of the in-
destructibility of Jewish nationality. He intended
to give form to this ideaina “cry of anguish”; but,
as he himself says, the stronger feelings aroused by
the sufferings of the European proletariat threw his
racial patriotism into the background. However, he
found little sympathy among his fellow socialists.
Shortly after the February Revolution of 1848 he
went to France, and soon afterward retired from poli-
tics to devote himself exclusively to natural science.
The neo-Hegelian Arnold Ruge called him ironically
the “communist Rabbi Moses.” Berthold Auerbach
and Gabriel Riesser, on whose departure from Frank-
fort he wrote a graceful poem (Briill, “ Monatsblat-
ter,” xii. 272), were among his friends.
As early as the sixties of the last century, David
Gordon (editor of “ Ha-Maggid ”) at Lyck, Hirsch
Kalischer at Thorn, and Elijah Guttmacher advo-
cated the colonization of Palestine, and interested
Moses Hess and the historian Griitz in the idea of
Jewish nationalism.
Hess’s first work was his “ Heilige Geschichte der
Menschheit von einem Jiinger Spinoza’s” (1836).
Shortly before his death, which came upon him in
the full maturity of his powers, he published a
philosophic work, in three volumes,
‘‘Rom entitled “ Die Dynamische Stofflehre.”
und Jeru- His chief work, however, is “Rom
salem.” und Jerusalem, die Letzte Nation-
alititsfrage” (Leipsic, 1862), in the
form of twelve letters addressed to a lady pondering,
in her grief at the loss of a relative, over the problem
of resurrection. Part of this work has been trans-
lated into Hebrew by 8. I. Hurwitz in “Ha-Mag-
gid,” xxxli., Nos, 26, 27, 32, 85, 86; xxxiii., Nos. 8,
9, 11, 18. A second edition was issued by Boden-
heimer (Leipsic, 1899), with a preface; in 1899 this
preface reappeared in “Die Welt,” iii., No. 48, p. 18.
Following are the leading ideas in Moses Hess’s
work: (1) The Jews will always remain strangers
among the European peoples, who may emancipate
them for reasons of humanity and justice, but will
never respect them so long as the Jews place
their own great national memories in the back-
ground and hold to the principle, “Ubi bene, ibi
patria.” (2) The Jewish type is indestructible,
and Jewish national feeling can not be uprooted,
although the German Jews, for the sake of a wider
and more gencral emancipation, persuade themselves
and others to the contrary. (3) If the emancipation
of the Jewsis irreconcilable with Jewish nationality,
the Jews must sacrifice emancipation to nationality.
Hess considers that the only solution of the Jewish
question lics in the colonization of Palestine. He
confidently hopes that France will aid the Jews in
founding colonies extending from Suez to Jerusa-
lem, and from the banks of the Jordan to the coast
of the Mediterranean. He draws attention to the
fact that such a proposition had already been made
to the French government by Ernest Laharanne in
“The New Oriental Question,” which he cites.
“Rom und Jerusalem,” however, met with a cold
reception (comp. “Ben Chananja,” 1862; “Zion,”
1897, No. 3; “Jitidischer Volkskalender,” 1902;
“Monatsschrift,” xi. 817 et seq., 354 et seqg.). Never-
theless, it became one of the basic works of Zionism.
Hess was one of the most zealous and gifted op-
ponents of the Reform movement. While he him-
self regarded religious evolution as necessary, he
held that it must come by the power of the living
idea of Jewish nationality and its historical cult.
Hess also contributed many articles to Jewish peri-
odicals,
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Monateschrift, xxiv. 240; Allg. Zeit. des Jud.
1875, p. 260; Jiidiseher Volkskalender, tii. 150, Leipsic, 1899 ;
La Grande Revue, July, 1899; Brockhaus, Konversations-
Lextkon, s.v. Anarchismus.
Ss. M. Sc.
HESSBERG, ALBERT: American lawyer:
born at Albany, N. Y., Dec. 18, 1856. He com-
menced the study of law there in the office of Ru-
fus W. Peckham, associate justice of the United
States Supreme Court, and ultimately became a
partner, the firm consisting of Peckham, Rosendale,
and Hessberg. Upon Pcckham’s appointment to
the bench Hessberg continued in partnership with
Rosendale, and since that time the firm name has
been Rosendale & Hessberg.
From 18838 to 1886 Hessberg served as assistant
corporation counsel, and in 1887 was engaged as
commissioner to revise the laws and ordinances of
his native city. In 1888 he was elected recorder of
Albany, was reelected in 1892, and served till 1896.
Hfe has held many important positions, among
others those of president of the Albany Jewish
Home, governor of Albany Hospital, director of the
City Safe Deposit and Storage Company, president of
the Capital Railway, and treasurer of the New York
State Bar Association, the last of which he has held
for ten years.
A, G. H. C.
HESSE: Former landgraviate of the German-
Roman empire. The only Jews mentioned in docu-
ments relating to its early history are those of some
parts of Thuringia. After the organization of the
county of Hesse, with the capital Hesse-Cassel (1247),
and its elevation into an independent principality
(1292), individual Jewish families were to be found
in many localities. They were “Kammerknechte” of
Hesse
the empire, subject to numerous disabilities, taxed,
and persecuted, as, for example, toward the end of
the thirteenth century at Frankenberg and Geismar,
and at the time of the Black Death in many places.
Prince Philip the Magnanimous (1509-67) devoted
much attention to the Jews in his dominions. In
1524 he proposed to expel them; but in 1582 he
again took them under his protection; and in 1538
he praised them for many acts of kindness which
they had shown to his non-Jewish subjects in money-
lending transactions. In 1539, however, he promul-
gated a decree to the effect that the Jews should not
resist efforts made to convert them; they were for-
bidden to build new synagogues; and their com-
merce was restricted. This decree was amplified in
1543 and 1554; and the Jews were forced to listen
to Christian sermons.
Philip divided his territory among his sons. The
divisions that chiefly concern Jews are Hesse-Cassel,
Hesse- Darmstadt, and Hesse-Homburg.
Hesse -Cassel: Sovereign German electorate
down to 1866; now incorporated with the Prussian
province of Hesse-Nassau. The first regent, Wilhelm
IV., the Wise (1567-92), protected the Jews: he an-
nulled the oppressive decrees concerning them, and
established the principle of general toleration. His
son and successor, Moritz I. (1592~1627), was also
tolerant. he protected the Jews in their trade and
commerce, and permitted them to en-
Toleration. gage a district rabbi (1616). During
his reign the first “ Juden-Landtag”
was held. During the regency of Landgravine
Amalie Elizabeth severe edicts against the Jews
were issued (1646); conversionist sermons were in-
troduced by the state; and a special catechism for
Jews was printed (1655). Yet in 1655 the petitions
of the cities that desired to expel the Jews were
rejected. Landgrave William VI. (1650-63) granted
the Jews special concessions, which were renewed by
succeeding rulers. From time to time oppressive
decrees were issued, relating to the admission of
Jews, rights of habitation, acquisition of real estate,
commerce, worship, etc. From the seventeenth
century the relations of the Jews to the government
and their individual and communal life were regu-
lated at diets called by the ruler, which assemblies
all Jewish subjects were compelled to attend.
A better day dawned with the accession of the
German emperor Joseph II. His toleration edict of
May 13, 1781, was accepted in Hesse-Cassel and
went into force there on Oct. 11 of the same year.
The Jews were now permitted to attend public
schools and the universities, and to have full rights
of settlement and trade. The few remaining re-
strictions were removed when the electorate became
a part of the new kingdom of Westphalia, after the
peace of Tilsit in 1807. By a decree of King Jerome
Bonaparte (Jan. 24, 1808) the Jews were entirely
emancipated: they received a consistorial constitu-
tion, and Israel Jacobson was made the first presi-
dent of their new organization. When the elector-
ate of Hesse was again incorporated with Germany
the Jews were once more reduced to the position of
protected subjects and were required to pay pro-
tection-money. But after the liberal law of Oct.
29, 1838, all Jewish subjects, with the exception of
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
374
pedlers and petty traders, were fully emancipated.
Their favorable religious organization was not al-
tered when Prussian rule began.
The following district rabbis (“ Landrabbiner ”)
deserve mention: Wolf Traube (before 1690); Veit
Singer (down to 1734); Hirsch Kirchhain (d. 1779);
Joseph Hess (c. 1780); Joseph Michael Kugelmann
(c. 1790); Lib Maier Berlin (c. 1800); Ph. Romann
(1836-42); L. Adler (1852-83); and the present in-
cumbent, Dr. I. Prager (1908).
The entire district of Cassel, which in 1908 pos-
sessed 17,841 Jews in a total population of 890,069,
is divided into the four district rabbinates of Cassel
(rabbi, Dr. I. Prager), Fulda (rabbi, Dr. M. Cahn),
Hanau (rabbi, Dr. 8. Bamberger), and Marburg
(rabbi, Dr. L. Munk). Each district is adminis-
tered by a board of directors consisting of the royal
commissioner, the provincial rabbi, and lay dele-
gates; and each circuit has in addition a director.
Jewish teachers are represented in the teachers’
conferences of Hesse, founded in 1868; there is also
a conference of Jewish teachers, founded in 1897.
Most of the communities have hebra kaddishas and
the other usual philanthropic societies.
Hesse (called also Hesse-Darmstadt after its
capital): Grand duchy; state of the German federa-
tion. The early history of its Jews corresponds on
the whole with that of the German Jews in general.
The ancestor of the house of Hesse-Darmstadt, Land-
grave George I., the Pious (1567-96), was no friend
to the Jews. He increased the amount of pro-
tection-money which they were required to pay, and
issued (Jan. 1, 1585) an oppressive decree, similar in
many points to that issued by Philip the Magnani-
mous. His successor, Ludwig V., the Faithful
(1596-1626), intended to expel the Jews from Giessen
and Marburg; George II., the Scholar (1626-61),
followed his father’s example, and threatened the
Jews of Darmstadt and other places, but at their
earnest request he recalled his order of expulsion.
On Feb. 20, 1629, he issued a decree
Renewed adding new restrictions, such as the
Re- more rigid enforcement of the oath
strictions. “More Judaico.” Down toabout 1778
this decree was renewed from time to
time, with added restrictions; for instance, Ernst
Ludwig in 1692 and 1782 restricted Jewish wor-
ship, enforced the collection of the body-tax and pro-
tection-money, considerably increased the tax for ad-
mission, and imposed in the form of surplice-feesa tax
to be paid to the evangelical clergy (“jura stole ”).
The social condition of the Jews was hardly changed
under Ludwig VIII. (1739-68) and Ludwig IX.
(1768-90). Besides paying the regular taxes, like
the Christians, they were required to pay special
taxes, such as protection-money; a tax for admis-
sion; the horse, fair, silver, wax, and quill taxes
(“ Kleppergeld ”); and the “dons gratuits,” which
had to be paid on every change of government.
At the request of the Jews a decree relating to
dress, taken from the statutes of the electorate of
Mayence, was promulgated in 1778, with a view to
restraining luxury. In 1783 Jews’ diets are men-
tioned ; and in 1785 Jews were ordered to use the Ger-
man language in bookkeeping and commercial corre-
spondence. With the period of enlightenment a more
375
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hesse
generous spirit swept over Hesse. Under Ludwig
X. (andgrave 1790-1806; grand-duke from 1806
to 1830) the “ Leibzol] ” was abolished, the Jews were
permitted to acquire real estate, and the way was
paved for emancipation. "When Hesse was elevated
to a grand duchy after the wars of liberation, the
constitution of Dec. 17, 1820, which
Con- placed all the divisions of Hesse on an
stitution equal basis, granted to the Jews civic
of 1820. liberty. <A special edict of July 17,
1823, regulated Jewish education, and
another edict of Nov. 19, 1880, organized the con-
gregations. A more favorable edict was substituted
Nov. 2, 1841, which in turn is to be replaced by a
more timely edict submitted in 1908 by the gov-
ernment tothe Diet. In 1847 the disgraceful “ moral
patent,” dating from the time of Napoleon and in-
tended for Rhein-Hessen, wasrepealed; and after this
last restriction had been removed the law promul-
gated on Aug. 2, 1848, decreed that “a difference
in religion entails no difference in political or civic
rights.” The friendliness which the Hessian grand
dukes displayed toward the Jews deserves special
mention. As Ludwig I. energetically checked the
excesses at the time of the “Hep! Hep! storm” in
1819, so Ludwig IV. and Ernst Ludwig (1903), both
in speeches and by special decrees, strongly con-
demned anti-Semitism.
The rabbinate of Darmstadt includes a Reform
congregation (rabbi, Dr. D. Selver) and an Orthodox
one (rabbi, Dr. L. Marx), while Offenbach with its
branch congregations is under Dr. Goldschmidt.
The district of Darmstadt is divided into three dis-
trict rabbinates, or provinces, Starkenburg, Ober-
Hessen, and Rhein-Hessen.
The following, in alphabetical order, are the more impor-
tant of the 112 congregations in the province of Starken-
burg:
Alsbach-Bickenbach (central cemetery for 18 congregations) :
Babenhausen (first mention 1318; persecution 1849) ; Bensheim
(persecution 1349); Biblis; Darmstadt (never had many Jews;
in 1903 there were about 1,400, of whom 400 form the Orthodox
eongregation; many philanthropic institutions, a B’nai B'rith
lodge, two synagogues, and religious schools; at the beginning
of the nineteenth century the rabbinate was in charge of Alex-
ander Wolff (died Oct. 25, 1848), father of Chief Rabbi Wolff of
Copenhagen; then followed B. H. Auerbach, 1885-57; Julius
Landsberger, 1859-89; Dr. David Selver,
Com- 1889-) ; Dieburg (persecution 1349); Gries-
munities. heim; Gross Gerau (new synagogue, central
cemetery): Gross Steinheim (persecution 1349);
Gross Zimmern:; Heppenheim (persecution 1849); Héchst-im.-
Odenwald; Lampertheim; Lorsch: Michelstadt (down to the
end of the nineteenth century seat of the rabbinate; last rabbi
Sekl Ldb Wormser, a famous cabalist and ‘* ba‘al shem,” died
Sept. 18, 1847); Offenbach (1,212 Jews; a Hebrew printing-office
here formerly; Jacob FRANK, head of the Frankists, died here in
1791); Pfungstadt; Reichelsheim; Seligenstadt (persecution
1349); Wimpfen (first mention in the 18th cent.: persecution in
1349).
Following are the more important of the congregations in the
province of Ober-Hessen, which belong to the rabbinate
of Giessen (rabbis, Dr. Sander and Dr. Hirsehfeld): Alsfeld;
Angerod; Assenheim (first mention 1277; persecution 1349);
Bad-Nauheim (first mention 1464); Nidda (first mention 1277);
Biidingen (persecutions 1337, 13849); Crainfeld; Friedberg (450
Jews; many philanthropic institutions and foundations ; Jews
were found here at a very early date, as appears from re-
sponsa and other documents; the earliest imperial privilege is
dated Dec. 11, 1275, granting exemption from taxes to the Jews
who had to pay a tax to the burgrave and his retinue; later
emperors confirmed and enlarged this privilege down to 1716;
Friedberg suffered greatly during the persecutions of 1337 and
1849 and otherwise; prominent rabbis officiated here, the last
of them being Feibisch Frankfurter from Frankfort-on-the-
Oder, died Sept. 2, 1841; there is a famous women’s bath here,
built in 1260, and a new synagogue in the Gothic style, built in
1845); Gedern; Giessen (old Jewish community; persecutions
1349; 875 Jews, 190 of whom belong to an Orthodox congrega-
tion; many societies and foundations); Grebenau ; Gross Kar-
ben; Heldenbergen ; Londorf; Miingenberg (in 1188 sheltered
the refugees from Mayence; birthplace of the liturgical poet
David b. Kalonymus; mentioned in documents of 1277; per-
secution 1349); Schotten (native place of some rabbis); We-
nings.
The province of Rhein-Hessen includes the following rab-
binates: ALZEY (rabbi, Dr. J. Levi; 15 congregations); BINGEN
(rabbi, Dr. R. Griinfeld ; 17 congregations, among which may be
mentioned Ober- and Nieder-Ingelheim ; I. Klingenstein, founder
of the ** Achawa,’’ taught at the former place; in the latter
there is in the ruins of the palace of Charlemagne a Jewish
cemetery several centuries old); Mainz (rabbi, Dr. Salfeld;
21 congregations, Including the ancient Jewish community of
Oppenheim ; existing since the middle of the 18th century, it
suffered during the persecutions, especially in 1349; 180 Jews;
new synagogue); WORMS (rabbi, Dr. A. Stein; 18 congrega-
tions).
In 1908, in a total population of 1,039,020 in the
three provinces of Starkenburg, Ober-Hessen, and
Rhein-Hessen, and some enclaves, there were 24,618
Jews.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For Hesse-Cassel: Salfeld, Martyrologiwum,
passim; J. J. Winckelmann, Griindliche und Wahrhafte
Beschreibung der Firstenttimer Hessen und Hersfetd, iv.
419b et seg., vi. 806a, Bremen, 1697; Kopp, Bruchstticke zur
Eriduterung der Teutschen Gesch. und Rechte, part i., pp.
155 et seq., Cassel, 1799; part ii., pp. 157 et seq., ib. 1800; Rom-
mel, Gesch. Hessens, v. 269, vi. 664 et seg.; C. F. Giinther,
Bilder aus der Hessischen Vorzeit, pp. 71 et seq., Darm-
stadt, 1853; Hess, Beitrdge zur Gelehrsamkeit und Kunst,
ii. 187 et seqg., Frankfort-on-the-Main; Archiv fltr Hessische
Gesch. xi. 290; Munk, Die Constitutenr der Sdmmtlichen
Hessischen Judenschaft, in Jubelschrift zum 70. Geburts-
tag Dr. Israel Hildesheimers, pp. 69 et seq.; Hebr. part, pp.
77 et seq., Berlin, 1890; Statistisches Jahrbuch des Deutsch-
Israelitischen Gemeindebundes, 1903, pp. 61 et seg.: Salfeld,
Judenordnung Philipps des Grossmitthigen, in Hebr. Bibl.
1879, p. 88; Spiker, Ueber die Khemalige und Jetzige Lage
der Judenin Deutschland, p. 279, Halle, 1809.
For Hesse-Darmstadt: Rommel, Gesch. Hessens, vi. 96; C. F.
Giinther, Bilder aus der Hessischen Vorzeit, pp. 71 et seq.,
Darmstadt, 1853; L. Baur, Die Juden und das Judentum
in der Landgrafschaft Hessen-Darmstadt, in Zeit. fir
Deutsche Kulturgesch. new series, iii. 645 et seqg., Hanover,
1874; Jtidische Presse, Berlin, 1877, Nos. 34-86; Statistisches
nhl gt des Deutsch-lsraelitischen Gemeindebunades, Ber-
in, d.
For Darmstadt: Walther, Darmstadt, Wie Es War und
Wie Es Geworden, p. 107, Darmstadt, 1865; Darmstadt
Memorbuch for t717 (in possession of Dr. David Selver).
For Friedberg: Ph. Dieffenbach, Gesch. der Stadt und
Burg Friedberg in der Wetterau, pp. 307 et seq., Darmstadt,
1857; L. Lowenstein, Zur Gesch. der Juden in Friedberg,
in Bliitter fiir Jiidische Gesch. und Literatur, iv., Nos. 2,
4,5, Mayence, 1903.
For Oppenheim : Frank, Oppenheim-am-Rhein, Darmstadt,
1859; Urkundenbuch, pp. 229-500, and from it, Kayserling,
Die Juden in Oppenheim, in Monatsschrift, ix. For the
persecutions : Salfeld, Martyrologium, passim.
D. S. Sa.
Hesse-Homburg: The first document rela-
ting to the Jews of Homburg is dated 1339, when
the German emperor Ludwig the Bavarian conferred
upon Gottfried V. of Homburg, Lord of Eppen-
stein and governor of Wetterau, the right to receive
ten Jews in each of his possessions. In 1622 there
were twenty Jews in the district of Homburg: in
1671, three families; in 1790, seventy-five families;
in 1903 the entire population was 9,274, including
425 Jews. The condition of the Jews of Homburg
was, on the whole, a favorable one; but they were
heavily taxed, every Jew paying ten gulden protec-
tion-money a year, and one gulden on New-Year,
in addition to such special taxes as twenty-four
thalers a year to the Lutheran congregation. The
first Jews’ decree was issued in 1639 by Landgrave
Hesse
Hevesi
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
376
Georg; the second in 1710 by Landgrave Ernst
Ludwig; and the third in 1787 by Landgrave Fried-
rich Jacob.
The Jews had no organization so long as they
were few in number. They did not even possess
the right of prayer in common, which was first
granted them in 1684 by Landgrave Friedrich,
who appointed the court Jew and factor Zacharias
Seligmann supervisor and represent-
Zacharias ative of the Jews, as they had been
Seligmann. accused of committing excesses dur-
ing theircerenionies. He was empow-
ered to impose fines for the transgression of the
Jewish law, the money to be turned over to the
lundgrave; to report any wrong-doing on the part
of the Jews; and, finally, to take note of every-
thing happening among them. In return for these
duties, and in virtue of his office of court factor, he
was exempted from all taxes payable to the land-
grave, and had various other privileges. His suc-
cessor as supervisor was Itzig Bauer, who, however,
was not court factor; he also was appointed by the
landgrave. As the community had considerably in-
creased in the meantime, the landgrave gave him
three assistants as treasurers, who were to be elected
by the community. They might make no payments
without the consent of the director; they were to
take note of all that happened among the Jews; de-
termine punishments in cases of misdemeanor, and
report the same to the officials of the landgrave;
appoint an efficient precentor; make out and dis-
tribute the tickets for the poor; prevent cheating;
keep order inthe Jewish school; prevent any iufrac-
tion of the Jewish ceremonies; and they were em-
powered to punish offenders by fines, in money or
in work, and even by excommunication. The treas-
urers were elected every year, and might be reelected.
The first election took place in 1713. In 1787 the
number of candidates was increased to six, from
whom the landgrave chose three.
In 1760 some changes were made in the composi-
ton of the board of managers of the community.
The landgrave appointed two directors instead of
one, and a “hekdesh gabbai ” (director of the shelter
for travelers) was elected in place of the treasurers,
The Jews at first lived in whatever part of the
city they chose, but when Landgrave Friedrich en-
larged the city by laying out the Neustadt in 1703,
he assigned a certain street to them, which was
closed by gates. Although he accorded them vari-
ous privileges in building up their quarter, the Jews
were slow to settle there. In 1816 the ordinance
compelling them to live in the Jews’ street was re-
pealed. The philanthropic institu-
Charitable tions were mainly the same as those in
In- other communities. In early times
stitutions. there wasa shelter for the foreign poor,
to which any one might be admitted.
The expenses for board and lodging were defrayed
by individual members of the community, who re-
ceived tickets stating that on specified days they
were each to care for one poor person in their homes
or to provide money for his support. The direct-
ors had to care for the local poor, and were com-
pelled by the government to do so in case of neglect
on their part.
The Jews of Hesse-Homburg were very poor,
as most of the trades were closed to them. They
could work only as butchers, soap-makers, cabinet-
makers, tailors, and pedlers, this last occupation af-
fording a meager subsistence to the majority. Com-
meree in groceries was entirely forbidden to them.
There was much call for philanthropy, therefore,
and the community had a curious organization of
ten philanthropic institutions, which still exist.
Jews were also occasionally employed as printers.
There was no exclusively Hebrew printing estab-
lishment at Homburg, but in 1737 Landgrave Fried-
rich Jacob established in the government printing-
office a departinent for Hebrew books. Tefillot and
mahzorim principally were printed, and some Jew-
ish scientific works,
The Jews of Homburg were fully emancipated in
1848, when Landgrave Gustav promulgated the fol-
lowing decree: “In local and state affairs no differ-
ence shall henceforth be made between our Christian
and our Jewish subjects.” This decree was issued in
consequence of a petition by the people. In 1853
radical changes were made inthe board of directors.
Landgrave Ferdinand decreed that the board should
consist of the rabbi as president, a director appointed
by the landgrave, and three other directors nomi-
nated by the two former and confirmed by the land-
grave. ‘The rabbi alone should decide religious
questions. The whole board was to determine the
budget and the taxes to be levied; appoint and
supervise the officials; take charge of the synagogue,
religious school, women’s bath, and cemetery; and
provide for the elevation and education of the com-
munity. Final changes in the board were made by
the government in 1876, when it was decreed that it
should consist of five members chosen by the com-
munity for a period of six years, and of one deputy
for each of the members, the board retaining the
same functions as formerly.
It can not be determined now when the first ceme-
tery was laid out. 1In1684the Jews were permitted
to enclose their burial-place and to
The erect tombstones. The burial-tax pay-
Cemeteries. able to the landgrave amounted totwo
florins for a Jew of Homburg, and
four florins for a Jew of Ober-Ursel, that locality
having the right to bury its deadin Homburg. The
secoud cemetery was about two miles distant from
the city. There the communities of Seulberg, Kép-
perp, Rodheim-vor-der-Hé6he, and Holzhausen
buried their dead. Permission for the establish-
ment of this cemetery was given in 1703. It is
now closed. The present cemetery has been in use
since 1865.
In 1684 the Jews were permitted to rent a suita-
ble apartment, not fronting on the street, for a com-
mon chapel. The first synagogue was built in 1731,
the site being presented to the community. Services
were held in this synagogue until 1867, when the
present synagogue was erected at a cost of 69,906
guiden. Communal houses were built in 1764 and
1877, both of them being largely used for educa-
Lional purposes.
The first public school was organized in 1829 as
an elementary and religious school, the teacher be-
ing under the direction of the landgrave. When
OCC
w& gencral public school for all denominations was
subsequentivy opened at Tfomburg, tie community
was made responsible for the religious instruction
of the Jewish pupils, the teacher being a regular
member of the teaching staff.
In 1737 the community, with the consent of the
landgrave, united itself to the rabbinate of Fried-
berg, Whose chief rabbi took charge
of all rabbinical functions in both
places. In 1825 the landgrave ap-
pointed Joseph Wormser as assistant rabbi, who,
however, performed only the marriages. The suc-
ceeding assistant rabbis, among whom the later chief
rabbi of Hamburg, Stern, may be noted. acted also
as teachers in the religious schools. In 1852. the
landgrave appointed the teacher and assistaut rabbi
Fromm as first rabbi of Hesse-Hombure. subsc-
quently endowing the rabbinate with a state sub-
suly of 200 gulden, which sum is still paid by the
Prussian government; this is the only instance in
which a rabbi reccives a subsidy from that govern-
ment. Rabbi Fromm, who subsequently became
chaplain to Baron Wilhelm von Rothschild, was
succecded by Dr. Auerbach, later rabbi of Nord-
hausen. He was followed by Dr. Appel, subse-
quently rabbi at Carlsruhe. ‘The present (1908) in-
cumbent, Dr. H. Kottek, was appointed in 1887.
The officials of the community include a precentor,
slaughterer, and communal servant. Its expenses
were at first covered principally by taxes levied upon
new arrivals and coltected at marriages and deaths.
The sale of honorary rights, gifts on the call to the
Torah, and fees for entering the names of the dead in
the memorial book also constituted a source of in-
come. Subsequently the method of direct taxation
was employed, the board apportioning the amount
according to the circumstances of the individual;
this arrangement still obtains.
Rabbis.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Senkenherg, Sel. Jur. i. 203; Colombel, Die
Judenverfolgung in der Mitte des XIV. Jahrhunderts, mit
Besonderer Beziehung auf Nassau, in Annealen des Ver-
cins flr Nassatuische Alterthiomskunde, viti, 119. Wiesba-
den, 1866; Frank, Chronolugisehe Notizen tiber die Israeli-
tisehe Gemeinde zu Honturg-vor-der-Hohe, in Der Israelit,
1864, No. 84; Ueber die Jucen in Homburg, in [sraelitisehe
Wochenschrift, Magdeburg, 1881, No. 10,
D H. K.
HESSE-NASSAU. See NASSAU.
HET (n): Eighth fetter of the Hebrew alphahet.
The name, perhaps, means “hedge,” “fence”; on
the form, which is Aramaic, see ALPHABET. “ Het”
is a guttural, commonly pronounced nearly as the
German “ch” before “a” or “o.” Originally—as
may be inferred from the Assyrian, in which it some-
times sinks into the spiritus lenis, and from the Ara-
bic and Ethiopic, in which it is represented by two
letters, the harsh “kha ” and the softer “ ha”—it had a
double pronunciation; the softer form seems to have
disappeared early. It interchanges occasionally with
N, 1. and y. rarely with palatals. It is sometimes
prefixed to triliteral roots to form quadriliterals. Its
numerical value is 8.
4 We I. Br.
HET NEDERLANDSCHE ISRAELIET.
See PERIODICALS.
HETH (nn): Second son of Canaan (Gen. x. 15;
I Chron. i. 13) and, apparently, the progenitor of the
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hesse
Hevesi
Hittites. Heth’s descendants are called “children
of Heth” (“bene Het"), and, in Abraham’s tiie, are
said to have lived at Hebron. From them Abraham
purchased the cave of Machpelah (Gen. xxili. 3.
passim). In Gen. xxvii. 46 their women are called
“daughters of Heth”; in Gen, xxviii. 6, 8, “daugh-
ters of Canaan.” See HItTITEs.
E.G. UL M. SEL.
HETHLON (xonn): Place referred to in Eze-
Kiel (xivit. 15, xIviii. 1); situated on the northern
boundary of Isracl as ideally projected by that
prophet, who stated the place to be in the neigh-
horhood of Hamath and Zedad. Furyrer (in “Z. D.
P. V.” viii. 27) identities Hethlon with the modern
Haitalah, northeast of Tripoli; and Von Kastern, fol-
lowed by Bettholet and Buhl, identities it with
“Adlun, north of the mouth of the Kasimiyyah (Has-
tings, “ Dict. Bible”; Buhl, “Geographie des Alten
Paliistina,” p. 67).
KG. HH. M. Seu.
HEVESI, JOSEPH: Hungarian author and
journalist; born March 15, 1857; studied at the
high school in Kecskemét, and graduated from the
University of Budapest. Hevesiis one of Hungary’s
most noted novelists. Among his works are the
following: “Tbolyak,” Budapest, 1879; “A Malom
Alatt,” 1879; “Neévjegyek Janka Asztaldra,” 1880;
“Vig Elbeszélésck,” 1883; “A Feltamadt Halott,”
1886; “Hamis Gyéméutok,” 1886 (translated into
German by Adolf Kohut under the title “ Falsche
Diamanten,” Zurich, 1890); “Apr6o Térténetek,”
1887; “Naszuton,” 1892; “Az ar Ellen,” 1892; “A
Gordiusi Csomd6,” 1895. Besides numerous novel-
cttes in magazines, he has written for almost every
munber of the following periodicals edited by himn-
self: “ Vasdrnapi Lapok,” 1880-81; “ Ellenér,” 1883;
“Magyar Szalon,” 1884-91; “Szépirodalmi Koényv-
tar,” 1890-93 (12 vols.).
Since 1892 Hevesi has been editor also of the
weekly “Magyar Geniusz,” and since 1894 also of
the monthly review “ Otthon.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Horvath. Kdnyveészet, 1887-90; Magyar Sza-
lon, Vili. xvii. 3; Szinnyei, Vagyar Irok Elete.
8. L. V.
HEVESI, LUDWIG: Hungarian journalist and
author; born Dec. 20, 18438, in Heves, Hungary.
IIe began to study medicine and classical philology
in Budapestand Vienna, but soon turned to writing,
and since 1865 has been an active journalist and
author. In 1866 he became engaged as collab-
orator on the “ Pester Lloyd,” and later on the
“Breslaucr Zeitung,” for which publications he
writes humorous feuilletons, In 1875 Hevesi settled
in Vienna and became associate editor of the art
department of the * Wiener Fremdenblatt.” Healso
wrote the dramatic criticisms on the performances
in the Hofburgtheater. During 1871-74 he edited
“Wleine Leute,” a journal for the young, the first
seven volumes originating exclusively from his
pen. In conjunction with a few friends he founded
the Hungarian humoristic publication “ Borsszem
Jank6,” which soon became a popular journal.
Hevesi’s writings include: “Sic Sollen Ibn Nicht
Ilaben: Heiteres aus Ernster Zeit,” Leipsic, 1871;
“Budapest,” Budapest, 1873; “Des Schneiderge-
sellen Andreas Jelky Abenteuer in Vier Welttheilen,”
Hewers
Hezekiah
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
378
2b, 1873-79, anumoristic work that has been translated
into Hungarian and Finnish and enjoys great popu-
larity, especially in Finland; “ Auf der Sclineide,”
Stuttgart, 1884; “ Neues Geschichtenbuch,” 2d. 1885 ;
“Auf der Sonnenseite,” 7b. 1886; “ Almanaccando:
Bilder aus Italien,” 7. 1885; “Buch der Laune:
Neue Geschichten,” 22. 1889; “Ein Englischer Sep-
tember: Heitere Fahrten Jenseits des Canals,” 7d.
1891; “Regenbogen,” 72. 1892, seven humorous
tales; “ Von Kalau bis Siickingen: ein Gemiithliches
Kreuz und Quer,” 2). 1893; “ Gltckliche Reisen,” 2d.
1895; “Zerline Gabillon, ein Kiinstlerleben,” 722.
18938; “Blaue Fernen,” 7d. 1897; “Das Bunte Buch,”
2b. 1898; “ Wiener Totentanz,” 2b. 1899; and in Hun-
garian, “Karczképek,” Budapest, 1876, sketches
from life in the Hungarian capital. Hevesi is re-
garded as one of the most original and versatile of
humorists, writing German and IIungarian with
equal ease and perfection. He also occupies a
prominent place as an art critic, and his numerous
articles on art, published in “ Ver Sacrum,” “ Zeit-
schrift fir Bildende Kunst,” etc., have been a pow-
erful factor in shaping public opinion with regard
to current art-tendencies.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversattons-Lexikon, s.v.; Die
Zeit, July 9, 1898, pp. 26-27; Ludwig Eisenberg, Das Geistige
Wien, 1., Vienna, 1893; Pallas Lex. ix., xviii.
s. B. B.
HEWERS OF WOOD (p°’xy ‘amn): Menial
servants. The Gibeonites who attempted to deceive
Joshua were condemned by the princes of Israel to
be hewers of wood and drawers of water to the con-
gregation (Josh. ix. 21, 23). In Deut. xxix. 11 the
hewers of wood are mentioned among the strangers
as servants. The same expression is also found in
Jer. xlvi, 22, where it is said that the Babylonians
will come against Egypt with axes, as hewers of
wood, aud in II Chron. ii. 10, where Solomon asks
Hiram, King of Tyre, to send him hewers (Dan)
of wood.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gesenius-Buhl, Handwoérterb. p. 244; Has-
tings, Dict. Bihle.
F. ¢. M. Sc.
HEXAPLA. See ORIGEN.
HEXATEUCH: The first six books of the Bible;
the Pentateuch taken together with the Book of
Joshua as one originally connected work. Two rea-
sons are given for this connection. On the assump-
tion that it was the intention of the historian to show
how the promise of YHwuH concerning the possession
of the Holy Land was fulfilled, the argument is
advanced that he can not have broken off at the
death of Moses, but must have carried his narrative
down through the conquest of Canaan, recounted in
Joshua. The second reason is that the sources for
the Pentateuch appear to have been the sources for
the Book of Joshua. But even if there were no ob-
jections to either of these contentions, they would
not be sufficient to undermine the independence and
completeness of the Pentateuch, evident throughout
its entire composition, and verified by an uncontra-
dicted tradition which goes back to Biblical times.
The Torah has never been connected with the Book
of Joshua, and has always constituted the first part
of the Bible, in contradistinction to the two other
parts. See Josuus, Book oF; PENTATEUCH.
E. G. H. B. J.
HEYDEMANN, HEINRICH: German arche-
ologist; born at Greifswald Aug. 28, 1842; died at
Halle Oct. 10, 1889; studied classical philology and
archeology at the universities of Tibingen, Bonn,
Greifswald, and Berlin, graduating from the last-
named in 1865. After having published (1866), un-
der the title “Tliupersis,” an essay on Greek vase-
paintings, he took a voyage to Italy and Greece,
where he devoted himself principally to the study
of antique vases, a study which remained the chief
object of his later years. In 1869 he became docent
in archeology at the University of Berlin, and in 1874
received a call as professor to Halle. Besides numer-
ous essays in the “ Annali dell’ Istituto,” the “ Ar-
chitologische Zeitung,” and the “ Zeitschrift ftir Bil-
dende Kunst,” Heydemann published the following
works: “Griechische Wasenbilder,” Berlin, 1870;
“Die Vasensammlungen des Museo Nazionale zu
Neapel,” 2). 1872; “Terrakotten aus dem Museo
Nazionale zu Neapel,” 2b. 1882; “ Dionysos’ Geburt
und Kindheit,” Halle, 1885.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Meyers Koenversations-Lexikon, 1897; De le
Roi, Juden-Mission. S
HEYDENFELDT, SOLOMON: American
jurist; born in Charleston, 8. C., 1816; died at San
Francisco Sept. 15, 1890. When twenty-one years
old he left South Carolina for Alabama, where he
was admitted to the bar and practised law for a
number of years in Tallapoosa county. He was
judge of the county court and an unsuccessful can-
didate for judge of Mobile. Holding views on sla-
very that were at variance with public opinion, he
found himself obliged to leave Alabama for Califor-
nia, and in 1850 he settled in San Francisco. From
1852 to 1857 he was associate judge of the Supreme
Court of California, and he was acknowledged to
be one of the ablest justices on the bench. He was
elected by direct vote of the people, being the first
Jew to be thus honored.
Heydenfeldt was a Democratic politician of South-
ern proclivities, and supported Breckinridge in his
campaign against Lincoln. Early in life he was
an unsuccessful candidate for the office of United
States senator before the California legislature, and
he was a member of several conventions,
His practise brought him a case wherein he vin-
dicated the right of the Jews to labor on Sunday
(“People vs. Newman,” 9 Cal. 502). Finally, when
a test oath was required from lawyers, he refused to
take it and retired from public practise.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. M. Friedenberg, in Publications Am. Jew.
Hist. Soc. x. 129 et seq.
A. A. M. F.
HEYMAN, ELIAS: Swedish physician; born
at Goteborg in 1829; died in 1889. Hestudied med-
icine at Lund and at the Karolinska Institut, Stock-
holm. Heyman practised medicine at Géteborg
from 1862 to 1878. He was one of the originators
of the “Gothenburg System” (see “Cyclopedia of
Temperance and Prohibition,” s.o. “Sweden ”), and
founder of many hygienic institutions. In 1878 he
was appointed professor of hygiene at the Karo-
linska Institut. In Stockholm he edited the medical
journal “Ilygeia,” and was clected secretary of the
Hygienic Society and director of the Hygienic Mu-
879
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hewers
Hezekiah
seum. In the interest of science he undertook
several journeys, going in turn to England, Ger-
many, and Holland, and visiting Montpellier and
Vienna.
Heyman succeeded in organizing instruction in
hygiene in Sweden, and had hardly completed this
work when he died suddenly while delivering an
address on that subject. Heyman wrote volumi-
nously on scientific and practical hygiene, his works
treating of vital statistics (1877), sanitation (1877),
ventilation (1880), working men’s dwellings, tem per-
ance, school hygiene, etc.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Svensk Ldkare-Matrikel, pp. 373, 1188,
Stockholm, 1889, 1899.
S. N. A.
HEYMANN, ISAAC H.: Dutch cantor and
composer; born about 1834; son of Phinehas Hey-
mann, After having made several tours through
Hungary, Heymann was cantor successively at
Filehne, Graudenz, and Gnesen.
Amsterdam as chief cantor, which position he still
(1903) occupies. Heymann is generally called the
“ Gnesener hazzan.”
Of his many compositions he has published (1898)
“Shire Todah la-El,” a collection which he ded-
icated to Queen Wilhelmina on the day of her coro-
nation. Most of the melodies now sung by the con-
gregation and by the synagogal choruses which he
has organized have been composed by him.
Heymann has a son, Karl HEYMANN, a pianist and
composer; and three daughters, Louise, Sophia,
and Johanne, of whom the first two are singers
and the last is a pianist.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Frank, Kleines Tonktinstlerlericon : M. Herz-
veld, Jsaae Heymann, Vienna, 1881; Allg. Zeit. des Jud.
May 26, 1868: Oesterr.-Ung. Cantoren Zeitung, July 1, 1899;
Der Tsraelit, Aug. 14, 1901 (with portrait); Neue Zeitschrift
ftir Musik, Oct. 2, 1901; Joodsche Courant, May 29, 1908
(with portrait).
s. E. St.
HEYMANN, KARL: German pianist; born
at Filehne, Posen, Oct. 6, 1858; son of Isaac
H. Heymann. He received his early musical edu-
cation at the Cologne Conservatorium, where he
was a pupil of Hiller, Gernsheim, and Breuning,
and later studied at Berlin under Friedrich Kiel (in
thorough-bass and composition). He had become
famous as a pianist when ill health compelled him
to retire from the concert stage. In 1872, however,
he accompanied Wilhelmj on a tour, and then be-
came musical directorat Prague, where he preferred
to reside. He later received an appointment as court
pianist to the Landgrave of Hesse, and from 1877 to
1880 he was instructor of pianoforte at Dr. Hoch’s
Conservatorium in Frankfort-on-the-Main. His prin-
cipal compositions are a pianoforte concerto; “ Elfen-
spiel” ; “Mummenschanz ”; and “ Phantasiestiicke.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ehrlich, Celebrated Pianists of the Past and
Present; Baker, Biog. Dict. of Musicians, 8.v.
8. Jd. So.
HEYMANN, PAUL: German laryngoscopist ;
born at Pankow, near Berlin, 1849; studied medi-
cine at Berlin and Heidelberg (M.D., Berlin, 1874).
After taking a postgraduate course at Heidelberg,
Vienna, Prague, and Tiibingen, he in 1878 estab-
lished himself in Berlin, where in 1894 he became
privat-docent and in 1899 assistant professor.
In 1856 he went to.
Heymann has written many essays in the medical
journals, mainly on laryngoscopy, tuberculosis, and
diseases of the nose and throat. He is also the ed-
itor of “Handbuch der Laryngologie und Rhinolo-
gie,” Berlin, 1896-1900.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biographisches Lexikon.
S. RN; EH
HEZEKIAH (Hebr. A \ptn, wpm. wp’ =
“my strength is Jah”; Assyrian, “Hazakiau ”): 1.
King of Judah (726-697 B.c.).—Biblical Data: Son
of Ahaz and Abi or Abijah; ascended the throne
at the age of twenty-five and reigned twenty-nine
years (II Kings xviii. 1-2; Il Chron. xxix. 1). Heze-
kiah was the opposite of his father, Ahaz; and no
king of Judah, among either his predecessors or his
successors, could, it is said, be compared to him (II
Kings xviii. 5). His first act was to repair the
Temple, which had been closed during the reign of
Ahaz. To this end he reorganized the services of the
priests and Levites, purged the Temple and its ves-
sels, and opened it with imposing sacrifices (II Chron.
xxix. 38-36). From the high places he removed the
fanes which had been tolerated even by the pious
kings among his predecessors, and he made the Tem-
ple the sole place for the cultof Yuwu. A still more
conspicuous act was his demolition of the brazen
serpent which Moses had made in the wilderness and
which had hitherto been worshiped (II Kings xviii.
4). He alsosent messengers to Ephraim and Manas-
seh inviting them to Jerusalem for the celebration
of the Passover. The messengers, however, were
not only not listened to, but were even laughed at;
only a few men of Asher, Manasseh, and Zebulun
came to Jerusalem. Nevertheless the Passover was
celebrated with great solemnity and such rejoicing as
had not been in Jerusalem since the days of Solomon
(If Chron. xxx.). The feast took place in the second
month instead of the first, in accordance with the
permission contained in Num. ix. 10, 11.
Hezekiah was successful in his wars against the
Philistines, driving them back in a series of victori-
ous battles as far as Gaza (II Kings xviii. 8). He
thus not only retook all the cities that his father
had lost (II Chron. xxviii. 18), but even conquered
others belonging to the Philistines. Josephus re-
cords (“ Ant.” ix. 18, § 3) that Hezekiah captured all
their cities from Gaza to Gath. Heze-
kiah was seconded in his endeavors by
the prophet Isaiah, on whose prophe-
cies he relied, venturing even to revolt
against the King of Assyria by refu-
sing to pay the usual tribute (II Kings xviii. 7).
Still, Hezekiah came entirely under Isaiah’s influ-
ence only after a hard struggle with certain of his
ministers, who advised him to enter into an alliance
with Egypt. This proposal did not please Isaiah,
who saw in it a defection of the Jews from God;
and it was at his instigation that Shebna, the minis-
ter of Hezekiah’s palace and probably his counselor,
working for the alliance with Egypt, was deposed
from office (Isa. xxii. 15-19).
As appears from II Kings xviii. 7-13, Hezekiah
revolted against the King of Assyria almost imme-
diately after ascending the throne. Shalmaneser in-
vaded Samaria in the fourth year of Hezekiah’s
reign, and conquered it in the sixth, while Sennach-
Under the
Influence
of Isaiah.
Hezekiah
erib invaded Judah in the fourteenth. The last-
mentioned fact is also recorded in Isa. xxxvi. 1; but
it would seem strange if the King of Assyria, who
had conquered the whole kingdom of Israel, did
not push farther on to Judah, and if the latter
remained unmolested during ten years. In II
Chron, xxxil. 1 the year in which Sennacherib in-
vaded Judah is not given, nor is there any mention
of Hezekiah’s previous revolt.
There is, besides, an essentia! difference between
II Jxings, on the one hand, and Isaiah and II Chron.,
on the other, as to the invasion of Sennacherib,
According to the former, Sennacherib first invaded
Judah in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah, and took
all the fortified cities (the annals of Sennacherib re-
port forty-six cities and 200,000 prisoners). Heze-
kiah acknowledged his faultand parleyed with Sen-
nacherib abouta treaty. Sennacherib imposed upon
Hezekiah a tribute of three hundred talents of silver
and thirty talents of gold; and in order to pay it
Hezekiah was obliged to take all the silver in the
Temple and in his own treasuries, and even to “cut
off the gold from the doors of the Temple ” (II Kings
xviii. 18-16). Sennacherib, however,
Invasion of acted treacherously. After receiving
Sen- the gold and the silver he sent. a large
nacherib. army under three of his officers to be-
sicge Jerusalem, while he himself with
the remainder of his troops remained at Lachish
(#6. xviii. 17). The contrary is related in II Chroni-
cles. After Sennacherib had invaded Judah and
marched toward Jerusalem, Hezekiah decided to de-
fend his capital. He accordingly stopped up the
wells; diverted the watercourse of Gihon, conducting
it to the city by a subterrancan canal (II Chron.
xxxii. 80; Eeclus, [Sirach] xlviti. 17); strengthened
the walls; and employed all possible means to make
the city impregnable (II Chron. xxxii. 1-8). Still
the people of Jerusalem were terror-stricken, and
many of Hezekiah’s ministers looked toward Egypt
for help. Isaiah violently denounced the proceed-
ings of the people, and derided their activity in for-
tifying the city (Isa. xxit 1-14).
The account from the arrival of Sennachcrib’s
army before Jerusalem under Rabshakeh till its de-
struction is identical in II Kings, Isaiah, and II
Chronicles. Rabshakeh summoned Hezekiah to sur-
render, derided his hope of help from Egypt, and
entleavored to inspire the people with distrust of
Hezekiah’s reliance on providential aid. But Sen-
nacherib, having heard that Tirhakah, King of Ethi-
opia, had marched against him, withdrew his army
from Jerusalem. He sent messages to Hezekiah in-
forming him that his departure was only temporary
and that he was sure of ultimately conquering Jeru-
salem. Hezekiahspread open the letters before God
and prayed for the delivery of Jerusalem. Isaiah
prophesied that Sennacherib would not again attack
Jerusalem; and it came to pass that the whole army
of the Assyrians was destroyed in one night by “the
angel of the Lord” (II Kings xviii. 17-xix.; Isa.
XXXVi-xxXxvii.; II Chron. xxxii. 9-22).
Hezekiah was cxalted inthe sight of the surround-
ing nations, and many brought him presents (II
Chron. xxx. 28). During the siege of Jerusalem
Hezekiah had fallen dangerously il), and had been
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
380
told by Isaiah that he would die. Hezekiah, whose
kingdom was in danger, because he had no heir
(Manasseh was not born till three years later) and
his death would therefore end his dynasty, prayed
to God and wept bitterly. Isainh was ordered by
God to inform Hezekiah that He had heard his
prayer and that fifteen years should be added to his
life. His disease was to be cured by a poultice of
figs; and the divine promise was ratified by the
retrogression of the shadow on the sun-dial of Ahaz
(II Kings xx, 1-11; Isa. xxxviii, 1-8; II Chron. |
xxxli. 24). After Hezekiah’s recovery Merodach-
baladan, King of Babylon, sent ambassadors with
presents ostensibly to congratulate Hezekiah on his
recovery and to inquire into the miracle (II Kings
xx, 12; IY Chron. xxxii. 31). His real intention
may have been, however, to see how far an alli-
ance with Hezekiah would be advantageous to the
King of Babylon. Hezekiah received the ambassa-
dors gladly, and displayed before them all his treas-
ures, showing them that an ally of so great im-
portance was not to be despised. But he received a
terrible rebuke from Isaiah, who considered the act
as indicating distrust in the divine power; where-
upon Hezekiah expressed his repentance (II Chron.
xX, 12-19, xxxii. 25-26; Isa. xxxix).
Hezekiah’s death occurred, as stated above, after
he had reigned twenty-nine years, He was buried
with great honor amid universal mourning in the
chief sepulcher of the sons of David (II Chron.
xxxii, 33). He is represented as possessing great
treasures and much cattle (7b. xxxii. 27-29). He
is the only king after David noted for his organiza-
tion of the musical service in the Temple (7b. xxix.
25-28). There is another similarity between him and
David, namely, his poetical talent; this is attested
not only by the psalm which he composed when
he had recovered from his sickness (Isa. xxxviil.
10-20), but also by his message to Isaiah and his
prayer (>. xxxvii. 8, 4, 16-20). Heis said to have
compiled the ancient Hebrew writings; and he
ordered the scholars of his time to copy for him the
Proverbs of Solomon (Prov. xxv. 1).
KE. G. H. M. SEL.
——In Rabbinical Literature: Hezekiah is con-
sidered as the model of those who put their trust in
the Lord. Only during his sickness did he waver in
his hitherto unshaken trust and require a sign, for
which he was blamed by Isaiah (Lam. R.i.). The
Hebrew name “ Hizkivyyah” is considered by the Tal-
mudists to be a surname, meaning either “strength-
ened by Yuwtr” or “he who made a firm alliance
between the Israelites and Yuwrm”; his eight other
names are enumerated in Isa. ix. 5 (Sanh. 94a). He
is called the restorer of the study of the Law in
the schools, and is said to have planted a sword at
the door of the bet ha-midrash, declaring that he
who would not study the Law should be struck with
the weapon (zi. 94b).
Hezekiah’s piety, which, according to the Tal-
mudists, alone occasioned the destruction of the As-
syrian army and the signal deliverance of the Israel-
ites when Jerusa'em was attacked by Sennacherib,
caused him to be considered by some as the Messiah
(7). 99a). According to Bar Kappara, Hezekiah was
destined to be the Messiah, but the attribute of jus-
381
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hezekiah
tice (“middat ha-din”) protested against this, say-
ing that as David, who sang so much the glory of
God, had not been made the Messiah, still less should
Hezekiah, for whom so many miracles had been
performed, yet who did not sing the praise of God
(2b. 94a).
Hezekiah’s dangerous ilIness was caused by the
discord between him and Isaiah, each of whom de-
sired that the other should pay him the
Hezekiah first visit. In order to reconcile them
and Isaiah. God struck Hezekiah with a malady
and ordered Isaiah to visit the sick
king. Isaiah told the latter that he would die, and
that his soul also would perish because he had not
married and had thus neglected the commandment
to perpetuate the human species, Hezekiah did not
despair, however, holding to the principle that one
must always have recourse to prayer. He finally
married Isaiah’s daughter, who bore him Manasseh
(Ber. 10a). However, in Gen. R. Ixv. 4, as quoted
in Yalk., II Kings, 248, it is said that Hezekiah
prayed for illness and for recovery in order that he
might be warned and be able to repent of his sins.
He was thus the first who recovered from illness.
But in his prayer he was rather arrogant, praising
himself: and this resulted in the banishment of his
descendants (Sanh. 104a). R. Levi said that Hez-
ekiah’s words, “and I have done what is good in thy
eyes” (II Kings xx. 3), refer to his concealing a
book of healing. According to the Talmudists,
Hezekiah did six things, of which three agreed with
the dicta of the Rabbis and three disagreed there-
with (Pes. iv., end). The first three were these: (1)
he concealed the book of healing because people,
instead of praying to God, relied on medical pre-
scriptions; (2) he broke in pieces the brazen serpent
(sce BrpticaL Data, above); and (8) he dragged bis
father’s remains on a pallet, instead of giving them
kingly burial. The second three were: (1) stop-
ping the water of Gihon; (2) cutting the gold from
the doors of the Temple; and (38) celebrating the
Passover in the second month (Ber, 10b; comp. Ab.
R. N. ii., ed. Schechter, p. 11).
The question that puzzled Ewald (“Gesch. des
Volkes Israel,” iii. 669, note 5) and others, “ Where
was the brazen serpent till the time of Hezekiah?”
occupied the Talmudists also. They answered it in a
very simple way: Asa and Joshaphat, when clear-
ing away the idols, purposely Icft the brazen ser-
pent behind, in order that Hezekiah might also
be able to do a praiseworthy deed in breaking it
(Hul. 6b).
The Midrash reconctles the two different narra-
tives (II Kings xviii, 18-16 and IT Chron. xxxii. 1-8)
of Hezekiah’s conduct at the time of Sennacherib’s
invasion (see BrpnicaL Data, above). It says that
Hezekiah prepared three means of defense: prayer,
presents, and war (Eccl. R. ix. 27), so that the two
Biblical statements complement each other. The
‘reason why Hezekiah’s display of his treasures to the
Babylonian ambassadors aroused the anger of God (II
Chron. xxxii. 25) was that Hezekiah opened before
them the Ark, showing them the tablets of the cove-
nant, and saying, “It is with this that we are victo-
rious” (Yalk., @.¢. 245).
Notwithstanding Hezekiah’s immense riches, his
meal consisted only of a pound of vegetables (Sanh,
94b). The honor accorded to him after death con-
sisted, according to R. Judah, in his bier being pre-
ceded by 86,000 men whose shoulders were bare
in sign of mourning. According to R. Nehemiah, a
scroll of the Law was placed on Hezekiah’s bier.
Another statement is that a yeshibah was estab-
lished on his grave—for three days, according to
some; for seven, according to others; or for thirty,
according to a third authority (Yalk , IJ Chron.
1085). The Talmudists attribute to Hezekiah the
redaction of the books of Isaiah, Proverbs, Song of
Solomon, and Ecclesiastes (B. B. 15a).
E. C. M. SEL.
Critical View: The chronology of Hezekiah’s
time presents some difficulties. The years of his
reign have been variously given as 727-696 B.c., 724—
696 (Kohler), 728-697 (Duncker, “Gesch. des Al-
tertums”), while the modern critics (Wellhausen,
Kamphausen, Meyer, Stade) have 714-689. The
Biblical data are conflicting. II Kings xviii. 10 as-
signs the fall of Samaria to the sixth year of Heze-
kiah, This would make 728 the year of his acces-
sion. But verse 13 of the same chapter states that
Sennacherib invaded Judah in the fourteenth year
of Hezekiah. The cuneiform inscriptions leave no
doubt that this invasion took place in 701, which
would fix 715 as Hezekiah’s initial year. The ac-
count of his illness (II Kings xix.) seems to confirm
this latter date. He reigned twenty-nine years (II
Kings xviii. 2). His illness was contemporaneous
with the events enumerated in JT Kings xviii. (see
w, xix. 1-6) The Lord promised that his life
should be prolonged fifteen years (29—15=14). His
fourteenth year being 701, the first
Chrono- must have been 715. This will neces-
logical sitate the assumption that the state-
Difficulties. ment in II Kings xviii. 9-10, that Sa-
maria was captured in the sixth year
of Hezekiah, is incorrect. The other alternative is
to look upon the date in verse 13 of the same chap-
teras a later assumption replacing an original “in
his days.” Again, the number fifteen (7). xix. 6)
may have replaced, owing to xviii. 13, an original
“ten” (comp. the “ten degrees” which the shadow
on the dial receded; 7b. xx. 10).
Another calculation renders it probable that Heze-
kiah did not ascend the throne before 722. Jehu’s
initial year is 842; and between it and Samaria’s
destruction the numbers in the books of Kings give
for Israel 14875 years, for Judah 165. This discrep-
ancy, amounting in the case of Judah to 45 years
(165-120), has been accounted for in various ways;
but every theory invoked to harmonize the data must
concede that Hezekiah’s first six years as well as
Ahaz’s last two were posterior to 722. Nor is it defi-
nitely known how old Hezekiah was when called to
the throne. II Kings xviii. 2 makes him twenty-
five yearsofage. Itis most probable that “twenty-
five” is an error for “fifteen.” His father (II Kings
Xvi. 2) died at the age of thirty-six, or of forty, ac-
cording to Kamphausen (in Stade’s “ Zeitschrift,” 111.
200, and “Chronologie der Kénigsbiicher,” p. 20).
It is not likely that Ahaz at the age of eleven, or
even of fifteen, should have had ason. Hezekiah’s
own son Manassch ascended the throne twenty-nine
Hezekiah
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
382
years later, when he was twelve years old. This
places his birth in the seventeenth year of his father’s
reign, or gives his father’s age as forty-two, if he
was twenty-five at his accession. It is more proba-
ble that Ahaz was twenty-one or twenty-five when
Hezekiah was born, and that .the latter was thirty-
two at the birth of his son and successor, Manasseh.
To understand the motives of Hezekiah’s policy,
the situation in the Assyro-Babylonian empire must
be kept in mind. Sargon was assassinated in 705
B.c. His successor, Sennacherib, was
Policy of at once confronted by a renewed at-
Hezekiah. tempt of Merodach-baladan to secure
Babylon’s independence. This gave
the signal to the smaller western tributary nations
to attempt to regain their freedom from Assyrian
suzerainty. The account of Merodach-baladan’s
embassy in II Kings xx. 12-18 fits into this period,
the Babylonian leader doubtless intending to incite
Judah to rise against Assyria. The motive adduced
in the text, that the object of the embassy was to
felicitate Hezekiah upon his recovery, would be an
afterthought of a later historiographer. The cen-
sure of Hezekiah on this occasion by Isaiah could
not have happened literally as reported in this chap-
ter. Hezekiah could not have had great wealth in
his possession after paying the tribute levied by the
Assyrians (¢b. xviii. 14-16). Moreover, the proph-
ecy of Isaiah should have predicted the deportation
of all these treasures to Nineveh and not to Babylon.
Underlying this incident, however, is the histor-
ical fact that Isaiah did not view this movement to
rebellion with any too great favor; and he must
have warned the king that if Babylon should suc-
ceed, the policy of the victor inits relations to Judah
would not differ from that of Assyria. If anything,
Babylon would show itself still more rapacious.
Isaiah’s condemnation of the proposed new course
in opposition to Sennacherib is apparent from Isa.
Xiv. 29-32, xxix., xxx.-xxxli. Hezekiah, at first
in doubt, was finally moved through the influence
of the court to disregard Isaiah’s warning. He
joined the anti-Assyrian league, which included the
Tyrian and Palestinian states, Ammon, Moab, and
Edom, the Bedouin on the east and south, and the
Egyptians. So prominent was. his position in this
confederacy that Padi, King of Ekron, who upon
his refusal to join it had been deposed, was deliv-
ered over to Hezekiah for safe-keeping.
The Biblical accounts of the events subsequent to
the formation of this anti-Assyrian alliance must be
compared with the statements contained in Sen-
nacherib’s prism-inscription. It appears that the As-
syrian king, as soon as he had subdued the Baby-
lonian uprising in 701, set out to reestablish his
authority over the western vassal states. Isaiah’s
fears proved only too well founded.
The Egypt, upon which Hezekiah had re-
Assyrian licd most to extricate him from the
Accounts. difficulties of the situation, proved, as
usual, unreliable. Perhaps in this in-
stance H. Winckler’s theory that not the Egyptians,
but the Musri and the Miluhha, little kingdoms in
northwestern Arabia, were the treacherous allies,
must be regarded as at least plausible. For Isa.
xxx. 6 pictures the difficulties besetting the embassy
sent to ask for aid; and as the road to Egypt was
open and much used it is not likely that a royal
envoy to Egy pt would encounter trouble in reaching
his destination.
The consequence for Hezekiah was that he had to
resume the payment of heavy tribute; but Jerusa-
lem was not taken by Sennacherib’s army. As to
the details, the data in II Kings xviii. 18-xix. 37
and Isa. xxxvi.-xxxvii. arc somewhat confusing.
II Kings xviii. 18 declares that Sennacherib first
captured all the fortified cities with the exception
of the capital. But this is supplemented by the
brief statement— probably drawn from another
source in which the shorter form of the name *°pIn
is consistently employed—that Hezekiah sent a peti-
tion for mercy to Sennacherib, then at Lachish, and
paid him an exorbitant tribute in consideration for
the pardon. Sennacherib nevertheless demanded
the surrender of the capital; but, encouraged by
Isaiah’s assurance that Jerusalem could and would
not be taken, Hezekiah refused, and then the death
of 185,000 of the hostile army at the hands of the
angel of Yawn compelled Sennacherib at once to
retreat.
The story of Sennacherib’s demand and defeat is
told in II Kings xviii. 17-xix. 37 (whence it passed
over into Isaiah, and not vice versa),
Defeat of which is not by one hand. Stade and
Sennach- Meinhold claim this account to be com-
erib’s posed of two parallel narratives of one
Army. event, and, as does also Duhm, declare
them both to be embellishing fiction.
Winckler’s contention (“ Gesch. Babyloniens und As-
syriens,” 1892, pp. 255-258, and “ Alttestamentliche
Untersuchungen,” 1892, pp. 26 et seg.) that two dis-
tinct expeditions by the Assyrian king are here
treated as though there had been but one solves the
difficulties (see also Winckler in Schrader, “K. A.
T.” 8d. ed., pp. 83, 273).
According to Biblical data, Sennacherib was as-
sassinated soon after his return. Dut if 701 was the
year of his (only) expedition, twenty years elapsed
before the assassination (II Kings xix, 35 et seg.).
Again, Tirhakah is mentioned as marching against
the Assyrian king; and Tirhakah did not become
Pharaoh before 691. On the first expedition against
Palestine (701, his third campaign; see Schrader,
“K, B.” ii, 91 et seg.) Sennacherib, while with his
main army in Philistia, sent a corps to devastate Judea
and blockade Jerusalem. This prompted Hezekiah to
send tribute to Lachish and to deliver his prisoner
Padi, after the battle of Elteke (Altaku), where the
Egyptian army, with its Ethiopic and perhaps
Arabian contingents, was defeated. On the other
hand, after Ekron had fallen into Assyrian hands,
Sennacherib sent the Rabshakeh to force the sur-
render of Jerusalem. Baffled in this, the king had
to return to Nineveh in consequence of the out-
break of new disturbances caused by the Baby-
lonians (II Kings x viii. 16).
Busied with home troubles till the destruction of
Babylon (700-689 B.c.), Sennacherib lost sight of the
West. This interval Hezekiah utilized to regain
control over the cities taken from him and divided
among the faithful vassals of the Assyrian rulers.
This is the historical basis for the victory ascribed
383
to him over the Philistines (II Kings xviii. 8). The
interests of Sennacherib and those of Tirhakah soon
clashed (II Kings xix. 9; Herodotus, ii. 141) in their
desire to get control over the commerce of western
Arabia (see Isa. xx. 8 et seg., Xxx. 1-5, xxxi. 1-38).
This was for Hezekiah the opportunity to cease
paying tribute. Sennacherib’s army marching
against Jerusalem to punish him spread terror and
caused the king again to fear the worst; but
Isaiah’s confidence remained unshaken (II Kings xix.
83). Indeed, in the meantime a great disaster had
befallen Sennacherib’s army (see Herodotus, ii. 141).
Memories of this catastrophe, intermingled with
those of the blockade under the Tartan (701 B.c.),
are at the basis of the Biblical account of the mirac-
ulous destruction of Sennacherib before the walls of
Jerusalem. The “plague” may have been the main
factor in thwarting the Assyrian monarcb’s designs,
His undoing then undoubtedly ited to his assassin-
ation. Nevertheless it seems that Hezekiah found
it wise to resume tributary relations with Assyria.
Hence the report (in the Sennacherib inscription) of
the paying of tribute and the sending of an ambas-
sador to Nineveh.
There is no possible doubt that the credit given
to Hezekiah for religious reforms in the Biblical re-
ports is based on facts. Yet, as the
Hezekiah jidolatrous practises were revived most
as a vigorously after his death, it is most
Reformer. probable that his reforms were not
quite as extensive or intensive as a
later historiography would have it appear. Cer-
tainly the fate of Samaria must have been all the
more instructive as Jerusalem, by what in Isaiah’s
construction was the intervention of YHwu, had been
spared. To make the capital, thus marked as YawuH’s
holy, untakable city, the exclusive sanctuary was
a near thought. The “brazen serpent,” probably
an old totem-fetish, could not well be tolerated.
Around Jerusalem the “high places” were also in-
hibited. But it must not be overlooked that Heze-
kiah’s authority (or kingdom) did not extend over
much territory beyond the city proper (see, however,
in opposition to the views that would limit Heze-
kiah’s influence asa religious reformer, Steuernagel,
“Die Entstehung des Deuteronomischen Gesetzes,”
pp. 100 e¢ seg.. Kittel, “Gesch. der Hebriier,” ii. 302
et seq.).
The Psalm (“ Miktab ”) of Hezekiah (Isa. xxxviii.
9 et seq.) is certainly not by that king, Neither is
the superscription to Prov. xxv. based on historical
facts. It is more likely that the Siloam inscription
speaks of the building of the aqueduct in Heze.-
kiah’s days, though from the character of the let-
ters a much more recent date (about 20 8.c.) has
been argued for it (“ Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch.” 1897,
pp. 165-185).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Baudissin, Konig, Kuenen, Smend; Montefiore
(Hibbert Lectures, London, 1892), on the history of Israel’s
religion ; Meinhold, vcouyuscuucese 5 Schwartzkopfi, Die I cis-
sagungen Jesaia’s Geyen Sanherib, Leipsic, n.d. (19037).
E. G. H.
2. (mpin: A. V. “Hizkiah”): Ancestor of the
prophet Zephaniah (Zeph. i. 1); identified by Ibn
Ezra and some modern scholars with the King of
Judah; Abravanel, however, rejected this identifi-
cation.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hezekiah
3. Son of Neariah, a descendant of the royal
family of Judah (I Chron. iii, 28),
4. There is a Hezekiah mentioned in connection
with Ater (Ezra ii. 16; Neh. vii. 21, x. 18 [R. V. 17];
in the last two passages mpptn). The relationship
between them is not clearly indicated; in the first
two passages the reading is “Ater of Hezekiah ”;
the Vuigate takes “ Hezekiah” in the first passage
asthe name of a place, in the second as the father
of Ater. In the third passage, “Hezekiah ” comes
after “ Ater” without any connecting preposition.
J. M. SEt.
HEZEKIAH (Gaon): Principal of the academy
at Pumbedita (1038-40). A member of an exilarchal
family, he was elected to the office of principal after
the murder of Hai Gaon, but was denounced to the
fanatical government, imprisoned, and tortured to
death. With him ended his family, with the excep-
tion of two sons who escaped to Spain, where they
found a home with Joseph b. Samuel ha-Nagid.
The death of Hezekiah also ended the line of the
Geonim, which began four centuries before (see
HANAN OF IsxrIya), and with it the Academy of
Pumbedita.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rabad, Seder ha-Kabbalah; Gans, Zemah
Dawid, i.; Gratz, Gesch. v. 428; Jost, Gesch. der Juden und
Seiner Sekten, ii. 287.
8. S. M.
HEZEKIAH (the Zealot): A martyr whom
some scholars identify with Hezekiah ben Garon of
the Talmud (Shab. 12a, 13b, 98b, 99a). He fought
for Jewish freedom and the supremacy of the Jewish
law at the time when Herod was governor of Galilee
(47B.c.). When King Aristobulus, taken prisoner by
the Romans, had been poisoned by the followers of
Pompey, Hezekiah (“ Ezekias ” in Josephus, “ Ant.”
xiv. 9, §§ 2 ef seq.) gathered together the remnants of
that king’s army in the mountains of Galilee and car-
ried on a successful guerrilla war against the Romans
and Syrians, while awaiting the opportunity for a
general uprising against Rome. The pious men of
the country looked upon him as the avenger of their
honor and liberty. Antipater, the governor of the
country, and his sons, however, who were Rome’s
agents in Palestine, viewed this patriotic band dif-
ferently. In order to curry favor with the Romans,
Herod, unauthorized by the king Hyrcanus, ad-
vanced against Hezekiah, took him prisoner, and be-
headed him, without the formality of a trial; and he
also slew many of his followers. This deed excited
the indignation of all the patriots. Hezekiah and
his band were enrolled among the martyrs of the
nation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Schiirer, Gesch. i. 648; Mittheilungen der
ce CRC el AUCH ECTEM Union, vii. (1895), No. 67, pp.
et seq.
E. Cc. J. Ta.
HEZEKIAH BEN JACOB: German rabbiand
tosafist; martyred at Bacharach in 1288. He was
an uncle and teacher of Meir of Rothenburg and a
pupil of Abraham Hladik, the Bohemian Talmudist.
He succeeded his father in the rabbinate of Mag-
deburg; but, as a part of the community objected
to his nomination, the intervention of Moses Taku
(= Tachau) was necessary to remove the difficulties.
He corresponded with Isaac Or Zarua‘, who called
Hezekiah
Hiddushim
him “ Bahur” (young raan), but spoke of him very
highly (‘Or Zarua‘*,” i., No. 114) to Abizdor ha-
Kohen (Mordecai to Git. No. 380) and to R. Jehiel
of Paris (‘Teshubot MaHRaM,” No. 590). He is
quoted also by many authors of responsa, by Israel
Isserlin (“ Terumat ha-Deshen,” No, 233), by Israel]
of Kremsier in his “ Waggahot ha-Asheri ” (Mordecai
to Ket. No. 291), and especially by Mordecai b.
Hillel. Hezekiah wrote a commentary on the Tal-
mud (Mordecai to Kida. No. 510; édem to B. Kk. No.
174), besides tosafot (“ Haggahot Mordekai,” Shab.
No. 282) and responsa (Solomon b. Adret, Responsa,
ii., No. 28).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Michael, Or ha-Hayyini, No, 836; Zunz, Lite-
raturyesch. p. 62L; Gross, in Monatsschrift, xx. 2623 Sam-
uel hohn, Mardochai ben Hillel, pp, 104-108.
K. M. SEL.
HEZEKIAH BEN MANOAH: French exe-
gete of the thirteenth century. In memory of his
father, who lost his right hand through his stead-
fastness in the faith, Hezekiah wrote (about 1240) a
cabalistic commentary on the Pentateuch, under the
title “Hazzekuni.” It was printed at Venice in 1524,
Other editions appeared at Cremona (1559), at Am-
sterdam (1724, in the Rabbinical Bible of M. Frank-
furter), at Lemberg (1859), ete. It is based princi-
pally upon Rashi, but it uses also about twenty
other commentaries, though the author quotes as his
sources only Rashi, Dunash ben Labrat, the “ Yo-
sippon,” and a “ Physica” which is mentioned in the
Tosafot (to Lev. xii. 2). He is generally cited by
the title of his commentary.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Flirst, Bibl. Jud, i, V1) Zunz, Z. G. p. 91;
Steinsehneider, Cat. Bodl. p. 844; Catalogus Monacensis, p.
79; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p.143; Winter and Wiinsche,
Die Jtid. Litteratuy, ii. 382; Renan, in L'’ Histoire Litté-
retire dé la France, xxvii. 436.
E. C. M. Sc.
HEZEKIAH BEN PARNAK: Palestinian
amora; lived at the end of the third century. The
only mention of him is in Berakot 68a, in connection
with the transmission of Johanan bar Nappaha’s
exegetical explanation of the fact that the section
concerning the faithless wife (Num. v. 11-381) fol-
lows the section on the refusal of the priestly tithe
(2b. v. 5-11).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ed. Warsaw, p. 128;
Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. i. 219, 272.
s. M. Sc.
HEZEKIAH ROMAN BEN ISAAC IBN
PAKUDA or BAKUDA: Turkish scholar; tlour-
ished at Constantinople in 1600. He was the author
of “Zikron ha-Sefarim,” a catalogue of all the
grammatical works written from the time of Judah
Hayvuj to the time of the author, reproduced by
Wolf in Hebrew and Latin in his “ Bibliotheca He-
brea.” The name “ Hezekiah Roman” occurs in the
approbation of the “Hod Malkut” of Abraham ha-
Yakini (Constantinople, 1635).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Boal. col. 1844: idem, in
eae rt laa p. 320; Orient, Lit. viii. 403; Wolf. Bibi.
G. L. Br.
HEZEKIAH SEFARDI. Sce Pouanp.
HEZIR (4"tn): 1. A priest, chief of the seven-
teenth monthly course in the service; appointed by
THE JEWISIT ENCYCLOPEDIA 384
David (I Chron. xxiv, 15). 2. A Jayman, one of the
heads of the people, who signed the covenant with
Nehemiah (Neh. x. 20).
E. G. i. M. SEL,
HEZRO (yyyn): A native of Carmel, one of
David's heroes (II Sam. xxiii. 35, R. V.; I Chron.
xi. 87). The “keri,” however, in the former place
is * Hezrai” (ym), which, according to Kennicott
(* Dissertation,” pp. 207-208), is the original form of
the name.
E.G. H.
HEZRON (yn): 1. Son of Reuben and founder
of the family of the Hezronites (Gen. xlvi. 9; Ex.
vi. 14; Num. xxvi. 6). 2. Sonof Pharezand grand-
son of Judah, who was the direct ancestor of David
(Gen. xlvi. 12; Ruthiv. 18). He had by his first
marriage three sons: Jerahmeel; Ram, from whom
David descended ; and Caleb. Afterward he married
the daughter of Machir, who bore him Segub, the
father of Jair; and after his death his wife Abijah
bore Ashur (I Chron, ii. 9, 21, 24). 3. A place
marking the southern limit of the territory assigned
to Judah, between Kadesh-barnea and Adar (Josh.
xv. 8). In the parallel list of Num. xxxiv. 4, Hez-
ron and Addar seem to be described as one place,
“ Hazar-addar,”
E. G. H. M. Sen.
HIBAT ALLAH ABU AL-BARAKAT B.
‘ALI B. MALKA (MALKAN) AL-BALADI
(¢.¢., of Balad): Arabian physician of the twelfth
century; born in Bassora. He went to Bagdad in
order to study medicine under the physician Sa‘id b.
Hibat Allah; and as the latter did not admit Jews
or Christians to his lectures, Abu al-Barakat bribed
the doorkeeper and secured a room from which for
about a year he beard Sa‘id lecture. Later on he
found an opportunity to show his medical knowledge
before his teacher, and afterward became one of
Sa‘id’s most distinguished disciples.
Abu al-Barakat served in the army, was consulted
by the sultan of the Seljuks, and became physician
in ordinary to the calif Al-Mustanjid (1160-70) in
Bagdad. He became both blind and deaf, and died
a Moslem when about eighty years old. His con-
version, which took place when he was a man of
mature age, was due to the insults to which he had
been subjected asa Jew. Abu al-Barakat himself,
however, after his conversion insulted his former
coreligionists.
Among Abu al-Barakat’s philosophical and med-
ical writings are: “ Al-Mu‘tabir,” on logic, physics,
and metaphysics (Catalogue of Arabic MSS. in the
Khedival Library, Cairo, vi. 41), which work he de-
sired to be mentioned in his epitaph; “Ikhtisar al-
Tashrib,” a compendium of anatomy, extracted from
Gaien. He wrote also a translation of and commen-
tary on Jicclesiastes, composed in 1143 (Neubauer,
“Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 131), and containing a
eulogy of Abu al-Barakat, composed by Abraham,
the son of [bn Ezra, who was likewise a convert to
Islam; and a grammar of the Hebrew language.
M. SEL.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Die Arabische Literatur der
Juden, $ 148.
E. C. M. Sc.
sty a yer,
me MOR eee es
885
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hezekiah
Hiddushim
HIBBUT HA-KEBER (lit. “the beating of the
grave”; called also ‘Din ha-Keber,” “the judg-
ment of [man in] the grave”): One of the seven
modes of judgment or of punishment man under-
goes after death, as described in the treatise “ Hibbut
ha-Keber,” also known as “ Midrash R. Yizhak b.
Parnak.” According to a description given by R.
Eliezer (1st cent.) to his disciples, the Angel of
Death places himself upon the grave of a person
after burial and strikes him upon the hand, asking
him his name; if he can not tell his name the angel
brings back the soul to the body, to be submitted to
judgment. For three successive days the Angel of
Death, with a chain made half of iron and half of
fire, smites off all the members of the body, while
his host of messengers replace them in order
that the dead may receive more strokes. All parts
of the body, especially the eyes, ears, lips, and
tongue, receive thus their punishment for the sins
they have committed. Greater even than the pun-
ishment in hell, says R. Meir, in the name of R.
Eliezer, is the punishment of the grave, and neither
age nor piety saves man from it; only the doing of
benevolent works, the showing of hospitality, the
recital of prayer in true devotion, and the acceptance
of rebuke in modesty and good-will are a safeguard
against it. Various prayers and Biblical verses, be-
ginning and ending with the initial of the name of
the person for whom they were intended, were indi-
cated by the cabalists to be recited as talismans
against the suffering of Hibbut ha-Keber.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jellinek, B. H. i. 150-152; Zohar, Exodus,
Wayakhel, 199b; Numbers, Naso, 126b; Elijah b. Moses de
Vidas, Reshit Hokmah, xii.; Manasseh ben Israel, Vishmat
Hayyim, Ma’amar B., xxii.; J.N. Epstein, Kizzur Shene Lu-
bot ha-Berit, end; Bodenschatz, Kirchliche Verfassung
der Heutigen Juden, tii. 5, 6. K.
HIDDEKEL. See Trerts.
HIDDUSHIM (or NOVELL): Technical
name of a certain class of commentaries, consisting of
a number of single, “new” remarks, additions, and
explanations in connection with a text and its earlier
commentaries. The hiddushim commentaries dif-
fer from the others (“ perushim,” “bi’urim ”) in that
they do not form a continuous production, as do
the latter, but contribute only “new ” remarks upon
difficult parts of the text or its commentaries. But
this original difference has not always been pre-
served, and the word “hiddushim ” has been used as
a general] designation for commentaries, without re-
gard to their specific character. The hiddushim may
be divided into the following classes: (1) Hiddushim
on Biblical books. (2) Hiddushim on the Talmud:
(2) on its haggadic parts, (6) on its halakic parts.
(3) Hiddushim on codices. (4) Hiddushim on certain
rabbinical treatises,
1. The number of hiddushim on Biblical books
is exceedingly small. Nahmanides (d. about 1270)
was the first to write them on the Pen-
Nah- tateuch, his work being entitled “ Hid-
manides dushim bi-Ferushe ha-Torah,” or
on Penta- “Hiddushe Torah” (before 1480; 2d
teuch. ed., 1489); he was plainly conscious of
the difference between his work and
eatlier Pentateuch commentaries. In fact, his com-
mentary differs from preceding ones in that with him
it is a question of explaining not single words or
VI.—25
grammatical constructions, but the connection be-
tween single passages and the whole book; for this
reason he places a short, comprehensive table of con-
tents at the beginning of each separate book (see
Griitz, “Gesch.” 3d ed., vii. 129).
Among the Biblical hiddushim writers of the
seventeenth century may be mentioned: Elhanan
Haehndel (“ Hiddushe Elhanan,” Offenbach, 1722 and
1731), on the Pentateuch and the Earlier Prophets;
Gershon Ashkenazi (d. 1694; “Hiddushe ha-Ger-
shuni,” Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1710), on the Penta-
teuch (compare JEW. Encyc. iii. 172, s.o. BIBLE
EXEGESIS).
2. Neither are the hiddushim commentaries on the
haggadic parts of the Talmud numerous. The first
of this kind, “Hiddushe Haggadot,” on various
treatises, was composed by Solomon ibn Adret.
Fragments of this have been preserved in Jacob ibn
Habib’s “‘En Ya‘akob.” Solomon wrote this com-
mentary with the purpose of interpreting several
objectionable haggadahs and of giving them rea-
sonable meanings (Gritz, “Gesch.” 3d ed., vii. 145;
Perles, “Salomo ben Adereth,” pp. 55, 82, Breslau,
1863).
As examples of haggadic commentaries of the
seventeenth century may be mentioned those of
Moses Dessau, or Moses ben Michael Meseritz, on
Berakot, Shabbat, Kiddushin (1724), and of Moses ben
Isaac Bonem. The latter also contains hiddushim
on the halakic portions of the Talmud; it was printed
together with the “Hiddushe Haggadot” (on five
Talmudic treatises) of his son-in-law, Samuel Edels
(Lublin, 1627).
The hiddushim commentaries on the halakic por-
tions of the Talmud are very numerous, and, like
those already mentioned, made their
Halakic first appearancein Spain. They corre-
Hid- spond to the Tosafot, which originated
dushim. about the same time in the Franco-
German school. Asa rule they do not
confine themselves to interpretations of single words
and to detached notes, but reproduce the essence
of the Talmudic discussion (“sugya”), interposing
now and then illustrative and explanatory matter.
In this the commentary of Hananeel undoubtedly
served them as a model; Hananeel sometimes repro-
duced whole sections of the Talmud, but limited
himself in the discussion to emphasizing the most
important points (see Weiss, “ Dor,” iv. 290).
The first hiddushim commentaries on the halakah
of the Talmud were written by Joseph ibn Migas
(d. 1141). The accompanying table gives the older
printed literature of this kind down to the sixteenth
century, and is arranged chronologically, with men-
tion of the date and place of the first publication.
Many hiddushim still exist in manuscript, unpub-
lished, but they are too numerous to be mentioned.
1. Joseph ibn Migas (d. 1141): Baba Batra, Amsterdam, 1702 ;
Shebu ‘ot, Salonica, 1759,
2. Zerahiah ha-Levi (d. 1186): Kinyan, Constantinople, 1751.
Hi Abraham ben David (d. 1198): Kinyan, Constantinople,
4, Meir ben Todros ha-Levi Abulafia (d. 1244): Baba Batra,
Salonica, 1790; Sanhedrin, Salonica, 1798.
5. Jonah Gerondi (d. 1263): Sanhedrin, Leghorn, 1801.
6. Moses ben Nahman (d. c. 1270): Yebamot, Homburg, 1740;
Ketubot, Metz, 1765; Kiddushin, Salonica, 1759; Gittin, Sulz-
bach, 1762; Baba Batra, Venice, 1523: ‘Abodah Zarah, Leghorn,
iddushim
igh Place
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
386
1790; Shebu‘ot, Salonica, 1791; Makkot, Leghorn, 1745; Niddah,
Sulzbach, 1762.
7. Isaiah di Trani ben Mali (d. about 1270): Ta‘anit, Leg-
horn, 1742.
8. Aaron ha-Levi (d. 1300): Ketubot, Prague, 1822.
9. Solomon ibn Adret (d. 1310): Berakot, Venice, 1523; Shab-
bat, Constantinople, 1720; Bezah, Lemberg, 1847; Rosh ha-
Shanah, Constantinople, 1720; Megillah, Constantinople, 1720;
Yebamot, Constantinople, 1720; Kiddushin, Constantinople,
1717; Gittin, Venice, 1723; Nedarim, Constantinople, 1720; Baba
Kamma, Constantinople, 1720; Shebu‘ot, Salonica, 1729; Mena-
hot, Warsaw, 1861; Hullin, Venice, 1723; Niddah, Altona, 1727.
10. A pupil of Solomon ion Adret: Kiddushin, Venice, 1843.
1l. Menahem Meiri of Perpignan (d. 1320); Bezah, Berlin,
1859: Megillah, Amsterdam, 1769; Nedarim, Leghorn, 1795;
Nazir, Leghorn, 1795; Sotah, Leghorn, 1795.
12. Asher ben Jehiel (d. 1827): Kinyan, Constantinople, 1751.
13. Yom-Tob ben Abraham Isbili (d. 1350): Shabbat, Salonica,
1806; ‘Erubin, Amsterdam, 1729; Mo‘ed Katan, Amsterdam,
1729; Yoma, Constantinople, 1754; Sukkah, Constantinople,
1720; Ta‘anit, Amsterdam, 1729; Megillah, Leghorn, 1772; Ye-
bamot, Leghorn, 1787 ; Ketubot, Amsterdam, 1729; Kiddushin,
Berlin, 1715; Gittin, Salonica, 1758; Nedarim, Leghorn, 1795;
Baba Mezi‘a, Venice, 1608; Shebu‘vt, Leghorn, 1790; Makkot,
Sulzbach, 1762; Hullin, Prague, 1735; Niddah, Vienna, 1866.
14. Nissim Gerondi (d. c. 1874): Shabbat, Warsaw, 1762; Gittin,
Constantinople, 1711; Sanhedrin, Sulzbach, 1762; Shebu‘ot,
Venice, 1608; Hullin, Sulzbach, 1762; Niddah, Venice, 1741;
*abodah Zarah, Jerusalem, 1903.
15. Josef Habiba (d. 1400); Shebu‘ot, Leghorn, 1795.
16. Simon ben Zemah Duran (d. 1444): Rosh ha-Shanah, Leg-
horn, 1745; Ketubot, Leghorn, 1779; Gittin, Firth, 1779.
17, Isaac Aboab (d. 1492) : Bezah, 1608.
18. David ben Abi Zimra (d. 1573): Sanhedrin, Prague, 1725.
19. “ Hiddushe Geonim’’ (anonymously): Baba Kamma, Sa-
lonica, 1725; Baba Mezi‘a, Salonica, 1725; Sanhedrin, Salonica,
1725
20, ‘**Hiddushim ”’ (anonymously): Kiddushin, Constantino-
ple, 1751.
21. ‘‘Ha-Hiddushim beli Piske Dinim”
Ta‘anit, Prague, 1810.
(anonymously):
Toward the end of the fifteenth, and especially
after the sixteenth, century, when the Talmud had
already been investigated, commentated, and revised
in every conceivable way, there arose, particularly in
the Polish Talmudic schools, and even
The among the less capable teachers, the
Later desire to say something “new,” to
Hiddushim. raise questions and answer them, to
point out apparent contradictions and
uarmonize them by pilpul. The introduction of
hair-splitting distinctions into the treatment of ha-
lakic-Talmudic themes probably originated with
Jacob Pollak (see Brill, “Jahrb.” vii. 35). The de-
mand for “novellz,” which every rabbi met from his
disciples, produced a large class of such hiddushim,
tco numerous to be mentioned here. Some of the
hiddushim-writers—e.g., Samuel Edels (“ MeHaR-
SHA”; d. 1631), author of “Hiddushim” (Basel,
sixteenth century), “Hiddushe Niddah” (Prague,
1602), “ Hiddushe Halakot ” (Lublin, 1611, 1621), ete. ;
Meir Lublin (“MaHaRaM”; d. 1616), author of
“Hiddushe Maharam Lublin” (Sulzbach, 1686);
Meir Schiff (“MaHaRaM Schiff”; d. 1641), author
of “Hiddushe Halakot” (Homburg, 1737); and
Solomon Luria (“MaHaRSHaL”; d. 1578), author
of “Hiddushe Maharshal” (Cracow, 1581), forming
mostly a sort of supercommentary to the hiddushim
of the older generation—are conspicuous for their
common sense and critical spirit. Solomon Luria
was even distinguished for a certain independence
of spirit with which he attacked some of the old
authorities, beating out new paths for himself (see
Solomon LuRIA).
3. Hiddushim commentaries on the codices, finally,
were written by: Jonah Gerondi (d. 1268; on Isaac
Alfasi’s “ Halakot to Berakot ”), 1509; Nissim Geron-
di (d. c. 1874; on several treatises of the same work),
1509; Nathan Spira (d. 1683; on the same), 1720;
Elijah Mizrahi (d. 1526; on Moses Coucy’s “Sefer
ha-Mizwot”), 1547; Gershon Ashkenazi (d. 1694; on
Jacob ben Asher’s “Turim,” ii.-iv.), Frankfort-on-
the-Main, 1710; Samuel Modigliano (17th cent.; on
Maimonides’ “Mishneh Torah”), 1826; Jonathan
Eybeschitz (d. 1764; on the same), Berlin, 1799.
4. The following authors of hiddushim on other
rabbinical writings may be mentioned: Judah L6b
ben Elijah (on the Pesah Haggadah), 1722; Zebi H.
Katzenellenbogen (on the thirty-two “middot” of
Eliezer ben Jose ha-Gelili), 1822.
“ Hiddushim ” means, literally, “news,” and is fre-
quently used in this sense; e.g., in the title of a
little-known work by Meir Schmelkes ben Perez:
“Hiddushim Nifla’im vom Tiirkischen Rumor um
Beligerung die Stadt Wien A. 1683” (Prague, 1684).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 21; idem,
Jewish Literature, p. 214; Giidemann, Gesch. ii. 179;
idem, Quellenschriften zur Gesch. des Unterrichts und der
Erziehung bei den Deutschen Juden, pp. 21, 52; Winter
and Witnsche, Die Jtidische Litteratur, ii. 583; Jellinek,
Kontres ha-Meforesh, Vienna, 1877; Benjacob, Ozar ha-
Sefarim, pp. 174 et seq.
8, 8. M. Sc.
HIDKA: Tanna of the middle of the second cen-
tury. He is quoted only in the Baraita, and is best
known for the halakah (Shab. 117b) fixing the num-
ber of meals on the Sabbath as four. There is also
an interesting haggadic saying by him. The ques-
tion was asked, “ Who testifies against the selfish-
ness of man onthe day of judgment?” Among the
answers given was that of Hidka: “Man’s soul tes-
tifies against him; for it is written (Micah vii. 5),
‘Keep the doors of thy mouth from her who lieth in
thy bosom ’” (Ta‘an. 11a).
slag yi Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, s.v.; Bacher, Ag.
Tam. i. 447.
8. 8. E. L. S.
HIEL (5y.n): A Bethelite who rebuilt Jericho
in the reign of Ahab (I Kings xvi. 34). The curse
pronounced by Joshua (vi. 26) was fulfilled in
Hiel, namely: “He laid the foundation thereof in
Abiram his first-born, and set up the gates thereof
in his youngest son Segub” (I Kings, /.c.), An at-
tempt has been made to identify Hiel with Jehu (see
Cheyne and Black, “Encyc. Bibl.” s.v.; also JEw.
Encvyc. iv. 275, 8.0. CORNER-STONE).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HIERAPOLIS (now called Pambuk Ka-
lessi): City in Phrygia, Asia Minor; mentioned in
Col. iv. 13 together with the neighboring Laodicea.
It was a prosperous city during the Roman period,
largely on account of its medicinal springs. A com-
munity of Jews lived there during the second and
third centuries, three or four of whose grave-inscrip-
tions have been found. In one (found 1853 by
Wagener) Publius Atlius Glycon consecrates a fam-
ily sepulcher and bequeaths “to the honored direct-
ors of [the gild of] purple-dyers ” 200 denarii, that
his grave may be decorated “on the Feast of Un-
leavened Bread”; to “the gild of carpet-weavers”
150 denarii, to be used for a similar purpose on the
387
Feast of Pentecost. Aurelia Glyconida, daughter
of Ammianus, consecrates a sepulcher for herself,
while her husband Marcus Aurelius Theophilus,
called “Asaph” (?), “of the people of the Jews,”
forbids, under a fine of 100 denarii against the Jew-
ish community, the burying of strangers there.
The inscription on the tomb of one Aurelia Au-
gusta of the Soteikos also provides for a fine against
the Jewish community if any one besides herself,
her husband Glyconianus Apros, and her children
be buried there. An inscription (Ramsay, No. 412)
found on a tomb outside the city gate and on the
road to Tripolis, set by a certain Marcus Aurelius
Diodorus Koriaskos, called “ Asbolos,” also attaches
a fine to the interment there of strangers, against the
“sacred management” and the “revered gerusia.”
A certain sum is left, also, to the “council of the
purple-dyers ” for some religious act on the anniver-
sary of the birthday of the deceased. It is possible
that the “gild of the purple-dyers” was a Jewish
body. The decorating of the graves on Jewish holy
days shows how far the Jews of Phrygia had de-
parted from Talmudic usage.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Wagener, in Revue de ’ Instruction Pub-
lique, xvi., vol. xi., Ghent, 1869 (= Philologus, xxxii. 380); Al-
terthtimer von Hierapolis, in Jahresbertcht des Deutschen
Archdologischen Instituts, iv., Supplement, 1898; Ramsay,
Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, i. 545 et seq. ; Schiirer,
Gesch. 3d ed., iii. 18; I. Lévy, in R. B. J. xii. 188; The Jew-
ish Messenger. New York, Jan. 19, 1900. G
HIERETI : Term used to denote the priests (2°35)
in the constitution of the Jewish community in
Rome. Even so late as the fourth century of the
common era they had a distinct position in the relig-
ious life of the community, and ranked higher than
the archisynagogi, as may be seen from one of the
novels of Justinian (“ Codex Thecdosianus,” xvi. 8).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in
Rom, i. 148.
BE. C. M. Sc.
HIERONYMUS. Sce JEROME.
HIGH PLACE (Hebrew, “bamah”; plural,
“bamot”): A raised space primitively on a natural,
later also on an artificial, elevation devoted to and
equipped for the sacrificial cult of a deity, The
term occurs also in the Assyrian (“bamati”; see
Friedrich Delitzsch, “ Assyrisches Handworterb.” p.
177); and in the Mesha inscription it is found (line 8)
as FINI, which leaves the grammatical number
doubtful. Etymologically the long 4 (+) indicates
derivation from a non-extant root,
Etymology ni3. The meaning is assured. The
of only point in doubt is whether the ba-
‘¢Bamah.” mah originally received its name from”
the circumstance that it was located
on a towering elevation or from the possible fact
that, independently of its location, it was itself a
raised construction. The latter view seems the
more reasonable.
The use in Assyrian of “bamati” in the sense of
“mountains” or “hill country,” as opposed to the
plains, as well as similar implications in Hebrew (II
Sam. i. 19, “high places” parallel to the “moun-
tains” in II Sam. i. 21; comp. Micah iii. 12; Josh.
xxvi. 18; Ezek. xxxvi. 2; Num. xxi. 28), is second-
ary. Because the bamah was often located on a
hilltop, it gave its name to the mountain. The re-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
34 (Hebr.) the word has this implication.
Hiddushim
High Place
verse is difficult to assume in view of the fact that
the bamah is often differentiated from the support-
ing elevation (Ezek. vi. 8; I Kings xi. 7, xiv. 23),
and that bamot were found in valleys (Jer. vii. 31,
xix. 5, Xaxii. 85; Ezek. lc.) and in cities (1 Kings
xiii. 82; Il Kings xvii. 9, xxiii. 5) at their gates (I
Kings xxiii, 8).
Though in many passages the term may rightly
be taken to connote any shrine or sanctuary without
reference to elevation or particular construction (see
Amos vil. 9, where “high places” = “sanctuaries ”),
yet there must have been peculiarities in the bamah
not necessarily found in any ordinary shrine. At
all events, altar and bamot are distinct in IT Kings
xxiii. 18; Isa. xxxvi. 7; IJ Chron. xiv. 8. The dis-
tinguishing characteristic of the bamah must have
been that it was a raised platform, as verbs ex-
pressing ascent (I Kings ix. 8, 19; Isa. xv. 2) and
descent (I Kings x. 5) are used in connection there-
with. It was, perhaps, a series of ascending ter-
races like the Assyro-Babylonian “zigurat” (the
“tower” of Babel; Jacob’s “ladder”), and this fea-
ture was probably not absent even when the high
place was situated on a mountain peak. The law
concerning the building of the ALTAR (Ex. xx.
24) indicates that the base was of earth—a mound
upon which the altar rested—primitively a huge
rough, unhewn stone or dolmen, though Ewald’s
theory (“Gesch.” iii. 390), that the understructure
at times consisted of stones piled up so as to form
a cone, is not without likelihood. These high places
were generally near a city (comp. I Sam. ix. 25, x.
5). Nearthe bamah were often placed
Formation “mazzebot” and the ASHERAH (see
and also GROVES). The image of the god
Location. was to be seen at some of the high
places (I1 Kings xvii. 29). Epnop and
TERAPHIM were also among their appointments
(Judges xvii. 5; I Sam, xxi. 9; comp. Hosea iii. 4).
Buildings are mentioned, the so-called “houses of
high places” (I Sam. ix. 22 eé seg.; I Kings xii. 31,
xiii. 82); and Ezek. xvi. 16 suggests the probability
that temporary tents made of “garments” were to
be found there.
Further proof that the bamah was not the hill or
mountain elevation, but a peculiar structure placed
on the peak or erected elsewhere, is furnished by the
verbs employed in connection with the destruction
of the bamot: 338 (Ezek. vi. 3; IT Kings xxxi. 3),
pwr (Lev. xxvi. 30), yn (II Kings xxiii. 8, 15; II
Chron, xxxi. 1), and 9qyw (II Kings xxiii. 15). If
“ramah” (Ezek. xvi. 24, 31) is an equivalent for
“bamah,” as it seems to be, the verbs denoting its
erection (MWY and 7733) offer additional evidence.
Moreover, the figurative value of the term in the idi-
oms “tread upon high places” (¢.¢., in Deut. xxxiii.
29), “ride on high places” (¢.g., Deut. xxxii. 18),
where “fortress” is held to be its meaning, supports
the foregoing view. The conquest of any city, the
defeat of any tribe, included in ancient days the dis-
comfiture of the deities, and hence the destruction
or the disuse of their sanctuaries. Even in Ps. xviii.
6 To
place one on one’s bamot” signifies to give one suc-
cess (comp. Hab. iii. 19; Amos iv. 13; Micah i. 3;
Job ix. 8; Isa. xiv. 14, lviii. 14), or to recognize or
High Place
High Priest
assert one’s superiority. Attached to these high
places were priests (“Kohanim”: I Kings xii. 32;
xiii. 2, 23; I] Kings xvii. 32, xxiii. 20; called also
“kemarim”; II Kings xxiii. 5), as well as “kede-
shot” and “kedeshim ” = “ diviners ” (Hosea iv. 18,
xi.) and “ prophets” (LSam. x. 5, 10; xi. 22). There is
strong probability that the term “ Levite” originally
denoted a person “attached” in one capacity or an-
other to these high places Gb) from mb in nif‘al, “to
join oneself to”), At these bamot joyous festivals
were celebrated (Hosea ii. 138 [A. V. 15], 15 [17]; ix.
4) with libations and sacrifices (2d, ii. 5 [7], ti. 1);
tithes were brought to them (Gen. xxviii. 20-22;
Amos iv. 4); and clan, family, or individual sacrifices
were offered at them (I Sam. ix. 11; Deut. xii. 5-8,
11; the prohibition proving the prevalence of the
practise). It was there that solemn covenants were
ratified (Ex. xxi. 6, xxii. 8 [7]) and councils held
(I Sam. xxii. 6, LXX.).
That the high places were primitively sepulchral
sanctuaries and thus connected with ancestral wor-
ship—this connection accounting for their peculiar
form and their favorite location on mountains, where
the dead were by preference put away (¢.g., Aaron’s
grave on Hor, Num. xx. 20; Miriam’s
Origin of in Kadesh-barnea, Num. xx. 1; Jo-
the seph’s in Shechem, Josh. xxiv. 382;
Bamah. Moses’ on Nebo, Deut. xxxiv.)—has
been advanced as one theory (see No-
wack, “ Hebréische Archiologie,” ii. 14 e¢ seg. ; Ben-
zinger, “ Arch.” Index, s.c. “Bamah”). In greater
favor is another theory ascribing the origin of the
bamot to the prevalent notion that the gods have
their abodes “on the heights” (see Baudissin, “Stu-
dien zur Semitischen Religionsgesch.” ii. 282 et seg.).
The Old Testament documents abound in evidence
that this notion was held by the Canaanites and
was prevalent among the Hebrews (Deut. xii. 2:
Num. xxxiii, 52). The Moabites worshiped Peor
(Baal-peor) on the mountain of that name (Num,
xxili, 28; xxv. 8, 5, 18; xxxi. 16; Deut. iii, 29
.“ Beth-peor ”], iv. 3; Hosea ix. 10; Ps. evi. 28), and
had bamot (Isa. xv. 2, xvi. 12: Jer. xlviii. 85; comp.
“ Bamoth-baal,” Josh. xiii. 17). “ Baal-hermon ” (I
Chron. v. 23) points in the same direction. Carmel
was certainly regarded as the dwelling-place of Baal
(or Yuwa; I Kings xviii.), The Arameans are re-
ported to have believed the God of Israel to bea
mountain god (I Kings xx. 23, 28). The Assyrian
deities held assemblies on the mountains of the north
(Isa. xiv, 13), Non-Hebrew sources complete and
confirm the Biblical data on this point (see Baudis-
sin, ¢.c. p. 239). Patriarchal biography (the men-
tion of Moriah in Gen. xxii. 2; of Gilead [“the
mount”) in Gen, xxxi. 54 [comp. Judges xi. 29]; of
Ramath-mizpeh in Josh, xiii, 26; of Ramoth-gilead
in I Kings iv. 13), the story of Moses (see Sinai,
“the mount of God,” in Ex. iii. 1, iv. 27, xxiv. 18;
I Kings xix. 8; the hill in connection with the vic-
tory over Amalek in Ex, xvii. 9; Mount Hor in Num.
xx. 25; Mount Ebal in Deut. xxvii.;
Home of Josh. viii. 30), and the accounts of the
the Gods. Earlier Prophets (see Carmel in I Kings
Xvili.; Micah vii. 14; Tabor in Judges
iv. 6, xii. 14; Hosea v.1; Mount Olive in II Sam. xv.
82; I Kings xi. 7) illustrate most amply the cur-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
388
rency of the same conception among the He-
brews, who must have believed that mountain peaks
were especially suitable places for sacrifices and
ceremonies, or—what amounts to the same thing
(Schwally, “Semitische Kriegsaltertiimer,” i., Leip-
sic, 1901)—for the gathering of the armed hosts.
This conception, therefore, is at the bottom of both
the plan of construction—in the shape of a sloping,
terraced elevation—and the selection of natural
heights for the locating of the bamot. W. R. Smith
(“ Rel. of Sem.” Index), however, contends that the
selection of a hill near the city was due to practical
considerations, and came into vogue at the time
when the burning of the sacrifice and the smoke had
become the essential features of the cult. Even so,
the factthata hill above all other places was chosen
points back to an anterior idea that elevations are
nearer the seat of the deity.
How far the connotation of “holiness” as “ unap-
proachableness,” “aloofness ” influenced the plan and
location of the bamah can not be determined, though
the presumption is strong that this was the factor
which determined the location of graves and sanc-
tuaries on high peaks and the erection of shrines in
imitation of such towering slopes.
Of bamot the following are especially mentioned :
The bamah of Gibeon (I Kings iii. 4; I Chron. xvi. 89, xxi. 295
II Chron. i. 3, 18); the bamah at Ramah, where Saul and Samuel
met (I Sam. ix. 12, 18, 14, 19, 25); that at Gibeah, where Saul
fell in with the howling dervishes or prophets (I Sam. x. 5,
13); that founded by Jeroboam at Beth-el (II Kings xxiii. 15);
that built by Solomon in honor of CHEMOSH (I Kings xi. 7);
one at a place not named (Ezek. xx. 29; comp. Jer. xlviii. 35;
Isa. xvi. 12). The following places must have been bamot,
though not always explicitly so denominated in the text: Bo-
chim (Judges ii. 5); Ophrah (ib. vi. 24, viii. 27); Zorah (ib. xiii.
16-19}: Shiloh (ib. xviii. 31); Dan (ib. xviii. 80); Beth-el (see
above and Judges xx. 18 [R. V.}, 23, 26 [R. V.J], xxi. 2, 4);
Mizpah (ib. xx. 1; I Sam. vii. 9); Ramah (see above and I Sam.
vii. 17, ix. 12); Gibeah (see above and I Sam. xiv. 35); Gilgal
(ib. x. 8, xi. 15, xiii. 9, xv. 21); Beth-lehem (ib. xvi. 2; xx. 6,
29); Nob (ib. xxi.2); Hebron (II Sam. xv.7); Giloh (ib. xv. 12);
the thrashing-floor of Araunah (ib. xxiv. 25).
Some of these were of ancient origin, being asso-
ciated with events in patriarchal days (e.g., Hebron
[Shechem and Beer-sheba] and Beth-el, Gen. xii. 8,
xii. 4, xxviii. 22). This list, which might easily be
enlarged, shows that the theory which regards the
introduction of the high places as due to the perni-
cious example of the Canaanites and which would
regard all bamot as originally illegitimate in the cult
of YHwH isinadmissible. Yuwnu had His legitimate
bamot as the “Chemosh ” and “ ba‘alim” had theirs.
Only ip the latter days of the Judean kingdom, and
then in consequence of the prophetic preachment,
were the high places put under the ban. The re-
dactor of the books of Kings even concedes the legit-
imacy of the high places before the building of the
Solomonic Temple (I Kings iii. 2), and
Originally the books of Samuel make no effort to
Legiti- conceal the fact that Samuel offered
mate. sacrifices (I Sam. vii. 9) at places that
the later Deuteronomic theory would
not countenance. That the kings, both the good
and the evil ones (Solomon, I Kings iii. 3, 4; Reho-
boam, 26. xiv. 23; Jeroboam, 7). xii. 31, xiil.; Aga,
ib. xv. 14; Jehoshaphat, 2). xxii. 48; Jehoash, IT
Kings xii. 83; Amaziah, 7b. xiv. 4; Azariah, 7. xv.
4; Jotham, 7b. xv. 25; Ahaz, 2. xvi. 4), tolerated and
389
patronized high places is admitted. Elijah is rep-
resented as bitterly deploring the destruction of these
local shrines of Yuwu (I Kings xix. 10, 14), though
Manasseh (II Kings xxi. 3) and even good kings are
censured for having patronized them; and the catas-
trophe of the Northern Kingdom is attributed, in part
at least, to the existence of these sanctuaries (28.).
The cause for this change of attitude toward the
bamot, of which the Deuteronomic and Levitical
law was, according to the critics, the result, not the
reason, was the corruption that grew out of the co-
existence of Canaanitish and of Yuawn’s high places,
the former contaminating the latter. The foreign
wives of the kings certainly had a share in augment-
ing both the number and the priesthood of these
shrines to non-Hebrew deities. The lascivious and
immoral practises connected with the Phenician cults
—~the worship of the baalim and their consorts, of
Molech, and of similar deities—must have reacted on
the forms and atmosphere of the Yuwu high places.
An idea of the horrors in vogue at these shrines may
be formed from the denunciations of the Earlier
Prophets (e.g., AMos and Hosea) as well as from
Ezekiel (xvi. 24, xxv. 31). To destroy these plague-
spots had thus become the ambition of the Prophets,
not because the primitive worship of Yuwn had
been hostile to local sanctuaries where YHwH could
be worshiped, but because while nominally devoted
to Yuwu, these high places had introduced rites
repugnant to the holiness of Israel’s God. This
may have been more especially the case in the North-
ern Kingdom, where there were bamot at Dan and
Beth-cl—with probably a bull ora phallic idol for
Yawu (If Kings xiv. 9; If Kings xvii. 16) and with
bamot priests (I Kings xii. $2; xiii. 2, 38; Hosea x. 5;
see also Amosiii. 14; Micah i. 5, 13)—and in all cities,
hamiets, and even the least populous villages (IL
Kings xvii. 9 e¢ seg.). Some of these bamot continued
to exist after the destruction of Samaria (db. x vii. 29).
Josiah is credited with demolishing all the ba-
mot-houses in Samaria (7b. xxiii. 19), killing the
priests, and burning their bones on the altar (comp.
7b. xxiii, 15), thus fulfilling the prediction put into
the mouth of the Judean prophet under Jeroboam
(I Kings xiii. 32) and of Amos (vii. 9).
In Judea the high places flourished under Reho-
boam (I Kings xiv. 23). His grandson Asa, though
abolishing the foreign cults (¢. xv. 12;
Destruc- IJ Chron. xv. 8), did not totally ex-
tion terminate the high places (I Kings
of the High xv. 14; II Chron. xv. 17); for his suc-
Places. cessor, Jehoshaphat, still found many
of them (II Chron. xvii. 6; I Kings
xxii. 47; see also I Kings xxii. 44; II Chron. xx.
83). Under Ahaz non-Hebrew bamot again in-
creased (II Chron. xxviti. 24; comp. Tophet in Jer.
vii. 31, xix. 5). Jerusalem especially abounded in
them (Micah i. 5). Hezekiah is credited with having
taken the first step toward remedying the evil (see
HEZEKIAH, CRITICAL View). Still under his suc-
cessors, Manasseh and Amon, these high places were
again in active operation. Josiah made an effort to
put an end to the evil, but not with complete suc-
cess (II Kings xxii. 3; II Chron. xxxiv. 3). There
was opposition to his undertaking (see Jer. xi.), and
after his death the Prophets had again to contend
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
High Place
High Priest
with the popularity of those old sanctuaries. Even
after the Exile traces are found of a revival of their
cult (Isa, lvii. 8, Ixv. 1-7, Ixvi. 17). After Josiah
their priests, not all of whom were killed or trans-
ported to Jerusalem (II Kings xxiii. 5, 8), prob-
ably contrived to keep up these old local rites even
at a late day, a supposition by no means irrational
in view of the attachment manifested by Mobam-
medans to just such “makam” (= “mekomot,”
Deut. xii. 2; Clermont-Ganneau, “The Survey of
Western Palestine,” p. 325, London, 1881; Conder,
“Tent Work in Palestine,” 1880, pp. 304-310).
The critical analysis of the Law gives the same
result as the foregoing historical survey. The Book
of the Covenant (Ex. xx. 34) legitimates local altars;
Deuteronomy (xii. 2, 3, 12; comp. xiv. 23-25; xv.
20; xvi. 2, 6, 15, 16; xvii. 8; xviii. 6) orders their
destruction and the centralization of the cult at Jeru-
salem. In the Priestly Code (P) the centralization
is tacitly assumed.
The later rabbis recognize the discrepancies be-
tween the Deuteronomic Jaw and the actions re-
ported of such saintly men as Samuel
Rabbinic and Elijah, as well as of the Patri-
Attitude. archs. They solve the difficulties by
assuming that up to the erection of
the Tabernacle bamot were legitimate, and were
forbidden only after its construction. But at Gilgal
they were again permitted; at Shiloh, again prohib-
ited. At Nob and Gibeon they were once more al-
lowed; but after the opening of the Temple at Jeru-
salem they were forbidden forever (Zeb. xiv. 4 et
seg.). The rabbinical explanations have been col-
lected by Ugolinoin his “ Thesaurus ” (x. 559 et seg.).
A distinction is made between a great (“ gedolah ”)
bamah for public use and a small one for private
sacrifices (Meg. 1. 10; comp. Zeb. xiv, 6). The bamah
was called “menuhah ” (= “temporary residence of
the Shekinah”); the Temple at Jerusalem, “naha-
lah” (= “permanent heritage”) (Meg.10a). A de-
scription of a small bamah is found in Tosef., Zeb.,
at end. E. G. H.
HIGH PRIEST (Hebrew: “kohen ha-gadol,”
II Kings xii. 11; Lev. xxi. 10; “Kohen ha-mashiah ”
=*“the anointed priest,” Lev. iv. 3; “kohen ha-
rosh,” II Chron. xix. 11; once, simply “la rosh,”
II Chron. xxiv. 6; Aramaic: “Kahana rabba” [the
avapasaync of Josephus, “ Ant.” iii. 7, § 1; see Well-
hausen, “ Gesch. Israels,” p. 161]: DXX.: tepede péyac
= “the chief of the priests” [except Lev. iv. 3,
where apyxtepevc, as in the N. T.]).—Biblical Data:
Aaron, though he is but rarely called “the great
priest,” being generally simply designated “as ha-
kohen ” (the priest), was the first incumbent of the
office, to which he wasappointed by God (Ex. xxviii.
1, 2; xxix. 4,5). The succession was to be through
one of his sons, and was to remain in his own family
(Lev. vi. 15; comp. Josephus, “Ant.” xx. 10, § 1).
Failing a son, the office devolved upon the brother
next of age: such appears to have been the practise
in the Maccabean period. In the time of Ext, how-
ever (I Sam. ii. 23), the office passed to the collat-
eral branch of Ithamar (see ELEAzAR), But Solo-
mon is reported to have deposed Abiathar, and to
have appointed Zadok, a descendant of Eleazar, in
High Priest
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
390
his stead (I Kings ii. 85; IChron. xxiv. 2,3). After
the Exile, the succession seems to have been, at first,
in a direct line from father to son; but later the
civil authorities arrogated to themselves the right of
appointment. Antiochus TY., Epiphanes, for in-
stance, deposed Onias IIL. in favor of Jason, who
was followed by Menclaus (Josephus, “ Ant.” xii. 5,
$1; If Macc. iii. 4, tv. 28).
Herod nominated no less than six high priests;
Archelaus, two. The Roman legate Quirinius and
his successors exercised the right of appcintment,
as did Agrippa I, Herod of Chalcis, and Agrippa
II. Even the people occasionally elected candidates
to the office. The high priests before the Exile
were, it seems, appointed for life (comp. Num. xxxv.
25, 28); in fact, from Aaron to the Captivity the
number of the high priests was not greater than
during the sixty years preceding the fall of the
Second Temple.
The age of eligibility for the office is not fixed in
the Law; but according to rabbinical tradition it was
twenty (11 Chron. xxxi. 17; Maimon-
Ageand ides, “ Yad,” Kele ha-Mikdash, v. 15;
Quali- Hul. 24b; ‘Ar. 18b). Aristobulus, how-
fications. ever, was only seventeen when ap-
pointed by Herod ( Ant.” xv. 8, § 3);
but the son of Onias II. was too young (vj7t0¢) to suc-
ceed his father (¢. xii. 5, § 1). Legitimacy of birth
was essential; hence the care in the keeping of the
genealogical records (Josephus, “Contra Ap.” i., 7)
aud the distrust of one whose mother had been cap-
tured in war (“ Ant.” xiii. 10, § 5; Jellinek, “B. H.”
i. 188-187; Kid. 66a; see John Hyrcanus), The
high priest might marry only an Israclitish maiden
(Lev. xxi. 18-14), In Ezek. xliv. 22 this restriction is
extended to all priests, an exception being made in
favor of the widow of a priest. He was not per-
mitted to come in contact with the bodies of the
dead, even of his parents; and he was not per-
mitted, as a sign of mourning, to leave his hair di-
sheveled, to expose it, or to rend his garments (Lev.
xxi. 10 e¢ seg.). According to Josephus (* Ant.” xv.
8, 8 1), birth on foreign soil was not a disqualifica-
tion; but the disqualifications of Lev. xxi. 17 et seq.
applied to the high priest as well as to other priests,
The ceremonial of consecration, extending through
an entire week (Ex. xxix.; Lev. viii), included
certain rites which all priests were required to un-
dergo: purification; the sacrifices; the “ filling” of
the hands; the smearing with blood. But Aaron
the high priest was anointed with sacred oil, hence
the title of the “anointed priest”; other passages
have it that all priests were anointed (Ex. xxviii.
41, xxx. 80; Lev. vil. 36, x. 7; Num. iii. 3). The
high priest’s vestments of office, which he wore,
during his ministrations, above those prescribed
for the common priests, were: the “me‘il,” a sleeve-
less, purple robe, the lower hem of which was
fringed with small golden bells alter-
nating with pomegranate tassels in
violet, red, purple, and scarlet; the
Eruop, with two onyx-stones on
the shoulder-piece, on which were cngraved the
names of the tribes of Israel; the breastplate (“ho-
shen”), with twelve gems, each engraved with the
name of one of the tribes: a pouch in which he
His
Costume.
probably carried the Urmm anp THuMMIM. His
Hiap-Dress was the “miznefet,” a tiara, or, per-
haps, a peculiarly wound turban, with a peak, the
front of which borea gold plate with the inscription
“Holy unto YHwu.” His girdle seems to have been
of more precious material than that of the common
priests.
The first consecration was performed by Moses;
the Bible does not state who consecrated subsequent
high priests. Lev. xxi. 10 states emphatically that
every new high priest shall be anointed; and Ex.
XXix. 29 e¢ seg. commands that the official garments
worn by his predecessor shall be worn by the new
incumbent while he is anointed and during the seven
days of his consecration (comp. Num, xx. 28; Ps.
CXXxJil. 2).
The distinguished rank of the high priest is ap-
parent froni the fact that his sinsare regarded as be-
longing also to the people (Lev. iv. 8, 22). He was
entrusted with the stewardship of the Urim and
Thummim (Num. xxvii. 20 e¢ seg.). On the Day of
Atonement he aloue entered the Holy of Holies, to
make atonement for his house and for
Sanctity the people (Lev. xvi.); on that occa-
and sion he wore white linen garments
Functions. instead of his ordinary and more costly
vestments. He alone could offer the
sacrifices for the sins of the priests, or of the people,
or of himself (Lev. iv.); and only he could officiate
at the sacrifices following his own or another priest’s
consecration (Lev. ix.). He also offered ameal-
offering every morning and evening for himself and
the whole body of the priesthood (Lev. vi. 14-15,
though the wording of the law is not altogether
definite). Other information concerning his func-
tions is not given. He was privileged, probably,
to take part at his own pleasure in any of the priestly
rites. Josephus (“B. J.” v. 5, § 7) contends that
the high priest almost invariably participated in the
ceremonies on the Sabbath, the New Moon, and the
festivals. This may also be inferred from the glow-
ing description given in Ecclus, (Sirach) i. of the
high priest’s appearance at the altar.
In Rabbinical Literature: The high priest is
the chief of all the priests; he should be anointed
and invested with the pontifical garments; but if
the sacred oil is not obtainable (see Hor. 18a; “Se-
mag,” 173, end), investiture with the additional gar-
ments (see BrBLicAL Dara) is regarded as sufficient
(Maimonides, “ Yad,” Kele ha-Mikdash, iv. 12). A
high priest so invested is known as “merubbeh
begadim.” Thisinvestiture consists of arraying him
in the eight pieces of dress and in removing them
again on eight successive days, though (the anointing
and) the investiture on the first day suffices to qual-
ify him for the functions of the office (2d. iv. 13).
The only distinction between the “anointed” and
the “invested” high priest is that the former offers
the bull foran unintentional transgression (Hor. 11b).
The Great Sanhedrin alone had the right to ap-
point, or confirm the appointment of, the high priest.
His consecration might take place only in the day-
time. Two high priests must not be appointed to-
gether. Every high priest had a “ mishneh ” (a sec-
ond) called the Segan, or “memunneh,” to stand
at his right; another assistant was the “catholicos”
391
(“ Yad,” dc. 16-17). The right of succession was
in the direct, or, the direct failing, the collat-
eral, line, provided the conditions con-
cerning physical fitness were ful-
filled (2b. 20; Ket. 103b; Sifra, Kedo-
shim). For offenses which entailed
flagellation the high priest could be sentenced by a
court of three; after submitting to the penalty he
could resume his office (“ Yad,” @.c. 22). The high
priest was expected to be superior toall other priests
in physique, in wisdom, in dignity, and in material
wealth; if he was poor his brother priests contrib-
uted to make him rich (Yoma 18a; “ Yad,” éZ.c. v. 1);
but none of these conditions wasindispensable. The
high priest was required to be mindful of his honor.
He might not mingle with the common people, nor
permit himself to be seen disrobed, or in a public
bath, etc.; but he might invite others to bathe with
him (Tosef., Sanh.iv.; “ Yad,” dc. v. 3). He might
not participate in a public banquet, but he might
pay a visit of consolation to mourners, though even
then his dignity was guarded by prescribed eti-
quette (Sanh. 18-19; “ Yad,” d.c. v. 4).
The high priest might not follow the bier of one
in his own family who had died, nor leave the Tem-
ple or his house during the time of mourning. The
people visited him to offer consolation; in receiving
them, the Segan was at his right, the next in rank
and the people at his left. The people said: “We
are thy atonement.” He answered: “Be ye blessed
from heaven ” (“ Yad,” J.c. v.5; and Kesef Mishneh,
ad lec.). During the offering of consolation he sat
on a stool, the people on the floor; he rent his gar-
ments, not from above, but from below, near the
feet, the penalty for rending them from above being
flagellation (Semag, Lawin, 61-62). He could not
permit his hair to be disheveled, nor could he cut it
(“ Yad,” Z.c. v. 6). Hehad one house attached to the
Temple (Mid. 71b), and another in the
Re- city of Jerusalem. His honor required
strictions. that he should spend most of his time
in the Sanctuary (“ Yad,” d.ce. v. 7%).
The high priest was subject to the jurisdiction of
the courts, but if accused of a crime entailing capital
punishment he was tried by the Great Sanhedrin; he
could, however, refuse to give testimony (Sanh. 18).
The high priest must be married; to guard against
contingencies it was proposed to hold a second wife
in readiness immediately before the Day of Atone-
ment (Yoma i. 1); but polygamy on his part was not
encouraged (in'3 = “one wife”; Yoma 13a; “ Yad,”
dc. v. 10). He could give the “halizah,” and it
could be given to his widow, as she also was sub-
ject to the LEVIRATE; his divorced wife could marry
again (¢.c.; Sanh. 18). When entering the Temple
(“ Hekal ”) he was supported to the curtain by three
men (Tamid 6%a; this may perhaps have reference
to his entering the Holy of Holies; but see “ Yad,”
ic. v. 11, and the Mishneh Kesef ad loc.). He could
take part in the service whenever he desired (“ Yad,”
dc. v. 12; Yomai. 2; Tamid 67b; see Rashi ad loc.).
On the Day of Atonement he wore white gar-
ments only, while on other occasions he wore his
golden vestments (Yoma 60a; comp. 68b, yi. "793).
The seven days preceding the Day of Atonement
were devoted to preparing for his high function,
His
Powers.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
High Prieat
precautions being taken to prevent any accident
that might render him Levitically impure (Yoma i.
1 et seg.). The ceremonial for that day is described
in detail in Mishnah Yoma (see also Haneberg,
“Die Religidsen Alterthtimer der Bibel,” pp. 659-
671, Munich, 1869). For other regulations concern-
ing the high priest see “ Yad,” Biat ha-Mikdash, ii.
1, 8; for details in regard to the vestments see
“Yad,” Kele ha-Mikdash, viii. 2-4, 5 (in reference
to soiled vestments: the white could be worn only
once); Zc. vii. 1 (“ziz”), vii. 3 (“me‘il”), vii. 6
(“hoshen”), vii. 9 (ephod), ix. 1 (order of investi-
ture),
List oF HicgH PRIESTs.
1. Aaron 4, Abishua
2, Eleazar 5. Bukki
3. Phinehas 6. Uzzi (t Chron. vi. 3-5)
With Eli the high-priesthood passes from the line
of Eleazar to that of Ithamar:
Old Testament. Josephus.
Eli
Ahitub (I Chron. ix. 11)
Ahiah (I Sam. xiv. 3)
_Ahimelech (I Sam. xxi. 1) | Ahimetech
Abiathar (I Sam. xxxiii. 6) | Abiathar ts Ant.” v. 11, § 5)
bs fat
SP en
FROM SOLOMON TO THE CAPTIVITY.
(With Zadok the line of Eleazar reappears.)
Old Testament. Josephus. {Seder ‘Olam
Zuta.
12. Zadok (I Kings ii. 35) Zadok Zadok
18. Ahimaaz (IT Sam. xv. 36) Ahimaaz Ahimaaz
14. Azariah (I Kings iv. 2) Azariah Azariah
TDs Sie dbs wslca acne ewes Sawa wae’ Joran Joash
16. Jehoiarib (I Chron. ix. 10) Jesus Joarib
GESe tes Men acs een ea ee peeaes Axiomar Jehoshaphat
18. Jehoiada (II Kings xi.4) =—_su.ccccaceees Joiada
TOs. 23.aiedosd Or aren cite nialew aioe ewe aan Phideas Pedaiah
isa setsiig steten diol sasabe-acve ty aerate, Wa eee wanes udeas Zedekiah
21, Azariah II. (II Chron. xxvi. My) Joel Joel
DO. ctr dale emanate ned ¥en Cue G us ee eae Jotham Jotham
23. Urijah (Il Kings xvi. 10) Uriah riah
24, Azariah III. (IJ Chron. xxxi. 10)| Neriah Neriah
De ek eeeank ardiaid wale Soe See Saute woee Odeas Hoshaish
26, Shallum (I Chron. vi. 12) Shallum Shallum
27. Hilkiah (II Kings xxii. 4) Hilikiah Hilkiah
28, Azariah IV. (I Chron. vi. 18) oe Azariah
29. Seraiab (II Kings xxv. 18) Sareas Zeraiah
30. Jehozadak (1 Chron. vi. 14) Josedek Jehozadak
FROM THE CAPTIVITY TO HEROD.
Old Testament.
31. Jeshua (Hag. i. 1)
32. Joiakim (Neh. xii. 10)
33. Eliashib (Neh. iii. 1)
ae Joiada (Neh. xii. 10, 22)
36
37
Josephus.
Jesus (“* Ant.” xi. 3, § 10)
Joiakim (‘* B. J.” xi. 5, $1)
Eliashib (** B. J.” xi. 5. no
Judas (“* Ant. * xi. 78D)
Joannes (** Ant.” xi. 7, § 1)
jana (** Ant.” xi. 7, & 2)
nias I. (** Ant.” xii, 2, § 5)
. Johanan (Neh. xii. 92)
. Jaddua (Neh. xii. 22)
eeevesreereeertsaeseavsracsees
Apocrypha. Josephus (** Antiquities *’).
38. aerate I. (Ecclus. [Sirach] | Simon the Just (xii. 2, $ 5)
BO didi dae pan onan nates bal Eleazar (xii. 2, § 5)
AOD, Seever cord canssnaeeeseetnaeh Manasseh (xii. 4, § 1)
A nie ol cere ate usa eine eek Onias II. (xii. 4, 81)
ADS ekcdeeckesa Gs hae esha aes Simon I. (xii. 4, § 10)
3. Onias (I Macc. xii. 7) Onias III. He 4, § 10)
. Jason (It Mace. iv. 7) Jesus (xii. 5
1)
Onias, called eenee (xii. 5,81)
Alcimus (xii. 9, 8 7)
Jonathan (xiii. 2, 8 2;
Simon (xiii. 6, 8 7)
. Aleimus (I Mace. vii. 5)
7. Jonathan (I Mace. ix. 28)
48. Simon (the Prince) (I Mace.
xiv. 46)
49. Jonn (I Mace. xvi. 28)
43
44
45, Menelaus (II Mace. iv. 27)
46
4
John Hyrcanus (xiii. 8, i
DOS ofeacdtepaaaie cr etokete ,.-. | Aristobulus I. (xiii. 9, g
BLS 2oe8 tetenrdatav tats Uaiea eet Alexander Jannzeus (xiii. 9 $1)
Doe elcasaumes eetecsetawe over Hyrcanus II. (xiii. 16, § 2)
DOL Mer Can eeews neem core eea ee Aristobulus II. (xv. 1, $2
BAS. ccsiock pia lsaeerde ho aaceate aise eaek 5 eae Il. (restored) xiv. 4,
Doscyniaeesnesele oeaeeeseees Antigone (xiv. 14, § 3)
Diese Koo onthe ereleenee ase cease Hananeel (xv. 2, § 4)
High Priest
Hildesheim
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
392
FROM HEROD TO THE DESTRUCTION OF THE TEMPLE.
Josephus (** Antiquities ’’).
(Under Herod.)
56. Hananeel
57. Aristobulus ITI. (xv. 3, §8 1, 3)
(Hananeel reappointed ; xv. 3, § 3)
58. Jesus, son of Phabet (xv. 9, 8 3)
59. Simon, son of Boethus (perhaps Boethus himself; xv. 9, 3:
XVii. 4, § 2)
60, Mattathias, son of Theophilus (xvii. 6, 8 4)
Joseph, son of Ellem (one day; xvii. 6, 8 4; see Gratz in
** Monatsschrift,”’ 1881, pp. 41 ef seq.)
61. Joazar, son of Boethus (xvii. 6, § 4)
(Under Archelaus.)
62. Eleazar, son of Boethus (xvii. 18, § 1)
63. Jesus, son of Sie (2c¢; xvii. 13, § 1)
(Joazar reappointed; xviii. 1,81; 2,81)
(Under Quirinius.)
64, Ananus, son of Seth (xviii. 2, §2; Luke iii, 2)
(Under Valerius Gratus.)
€5. Ismael, son of Phabi (xviii. 2, § 2)
66. Eleazar, son of Ananus (xviii. 2, § 2)
67. Simon, son of Camithus (xviii. 2, § 2)
68. Joseph (called ‘** Caiaphas ”’ (xviii. 2,82; 4,83; Matt. xxvi.
3, 57) ;
(Under Vitellius.)
69, Jonathan, son of Ananus (xviii. 4,83; ° B. J.” ii, 12, 88 5-6;
138, § 3)
70. Theophilus, son of Ananus (xviii. 5, § 3)
(Under Agrippa.)
71. Simon, or Cantheras, son of Boethus (xix. 6, § 2; see Gritz,
‘**Gesch.”’ 4th ed., iti. 739-746)
"2, Mattathias, son of Ananus (xix. 6, 8 4)
73. Elioneus, son of Cantheras (xix. 8,81; Parah iii. 5)
(Under Herod of Chalcis.)
74. Joseph, son of Cainus (xx. 1, $3)
[Perhaps Ishmael (iii. 15, 8 18) should be placed here.]
75. Ananias, son of Nebedeus (xx. 5, § 2; Derenbourg, * Hist.”
p. 283)
(Jonathan restored; xx. 8, § 5)
(Under Agrippa II.)
76, Ishmael, son of Fabi (xx. 8, §§ 8, 11; Parah iii. 5; Sotah ix.
5; Derenbourg, ” Hist.’? pp. 2382-235)
“7. Joseph Cabi, son of Simon (xx. 8, § 11)
78. Ananus, son of Ananus (xx. 9, § 1)
79, Jesus, son of Damneus (xx. 9,81; “B. J.” vi. 2, 8 2)
tu. Jesus, son of Gamaliel (xx. 9, 88 4,7; Yeb. vi.4; an instance
in which a priest betrothed to a widow before his eleva-
tion was permitted to marry her afterward ; Derenbourg,
** Hist.” p. 248)
81. Mattathias, son of Theophilus (xx. 9, §7; “B. J.” vi. 2,8 2;
Gritz, in ‘* Monatsschrift,”’ 1881, pp. 62-64 ; idem, ‘* Gesch.””
4th ed., iii. 750 et seq.)
82. Phinehas, son of Samuel, appointed by the people during
the war (xx. 10,81; °*B. J.” iv. 3, § 8; see Derenbourg,
** Hist.” p. 269)
[A man altogether unworthy. ]
Josephus enumerates only fifty-two pontificates
under the Second Temple, omitting the second ap-
pointments of Hyrcanus IT., Hananeel, and Joazar,
——Critical View: The foregoing regulations con-
cerning the office, title, and prerogatives of the high
priest are given in P (Priestly Code) and the “ Holi-
ness Code” combined with it; the other Penta-
teuchal sources do not mention a dignitary of this or-
der. The only seeming exception is the reference to
Eleazar as the successor of Aaron “the priest ” (Josh.
xxiv. 38; comp. Deut. x. 6). Deuteronomy (xvii. 8
et seg.) speaks of “the” priest (jn3M) as entrusted
with judgment, and as possessing a rank equal to
that of the judge. This has been taken to indicate
that the office was known to exist and was sanctioned
in the days of the composition of Deuteronomy (but
see Steuernagel ad loc.). Yet this very
Only juxtaposition of judge and priest sug-
Known to gests quite a different conception of
Priestly the office than that prevailing in P
Code. and detailed above. Furthermore, in
Ezekiel’s ideal reconstitution (Ezek.
xl.-xlviii.), though much attention is given to the
status of the priests, the high priest is consistently
ignored. Perhaps }n3n (“the” priest), referring to
the person entrusted with the purification of the
Sanctuary on the two days annually set apart for this
purpose (Ezek. xlv. 19 et seg.), designates the high
priest; butit is significant that the special title is
omitted and that no further particulars are given.
The historical and prophetical books lend proba-
bility to the theory, based on the facts above, that
in pre-exilic days the office had not the prominence
P ascribed to it. Jehoiada (II Kings xi. 10),
Urijah (7. xvi. 10), and Hilkiah (@. xxii. 14) are
each referred to by “ha-kohen,” though “ha-kohen
ha-gadol” is also used, while “kohen ha-rosh” oc-
curs in connection with Seraiah. Many have con-
tended that this enlarged title is to be considcred a
later amplification of the simple 737, a view largely
resting on IJ Sam. xv. 27 (“Zadok ha-kohen”). The
title FIwH jn (“ the second priest”; Jer. lit, 24; I
Kings xxv. 18), however, proves the recognition of
a chief priest. Yet this chief priest in pre-exilic
times must have been regarded in quite a different
light from that presupposed in P. Under David
and Solomon there were two priests, Abiathar and
Zadok, who simultaneously bore the title “ha-
kohen ” (II Sam. viii. 17, xix. 12; I Kings i. 7, iv. 4).
Zadok is represented as officiating both at Gibeon
(I Chron. xvi. 39) and at Jerusalem (II Sam. xv, 24
et seg.). The fact that Solomon deposed Abiathar
and put Zadok in his place has been invoked to re-
move these ditficulties; but the fact that a king
could control the office is proof that it was of a
character other than that assumed in P. If thecon-
clusion is warranted that every shrine had its own
chief priest (Eli at Shiloh; Ahimelech in Nob) be-
fore the complete centralization of the cult at Jeru-
salem, the restriction of the number of high priests
to one is out of the question (see H1gH PLACcR).
After the Exile, Joshua appears vested with such
prominence as FP ascribes to the high priest (Zech.
iii.; Hag. vi. 18). In Ezra and Nehemiah, again,
but little consideration is shown for the high priest.
The post-exilic high priests traced their pedigree
back to Zadok, appointed as chief
Post-Exilic priest at Jerusalem by Solomon (1
Conditions. Kings ii. 35), and Zadok was held to
be a descendant of Eleazar, the son of
Aaron (II Chron. v. 34), Immediately after the re-
turn from the Captivity, as is clearly to be inferred
from Zechariah and Haggai, political authority was
not vested in the high priest. Politica! (Messianic)
sovereignty was represented by, or attributed to, a
member of the royal house, while religious affairs
were reserved to the high-priesthood, represented in
the Book of Zechariah by Joshua. Butin the course
of time, as the Messianic hope, or even the hope of
autonomy under foreign (Persian, Greek, Egyptian,
393
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
His? Priest
Hildesheim
or Syrian) suzerainty, became weaker, the high
priest grew to be more and more also the polit-
ical chief of the congregation, as much, perhaps,
through the consideration shown him by the suzerain
powers and their viceroys as through the effect of
the increasingly thorough acceptance of the Levit-
ical code by pious Judeans. In this connection the
report (I Macc. vii. 14) that the rigorists received
Alcimus, the high priest, with confidence because
he was “a priest of the seed of Aaron” is significant.
The author of the Book of Daniel regards the period
from 536 to 171 B.c. (Joshua to Jason) as inaugurated
by the first, and closed by the last, “anointed”; that
is, Jason, deposed in 171, was for the writer in Daniel
the last of the line of legitimate high priests.
Ecclus. (Sirach) 1. is another evidence of the great
reverence in which the high priest was held. The
assumption of the princely authority by the Macca-
bean high priests (the HASMONEANS)
Political was merely the final link in this devel-
Aspects. opment, which, beginning with the
death of Zerubbabel, was to combine
the two ideals, the politico-Messianic and the religio-
Levitical, in one office. But after the brief heyday
of national independence had come to an inglorious
close, the high-priesthood changed again in charac-
ter, in so far as it ceased to be a hereditary anda
life office. High priests were appointed and re-
moved with great frequency (seeabove). This may
account for the otherwise strange use of the title in
the plural (apytepeic) in the New Testament and in
Josephus (“ Vita,” § 88; “B. J.” ii. 12, § 6; iv. 8, §§
7, 9; iv. 4,§8). The deposed high priests seem to
have retained the title, and to have continued to ex-
ercise certain functions; the ministration on the Day
of Atonement, however, may have been reserved for
the actual incumbent. This, however, is not clear;
Hor. iii. 1-4 mentions as distinctive the exclusive
sacrifice of a bull by the high priest on the Day of
Atonement and the tenth of the ephah (that is, the
twelve “hallot”; comp. Meg.i.9; Macc. ii. 6). But
even in the latest periods the office was restricted to
a few families of great distinction (probably the
bene kohanim gedolim; Ket. xiii, 1-2; Oh. xvii. 5;
comp. Josephus, “B. J.” vi. 2, § 2; see Schiirer,
“Gesch.” 3d ed., ii. 222).
The high priest was the presiding officer of the
SANHEDRIN. This view conflicts with the later
Jewish tradition according to which the Pharisaic
tannaim (the Zueor) at the head of
Connection the academies presided over the great
with Sanhedrin also (Hag. ii. 2). However,
Sanhedrin. a careful reading of the sources
(“ Ant.” xx. 10; “Contra Ap.” if., § 28;
comp. “ Ant.” iv. 8,§ 14; xiv. 9, §§ 3-5 [Hyrcanus
II. as president]; xx. 9, § 1 [Ananus]), as well
as the fact that in the post-Maccabean period the
high priest was looked upon as exercising in all
things, political, legal, and sacerdotal, the supreme
authority, shows it to be almost certain that the
presidency of the Sanhedrin was vested in the high
priest (see Isidore Loeb in “R. E. J.” 1889, xix. 188-
201; Jelski, “Die Innere Einrichtung des Grossen
Synhedrions,” pp. 22-28, according to whom the
“nasi” was the high priest, while the “ab bet din”
was a Pharisaic tanna).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Gesch. 4th ed., vol. iii.; Derenbourg,
Hist. Paris, 1868; Schiirer, Gesch. 3d ed., Leipsic, 1898; H
x
Lesétre, in Vigouroux, Dict. de la Bible, Paris, 1903; Buhl, in
Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyc.; Baudissin, Gesch. des A. T.
Priestertums, 1889.
BE. G. H.
HILARY, THE BISHOP. Sce ARLeEs.
HILBERG, ISIDOR: Austrian philologist;
born May 28, 1852, at Byelaya Tzerkov, Ukraine,
Russia. In 1856 he went with his parents to Vienna,
where he received his early education. Subsequently
he studied classical philology at the University of
Vienna under Vahlen, Gomperz, Hoffmann, and
Hartel (Ph.D. 1874). In 1875 he studied for half a
year in Italy, and became privat-docent in classical
philology at the University of Vienna in 1877. In
1879 he was appointed assistant professor at Prague
University, and in 1882 professor at the University
of Czernowitz, of which he was “Rector Magniti-
cus” in 1898.
Hilberg has published the following works:
“Eusthatii Macrembolite Protonobilissimi de Hys-
mines et Hysminie Amoribus Libri xi.” Vienna,
1876; “Epistula Critica ad Joannem Vahlenum de
Nonnullis Scriptorum Grecorum et Romanorum
Locis Emendandis Explicandisve,” 76. 1877; “Das
Gesetz der Trochiischen Wortformen im Dacty-
lischen Hexameter und Pentameter der Griechen
vom 7. Jabrh. v. Chr. bis zum Untergang der Grie-
chischen Poesie,” 2). 1878; “ Das Princip der Silben-
wiigung und die Daraus Entspringenden Gesetze
der Endsilben in der Griechischen Poesie,” 2d. 1879;
“Die Gesetze der Wortstellung im Pentameter des
Ovid,” Leipsic, 1894; “Philologie und Naturwis-
senschaft” (his discourse when appointed rector,
Czernowitz, 1898).
8. S. Fra.
HILDESHEIM: Town in the Prussian province
of Hanover. At what time Jews were first admitted
to this old episcopal city is uncertain. In a docu-
ment of Jan. 7, 1847, mention is made of the taxes
to be paid by the Jews. The bishops of Hildesheim
exercised the right to receive Jews under their pro-
tection (“jus recipiendi Judeos”), while the town
council also claimed this privilege, and exercised it
for many centuries. Memor-books mention Hildes-
heim among the martyr cities at the time of the
Black Death (1849); but Jews again settled in the
town as soon as 1851. On Jan. 6 of that year Bishop
Henry IJ]. granted them a burial-ground; and by a
grant of Bishop John III. (Nov. 380, 1405) this plot
was enlarged. Inthe “Judenstrasse ” (which is first
mentioned in official documents in 1881) the Jews
were in 1885 permitted to have a synagogue (“Jo-
denschole ”); this was built on property belonging
to the town, for which they had to pay an annual
rent of 4 marks. The Jews and Jewesses paid to
the town council a total annual rent of 53 marks
for their dwellings (one ferding each; the Jew
Keneka, however, had to pay 2 ferdings).
On July 27, 1428, Bishop Magnus pledged the
Jews in the town and bishopric of Hildesheim to the
council as security for a loan of 600 Rhenish guiden;
and the same prelate granted them on Aug. 26, 1439,
a privilege of protection, which in 1441 received the
sanction of the council. The council also signed an
agreement with the Jews regarding their admission,
Fildesheim
Hildesheimer
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
394
government, and right to leave the town, whereby
the original number of families was put at 12,
exclusive of the “Sangmeister” (haz-
Pledged zan)and“Schulklopfer” (sexton); the
by Bishop Jews paid a yearly tax of 60 Rhenish
to gulden to the town, apart from the
the Town rent for synagogue and dwellings.
Council. Their internal affairs were adminis-
tered by four sworn councilors. After
the council had admitted (Aug. 9, 1450) some Jewish
familiesinto the town for six years, all Jews were, in
1457, exiled from the diocese. Some of them found an
asylum.in Brunswick. Theadministrator f the bish-
opric, Bernhard, bound himself, according to a docu-
ment dated March 29, 1457, not to tolerate in the
future any Jews in the see of Hildesheim. Thesyna-
gogue was torn down; the emperor :onfiscated the
valuables belonging to it; and the territory of the
cemetery, where also Jews of other places had buried
their dead, was assigned, with its tombstones, to the
provost of the cathedral, Ekkehard von Hahnensee,
as a site for St. Ann’s Church and the hospital of the
same name in the “ Neustadt” of Hildesheim.
It was more than sixty years later when, at the
time of the chapter feud in 1520 under Bishop
John IV., a Jew called “der grosse Michel” was
admitted to the city on account of his skill asa war-
rior. He was soon joined by other Jews, as, for
instance, one Leifmann, who instructed the clergy
in the Hebrew language. Leifmann was even al-
lowed to remain when, in 1542, the other Jews were
exiled once again. Elector Ernst II. of Cologne,
Bishop of Hildesheim, who had his Jewish physi-
cian, Medicus Herz (of Hamm), admitted into the
city, promised (Nov. 29, 1585) protection to the
Jews; and the council also afforded them protection
(1587). Only a decade later, however (1595), they
were again driven out of the city, owing to Nathan
Schay and Marcus having, after the death of their
wives, married the latters’ sisters, which example
was followed by a Christian physician, whereupon
te head pastor (“ Hauptpastor”), Hesshusius, de-
clared the marriages incestuous,
The exiled Jews instituted proceedings against
the council before the supreme court of the empire
as well as before the imperial court in
Appeal to Prague. <A decision was rendered in
Imperial their favor; and the council, through
Council. the intervention of the electoral gov-
ernment, on March 4, 1601, came to an
agreement with the Jews whereby the Jatter were
permitted to return to the city on the following day.
Eight years later, when they were accused of
being the cause of the plague, they were again
forced to leave the city; they were, however, soon
readmitted. Previous to this (1607) the council had
given three houses to Nathan Schay and his family
in recognition of his valuable financial services to
the city. Ina building in the rear of this property
a synagogue was established, the continuance of
which was permitted by the council in 1615 in con-
sideration of a large money payment. <A new cem-
etery also was allowed the Jews by the provost, in
the neighborhood of their former burial-ground. In
1650 this was replaced by another cemetery, which
was enlarged in 1741.
During the Thirty Years’ war the Jews of Hil-
desheim were heavily taxed. Thus in 1621 they
were required to pay to the lords 150 gulden, and in
1622 as much as 250 to 400 guiden, a month; and
they were threatened with expulsion if they re-
fused. On account of these large payments the few
Jews—10 in the city, and 4in the neighboring vil-
lage of Moritzberg—were so impoverished that their
combined belongings in 1634 did not amount to
2,000 thalers.
In 1660 protection was withdrawn from the Jews
(with the exception of the heirs of Nathan Schay
and Herz Israel), and it was not again granted to
them until they had bound thems lves to pay 500
thalers. On Aug. 9 of the same year the council
issued a “Juden-Geleits-Brief,” to which on Oct. 24,
1662, was added a letter of protection from the
bishop, Elector Maximilian Henry of Bavaria. In
the same year, 1662, a new constitution was adopted,
which remained in force for morc than 150 years
thereafter. Six years later (19 Elul,
New 5428 = 1668) pious men joined in the
Statutes. establishment of a benevolent soci-
ety (“hebra kaddisha shel gemilut
hasadim ”) in Hildesheim, which society is still in
existence.
In the eighteenth century from 40 to 60 families
were offered protection in the city. During the
Seven Years’ war the Jews of Hildesheim were not
freed from the burden of heavy contributions and
numerous taxations. In 1758 they had to pay a
per capita tax and to supply beds, sheets, ete.
After the cessation of the prince-bishop’s secular
power the Jews of the diocese of Ilildesheim wer
for four years (1802-06) subject to Prussian rule;
but under Westphalian government (1803-15) they
enjoyed full liberty and equaiity with the other in-
habitants. In the canton of Fildesheim there were,
in 1812, seventy-seven Jewish f..mi-ies, al’ f whom
lived in the city. AtthattimeaJ wish elementary
public school was founded with the cooperation of
the consistory in Cassel; it still exists.
After Hildesheim had become incorporated with
the kingdom of Hanover the Jews were again
obliged to pay for protection, until at
Emancipa- last an end was put to this system by
tion. the law of Sept. 30, 1842. On Nov.
8, 1849, the consecration of a new
synagogue took place. At present 600 Jews live
in Hildesheim (which since 1866 has belonged to the
kingdom of Prussia). The sommunify has a large
number of benevolent societies and institutions,
among which are several funded by the banker
August M. Dux (d. Dec. 20, 1902), for many years
one of the honorary officers of the community.
Of the rabbis (district rabbis) who officiated in
Hildesheim may be mentioned:
Simon Gtinzburg.
Samuel Hameln (d. 1687),
Mordecai b. Mattithiah ha-Kohen (d. 1684).
Eliakim Gétz (author of the responsa *‘ Eben ha-Shoham *
and ‘‘ Sefer Rappeduni be-Tappuhim ”*).
Hayyim b. Ozer (editor of ‘*Zon Kodashim”’; d. in Mann
heim 1729).
Zebi Hirsch b. Isaac Oppenheimer (d. 1758).
Zebi Hirsch b. Abigdor (d. 1766).
Abraham b. Moses Chelma ha-Levi (d. 1785).
Zebi Hirsch b. Solomon Zalman (Neufeld).
895
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hildesheim
Hildesheime:
Menahem Mende! Steinhart (afterward member of the consis-
tory; d. in Paderborn; author of the responsa ** Dibre Mena-
hem” and of * Dibre Iggeret *’).
Mdschel Elkan (d. 1822).
Aaron Wolfssohn (d. 1830).
L. Bodenheimer, chief rabbi of Krefeld (d. 1867),
M. Landsberg (d. May 20, 1870).
J. Guttmann (since 1892 rabbi of the community in Bresiau).
Since Nov. 4, 1892, Dr. A. Lewinsky has been the district rabbi
of Hildesheim.
Of well-known men who were bornin Hildesheim
may be mentioned: Ludwig Schulmann, editor and
author (deceased), Moritz Giidemann (chief rabbi in
Vienna); Dr. Wolfssohn (formerly rabbiin Stargard,
Pomerania; now living in Berlin as rabbi emeritus);
Max Landsberg, rabbi in Rochester, N. Y.; and
Professor Landsberg, of the Polytechnicum in Darm-
stadt.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lauenstein, Historia Diplomatica Expise.
Hildes. p.94; Aronius, Regesten, p. 269, No. 640; Zeppenfeldt,
Historische Nachrichtci: von der Judenschaft in der Stadt
H., in Beitrdg? zur Hildesheimer Gesch. 1829, i. 216, 272-
279; M. Landsberg, Analektcy zur Gesch. der Judenin Hil-
desheim, in M natsschri/t, 1870. pp. 122-125; idem, Zur
Gesch. der Synagogen-Gemeinde Hildesheim, etc., Hanover,
1868: Wachsmuth, Die Zustiind: in Hildesheim Gegen Ende
Seiner Selbstdéndigkeit, in Zeitschrift fitr Deutsche Cultur-
gesch. 1857, pp. 38-"4; idem, Gesch. von Hildesheim: Doeb-
ner, Urkundenbuch der Stadt Hiidesheim, vols. i.-viii.,
passim; idem, Studien zur Hildesheimischen Gesch. 1902,
pp. 40, 113; Huber, Der Haushait der Stadt 'Tildesheim am
nde des 14. und in der Ersten Hiilfte dcs 15, Jahrh. pp.
51, 71, 123, 140, Leipsic, 1901; Salfcld, Wartyrologium, pp. 78, °
83, 268, 284; Das Memorbuch der Synagogen-Gemeinde zu
Osterode-a.-Harz (in MS.); Bertram, Gesch. des Bistums
Hildesheim, 1899, i. 398, 412, 518; Assertio Libertatis. ...
ro Civitate Hildesiensi, pp. 197, 201, 298, 801, Hildesheim,
7338; Wiener, in Jahrbuch ftir die Gesch. d. Jud. und d
Jud. i. 169, 212; idem, in Zeits. hrift d. Histor. Vereins ftir
Niedersachsen, 1 1, pp. 869-3875: Giidemann, Gesch. iii. 165;
Fischer, Hile’sheim Wtihrend des 30 Jéihrigin Krieges, pp.
15, 25, 77, 31, 35, 121, 140; Kayser, Aus Vergangenen Tagen
der Hildesheimer "Yeustadt, pp. 4, 32, 58, 79, 90; Horwitz,
Die Israeliten Unter dim Koénigreiche Westfalen, pp. 9, 21,
JOL; Verhandlunyen. Wegen Annahme Neuer Schutz-
briefe Zwischon der J7-Oniglichen Provinzial-Regierung zu
Hannover und den Israelitischen Hinwohnern zu Hildes-
heim, 1817, 1015; Lewinsky, Der Hildesheimer Rabbiner
Samuel Hameln, in Iraufmann Gedenkbuch; idem, Dic
Kinder des Hildesheimer Rabbiners Sam. Hametn,in Vo-
natsschrift, 1900, pp. 250, 366 ; 1901, pp. 179 et seq.: Hin Akten-
sttick zur Gesch. der Juden in Hildesheim aus dem Anfange
des 18. Jahrhunderts, ib. 1902, p. 170; 1903, p. 80 (from the
Hildesheim city archives); idem, in Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1900,
No. 38, p. 456; Judenkopf «.. Hildeshetm, in Lo6wenstein’s
Blitter ftir Jtidische Gesehichte und Literatur, ii. 10-45 , fil.
89, 118, 150-169; iv.6-20; idem, Festpredigt zur Feier des
60 Jihrigen Bestehens der Synagoge in Hildesheim, 1899,
ag Zum Andenken an den Verewigten Herrn August
. Dux, p. 15.
D. A. Lew.
HILDESHEIMER, ISRAEL (AZRIEL):
German rabbi, and leader of Orthodox Judaism ; born
at Halberstadt May 20, 1820; died at Berlin July 12,
1899; son of R. Lob Glee Hildesheimer. He attended
the “Hasharat-Zewi” school in Halberstadt, and,
after reaching the age of seventeen, the Talmudic
school of Rabbi Ettlinger in Altona. The hakam
Tsaac Bernays was one of his teachers and his model
as a preacher. While studying rabbinics Hildes-
heimer was also devoting much attention to clas-
sical languages. In 1840 he returned to Halberstadt,
took his diploma at the Dom gymnasium, and
entered the University of Berlin, There he studied
Oriental languages and mathematics, continued his
Talmudic studies, and became a disciple of the domi-
nant Hegelian school. In1842he went to Halle and
continued his studies under Gesenius and Roedi-
ger (Ph.D, 1844, his dissertation being “Ueber die
Rechte Art der Bibelinterpretation ”). Hildesheimer
Hirsch, sister of Joseph Hirsch, head of the firm of
Aron Hirsch & Sohn of Halberstadt.
In 1851 he was called to the rabbinate of Eisen-
stadt (=Kis-Marton), Hungary. His first notable act
there was to found a parochial school, in which cor-
rect German was used, and in which German prin-
ciples of pedagogy were adopted, in teaching Jewish
as wellassecular subjects. Hildesheimer next estab-
lished a rabbinical school, which within a few years
attracted a large number of pupils.
Rabbi in The introduction into the school of
Eisenstadt. German methods of instruction and of
secular branches of learning was re-
sented by the Orthodox party in Eisenstadt, a resent-
ment which Hildes-
heimer’s liberal tenden-
cies and sympathy with
modern culture soon
changed to pusitive an-
tipathy. This feeling
became so strong that
the rabbinical school was
denounced before the
representatives of the
government at Oeden-
burg, the result being
that the government
ordered the school closed
within twenty-four
hours and the pupils
removed from the city.
Soon afterward, however
(1858), Hildesheimer suc-
ceeded in obtaining state recognition for his rab-
binical school,
In addition to the philanthropic activities con-
nected with his own congregation, Hildesheimer
took special interest in the welfare of the Jews of
Palestine. In 1860, when the missionary society of
Palestine provided seventy free dwellings for home-
less Jews, Hildesheimer himself built housesin Jeru-
salem for the free use of pilgrims and of the poor,
These houses are still in the possession of the Hildes-
heimer family. About this time, Akiba Joseph,
the leader of the Hasidim, placed him under a ban
as not truly a sincere Jew (“emessdiger Jiid”).
Hildesheimer, however, seems to have cared little
for the ban. At the Hungarian Jewish Congress of
Dec. 14, 1868, he at first endeavored to associate
himself with the old Orthodox party; but the im-
possibility of such a union soon becoming evident,
he formed his followers, thirty-five in number, into
a separate group, which may be called the “Cul-
tured Orthodox” group, In the Hungarian Jewish
Congress held at Budapest in 1869 he defined
this party as representing a “faithful adherence
to traditional teachings combined with an effective
effort to keep in touch with the spirit of progress”
(“Ha-Maggid,” 1869, xiii., No. 26).
In Berlin at that time the Orthodox minority,
constituting about 200 families, dissatisfied with the
appointment of Abraham Geiger, were in search of
a rabbi of standing who would more nearly repre-
sent them. Their choice fell upon Hildesheimer,
who went to Berlin in 1869 as rabbi and director
Israel Hildesheimer.
then returned to Halberstadt, and married Henrietta | of the bet ha-midrash. There also he soon estab-
Hildesheimer
Hillel
lished a religious school and a rabbinical seminary
for Orthodox Judaism, which thirty former pupils
of his at once entered. Thus he be-
came the real intellectual founder
and leader of the community ‘Adat
Yisrael, Hildesheimer, aided by Ma-
yer Lehmann, the editor of “Israelit,” in Mayence,
exerted his whole energy in the fight against Re-
form. As early as 1847 he had energetically op-
posed, as the representative of the communities in
the Magdeburg district, the Reform attempts of
Ludwig Philippson; in 1861 he took bis stand
against Abraham Gciger by criticizing the latter’s
pamphlet, “ Notwendigkeit und Mass einer Reform
des Jiidischen Gottesdienstes ” (Mayence, 1861). In
an address delivered at his rabbinical seminary and
defining his own position he said: “ Unconditional
agreement with the culture of the present day; har-
mony between Judaism and science; but also uncon-
ditional steadfastness in the faith and traditions of
Judaism: these constitute the program of the New
Community, the standard round which gather the
Israelites of Berlin who are faithful to the Law.”
This firm conviction that traditional Judaism need
have no fear of the light of European culture deter-
mined his attitude and his activity in Hungary and
Germany from the start, and gave him the strength
of a man with a definite aim. It is evident, how-
ever, that Hildesheimer, who would listen to no
compromise, was destined only to widen the gap be-
tween the Reform and the Orthodox Jews of Ger-
many.
In 1876 Hildesheimer celebrated the twenty-fifth
anniversary of his ministry; on the celebration of
his seventieth birthday, in 1890, his friends and
pupils published a literary “Jubelschrift” (Berlin,
1890). Among his writings are the following: “Ma-
terialien zur Beurtheilung der Septuaginta,” in
“Orient, Lit.” 1848, Nos. 30 e¢ seg.; “ Die Epitaphien
der Grabsteine auf dem Hiesigen [of Halberstadt]
Jiidischen Friedhofe,” 1846; “ Verwaltung der Jii-
dischen Gemeinde Halberstadt,” 1849; “ Offener Brief
an den Redakteur des Ben Chananja,” Vienna,
1858; “Minhah Tehorah,” Presburg, 1860; “ Hala-
khot Gedoloth nach der Handschrift der Vaticana,”
Berlin, 1888. He also contributed articles to the
“Jiidische Presse,” to “Ha-Lebanon” (ii. 12, 28
et seg.), to “He-Haluz” (xiii. 108), to “ Archives
Israélites” (li. 206), ete.
Hildesheimer was simple in his habits and fear-
less; he had an unusual capacity for work; and his
great Talmudic learning was joined to practical
administrative ability. Financially independent,
he never accepted remuneration for his rabbinical
activity. In the service of the poor and needy in
Germany, Austria, Russia, and even in Abyssinia
and Persia, no labor was too great and no journey
too long for him, so that he came to be known as
the “international schnorrer.”
His son, Hirsch Hildesheimer, professor at
the rabbinical seminary and editor of the “ Jiidische
Presse, ’’ was the author of “ Beitrige zur Geographie
Palistinas”’ (1886). He died December 6, 1910.
Call to
Berlin.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Anonymous (G. Karpeles), Dr. Israel Hildes-
heimer, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1870; Morais, Eminent I[s-
raelites of the Nineteenth Century, pp. 135 et seq.; Univ.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
396
Tar. liv. 446; Ha-Meliz, xxxix., Nos. 142-143; Ahiasaf, iii.
335 ¢t seq.; Ha-Shahar, vi. 204; Arch. Isr. 1x. 202; Sefer
ha-Shanah, i, 294; Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1899, p. 279.
8. M. Sc.
HILDESHEIMER, SAMUEL BEN JO-
SEPH: Rabbi at Frankfort-on-the-Main (1618-22).
He reorganized the Jewish congregation, whose ad-
ministration, in consequence of the FETTMILCH agi-
tation, was disrupted. Upon his proposition seven
representatives, chosen from among the new mem-
bers, and known as the “ Aussengemeinde,” were
added to the old board of ten; four of these seven
were to act, during two months of each year, as col-
lectors and as presidents of thesynagogue. Hildes-
heimer also regulated the functions of the day-
yanim.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Horovitz, Frankfurter Rabbinen, ti. 19-24,
Dd. S. Man.
HILFA. See HALAFTA.
HILKIAH (mbm, wobn=“my portion is
Yuwa”): 1. High priest in the reign of Josiah (II
Kings xxii. 4 e¢ seg.). It is probable that he was the
Hilkiah ben Shallum who figures in the genealogy
of high priests in I Chron. v. 89 (A. V. vi. 18), and
that he was, consequently, father of Azariah and
great-grandfather of Ezra the Scribe (7b. ; Ezra vii. 1).
Kimhi and Abravanel (to Jer. i. 1), however, give
his father’s name as “Shaphan.”
Josiah commissioned Hilkiah to superintend the
repairs of the Temple; and it was when the Jatter
took the silver from the Temple treasury that he
found the scroll of the Law (II Kings xxii. 4-8; II
Chron. xxxiv. 9-14). Hlilkiah gave the scroll to
Shaphan the Scribe; the latter read it before the king,
who, terrified by the divine warnings, sent Hilkiah
with four other high officials to consult the proph-
etess Huldah (II Chron. xxxiv. 20 et seqg.). The find-
ing of the scroll was the cause of the great reforma-
tion effected by King Josiah.
The question as to the nature of the scroll and the
cause of the impression it made on Josiah, which
has evoked so much higher criticism, is answered in
a very simple manner by the Jewish commentators
Rashi, Kimhi, and many others. They say that
when Ahaz burned the scrolls of the Law the
priests of Yawn hid one copy in the Temple, and
that Hilkiah found it while searching for the silver.
The scroll happened to be open at the passage Deut.
XXviii. 36; and it was this that terrified Josiah.
Kennicott (“ Heb. Text;” ji. 299) tries to infer from
It Chron. xxxiv. 14 that Hilkiah found the original
autograph copy of Moses. As to other opinions
see JOSIAH.
2. Father of Eliakim; the controller cf Hezckiah’s
palace, who served as ambassador from Hezekiah
to Rab-shakeh (II Kings xviii. 18; Isa. xxii. 20). |
3. Father of Jeremiah (Jer. i. 1). According to
Kimhi and Abravanel (see above), he was the same
as No. 1.
4, 5. Two Merarite Levites (I Chron. vi. 30 [A.
V. 45], xxvi. 11).
6. Father of Gemariah; one of the ambassadors
that Zedekiah sent to Nebuchadnezzar (Jer, xxix. 3).
7. A priest that returned from captivity with
Zerubbabel (Neh. xii. 6 [A. V. 7]).
397
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hildesheimer
Hillel
8. A priest who stood at the right hand of Ezra
when the latter read the Law before the people (28.
viii, 4).
BE, C. M. SEL.
HILLAH. See Mein.
HILLEL: Doctor of the Law at Jerusalem in
the time of King Herod; founder of the school called
after him, and ancestor of the patriarchs who stood
at the head of Palestinian Judaism till about the
fifth century of thecommonera. Hillel wasa Baby-
lonian by birth and, according toa later tradition,
belonged to the family of David (Lévi, in “R. E. J.”
Xxxi. 202-211, xxxiii. 148). Nothing definite, how-
ever, is known concerning his origin, nor is he any-
where called by his father’s name, which may per-
haps have been Gamaliel. When Josephus (“ Vita,”
§ 38) speaks of Hillel’s great-grandson, Simeon ben
Gamailiel I., as belonging to a very celebrated family
(yévovg dé o¢ddpa Aaurpodv), he probably refers to the
glory which the family owed to the activity of Hillel
and GamalielI. Only
Hillel’s brother Sheb-
na (Sotah 21a) is men-
tioned ; he was a mer-
chant, whereas Hillel
devoted himself to
study. InSifre, Deut.
357 the periods of
Hillel’s life are made
parallel to those in
the life of Moses.
Both were 120 years
old; at the age of
forty Hillel went to
Palestine; forty years —
hespentinstudy ; and
the last third of his
life he passed as the
spiritual head of Is-
rael. Of this artifici-
ally constructed bio-
graphical sketch this
much may be true,
that Hillel went to Je-
rusalem in the prime
of his manhood and
attained a great age.
His activity of forty years is perhaps historical; and
since it began, according to a trustworthy tradition
(Shab. 15a), one hundred years before the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem, it must have covered the period
30 B.c.-10 C.E.
According to an old tannaitic tradition founded
upon Hillel’s own words, Hillel went to Jerusalem
with the intention of perfecting himself in the science
of Biblical exposition and of tradition (Yer. Pes.
38c; Tosef., Neg. i.; Sifra, Tuzria‘, ix.). Shemaiah
and Abtalion, the “great Scripture expositors”
(“darshanim”; Pes. 70b), became his teachers. The
difficulties which Hillel! had to overcome in order
to be admitted to their school, and the hardships
he suffered while pursuing his aim, are told in a
touching passage (Yoma 35b), the ultimate purpose
of which is to show that poverty can not be consid-
ered as an obstacle to the study of the Law. Some
Entrance to the Traditional Tomb of Hillel the Great.
(From a photograph by Dr, W, Popper.)
time after the death of Shemaiah and Abtalion, Hillel
succceded in settling a question concerning the sac-
rificial ritual in a manner which showed at once
his superiority over the Bene Bathyra, who were at
that time the heads of the college. On that occasion,
it is narrated, they voluntarily resigned their position
in favor of Hillel (Tosef., Pes. iv.; Pes. 66a; Yer.
Pes. 88a). According to tradition, Hillel thereupon
became head of the Sanhedrin with the title of “ Nasi”
(prince); but this is hardly historical. All that can
be said is that after the resignation of
His the Bene Bathyra Hillel was recog-
Position. nized as the highest authority among
the Pharisees and the scribes of Jeru-
salem. He was the head of the great school, at first
associated with Menahem, a scholar mentioned in no
other connection, afterward with Shammai, Hillel’s
peer in the study of the Law (Hag. ii. 2; Gem.
16b; Yer. Hag. 77d). Hillel’s only title was “ Ha-
Zaken ” (the elder), a title given not to distinguish
him from another of the same name, as some have
held, but either to
express his position
among the leading
scribes or to indicate
his membership in the
Sanhedrin.
Whatever Hillel’s
position, his author.
ity was sufficient to
introduce those de-
erees: which were
handed down in his
name. The most fa-
mous of his enact-
ments was the Pros-
BUL (7po0o30d%), an in-
stitution which, in
spite of the law con-
cerning the year of
jubilee (Deut. xv. 1
et seqg.), insured the
repayment of loans
(Sheb. x. 8). The
motive for this in-
stitution was the
“amelioration of the
world” (“tikkun ha-
‘olam”), ¢.e., of the social order (Git. iv. 3), be-
cause it protected both the creditor against the loss
of his property, and the needy against being refused
the loan of money for fear of loss. A like tendency
is found in another of Hillel’s institutions, having
reference to the sale of houses (Lev. xxv. 80, ‘Ar.
ix.). These two are the only institutions handed
down in Hillel’s name, although the words which
introduce the prosbul (Sheb. 2.) show that there were
others. Hillel’s judicial activity may be inferred from
the decision by which he confirmed the legitimacy
of some Alexandrians whose origin was disputed, by
interpreting the marriage document (“ ketubbah ”) of
their mother in her favor (Tosef., Ket. iv. 9; B. M.
104a). Of other official acts no mention is found in
the sources. '
In the memory of posterity Hillel lived, on the
one hand, as the scholar who made the whole con-
Hillel
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
398
tents of the traditional] law his own (Soferim xvi. 9),
who, in opposition to his colleague, Shammai, gen-
erally advocated milder interpretations
Hillel and of the Halakah, and whose disciples as
Shammai. a“house,” thatis, as “ Hillel’sschool,”
stood in like opposition to Shammai’s
disciples. On the other hand, he was known as the
saint and the sage who in his private life and in
his dealings with men practised the high virtues
of morality and resignation, just as he taught them
in his maxims with unexcelled brevity and earnest-
ness. The traditions concerning Hillel's life har-
monize completely with the sayings which are
handed down in his name, and bear in themselves
the proof of their genuineness. No wonder that the
Babylonian Talmud is richer in traditions concerning
Hillel than the Palestinian, since the Babylonians
were especially careful to preserve the recollection
of their great countryman; and in the Babylonian
schools of the third century was proudly quoted the
saying of the Palestinian Simeon ben Lakish—on the
whole no friend of the Babylonians—in which he
placed the activity of Hillel on a level with that of
Ezra, who also went up from Babylon to Jerusalem.
Hillel’s sayings are preserved partly in Hebrew, the
language of the school, partly in Aramaic, the lan-
guage of the people, or, as it is said in Ab. R. N.
xii., in the language of Hillel’s home (“the Baby-
lonian language ”).
The saying of Hillel which introduces the collec-
tion of his maxims in the Mishnaic treatise Abot
mentions Aaron as the great model to be imitated in
his love of peace, in his love of man, and in his lead-
ing mankind to a knowledge of the Law (Ab. i. 12).
In mentioning these characteristics, which the Hag-
gadah then already ascribed to Moses’ brother, Hillel
mentions his own most prominent virtues. Love of
man was considered by Hillel as the kernel of the
entire Jewish teaching. When a heathen who
wished to become a Jew asked him for a summary
of the Jewish religion in the most concise terms, Hillel
seid: “ What is hateful to thee, do not unto thy fel-
low man: this is the whole Law; the rest is mere
commentary ” (Shab. 31a). With these words Hillel
recognized as the fundamental principle of the Jew-
ish mora] law the Biblical precept of brotherly love
(Lev. xix. 18). Almost the same thing was taught
by Paul, a pupil of Gamaliel, the grandson of Hillel
(Gal. v. 14; comp. Rom. xiii. 8); and more broadly by
Jesus when he declared the love of one’s neighbor
to be the second great commandment
The Golden beside the love of God, the first (Matt.
Rule. xxii. 39; Mark xii. 31; Luke x. 27).
It may be assumed without argument
that Hillel’s answer to the proselyte, which is extant
in a narrative in the Babylonian Talmud (comp. also
Ab. R. N., recension B., cxxvi. [ed. Schechter, p.
53]), was generally known in Palestine, and that it
was not without its effecton the founder of Chris-
tianity.
It has been remarked that Hillel did not, like
Jesus, state the love of God to be the principal com-
mandment of the Jewish teaching (see Delitzsch,
“Jesus und Hillel,” p. 17); but it must not be for-
gotten that Jesus gave his answer toascribe, where-
as Hillel answered the question of a prospective
proselyte, to whom it was necessary first of all to
show how the teachings of Judaism are to be prac-
tised by him who wishes to accept them. That the
love of God had also a central position in Hillel’s
conception of religion needs not to oe proved; this
position had long been assigned to it in Judaism—
since the Scripture passage in which this precept is
joined immediately to the confession of the unity
of God (Deut. vi. 4 e¢ seg.) had been made the prin-
cipal portion of the daily prayer. Moreover, the
Pharisaic scribes who approved of Jesus’ answer
evidently belonged to Hillel’s school. Hillel seems
to have connected the precept of brotherly love with
the Biblical teaching of man’s likeness to God, on
which account he calls the love of man “love of
creatures ” (“oheb et ha-beriyyot”); and it is worthy
of note that the term “creatures” for men was then
already the common property of the language.
From the doctrine of man’s likeness to God Hillel
ingeniously deduced man’s duty to care for his own
body. In a conversation with his disciples (Lev.
R. xxxiv.) he said: “As in a theater and circus the
statues of the king must be kept clean by him to
whom they have been entrusted, so the bathing of
the body is a duty of man, who was created in the
image of the almighty King of the world.” In an-
other conversation Hillel calls his soul a guest upon
earth, toward which he must fulfi! the duties of
charity (¢b.). Man’s duty toward himself Hillel em-
phasized also in the first sentence of his saying (Ab.
i. 14): “If Iam not for myself, who is for me? and
if Iam only for myself, what am I? and if not now,
when?” The second part of this sentence expresses
the same idea as another of Hillel’s teachings (Ab.
ii. 4); “Separate not thyself from the congregation.”
The third part contains the admonition to postpone
no duty—the same admonition which he gave with
reference to study (Ab. ii. 4): “ Say not, ‘When I
have time I shall study’; for you may perhaps
never have any Icisure.”
The precept that one should not separate oneself
from the community, Hillel paraphrases, with refer-
ence to Eccl. iii. 4, in the following saying (Tosef.,
Ber. ii., toward the end): “Appear neither naked
nor clothed, neither sitting nor standing, neither
laughing nor weeping.” Man should not appear
different from others in his outward deportment; he
should always regard himself as a part of the whole,
thereby showing that love of man which [Hillel
taught. The feeling of love for one’s neighbor
shows itself also in his exhortation (Ab. ii. 4):
“Judge not thy neighbor till thou art in his place”
(comp. Matt. vii. 1). In the following maxim is ex-
pressed also his consciousness of his own insuffi-
ciency: “Trust not thyself till the day of thy death.”
How far his love of man went may be seen from an
example which shows that benevolence must act
with regard to the needs of him whois to be helped.
Thus a man of good family who had become pocr
Hillel provided with a riding horse, in order that he
might not be deprived of his customary physical
exercise, and with a slave, in order that he might be
served (Tosef., Peah, iv. 10; Ket. 67b).
That the same spirit of kindness prevailed in Hil-
lel’s house is shown by a beautiful story (Derek
Erez v.). Hillel’s wife one day gave the whole of
399
a meal, prepared in honor of a guest, to a poor man,
and at once prepared another. When she excused
herself for the delay and explained its cause, Hillel
praised her for her action. How firmly Hillel was
persuaded that peace was ruling in his house, the
following tradition teaches (Ber. 60a; Yer. Ber.
14b): When one day he came near his house and
heard a noise, he expressed, in the words of Ps. exii.
7 (“Te shall not be afraid of evil tidings”), his con-
fidence that the noise could not be in his house.
His trust in God was such that whereas Shammai
provided for the Sabbath already on the first day of
the week, Hillel referred to Ps, Ixviii, 19: “ Blessed
be the Lord who daily loadeth us with benefits”
(Bezah 16a).
The exhortation to love peace emanated from
Hillel’s most characteristic traits—from that meek-
ness and mildness which had become
proverbial, as is seen from the saying:
“Let a man be always humble and
patient like Hillel, and not passionate
like Shammai” (Shab. 81a; Ab. R. N. xv.). Hillel’s
gentleness and patience are beautifully illustrated in
apn anecdote which relates how two men made a
wager on the question whether Hillel could be made
angry. Though they questioned him and made in-
sulting allusions to his Babylonian origin, they were
unsuccessful in their attempt (zd.). In the anecdotes
about proselytes in which Hillel and Shammai are
opposed to each other, Hillel’s mildness and meek-
ness appear ina most favorable light. In a para-
doxical manner Hillel praised humility in the fol-
lowing words (Lev. R. i. 1): “My humility is my
exaltation; my exaltation is my humility” (with
reference to Ps. cxiii. 5).
The many anecdotes, resting doubtless on good
tradition, according to which Hillel made _ prose-
lytes, correspond to the third part of his maxim:
“Bring men tothe Law.” A later source (Ab. R.N.,
recension B., xxvi., toward the end) gives the fol-
iowing explanation of the sentence: Hillel stood in
the gate of Jerusalem one day and saw the people
on their way to work. “How much,” he asked,
“will you earn to-day?” One said: “A denarius”;
the second: “Two denarii.” “What will you do
with the money?” he inquired. “ We will provide
for the necessities of life.” Then said he to them:
“Would you not rather come and make the Torah
your possession, that you may possess both this and
the future world?” This narrative has the same
points as theepigrammatic group of Hillel’s sayings
(Ab. ii. 7) commencing: “The more
The Study flesh, the more worms,” and closing
of with the words: “Whoever has ac-
the Law. quired the words of the Law has ac-
quired the life of the world to come.”
In an Aramaic saying Hillel sounds a warning
against neglect of study or its abuse for selfish pur-
poses: “ Whoever would make a name [glory] loses
the name; he who increases not [his knowledge] de-
creases; whoever learns not [in Ab. R. N. xii:
“who does not serve the wise and learn ”] is worthy
of death ; whoever makes use of the crown perishes”
(Ab. i. 18). Another group reads (Ab. ii. 5): “The
uneducated has no aversion to sin; the ignorant is
not pious; the timid can not learn, nor the passion-
Love
of Peace.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hillel
ate teach; he who is busied with trade can not be-
come wise. In a place where there are no men,
study to show thyself a man” (2.). In this last
sentence Hillel may have recalled how he, overcom-
ing his modesty, manfully came forward in Jerusa-
lem after the death of Shemaiah and Abtalion and
gavea new impulse to learning, then threatened with
decay. To his own activity no doubt refers the say-
ing preserved in Aramaic (Yer. Ber. 148) and Hebrew
(Tosef., Ber. vii.; Ber, 68a): “Where some gather,
scatter; where they scatter, gather!” that is, “ Learn
where there are teachers, teach where there are
learners” (another form is given in Sifre Zuta on
Num. xxvii. 1; Yalk., Num. 778).
The epigrammatic and antithetic form of Hillel’s
sayings, as wellas the almost mystic depth of his
consciousness of God, may be seen
Mystical from the words spoken by him at
Utterances. the festival of water-drawing, when,
filled witha feeling of God’s presence,
hesaid: “If I am here—so says God—every one
is here; if I am not here, nobody is here” (Suk.
58a; Ab. R. N. xii., without stating the occasion of
the utterance). In like manner, with reference to
Ex. xx. 24, and applying a proverb, Hillel makes
God speak to Israel: “To the place in which I de-
light my feet bring me. If thou comest to mine
house, I come to thine; if thou comest not to mine,
I come not to thine” (Suk. @.c.; Tosef., Suk. iv. 3).
In an epigrammatic form Hillel expresses the
moral order of the world, according to which every
sin is punished (Ab. ii. 6). Seeing a skull floating
on the water, he said (in Aramaic): “Because thou
didst drown, thou art drowned; and in the end they
that have drowned, shal! be drowned.” Hillel was
perhaps thinking here of the misdeeds of Herod and
of the retribution which he could not escape.
No indications exist of Hillel’s relation to the
rulers of his time; but his love of peace and his de-
votion to study as the most important part of his
life, no doubt showed the way which his disciple
Johanan ben Zakkai, under the yoke of the Romans
and amidst the strife of parties which brought about
the catastrophe of Jerusalem, pursued for the salva-
tion of Judaism. A panegyric tradition concerning
Hillel's pupils (Suk. 28a; B. B. 184a), which glori-
fies the master in the disciples, recounts that of the
eighty disciples whom Hillel had (probably during
the last period of his activity), thirty were worthy
that the glory of God (the spirit of prophecy) should
rest upon them as upon Moses; thirty, that for their
sake the sun should stand still as for Joshua. It is
possible that this figure, which may have had a his-
torical basis, was a reference to the fact that among
Hillel’s disciples were those who, like Joshua, were
ready to fight against Israel’s enemy and were
worthy of victory; perhaps, also, that to them be-
longed those distinguished and beloved teachers
whom Josephus mentions (“ Ant.” xvii. 6, § 2),
Judah ben Sarifai and Mattithiah ben Margalot, who
shortly before Herod’s death led a revolt directed
against fixing the Roman eagle on the Temple
gate. This tradition concerning MHillel’s disci-
ples mentions, moreover, two by name: JONATHAN
BEN UzzIEL and JOHANAN BEN ZAKKAI (comp. also
Yer. Ned. v., toward the end).
Hillel THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hillel ben Samuel
In the history of tradition Hillel’s disciples are
generally called “the house of Hillel” (sée Bet
HILLEL), in opposition to Shammai’s
disciples, “the house of Shammai.”
Their controversies, which no doubt
included also those of their masters,
concern all branches of tradition—Midrash, Hala-
kah, and Haggadah. Only a few decisions, belong-
ing to these three branches, have been handed down
under Hillel’s name; but there can be no doubt that
much of the oldest anonymous traditional literature
was due directly to him or to the teachings of his
masters. The fixation of the norms of the Midrash
and of halakic Scripture exposition was first made
by Hillel, in the “seven rules of Hillel,” which, as
is told in one source, he applied on the day on which
he overcame the Bene Bathyra (Tosef., Sanh. vii.,
toward the end; Sifra, Introduction, end; Ab. R. N,
XxxXvii.). On these seven rules rest the thirteen of
R. Ishmael; they were epoch-making for the sys-
tematic development of the ancient Scripture ex-
position.
Hillel's importance as the embodiment of the re-
ligious and moral teachings of Judaism and as the
restorer of Jewish Scripture exegesis is expressed
in a most significant manner in the words of lamen-
tation uttered at his death: “ Wo for the meek one!
Wo for the pious! Wo for the disciple of Ezra!”
(Tosef., Sotah, xiii. 8; Sotah 48b; Yer. Sotah, toward
the end), One day while he and the sages were as-
sembled at Jericho, a heavenly voice is said to have
exclaimed: “ Among those here present is one man
upon whom the Holy Spirit would rest, if his time
were worthy of it.” All eyes were thereupon fixed
on Hillel. No miracles are connected with Hillel’s
memory. He lived, without the glory of legend, in
the memory of posterity as the great teacher who
taught and practised the virtues of philanthropy,
fear of God, and humility.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Comp. the respective sections in the works of
Frankel, Gratz, Geiger, Weiss, Hamburger, Renan, Deren-
bourg, and Schirer; Bacher, Ag. Tan. i. 4-14 (2d ed., 1-11);
Kampf, Hillel der Aeltere, in Orient, ix.-x; Goitein, Das
Leben und Wirken des Patriar ‘chen Hiilel, in Berliner’s
Magazin, xi.; Franz Delitzsch, Jesus und Hillel, Erlangen,
1866 "3a ed., 1879); Strack, in Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyc. viii.
oe S.V. Hill el.
W. B.
HILLEL II.: Patriarch (330-365); son and suc-
cessor of Judah III. Only in two instances is his
name quoted in connection with halakot: in one,
Jose b. Abin expounds to him a law; in the other,
Hillel cites a mishnah to establish a law (Yer. Ber.
ii. 5a; Yer. Ter. i. 41a). Tradition ascribes to him
an enactment which proved of incalculable benefit
to his coreligionists of his own and of subsequent
generations. To equalize the lunar with the solar
year, and thereby render possible the universal cele-
bration of the festivals on the days designated in the
Bible, occasional intercalations of a day in a month
and of a month in a year were required (see CAL-
ENDAR). These intercalations were determined at
meetings of a special commission of the Sanhedrin.
But Constantius, following the tyrannous prece-
dents of Hadrian, prohibited the holding of such
meetings as well as the vending of articles for dis-
tinctively Jewish purposes, How difficult the fix-
ing of the annual calendar consequently became may
His
Influence.
400
be judged from an enigmatic letter addressed to
Raba, the principal of the academy at Mahuza, and
preserved in the Talmud. It was evidently written
by a friend in Palestine who wished to acquaint the
Babylonian religious authorities with the condition
of Judaism in its mother country, and with the reso-
lutions of a meeting held for the purpose indicated
above. It reads thus:
“A pair [of disciples], coming from Rakkat [Tiberias ; see
Meg. 6a}, were apprehended by the Eagle [Romans], because
in their possession they had fabrics from Luz [blue or purple
yarn for fringes, the zizit}. By the grace of the All-merciful
and through their own merits they escaped. Also, the burden-
bearers of Nahshon [the diviner: the commission appointed by
tbe patriarch] desired to establish a guard [an intercalary
month}, but the Arameans [Romans] would not permit them.
However, the commanders of the gathering [leaders of the
council] convened (another time] and established a guard in the
month in which Aaron the priest died’ (the month of Ab;
Sanh. 12a).
Almost the whole Diaspora depended for the legal
observance of the feasts and fasts upon the cal-
endar sanctioned by the Judean Sanhedrin; yet
danger threatened the participants in that sanction
and the messengers who communicated their deci-
sions to distant. congregations. Temporarily to re-
lieve the foreign congregations, Huna b. Abin
(doubtless with the approval, or by the order, of
Hillel) once advised Raba not to wait for the official
intercalation: “When thou art convinced that the
winter quarter will extend beyond thesixteenth day
of Nisan declare the year a leap-year, and do not
hesitate” (R. H. 21a). But as the religious persecu-
tions continued, Hillel determined to provide an
authorized calendar for all time to come, though by
so doing he severed the ties which united the Jews
of the Diaspora to their mother country and to the
patriarchate.
The emperor Julian showed himself particularly
gracious to Hillel, whom he honored on many occa-
sions. In anautograph letter to him, Julian assured
him of his friendship and promised to ameliorate
further the condition of the Jews. Before setting
out for the war with Persia, Julian addressed to the
Jewish congregations a circular letter in which he
informed them that he had “committed the Jewish
tax-rolls to the flames,” and that, “desiring to show
them still greater favors, he has advised his brother,
the venerable patriarch Julos, to abolish what was
called the ‘send-tax.’ ”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. iv. 382 ef seq., and note 34; Ha-
lévy, Dorot ha-Rishonin, ii, 197; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot,
ii.; Krochmal, Yerush alayim ha-Benuyah, Introduction,
pp. 27 et seq.; ‘Mahzor Vitry, p. 478, Berlin, 1893.
8.
HILLEL B. BERECHIAH (JEBERE-
CHIAH): Palestinian haggadist. Heiscited only
once under this name, and then as author of an in-
terpretation which elsewhere is attributed to another
(Lam. R. i. 5; comp. Sanh. 104b). He is identical
with Ila‘i or Ilaa b. Berechiah, “Hillel” being a
variant of this name (comp. ELA). Under this name
he appears several times (see Ta‘an. 10a; Sanh. 94b;
comp. Rabbinovicz, “Dikduke Soferim,” ad Jloc.).
Among several of his homiletic interpretations,
grouped together for students, there is one which de-
clares that when two students travel together and
do not discuss the Law they deserve to be consumed
401
by fire. He deduces this from II Kings ii. 11: had
Elijah and Elisha not talked of the things of the
Law the fiery chariot and horses would have con-
sumed and not mercly have parted them (Sotah
49a).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pat. Amor. iti. 703, 764; Heil-
prin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 27a, Warsaw, 1897.
s. S. M.
HILLEL BEN ELIAKIM: Greek Talmudist
of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. He was a pu-
pil of Rashi, and is mentioned by Mordecai b, Hillel
(Haggahot on Git. No. 466). Hillel wrote a com-
mentary to Sifra in which he often quotes Rashi and
Isaac b. Melchizedek; he also wrote a commentary
to Sifre. Both works were known to the tosafists;
the former is mentioned in the “Sefer Yihuse ha-
Tanna’im weha-Amora’im,” the latter in the Tosefta
(Sotah 15a, 38a) and in the Mordekai (Git. No. 376).
The former is also quoted by Elijah Mizrahi in his
commentary on Rashi, by Aaron b. Hayyim in his
“Korban Aharon,” and by Menahem Azariah Fano
in his Responsa (No. 11).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim; Michael, Or ha-
Hayyim, No. 796; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 292.
8. M. SEL.
HILLEL OF ERFURT: Talmudic authority ;
lived at Erfurt in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen-
turies; a contemporary of Shalom of Neustadt, and
a pupil of Meir ben Baruch Faleri. According to
A. Brill, Hillel is identical with one “ Hiller” who
figures in a document of 1416 as having been nomi-
nated chief rabbi of Thuringia by Margrave Wil-
helm (Ludewig, “Reliquis: Manuscripte,” x. 254).
Hillel is said to have once left Erfurt for Palestine
to fulfil a vow he had made to spend the remainder
of his life in the Holy Land. On reaching Vienna
he was seized with a longing to return, because he
considered that the Talmudical school of Erfurt
would suffer by his absence. He thereupon ad-
dressed himself to the rabbis, who canceled his vow
(Moses Minz, Responsa, No. 97). Judah Minz says
that he saw bills of divorce issued by the rabbinical
college of Hillel which might serve as models for
the spelling of proper names (Responsa, Nos. 54,
105).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Brill, in Kobak’s Jeschurun, vi. 208; Adolph
Jaraezewsky, Die Gesch. der Juden in Erfurt, p. 51; Mi-
chael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 882.
8. 8. I. Br.
HILLEL BEN GAMALIEL III.: Scholar of
the second amoraic generation (8d cent.), son of Ga-
maliel IIT., brother of Judah i1., and probably a pupil
of his grandfather Judah I. (see B. B. 88b). Of his
early history nothing is known. As illustrating his
modesty the following incidents may be quoted:
He and his brother were once at Biri, where people
remonstrated against their walking on the Sabbath in
shoes with golden buckles, which was not custom-
ary at that place: they resignedly removed their
shoes and handed them over to their accompanying
slaves. On another occasion at Kabul they were
about to bathe together when the people informed
them that they did not consider it moral for brothers
to bathe together: Hillel and his brother thereupon
desisted. In either case they could have shown the
people that their acts were perfectly legal, but they
VIL—26
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hillel
Hillel ben Samuel
preferred to comply with the local customs (Tosef.,
M. K. ii. 15, 16; Pes. 51a). While Hillel is not often
quoted in connection with halakot, he was an able
interpreter of Scripture; this accounts for Origen
seeking his society and consulting him frequently
on difficult Biblical passages. It was probably this
Hillel that declared, “The Jews have no Messiah to
expect, for they have already consumed him in the
days of Hezekiah” (Sanh. 99a), He may have been
prompted to this declaration by Origen’s professed
discovery in the Old Testament of Messianic pas-
sages referring to the founder of Christianity. Some
credit Hillel, and not his better-known namesake,
with the authorship of the following maxims: “Sep-
arate not thyself from the community”; “Be not
coufident in thyself until the day of thy death”;
“Condemn not thy neighbor until thou hast been
placed in his condition”; “Use no unintelligible
expressions assuming that ultimately they will be
understood”; “Say not ‘When I have leisure I
shall study ’: thou mayest never be at leisure ” (Ab.
ii. 4; see Tosef., Yom-Tob, ad toc.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Gesch. iv. 250; Heilprin, Seder ha-Do-
rot, ii. 56a, Warsaw, 1897.
8. S. M.
HILLEL BEN NAPHTALI HERZ: Lithu-
anian rabbi; born at Brest-Litovsk in 1615; died at
Zolkiev Jan. 3, 1690. After he had studied under
Hirsh Darshan, Hillel went to Wilna, where from 1650
to 1651 he was a member of the rabbinical college.
He stayed at Wilna until 1666, then became rabbi in
Kaidani and several other Lithuanian towns, was
called in 1670 as rabbi to Altona and Hamburg, and
in 1680 to Zolkiev. He was also a delegate to the
Council of the Four Lands at the fair of Yaroslav.
Hillel was the author of an important work enti-
tled “ Bet Hillel,” a commentary and novelle on the
four parts of the Shulhan ‘Aruk, of which his son,
Moses ben Hillel, published only the portions on
Yoreh De‘ah and Eben ha-‘Ezer, with the text (Dy-
hernturth, 1691). He also wrote under the same
title a homiletic and cabalistic commentary on the
Pentateuch, which has not been published.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 799; Fuenn,
Kiryah Ne’emanah, p. 82; idem, Keneset Yisrael, p. 295;
Behrmann, Hamburgs Orientalisten, p. 67, y amburg, 1902;
Buber, Kiryah Nisgabah, pp. 23-25, Cracow, 1903
D. M. SEL.
HILLEL BEN SAMUEL: Italian physician,
philosopher, and Talmudist; born about 1220; died
about 1295. He was the grandson of the Tal-
mudic scholar Eleazar ben Samuel of Verona.
He spent his youth at Barcelona, where he studied
the Talmud and natura: sciences, his teacher in the
study of the former being Jonah Gerondi, distin-
guished for his piety and rabbinical scholarship.
Hillel, witnessing Gerondi’s sincere repentance for
his behavior in the Maimonides controversy at Mont-
pellier, himself began to study Maimonides’ religio-
philosophical works, of which he became one of the
most enthusiastic admirers. He studied medicine at
Montpellier, and practised successively at Rome,
where he formed a friendship with the papal physi-
cian in ordinary, Maestro Isaac Gajo; at Capua
(1260-71), where, having attained fame as physician
and philosopher, he lectured on philosophy, among
Hillel ben Samuel
Hippocrates
his hearers being Abraham ABULAFIA; and at Fer-
rara, where he had relatives.
In his old age he retired to Forli, where he lived
in straitened circumstances, Hearing there of Solo-
mon Petit’s appearance in Italy with anti-Maimon-
idean designs, he immediately addressed a letter to
Maestro Isaac Gajo, vividly describing the disas-
trous consequences of the first condemnation of Mai-
monides’ works at Montpellier, and imploring him
not to join the movement against Maimonides. In
order to convince his friend more fully of the abso-
lute groundlessness of the attacks upon the master,
Hillel volunteered, with a somewhat exuberant self-
complacency, to explain satisfactorily those pas-
sages of the “Moreh” which gave offense. And in
order to quiet once and forever the constantly recur-
ring dissensions, Hillel formulated a somewhat fan-
tastic plan, which reveals at the same time his love
of justice and his sincere regret that the sorrows of
his people were increased by these discords. The
plan was as follows: A council, composed of the
most eminent rabbis of the East, should convene at
Alexandria, and, after listening to the opponents of
Maimonides and examining their objections, should
give a decision to be accepted by the entire Jewry.
It should furthermore depend upon this decision
whether Maimonides’ works should be burned or
should be preserved for further study. Hillel was
firmly convinced that the verdict could not be other
than favorable to Maimonides.
Hillel, in spite of his wide philosdphical knowl-
edge, remained faithful to the teachings of Judaism
in their most orthodox interpretation. He even
pledged himself to implicit belief in the miraculous
stories of the Bible and the Talmud, incurring there-
by the censure of the more logical thinker Seraiah
ben Isaac (“Ozar Nehmad,” ii, 124 et seg.). In his
chief work, “Tagmule ha-Nefesh” (Lyck, 1874),
which reviews the philosophical literature, then in
vogue, of the Greeks and Arabs, Jews and Christians,
Hillel makes constant reference to the Bible and to
Talmudic works, advancing his own opinion only
when these latter are silent on the subject under con-
sideration.
Hillel’s works, in addition to the “Tagmule ha-
Nefesh,” include: a commentary to Maimonides’ 25
Propositions (“Hakdamot”), printed together with
the “Tagmule ha-Nefesh ”; a revision of the “ Liber
de Causis,” short extracts of which are given in
Halberstam’s edition of “Tagmule ha-Nefesh”;
“Sefer ha-Darbon,” on the Haggadah; a philosoph-
ical explanation of Canticles, quoted in “Tagmule
ha-Nefesh”; “Chirurgia Burni ex Latina in He-
bream Translata (De Rossi MS. No. 1281); two
letters to Maestro Gajo, printed in “Hemdah Genu-
zah” (1856), pp. 17-22, and in “Ta‘am Zekenim,”
p. 70
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mortara, Indice, R. 21; Edetmann, Hemdah
Genuzah, Introduction, xxi.; ona tsschrift, xxiv. 563;
Gratz, Gesch. vii. 162; Steinschneider, Letter to Hatberstam,
in Tagmule ha-Nefesh, p. 7; idem, Hebr. Bibl. vi. 110, xiii.
fer in Monatsschrift, xlii. 120; Giidemann, Gesch il.
8. 8. A. PE.
HILLEL B. SAMUEL B. NAHMAN: Pales-
tinian haggadist of the fourth century. It may be
assumed that his father was his teacher; but he had
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
402
other instructors also, among them being Levi b.
Hama (Ber. 28b). According to Hillel, the merits of
the teacher are, in the sight of heaven, five times as
great as those of the pupil; for the Bible says.
“Thou, O Solomon, must have a thousand, and
those that keep the fruit thereof two hundred”
(Cant. viii. 12; Cant. R. ad loc.). Elsewhere he ad-
duces Neh. viii. 17 to prove that contemporary au-
thorities must be accorded the same respect as was
shown to the ancients in their days (Eccl. R. i. 4;
comp. Yer. Kid. i. 61c).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Agada der Paltistinensischen .4mo-
ais Hii. 708. SM
HILLEL B. ZEBI HIRSCH MILEIKOV-
SKY (HILLEL SALAUTER): Russian rabbi;
born in Zareche, a suburb of Wilna, 1819; died in
Mstislavl, government of Moghilef, June 1, 1899.
At the age of twenty-five he became rabbi of Kreve,
government of Wilna, and was afterward succes-
sively rabbi of Salaty, Ponyevyezh, Shklov, Khas-
lavich, and, finally, of Mstislav]. He was considered
one of Russia’s foremost rabbis, and in 1894 was
chosen as a member of the rabbinical commission,
the sittings of which he attended in St. Petersburg.
He left a manuscript work which his grandson,
Moses Mendel of Wilna, undertook to prepare for
publication. Several of his responsa are published
in R. Simon Zarhi’s “ Nahalat Shim‘on.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Eisenstadt, Dor Rabbanaw we-Soferaw, ii.
29-30, Wilna, 1900; Ahiasaf, 5661 (1901), pp. a Ww
H. R. . WI.
HILLELI. See BrsuE MANvUscRIPtTs.
HILLER, EDUARD: German pbhilologist;
nephew of Ferdinand H1i.Ler; born at Frankfort-
on-the-Main April 14, 1844; died at Halle March 7,
1891. Educated at the universities of Bonn and
Gottingen (Ph.D. 1865), he became a teacher at the
Kortegarn institute at Bonn, which position he
occupied until 1868. In 1869 he became privat-
docent at Bonn; in 1874, professor of classic philol-
ogy at Greifswald; two years later he removed to
Halle. His most important works are: “Ques-
tiones Herodiane,” Bonn, 1866; “ Eratosthenis Car-
minum Reliquise,” Leipsic, 1872; “Theonis Smyr-
ni Ex positio Rerum Mathematicarum ad Legendum
Platonem Utilium,” 7d. 1878; “ Albii Tibulli Elegiz,”
7b. 1885; “ Beitrige zur Textgesch. der Griechischen
Bukoliker,” 2. 1888. He also edited Fritzsche’s
“Theocritus” (3d ed.), Bergk’s “Poete Lyrici
Greci,” vols. ii. and iii, (4th ed.), and the “ Antho-
logia Lyrica” (4th ed.) of the latter author.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon.
8. F. T. H.
HILLER, FERDINAND: German composer
and musical writer; born at Frankfort-on-the-
Main Oct, 24, 1811; died at Cologne May 10, 1885.
He studied with Hofmann (violin), Aloys Schmitt
(pianoforte), and Vollweiler (harmony and counter-
point). At the age of ten he played a Mozart con-
certo in public, and he began to compose at twelve.
After a supplementary course of two years under
Hummel at Weimar, he accompanied him on a pro-
fessional tour to Vienna. The following is one of
403
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hillel ben Samuel
Hippocrates
several short verses which were written on his de-
parture by Goethe:
**Ein Talent das Jedem frommt,
Hast du in Besitz genommen ;
Wer mit holden Toénen kommt,
Ueberall ist der willkommen.”
An interesting account of this journey is given
by Hiller in the sketch entitled “Aus den Letzten
Tagen Ludwig van Beethoven’s,” contained in his
“Aus dem Tonleben Unserer Zeit” (Leipsic, 1871).
From Vienna, where he saw Beethoven upon his
death-bed, he returned to Frankfort. In 1828 he
went to Paris. He lived there for seven years, and
taught at Choron’s Institution de la Musique.
Shortly after the death of his father, Hiller’s
mother, a highly gifted woman, joined her son in
Paris. His house then became the rendezvous for
many celebrities of the day—Cherubini, Rossini,
Chopin, Liszt, Berlioz, Nourrit, Heine, and Borne
being among the brilliant coterie assembling there.
Hiller also gave a number of concerts in Paris (gen-
erally in association with Fétis and Baillot), and it
was he who first introduced Beethoven’s Concerto
in E flat to the Parisian public. In 1836-37 he con-
ducted at Frankfort the concerts of the Cacilien-
Verein. In 1888 Hiller went to Italy; his opera
“Romilda” was produced at La Scala, Milan, in
1839, The failure of this work was balanced by the
extraordinary success of his oratorio “Die Zer-
stérung Jerusalems,” the production of which at
Leipsic, during the winter of 1839-40, the composer,
at the solicitation of Mendelssohn, personally su-
perintended.:
Returning to Germany in 1842 from a second
short stay in Italy, Hiller went to Leipsic, where,
during the absence of Felix Mendelssohn, he con-
ducted the Gewandhaus concerts for the season of
1843-44. To this period belong his two operas
“Traum der Christnacht ” and “Conradin.” In 1847
he became municipal “ Kapellmeister ” at Diisseldorf,
and in 1850 accepted a similar position at Cologne.
During the season of 1852 he was conductor of the
opera at the Théatre Italien in Paris.
In 1849 he was elected a member of the Academy
of Fine Arts, Berlin, and in 1868 he received the
honorary degree of “doctor” from the University of
Bonn. He retired Oct. 1, 1884. Hiller embraced
the Christian faith.
Among Hiller’s principal literary productions
may be mentioned: “ Die Musik und das Publikum”
(1864); “Ludwig van Beethoven ” (1871); “ Ausdem
TonlebenUnserer Zeit” (2 vols., 1868; new series,
1871); “Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Briefe und
Erinnerungen ” (1874; 2d ed., 1878); “ Musikalisches
und Perséuliches ” (1876); “Goethe’s Musikalisches
Leben ” (1883); “Uebungen zum Studium der Har-
monie und des Kontrapunktes” (14th ed., 1891).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Musikalisches Wochenblatt, Leipsic, ii.;
Champlin, Cyclopedia of Music and Musicians; Mendel,
Musikalisches Konversations-Lexikon,
S. J. So.
HILLQUIT, MORRIS: American lawyer and
socialist; born at Riga, Russia, Aug. 1, 1870; edu-
cated at the gymnasium of that town. He emi-
grated to the United States in 1887, studied law, and
was admitted to the New York bar in 1893. In 1888
Hillquit became a member of the Socialist Labor
party, and has been active in the Socialist movement
in various ways. He was a delegate to the Roches-
ter convention in 1899-1900, and assisted in the
framing of the platform and resolutions adopted
there. Together with Job Harriman and Max Hayes
he served asa representative of the Rochester wing
of the Socialist Labor party at the Unity convention
held at Indianapolis in 1900, and was prominent in
the fusion of his party with the Social Democratic
party founded by Eugene V. Debs. In the Social-
ist party he is now (1908) the national committee-
man from the state of New York. Hillquit has
served as counsel for a number of trade-unions dur-
ing labordisputes. Inaddition to numerous articles
contributed to the Socialist press of America, he has
written “The History of Socialism in the United
States,” New York, 1908.
A. I. G. D.
HILLUKIM. See Piru.
HIMYARITES. See SasBeans.
HIN. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
HINNOM. See GE-HINNOM.
HIPPOCRATES: Greek physician; born in Cos
460 u.c.; died at Larissa in Thessaly about 360 B.c.
He studied medicine under Herodicus of Selymbria
and under his father, Heraclides, and philosophy un-
der Gorgias of Leontini and Democritus of Abdera.
He undertook many travels, and lived for a long
time in the island of Thasos and in Thessaly.
Hippocrates’ influence and reputation in the Mid-
dle Ages among the learned Moslems and Jews in-
creased as his works became better known by trans-
lation. Heisthe only Greek author that has received
in Hebrew sources the honorific epithet “the Pious ”
(Pomn). Maimonides(“Shemonah Perakim,” i., be-
ginning) calls him “head of the physicians” (wN5
onan). The Arabs gave to his name the forms
“Abukrat” and “Bukrat.” Jewish authors render.
ing his works from Arabic translations, quote his
name in these forms; when rendering from Latin
translations they use the forms “Ippokrat” and
“ Tppokras.”
The influence of Hippocrates’ medical principles
upon the treatment of diseasesamong the Jews must
have been very deep, as may be learned from their
profound study of his works.
Of his writings the “ Aphorisms” (’ Agopzouol) were
most studied by the Jews. They transcribed the
Arabic translation of Hunain b. Ishak (“ Kitab al-
Fusul ”) in Hebrew characters (Vatican MS. No. 426),
and also paraphrased and translated the work into
Hebrew under the title “ Perakim” (Neubauer, “ Cat.
Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 2245). The Latin translation
of Constantinus Africanus was likewise rendered into
Hebrew by Hillel ben Samuel (thirteenth century)
in Italy (Vat. MS. No. 368, 50; Paris MS. No. 1111);
and this Hebrew translation, again, was commented
on by Moses de Rieti (born in 1388; Steinschneider,
“Cat. Berlin,” Nos. 62, 68; Parma, De Rossi, MS.
No. 1185; Amsterdam MS. No. 4052). Judah ben
Samuel Shalom composed in Hebrew (about 1450)
a commentary on the “Aphorisms” for his pupil
Raphael b. David ha-Kohen of Lunel (Florence MS.
No. 88; Paris MS. No. 1113; Vienna MS. No. 138).
Hippolytus
Hiram
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
404
Hippocrates’ “Prognostics” (IIpoyvworexerv) were
likewise translated from the Arabic into Hebrew
with the title “ Hakdamat ha-Yedi‘ah ” (Leyden MS.
No. 2,3; Paris MS. No. 1106, 12; Parina, De Rossi,
MS. No. 565), and paraphrased in Hebrew under
the title “ Hidot we-Hashgahot ” (1197-99), of which
work many manuscripts are in existence.
Moreover, his “On Regimen in Acute Diseases ”
(Ilepi Acaizyg ’OSéwv) was translated into Hebrew
(probably from the Arabic) by Nathan ha-Meati (fin-
ished in Rome, 1282) under the title “ Hanhagat ha-
Holayim ha-Haddiyim ” (Leyden MS. No, 2, 18).
The same Nathan ha-Meati translated Hippocrates’
“On Airs, Waters, and Places” (Ilepi’Agpwv, ‘Ydarwr,
kai Térwv) into Hebrew with the title “Sefer ba-
Awwerim uba-Zemannim weha-Memot weha-Ara-
zot,” probably from the Arabic too (Leyden MS. No.
2, 10; Paris MS. No. 1106, 3).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Ersch and Gruber, Encye. iil. 7; Eneye. Brit.
s.v.; Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. §8 416 et seq.
J. M. Sc.
HIPPOLYTUS: Christian theologian of the sec-
ond and third centuries; schismatic Bishop of Rome
in opposition to Calixtus I. (217); deported in 235
to Sardinia, where he dicd. Hippolytus was one of
the most prolific writers among the Church Fathers,
the first real exegete of the Christian Church, and,
because of his intimate acquaintance with philosoph-
ical and gnostic systems, one of the most prominent
among the early defendersof Catholicdoctrine. His
works have come down in a fragmentary state and
in various translations, Latin, Syriac, Arabic, Ethi-
opic, Armenian, and Georgian. In 1551 astatue of
Hippelytus, made in the third century, was un-
earthed in the Via Tiburtina in Rome, on the pedes-
tal of which was engraved a list of his many works,
a list which is found with variations both in Euse-
biusandin Jerome. Hippolytusisof interest in sev-
eral ways to the Jewish student, Asa defender of
his church it was natural that he should attack the
Jews. His ’Arodecxrixy mpac Lovdaiove (on the statue
simply Ipd¢ rei "Iovdaiovc) was written to show that
the Jews were themselves responsible for their
misfortune and their wretched condition, because of
their wicked behavior toward the Messiah (Caspari,
“Quellen,” p. 395). This treatise was much used
by later anti-Jewish writers, and has probably not
survived in its original form (Bonwetsch, “Studien,”
pp. 18, 19). In another work, the “Treatise on
Faith,” found by N. J. Marr in a Grusian manu-
script in Tiflis, there isa further polemic against the
Jews (idem, “Hippolyt’s Kommentar zum Hohen
Liede,” p. 11, Leipsic, 1902).
But his criticism, however sharp, has no touch of
bitterness or of hatred. In the fragments of a short
work on thirty-two heresies, found by
Lipsius, he describes at length the
Jewish four pre-Christian heretical sects:
Writings. Dositheans, Pharisees, Sadducees
(whom he derives from the Dosithe-
ans), and Herodians. It seems generally accepted
now that he was also the author of the work on the
refutation of heresies entitled Kara Tlacdv Aipécewy
"Edeyyoc, the first part of which, under the title
PiAooopovpeva, was until 1842 ascribed to Origen.
In book ix., ch. 13 he gives a detailed explana-
Anti-
tion of the tenets of the Pharisees, the Sadducees,
and the Essenes (see ESsENES); and he then ex-
plains the subject-matter of the Jewish religion as
being of a fourfold character—theological, natural,
moral, and ceremonial. In ch. 25 he has the follow-
ing to say about the Jews:
* They earnestly aim at serious habits and a temperate life,
as one may ascertain from their laws. . . . The reader will find
himself astonished at their temperance and the amount of
diligence lavished on customs legally enacted in reference to
tian. ... The superiority of their ritual it is easy for those who
wish it to ascertain, provided they read that which furnishes
information on these points.”
The same generous spirit is seen in the following
chapter, where he speaks of the Jewish doctrine of
the Messiah, which he gives clearly and succinctly,
though naturally opposing it. In book x. he treats
also of the Ebionites (ch. 18), and of Jewish chrono}-
ogy (ch. 26) as proving the antiquity of Christian
truth. In various manuscripts containing an Arabic
catena of the Pentateuch (ed. Lagarde, “ Materialen
zur Kritik des Pentateuchs,” ii., Leipsic, 1867) there
are extracts from “ Hippolytus, the commentator of
the Targum” or “of the Syriac,” which are un-
doubtedly by this author. Jean Gagnier had al-
ready seen parailels in these extracts to such works
as the Pirke Rabbi Eliezer and the targums of
Onkelos and Jonathan. What the word “targum”
means in this connection is quite uncertain; and ad-
ditions have undoubtedly been made in the course
of time. As Lagarde had seen, the work is very
much in the nature of a Jewish midrash, indicating
the source from which many of the ideas have been
borrowed (see Achelis, “ Hippolitstudien,” Leipsic,
1897). Asan exegete, Hippolytus uses the allegory
and the type, but in a moderate de-
gree. He finds references in the Book
of Daniel to Antiochus and the Mac-
cabees. He admits also that the his-
torical character of the story of Susanna is ques-
tioned by the Jews.
The fragments of Hippolytus’ writings were first
collected by Lagarde (Leipsic, 1858), and are now
(1908) in course of publication by Bonwetsch and
Achelis for the Royal Prussian Academy edition of
the Church Fathers (vol. i., Leipsic, 1897).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The edition of the Royal Prussian Academy,
897, passim: Achelis, Hippolitstudien, in Texte und Ueber-
setzungen, 1897, 1.4; Bonwetseh, Studien zu den Kommen-
taren Hippolit zum Buche Daniel, ib. 1897, i. 2; Barden-
heuer, Patrologie, pp. 127 et seq., Freiburg, 1894; Schiirer,
Gesch. i. 69; and the literature cited in Herzog-Hauck, Real-
Encye. viii. 126.
His
Exegesis.
G.
HIPPOS (‘Ir7oc): One of the cities of the DEcaP-
outs in Palestine, the site of which is uncertain.
For the identifications of the ancient geographers
see Pliny (“Hist. Naturalis,” v. 14, xv. 18), Jose-
phus (“ Vita,” § 65), and Eusebius (“ Onomasticon,”
s.v. “Apheca”). In the Talmud Hippos occurs
under the name “Susita” (NFDID), the Hebrew
equivalent, and it is frequently mentioned with
Tiberias. These two cities, facing each other (Gen.
R. xxxii.), were situated on opposite shores of the
lake; and merchants went to and fro between them
(Yer. Sheb. viii. 8). Susita was for a time opposed
to Tiberias (Lam. R. i. 18); and it is spoken of as in-
habited by Gentiles (Yer. R. H. iit. 1). It is men-
tioned with Ashkelon as an example of a heathen
405
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hippolytus
Hiram
town in the midst of the land of Israel (Tosef., Oh.
xviii, 4). R. Joshua b. Levi identified the land of
Tob (Judges xi. 8) with Susita (Yer. Sheb. vi. 2).
It is very likely that the primitive name was “Su-
sita” and that “Hippos” was the Greek translation
of this, for by the Arabian geographers it is called
“Susiyyah.”
Hippos seems to have been an important city, as
the whole district was called, after it, “ Hippene ”
(Josephus, “B. J.” iti. 8,81). lt was conquered by
Alexander Janneeusand afterward freed by Pompey
(édem, “Ant.” xiv. 4,84; tdem, “B. J.” i. 7, § 7%),
thus becoming one of the independent towns of the
Decapolis. Later, Augustus presented it to Herod
(*Ant.” xv. 7, § 8; “B. J.” i. 20, § 8), after
whose death it was again wrested from the Jew-
ish dominions (“Ant.” xvii. 11, § 1; “BJ.”
ii. 6, § 3). From that
time on Hippos was
designated as a Greek
city (2b.); and probably
the Talmudic passage
Yer. R. H. ii. 1 refers
to that epoch. At the
outbreak of the Roman
war the Jews, led by
Justus of Tiberias, dev-
astated Hippos; but
the inhabitants avenged
themselves by massa-
cring the Jews (“B. J.”
ii. 18, $§ 1, 5).
In the Christian period
Hippos became an epis-
copal see (Epiphanius,
“ Heres.” Ixxili. 26). A
coin has been discovered
bearing the name “ Hip-
pos” (Muret, “Revue
Numismatique,” 1888, i.
67). It is of the time
of Nero, having on the
obverse side Nero’s head
and on the reverse a
horse with the inscrip-
tion Imryvur,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Neubauer, G. T. pp. 238-240; Clermont-Gan-
neau, in Revue Archéologique, 1875, xxix. 362-369; Schtirer,
Gesch. 3d ed., p. 120.
E.G, H. M. Sen.
HIRAH (77'n): An Adullamite, the friend of
Judah, at whose house the latter stopped after the
sale of Joseph (Gen. xxxviii. 1). Hirah accompa-
nied Judah when he went to Timnah to superintend
the shearing of his sheep (¢b. verse 12). He was
also the messenger that carried the kid from Judah
to Tamar (2b. verse 20).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HIRAM, HURAM (po "Nn, Onn): 1.—Bib-
lical Data: King of Tyrein the time of David and
Solomon. After David had conquered Jerusalem,
Hiram sent him cedar-wood and carpenters and
masons so that he might build a house (IT Sam. v.
11; I Chron. xiv. 1). Hiram was a friend of David
throughout the latter’s life (I Kings v. 15); and after
David’s death he continued on terms of friendship
Traditional ‘Toinb of Hiram.
(From a photograph by Bonfils.)
with Solomon (zd. v. 21 e¢ seq.). Hiram supplied
Solomon with cedar-trees, fir-trees, and Tyrian con-
structors for the building of the Temple; and Solo-
mon repaid him with wheat and olive-oil (7b. v. 24,
25, 32; II] Chron. ii. 14, 15). Twenty years later
Hiram sent to Solomon gold and another large
supply of cedar- and fir-trees; and Solomon gave
him in return a present of twenty towns in Galilee
(I Kings ix. 10, 11). Although Hiram was dissatis-
fied with the present, his friendship for Solomon did
not diminish; and he sent Solomon a hundred and
twenty talents of gold (bd. verses 12-14). Hiram
permitted Solomon’s ships to sail with his own
to Ophir; and the Jewish sailors were guided by
the Tyrians, who were the better mariners (20. ix. 27,
28; xX. 22).
In Rabbinical Literature: Hiram, Solo-
mon’s friend, is identi-
fied by some with Ju-
dah’s friend Hirah (Gen.
XXXVili. 1); and even
those who regard Hirah
and Hiram as two per-
sonages, admit Hiram’s
great age, as he was still
living at the time of the
prophet Ezekiel, whose
prophecy concerning the
King of Tyre is directed
against Hiram (Ezek.
XXViil. 2 e¢ seg.; Gen. R.
Ixxxiv. 8; Jerome in his
commentary on Ezek.
XXxviii. 11 calls the identi-
fication a “fabula He-
breorum”; comp. Aph-
raates, “Homilies,” v.,
ed. Wright, pp. 84, 85).
In Hul. 89a a tanna of
the middle of the second
century speaks of “ Hi-
ram, the Prince of Tyre ”
(comp. Mek., Beshallah,
Shirah, ix.). Hiram’s
friendly correspondence
with Solomon, which is
mentioned in Scripture, was for centuries after
preserved in the archives of Tyre (Josephus,
“Ant.” viii. 2, $8 6-8; cdem, “Contra Ap.” i. 18-
19; Eupolemus, in Eusebius, “ Preparatio Evan-
gelica,” ix. 33, 34, calls King Hiram “Suron”).
Their intercourse was not confined to the exchange
of gold, silver, and cedar- and fir-wood for grain, oil,
and wine; for they also exchanged questions and
answers, Qn one occasion Solomon sent Hiram rid-
dles, asking for some in return; and he proposed
that the one who could not solve them should pay
a forfeit in money. Hiram accepted this proposi-
tion, and subsequently had to pay many sums, since
he was unable to solve Solomon’s riddles. Later,
however, a Tyrian, Abdamon by name, came to
Hiram’s aid and propounded riddles to Solomon;
and as the latter could not solve them, he was
obliged to pay large sums to Hiram (Josephus,
“Ant.” viii. 5, § 8).
Hiram, instead of being grateful to God for allow-
Hiram
Hiring
ing him to attain to a good old age, began to imag-
ine that he himself was a god, and endeavored to
make people believe in him by means of seven heav-
ens that he had artificially constructed. He had four
iron pillars fastened to the bottom of the sea, and
on these he erected seven heavens, the first being of
glass, the second of iron, the third of lead, the
fourth of molten metal (brass), the fifth of copper,
the sixth of silver, and the seventh of gold. These
heavens were separated from each other by chan-
nels of water, ranging in size from 500 to 3,500
square ells, so that each heaven was 500 square ells
larger than the one below it. Furthermore, Hiram
collected huge boulders in the second heaven, the
rolling of which resembled thunder; and flashes of
lightning were produced by great precious stones.
While Hiram was floating on high the prophet Eze-
kiel was brought to him through the air, to reprove
him for his arrogance. But the Prince of Tyre re-
plied haughtily thathe, like God, was sitting on the
sea and in seven heavens, and had already survived
David, Solomon, twenty-one kings of Israe], twenty
kings of Judah, ten prophets, and ten high priests.
Thereupon God said: “What! a mortal dares to
deem himself a god because he has furnished cedars
for the building of My Temple? Well, then, I will
destroy My house in order that meet punishment
may come uponhim.” And this was brought about;
for, after the destruction of the Temple, Nebuchad-
nezzar dethroned his stepfather Hiram (read “ ba‘al
immo,” following Lev. R. xviii. 2); and every day
a piece was cut from his body, which he had to eat
until he died a miserable death. The wonderful
palace sank into the earth, where it is preserved for
the pious “in the future world” (Yalk., Ezek. 367;
variants to this text in Jellinek, “B. Hf.” v. 111-112;
H. M. Horowitz, “Bet ‘Eked ha-Aggadot,” iii. 28-
31). According to one haggadah Hiram entered
paradise alive, and in order to reconcile this state-
ment with the story as given above, it is said in the
Second Alphabet of Ben Sira (ed. Venice, 29a):
“God brought Hiram, the King of Tyre, alive into
paradise because he built the Temple; at first he
was God-fearing and lived in paradise a thousand
years; but then he became haughty and claimed to
be a god, whereupon he was driven out of paradise
into hell.” It is highly probable, however, that this
haggadah was originally referred to Hiram, the
builder of the Temple (I Kings vii. 18; comp.
Htram [2], below).
The self-deification of Hiram is also mentioned
several times in the Midrash: an old midrash (Gen.
R. ix. 5; comp. B. B. 75a, foot) says that the only
reason why God pronounced death on Adam and on
the human race was because he foresaw that Nebu-
chadnezzar and Hiram would pretend to be gods.
The identification of the anonymous Prince of Tyre
in Ezek. xxviil. with Hiram was probably due in
part to the fact that the Biblical Hiram was con-
founded with Hiram, a contemporary of Nebuchad-
nezzar, Of whom Josephus speaks (“Contra Ap.”
i. 21).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Ginzberg, Die Haggada bei den Kirchen-
vdtern und in der Apokryphischen Litteratur, pp. 126-128;
idem, in JEW. ENCYC. i. 289, 8.v. AHIKAR, concerning the Hi-
ram and Akiba legend ; Jellinek, B. H. Introduction, v. 33-85,
Ss. S. L. G.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
406
——In Non-Jewish Sources: According to Dius
the Phenician and Menander the Ephesian (see Jo-
sephus, “Contra Ap.” i., $$ 17, 18), Hiram, theson
of Abiba‘al, reigned thirty-four years, and died at
the age of fifty-three. Solomon built the Temple in
the twelfth year of Hiram’s reign, which, according
to this statement, must have lasted from 969 to 936
B.c. This does not agree with the Biblical data; for
if Hiram sent materials to David after his conquest
of Jerusalem and was still alive twenty years after
the construction of Solomon’s Temple, his reign
must have lasted about sixty years. It is likely,
however, that the Hiram of David’s time was the
father of the Hiram of Solomon’s; and this sup-
position is confirmed by II Chron. ii.12. Josephus,
relying on the two above-named historians, relates
further (/.c.) that Hiram built first the temple of
Hercules, and then the temple of Astarte when he
made his expedition against the Tityans. Accord-
ing to other Phenician historians (quoted by Tatian,
“Contra Greecos,” § 37), Hiram gave his daughter
in marriage to Solomon.
KE. G. H. M. SEL.
2. Artificer sent by Hiram, King of Tyre, to Sol-
omon. He was apparently of a mixed race; his
father being a Tyrian, and his mother of the tribe
of Naphtali (1 Kings vii. 13, 14) or of the tribe of
Dan (IT Chron, fi. 12 [A. V. 14]). The words “hu-
ram abi,” which terminate II Chron. ii. 11 (A. V. 18),
generally translated “Huram my father’s” (see No.
1), are taken by some to be the name of the artificer;
with this name compare “Hammurabi,” of which
“Hiram Abi” may be a local variant or misreading.
The name is curiously used in FREEMASONRY. There
is an essential difference, as regards the nature of
Hiram’s technical specialty, between I Kings and IT
Chronicles. According to the former, Hiram was
an attificer only in brass; and the pieces which he
executed for the Temple were the two pillars Jachin
and Boaz, the molten sea with its twelve oxen, the
ten lavers with their bases, the shovels, and basins,
all of brass (I Kings vii. 14-45). But in II Chron.
ii. 13 [14] it is said that Hiram was “skilful to work
in gold, and in silver, in brass, in iron, in stone, and
in timber, in purple, in blue, and in fine linen, and
in crimson; also to grave any manner of graving.”
Thus he seems to have superintended all the work
of the Temple. Josephus says (“ Ant.” viii. 3, § 4)
that Hiram’s father was Ur of the stock of the
Israelites, that he was skilful in all sorts of work,
but that his chief skill lay in working in gold, silver,
and brass. Josephus apparently interprets the words
“ish zori” to mean a man who lived in Tyre, and the
name of “Ur” probably originatedin the confusion
between “ Hiram ” and “ Gezaleel.” In I Kings vii.
40 (A. V. margin) the form “ Hirom ” (py9'n) occurs.
E, G. H, M. Set.
HIRED MEN or HIRELINGS. Sce Hirine
AND LETTING; MASTER AND SERVANT.
HIRING AND LETTING (Hebr. “sekirut”):
Hiring is a transaction by which parties, for a com-
pensation, contract for a definite period for (a) the
use of property or (3) personal service.
I. The Mishnah (B. M. 98a) distinguishes four
kinds of bailees: (1) the gratuitous bailee or deposi-
407
tary; (2) the borrower; (3) the paid bailee; and (4)
the hirer (see BAILMENTS). The hirer has the same
responsibility as the paid bailee; that is, he must
make restitution for the object entrusted to him in
case it is lost or stolen, or if it is injured through his
negligence, He is free from responsibility if it is
impossible to prevent the loss; for instance, if an
anima) in his care dies or receives an injury acciden-
tally oris violently abducted by robbers. In allother
respects hiring is subject to the same laws as selling
(2d. 56b), both as regards the manner of acquiring
possession of the object (see ALIENATION AND AC-
QUISITION) and as regards deceit or overcharge (70.
99a; Maimonides, “ Yad,” Sekirut, ii. 8; 22. Mekirah,
xiii. 17; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 307, 2;
227, 39).
The hirer may use the object only for the purpose
for which it was hired; and if he employs it in any
other way, he becomes responsible for
Movable all accidents. The Rabbis, however,
Property. distinguish between accidents that are
due directly to this change from the
original purpose and those that can be ascribed to
other reasons. If one who hires an animal for the
purpose of taking it up a hill leads it down into a
valley, thereby allowing the animal to slip and be-
come injured, the hirer is free; for this might have
happened on the hill as well. But if it becomes over-
heated for want of pure air, the hirer has to make
restitution; for this could not have occurred if he
had taken the animal on the hill (B. M. 78a; “ Yad,”
Sekirut, iv.). If it is stipulated that the animal is
to be laden with a burden of a certain weight, or if
there is an established custom as to the weight of
a burden to be put upon an animal, and the hirer adds
one-thirtieth or more thereto, he becomes responsible
for all accidents. The hirer may not change from the
original terms either in the weight or as regards the
kind of burden put upon the animal (B. M. 80a;
“Yad,” 26.; Hoshen Mishpat, 308, 5, 6; 311, 1).
Whether the owner has to substitute another object
for the use of the hirer in case an accident happens
to the one originally hired, depends greatly on the
conditions made in the contract (“ Yad,” J.c. v. 1-8).
One who hires an object may not sublet it; for it is
presumed that no one desires his property to be in
hands other than those to whom he entrusts it (B.
M. 29b). Butif the hirer does let it to another, he
assumes al] responsibility; while all the profits de-
rived from the transaction go to the owner of the
object (“ Yad,” é.c. 1. 4).
The landlord who lets a house for a definite period,
may not retract from his contract, even when he him-
self has no place of abode. During
the period of the lease he may not evict
his tenant, nor may he compel the lat-
ter to leave the house, even for a short period, in
order to make necessary repairs. If the lease is in-
definite, containing no provision as to time, the ten-
ant may be ejected after thirty days’ notice. In the
winter, however, the tenant may not be ejected. The
lessee is permitted to let the house to another tenant
as long as the number of the members of the two
families is the same (“ Yad,” Z.c. v. 5). . If the lease
specifies a certain house, and this is destroyed, the
landlord is not compelled to rebuild the house
Houses.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hiram
Hiring
for the use of the tenant; but he must return to him
whatever rent has been paid in advance for the
unfulfilled portion of the contract. When, how-
ever, the lease specifies no particular house, and
the landlord provides the lessee with a house
which is later destroyed, the lessee may demand
that the landlord proviae him with another dwelling
(B. M. 108a; “ Yad,” @.c. vi. 7; Hoshen Mishpat, 312,
17). If the landlord sells the house during the occu-
pancy of the tenant, the buyer becomes obligated
by the terms of the lease; and all the laws that ap-
plied to the first owner apply with equal force to
the second. See EJECTMENT.
In some places there was a fixed time when all
tenants changed their leases or moved from place to
place. If, in such a place, the tenant continued to
live in the house for a short period thereafter he
might be compelled to pay the year’s rental even if
he removed before the expiration of the year (Hoshen
Mishpat, ¢.c. 14). The landlord was compelled to
make ali necessary repairs. The tenant had to bear
all expenses incidental to the carrying out of a re-
ligicus command, as the placing of the mezuzah on
the door-post or the railing around the roof (Deut.
xxii. 8), or to the securing of greater convenience.
In all these matters, however, the custom of the land
helped to decide the matter (B. M. 101b; “ Yad,”
l.c. vi. 3; Hoshen Mishpat, 314).
With regard to the manner of paying the rental,
the Rabbis recognize three kinds of hirers of fields
or gardens: (1) one who hires a field at
In Fields an annual rental payable in money;
and (2) one who stipulates to pay the rental
Gardens. in grains or fruit, the produce of the
land (“hoker”); and (3) one who stip-
ulates to pay as his rent a certain percentage of
the produce (“mekabbel”). The first two are sub-
ject to the same laws. They have to pay the stipu-
lated sum, in money or in crops, whether the har-
vest is successful or not. The landlord, however,
may not demand the full amount when the failure of
the crops is general in the locality (B. M. 105b;
“Yad,” U.c. viii. 5; Hoshen Mishpat, 321, 322). But
he whose rentalis a certain percentage of the prod-
uce has to pay such percentage even when the
calamity is universal. He may not cease from labor
as long as the land produces two measures (“se’ah ”)
more than the expense of cultivation; and if he
leaves it fallow, the court estimates how much the
land would have produced by careful management
and collects that sum from the hirer (B. M. 104a;
“Yad,” J.c. 18; Hoshen Mishpat, 328). While all
authorities agree that the landlord must provide all
the necessary implements for tilling and harvesting
in the case when the rental is a share of the produce,
there is a difference of opinion when it is a fixed
amount payable in money or crops; some hold that in
these cases the tenant has no such claim upon the
landlord after he obtains the land (B. M. 1038b;
“Yad,” d.c. 2; Hoshen Mishpat, 820, 3; comp. Is-
serles’ gloss). Local custom was of importance also
in regulating the kind of seed to be sown, and the
manner of sowing and harvesting, as also the mode
of payment when this was not specified.
II. The Bible makes no provision in regard to the
regulation of labor, except by commanding that the
Hirin
Hirsch, Clara de
wages of the day-laborer be paid promptly (Deut.
xxiv. 14, 15; see Waces). In the Talmud, how-
ever, there are extended discussions concerning
the rights both of the laborer and of the master.
Two kinds of laborers are recognized by the Rab-
bis: (1) the day-laborer (Spy), and (2) the piece-
worker (})3)).
1. The day-laborer may cease from his work in the
middle of the day (B. K. 116; B. M. 10a, 77a). This
law is based upon the principle that the working man
is to be considered with great favor and
leniency by the law. If the Jaborer’s
hire is a fixed sum per day, and he
ceases from work in the middle of the
day, he receives half the sum for his half-day’s work,
even though the master may have to pay more to an-
other man to complete the work. If the master
obtains a laborer for the rest of the day for less
than half the sum, the original laborer is entitled to
the difference. The Rabbis base this liberal princi-
ple upon the Scriptural passage (Lev. xxv. 55),
“For unto me, the children of Israel are servants ”—
but they are not servants of servants (B. K. 116a).
In accordance with this principle, it is provided that
no Israelite shall hire himself out fora period longer
than three years, even in the capacity of a teacher
or a scribe (Hoshen Mishpat, 333, 3, Isserles’ gloss;
comp. Deut. xv. 18; Isa. xvi. 14).
When, however, the work, if not finished betimes,
would be spoiled (71387 43), the laborer may not
cease work, except when he is prevented by some
accident from continuing. If he does cease, the
master may hire other workmen to finish the
work and charge all the expense to the original
laborer (B. M. 77a; “ Yad,” d.c. ix., x.; Hoshen Mish-
pat, 383). The hours of the day-laborer, as well as
the amount of food to be given to him during work,
depend on local custom. The master
Overtime. may not compel the workman to work
overtime if the custom is to cease
labor at a certain hour, even though he be willing
to pay for the extra time. If he specifies in his con-
tract that he hires the laborer according to the laws
of the Torah, the laborer must work from sunrise
to sunset, except on Friday, when he is permitted to
go home earlier in order to prepare himself for the
Sabbath (B. M. 88a; Hoshen Mishpat, 331, Isserles’
gloss). If thelaborer finishes the work given to him
in less than a day, the master may give him some
other occupation equally difficult with, but not more
difficult than, the first to engage him for the rest of
the day. In case the master has no other occupation
for him, the Jaborer is entitled only to the payment of
a laborer who is not at work, that is to say, the mini-
mum amount which is paid for labor. If the laborer
is hired for the purpose of fetching a certain object
and he-does not find it, he may claim the full amount
of his wages (B. M. 77a; “ Yad,” dc. ix. 7,8; Hoshen
Mishpat, 385). If the laborer is hired for a number
of days in succession, he is not permitted to work at
bight; for by so doing he might become less fit for
the next day’s labor. In- general, the laborer is
warned to perform his work faithfully, and not to
waste the time that belongs to his master. Then he
will be blessed, even as Jacob was blessed with great
wealth because he worked faithfully for Laban (Gen.
The Day-
Laborer.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
408
xxx. 48; Tosef., B. M. viii. 2; “ Yad,” dc. xiii. 6, 7;
Hoshen Mishpat, 337, 19, 20).
2. The piece-worker is not as much favored by
the Law as the day-laborer, and if he retracts from
his contract he has to suffer the loss.
The Piece- If he undertakes to finish a piece of
Worker. work foracertainsum, and after he has
completed one-half of it he retracts, he
is not entitled to half that sum, the value of the work
done, but the court estimates how much it will cost
to finish the work, and this amount is subtracted from
the original sum, and the remainder is given to him.
In case the work is spoiled through not being finished
the same day, the piece-worker is subjected to the
same laws as the day-laborer (B. M. 76b; “ Yad,”
l.c. ix. 4; Hoshen Mishpat, 338, 4, 5).
The merchant workman (jO1&) who undertakes
to do the work at his own home is in some respects
regarded as a bailee and in others asa seller. Ifthe
material is given to him, and he has merely to pre-
pare it or to put it into a certain shape, most au-
thorities agree that he is to be regarded as the paid
bailee (see BAILMENTS). If he finishes the work and
the master is notified to come and claim it, from that
time he is regarded as a gratuitous bailee, and is not
responsible for any accident that may happen to the
object, except when caused by wilful neglect. If
he has to provide the material also, he is in all re-
spects regarded as a seller; and the master assumes
no responsibility for the object until it is delivered
to him. If the material is supplied by the master, but
the workmanadds something to it, the latter is re-
garded as a paid bailee for the material given to him,
but not for the addition made by him (B. K. 99a;
B. M. 80b; “ Yad,” U.c. 3, 4; Hoshen Mishpat, 306).
For further particulars regarding the relations of
master and laborer see FEE; MASTER AND SERVANT;
W AGEs,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Moses Bloch, Der Vertrag, Budapest, 1893;
Farbstein, Das Recht der Unfreien und der Freien Arbei-
ter, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1896; Mielziner, Legal Mazims,
Cincinnati, 1898.
8. S. J. H. G.
HIRSCH, ALBERT: Austrian playwright;
born in Vienna June 29, 1841. He was first a public-
school-teacher; then went on the stage, playing,
among other places, in the variety theater in the
Josefstadt; but he soon left the company and de-
voted himself to folk-songs and plays, in which
field he has become very prominent. He has writ-
ten more than 200 popular plays, mostly of Jewish
life, and has had them performed at home and
abroad with much success by a company organized
by himself. Hirsch has also composed the music
for his works, founding his compositions for the
most part on Jewish melodies.
s. E. J.
HIRSCH, ALPHONSE: French painter; born
in Paris 1848; died there July 15, 1884. He was a
pupil of Meissonier and Bonnat, and began by
sketching and etching. Of the latter art he has left
many fine examples; but his chief merit is as a col-
orist. Hirsch exhibited at the annual salons. Among
his best works are: “La Corde au Cou”; “Le Pre-
mier-Né”; “Un Dernier Regard”; “Le Modéle”;
“La Convalescente”; “En Visite”; “Premier Trou-
409
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hiring
Hirsch, Clara de
ble.” Among his portraits are those of Isidor, chief
rabbi of France, 1877; Octave Feuillet, 1878; Alfred
Naquet, 1880; Ernest Daudet, 1881; Eugéne Manuel,
1884.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: La Grande Encyclopédie ;
rousse Illustré.
s. V. E.
HIRSCH, AUGUST: German physician and
medico-historical writer; born at Danzig Oct. 4,
1817; died at Berlin Jan. 28, 1894. After having
followed commerce for a few years, he began tlie
study of medicine at the University of Leipsic in
1839, and completed his course of study at Berlin in
1848, when he received the degree of doctor of med-
icine. The following year he established himself as
a physician in Elbing, West Prussia. Two years
later he removed to Danzig. As it was his intention
to enter the Anglo-Indian service as a surgeon, he
gave special attention to geographic-pathological
studies. The results of his researches were pub-
lished in the “ Hamburger Medizinische Zeitschrift ”
in 1848, under the title “Ueber die Geographische
Verbreitung von Malariafieber und Lungenschwind-
sucht und den Réumlichen Antagonismus dieser
Krankheiten.” These investigations led him to his-
torical pathology; his “Handbuch der Historisch-
Geographischen Pathologie” (2 vols., Erlangen,
1859-64; 2d ed., 3 vols., 1881-86; translated into
English by the New Sydenham Society, 1888) has
become indispensable to military surgeons and prac-
titioners in the tropics,
In 1863 he was called to the University of Berlin
to fill the chair of medical history, which position
he held until his death. In 1865 he was sent by the
government to the Vistula districts in West Prus-
sia to report on the epidemic there of cerebrospinal
meningitis. His report was published under the
title “ Die Meningitis Cerebro-Spinalis Epidemica ”
(Berlin, 1866). During the Franco-Prussian war
(1870-71) he was in charge of a sanitary train. The
following year he joined with others in founding
the “ Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Oeffentliche Gesund-
heitspflege,” of which he was president until 1885.
In deference to hisand Pettenkofer’s representations,
the government appointed an imperial commission
on cholera. As a member of this body Hirsch was
sent again to the Vistula. His official report, “ Das
Auftreten und der Verlauf der Cholera in den
Preussischen Provinzen Posen und Preussen (Mai-
September, 1878),” was reprinted separately (1874;
2d ed., Berlin, 1876). In 1878 he was the German
representative at the international cholera congress
in Vienna. In 1879 he was sent by the government
with Sommerbrodt and Ktissner to Russia to report
on the prevalence of cholera in the government of
Astrakhan. “ Mittheilungen iiber die Pest-Epidemie
im. Winter 1878-79 im Russischen Gouvernement
Astrachan ” (Berlin, 1880) is their conjoint report.
From 1866 Hirsch acted with Virchow as editor of
“ Jahresbericht tiber die Fortschritte und Leistungen
in der Medizin.” From 1884 to 1888 he was one of
the editors of the “Biographisches Lexikon der
Hervorragenden Aerzte Aller Zeiten und Volker”
(Vienna). He also contributed many medical biog-
raphies to the “ Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie.”
Hirsch was a prolific writer. Besides the fore-
youveau Lae
going works, he wrote: “Ueber die Anatomie der
Alten Griechischen Aerzte” (Berlin, 1864); “J. F.
C. Hecker: Die Grossen Volkskrankheiten des Mit-
telalters : Historisch-Pathologische Untersuchungen”
(26. 1865-66); “Ueber Verhiitung und Bekimpfung
der Volkskrankheiten ” (¢b, 1875); “Geschichte der
Augenheilkunde” (Leipsic, 1877); “Geschichte der
Medizinischen Wissenschaft in Deutschland ” (Mu-
nich and Leipsic, 1894).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations- Lexikon; Hirsch,
Biog. Lex.; Pagel, Biog. Lex.; Allgemeine Deutsche Bio-
graphie; Brockhaus, Konversations-Lexikon.
8. EF. T. H.
HIRSCH, CLARA DE (Baroness de Hirsch-
Gereuth): Wife of Baron Maurice de Hirsch; born
at Antwerp June 138, 1883; died in Paris April 1,
1899. Her mother was a sister of Solomon H. Gold-
schmidt, who for many years acted in the capacity
of president of the Alliance Israé)ite Universelle.
The baroness, then Clara Bischoffsheim, received a
liberal education; she
was an accomplished
linguist, able to speak
and write fluently in
French, German, Eng-
lish, and Italian. After
leaving the schoolroom
she acted as her father’s
secretary, and thus be-
came conversant notonly
with his business affairs,
but also with his work
as legislator and philan-
thropist. This proved
to be a valuable experi-
ence even during her
husband’s lifetime, and
particularly so after his
death, when she was
left sole administrator of
his large estate. She was a ready writer, and was
her husband’s only assistant while he was abroad;
and at home, when his secretaries were overtaxed,
she often relieved them of long and arduous duties.
She was married to Baron de Hirsch in 1855 and
lived first in Munich, then in Brussels, and finally
in Paris.
Two children were born to them, a girl and a boy.
The daughter died in infancy, and Lucien in 1887,
at the age of thirty-one. From this
Death blow the baroness never recovered,
of Her Son. nor did she thereafter lay aside her ap-
parel of mourning. Shortly after his
son’s death the baron went to Constantinople. The
baroness accompanied him; while there she spent
most of her time in the poor districts of the city,
Clara de Hirsch.
-and, after careful investigation, distributed more
than $125,000 among needy families, without dis-
tinction of creed. Uninfluenced, Baron de Hirsch,
cosmopolitan as he was, might have devoted his
fortune to totally different purposes; but in philan-
thropic matters he yielded to his wife’s judgment.
It was she that gently guided his interests toward
philanthropy. She would not permit money, of
which the poor, persecuted, and oppressed Jews
stood in so much need, to be deflected into alien
Hirsch, Clara de
Hirsch Fund
channels. She determined that her husband should
turn his restless energies to relieving the distress of
his coreligionists.
In the work of founding colonies in Argentina and
Canada, as an outlet for the persecuted Jewsin Rus-
sia and the Orient, she was her husband’s associate
and inspiration. She was thoroughly conversant
with all his schemes, so that at his death she was
able to continue, develop, and complete, as well as
add to, the undertakings begun by him. Thestrong-
est evidence of his complete confidence in her is in
the fact that he left her sole administrator and resid-
uary legatee of his vast fortune. After his death
in 1896 she continued the administrative office in
her house in the Champs Elysées, where she devoted
herself to her work from early morning until late at
night, surrounded by her secretaries. A year after
the baron’s death the baroness sent a million dollars
to America to help in relieving the congestion in the
New York ghetto. Her plan was to encourage the
immigrants to move away from the city into the
rural districts, by offering more com-
Charities. fortable dwellings at very low rates.
She also sent $150,000 to erecta build-
ing for the Baron de Hirsch Trade-School in New
York city, thereby enabling that institution to ex-
tend its curriculum. She gave $200,000 to build the
Clara de Hirsch Home for Working Girls, which she
endowed with $600,000 for carrying on its work of
providing temporary shelter for homeless working
girls, as well as a domestic training-school for immi-
grants. She created a pension fund of $700,000 for
the officials of the Oriental railways built by her
husband, and a similar pension fund for the instruct-
ors of the Baron de Hirsch schools in Galicia. She
established benevolent bureausin Vienna and Buda-
pest, and gave half a million dollars each to the
Pasteur Institute of Paris and to the Philanthropic
Society of Paris. The entire amount devoted by
her to benevolent purposes during her widowhood
exceeded $15,000,000, and she further endowed her
various foundations by leaving them $10,000,000 in
her will. It was her intention to give away her en-
tire fortune, with the exception of an income suffi-
cient for her own personal wants and of suitable
provision for her two adopted sons, Arnold and
Raymond de Forest; but she died before she had an
opportunity of completing her plan.
Among the chief bequests in her will were the fol-
lowing:
Oeuvre de Nourriture (for providing food and clothing for poor
children attending Alliance Israélite schools), $600,
Baron de Hirsch Fund, New York city, $1,200,000.
Jewish Board of Guardians, London (asa loan fund), $600,000.
Ecole Normale Orientale de Alliance Israélite in Paris,
$800,000.
Pension Fund for Teachers, Their Orphans and Widows,
$600,000.
Baron de Hirsch Institute, Montreal, $1,200,000.
Baron de Hirsch Foundation for Providing Schools in Galicia,
$2,200,000.
Baroness Clara Ge Hirsch’s Emperor Francis Joseph’s Jubilee
Foundation (for support of children in Austria), $400,000.
Clara de Hirsch Home for Working Girls, New York city,
$600,000.
Philanthropic Society of Paris, $200,000.
Committee of Jewish Charities, Paris, $100,000.
Minor bequests to individuals and societies, $800,000.
5, S. St.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
410
HIRSCH, DAVID: German instructor of deaf-
mutes; born at Mintz, Rhenish Prussia, May 28, 18138;
died at Rotterdam Feb. 2, 1895. He studied at the
Heinicke institute for deaf-mutes at Crefeld, and
afterward at a similar institute in Cologne, with the
intention of becoming an instructor. At the age of
twenty-five he received an appointment as director of
a deaf-mute school at Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1847 he
was called to Rotterdam as private tutor to two chil-
dren; and, having other mute children placed under
his care, he established May 23, 1858, what was in
Holland the pioneer schoo! of oral instruction for
deaf-mutes, an institution which he conducted until
1887, when ill health compelled him to withdraw
from its active management. From this school he
sent forth a number of teachers, who introduced his
oral system into several European countries. In rec-
ognition of his services the Dutch government con-
ferred upon him the Order of the Netherlands Lion,
and France made him an Officier de l’ Académie.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. No. 1350, p. 10; . Rotter-
damsche Courant, May 28, 1903.
8. F. S. W.
HIRSCH, EMIL GUSTAV: American rabbi;
professor of rabbinical literature and philosophy in
the University of Chicago; born in the grand duchy
of Luxemburg May 22, 1852; educated in the pub-
lic schools of the duchy and in the University of
Pennsylvania. When his father, Samuel Hirscu,
was called (1866) to the ministry of the Reform Con-
gregation Keneseth Israel, in Philadelphia, Pa.,
Emil accompanied him to the United States, contin-
ued his education at the Episcopal Academy in Phil-
adelphia, and graduated from the University of
Pennsylvania in 1872. In that year he went to Ger-
many aud studied at the universities of Berlin (1872-
1876) and Leipsic (philosophy and theology; Ph.D.
1876); he also attended the Hochschule fiir die
Wissenschaft des Judenthums. On his return to
America he was elected rabbi of the Har Sinai con-
gregation at Baltimore, Md., in 1877. A year later
he accepted the rabbinate of the Adas Israel congre-
gation of Louisville, Ky., where he remained two
years. In August, 1880, Hirsch went to Chicago,
and was installed there as rabbi of the Sinai congre-
gation, an office he still holds (1903). During his
ministration a larger house of worship was erected
on Indiana avenue (1892).
From 1880 to 1883 Hirsch edited with I. 8. Moses
the “Zeitgeist,” published at Milwaukee, Wis.; in
1886 he became coeditor of “The Reformer,” issued
in New York; and in 1892 he connected himself
with “The Reform Advocate,” published in Chi-
cago. In 1888 Hirsch was appointed member, and,
later, president, of the board of the Chicago Public
Library, remaining in office until 1897; it was during
his term that the new library building was erected.
Since 1892 he has occupied the chair of rabbinical
literature and philosophy in the University of Chi-
cago. In 1896 he was presidential elector at large
for Illinois. In 1902 he was Percy Turnbull lecturer
at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, his subject
being “Jewish Poetry.”
Hirsch is an eloquent public speaker and a prolific
contributor to Jewish journals. As editor of “The
Reform Advocate” he is an acknowledged exponent
411
of advanced thought in Jewish circles and a warm
advocate of the observance of Sunday as the Jewish
Sabbath, though, recognizing the difficulties in the
way of that change, he preaches on Saturday before
the Temple Israel congregation of Chicago.
Hirsch has published various monographs on Bib-
lical, theological, and sociological subjects. He took
a prominent part in the founding of the Jewish
Manual Training-School at Chicago, as well as in
the organizing of the Associated Jewish Charities,
the Civic Federation, and other public movements.
Fora time he was chaplain of the Illinois Naval
Militia and a member of the state board of charities.
He has also acted as president of the board of ex-
aminers of the Civil Service Commission at Chicago.
A F. H. V.
HIRSCH, FISCHL: Hebrew bookseller; died
at Berlin June 5, 1899. About 1860 he settled at
Halberstadt, and founded a Jewish printing and
publishing business. He soon abandoned this to
devote himself entirely to the sale of Hebrew books
and manuscripts. He rapidly acquired a wide
knowledge of the literature with which he was com-
mercially concerned, and, though near-sighted almost
to blindness, traveled extensively, collecting valua-
ble old prints and manuscripts which he afterward
sold to the principal Hebrew libraries in Europe.
When the collection of Hebrew books now ia the
British Museum was being formed, J. Zedner re-
sorted to Hirsch and acquired from him most of the
incunabula as well as the more precious of the books
of later date. The Bodleian Library and the Rosen-
thal Library at Amsterdam owe their most valuable
acquisitions to his unerring intelligence. About
1885 Hirsch removed to Frankfort-on-the-Main,
whence, about 1891, he went to Berlin. In 1897 he
paid his last visit to the British Museum.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Catalogue of Books for Sale by Fischt Hirsch,
with an introduction by S. van Straalen, 1900.
8 S. v. St.
HIRSCH, FRANZ ARNOLD: Austrian dram-
atist and miscellaneous writer; bornin Horitz, Bohe-
mia, June 15, 1815; died in Vienna Nov. 24, 1896.
After leaving the gymnasium Arnold studied med-
icine at the University of Vienna (1838-41). He
practised very successfully in Vienna as a homeopa-
thist until 1852, when he definitively abandoned
medicine for literature. After marrying Sophie
Wehle he traveled several years, and lived by turns
in Dresden, Florence, Rome, Paris, and London. In
1861 he settled in Paris.
Hirsch wrote, often under the pseudonym of
“Eginhbard Quelle,” numerous papers on political
economy and medicine, literary essays, short stories,
and novels, mostly in “Das Familienbuch des Oes-
terreichischen Lloyd” in Triest, and feuilletons for
Vienna periodicals. Among his plays were: “Der
Familien-Diplomat” (1859), comedy in three acts,
produced at the Hofburgtheater in Vienna, the fa-
mous comedian Beckmann making a great hit in it;
“Sand in die Augen” (1861); “Eine Tour aus dem
Contre-Tanz, oder So Passt’s” (1862; after the
French of Fournier and Meyer), “Zu Jung und Zu
Alt” (1866), one-act pieces; “ Blanca von Bourbon,”
tragedy in five acts, produced at the Dresden Thea-
ter Royal in 1860 (this play won for its author from
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hirsch, Clara de
Hirsch Fund
the Grand Duke of Weimar, before whom he read it,
the scholar’s gold medal); “ Die Fremde,” “ Dora,”
“Freund Fritz,” “Postscriptum,” etc., adapted
from the French. Hirsch translated into German
Napoleon III.’s “ 1dées Napoléoniennes.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Neue Freie Presse, Nov. 25, 1896, p. 5;
Bettelneim, Biograph. Jahrbuch, 1897, pp. 341-342
S. N. D.
HIRSCH FUND, BARON DE: A fund of
92,400,000 for ameliorating the condition of certain
Jewish immigrants to the United States. This
fund was incorporated under the laws of the state of
New York, Feb. 12, 1891, the trustees being M. S.
Isaacs, president; Jacob H. Schiff, vice-president ;
Jesse Seligman, treasurer; Dr. Julius Goldman,
honorary secretary ; Henry Rice, James H. Hoffman,
and Oscar 8. Straus, of New York; and Mayer
Sulzberger and W. B. Hackenburg, of Philadelphia.
The large immigration to the United States in 1890-
1891, caused by the enforcement in Russia of the
May Laws of 1881, induced Baron Maurice de Hirsch,
who had learned of the conditions in New York
from Oscar 8, Straus, to establish this foundation.
The deed of trust directed that the funds be used to
afford relief to the Jewish immigrants from Russia
and Rumania and to educate them, and to furnish
transportation to immigrants—selected, after their
arrival in America, on account of fitness in regard
to age, character, and capacity—to places in which
the condition of the labor market gives promise of
their becoming self-supporting; to provide free
transportation to others to places where relatives or
friends reside who will take care of the immigrants
until they can care for themselves; to teach immi-
grants trades and to contribute to their support, if
necessary, While learning; to furnish the tools or
implements needed for carrying on such trades after
the course of instruction has been completed; to
afford to immigrants instruction in agricultural
work; and, finally, to provide adequate instruction
in the English language.
The trustees of the Baron de Hirsch Fund at first
used the amount at their disposal in relieving the
immediate material necessities of the
First refugees; and, in order to make the
Attempts immigrants self-supporting, numbers
at Relief. were given instruction in the manu-
facture of clothing, white goods, etc.
The United Hebrew Charities of New York was
made the agent through which the material neces-
sities were relieved, and a monthly sum is still
given to that institution to be used exclusively for
the relief of needy Russian and Rumanian Jews who
have been less than two years in the United States.
When the great pressure due to the rapid immi-
gration of indigent refugees had been somewhat
relaxed, the trustees carefully matured their plans
for the amelioration of the condition of these people,
the aim of all their activities being the permanent
elevation of the standard of life of the Russian and
the Rumanian Jew in America and the bringing about
of a fecling of loyalty to their adopted country.
The main channels whereby these ends were to be
reached were education and colonization. In order
to teach children and adults the English language,
day classes for the former and evening classes for
Hirsch Fund
Hirsch, Markus
the latter were established on the lower East Side of
New York. In these classes the children of Jewish
immigrants are prepared to enter the public schools,
special attention being given to the rapid acquist-
tion of English. In 1900 these classes, which met
in the building of the Educational Alliance at East
Broadway and Jefferson street, were turned over to
that institution together with an annual appropria-
tion from the Baron de Hirsch Fund sufficient to
carry on the work. There are now from 500 to 600
children under instruction by a principal and eight
teachers.
The evening schoolin English for adult foreigners
was also consigned to the Educational Alhance at
the same time and under similar conditions.
The Baron de Hirsch Trade-School was established
for the purpose of providing free instruction in the
mechanical trades to immigrants from
Russia and Rumania. For a time the
school was conducted in a_ leased
building; but latera new school build-
ing was erected on East Sixty-fourth street, between
Second and Third avenues, at a cost of $150,000,
which sum was given by the Baroness de Hirsch for
the purpose in the summer of 1897.
With the exception of a short time during which
wood-carving was taught, the same trades as those
taught at the present time, namely, carpentry,
house- and sign-painting, plumbing, and the ma-
chinist’s and electrician’s trades, have been the
subjects of instruction. The Baron de Hirsch
Trade-School does not attempt to turn out skilled
mechanics, for pupils receive instruction during
five and one-half months only. The aim is, by a
good elementary training to make them intelligent
apprentices or helpers, and to afford them the op-
portunity to enter profitable trades under the most
favorable conditions.
For a time the trustees maintained a public bath-
house; but in view of the fact that public baths
were being provided by the municipality, it was
discontinued.
The chief enterprise attempted along the lines
of colonization was the founding of the town of
Woodbine, New Jersey. After inves-
tigating sites in various parts of the
country, the choice of the trustees fell
upon a tract of land in the northern
part of Cape May county, New Jersey, on which
an agricultural colony for the Jewish refugees from
Russia was established. Selected families, chosen
because of their apparent fitness as pioneers, were
sent to the colony (see JEw. Encyc. i, 262, 8.0. AGRI-
CULTURAL COLONIES IN THE UNITED STATES).
To the southwest of the town proper lies the
Woodbine Agricultural School, started in a small
way in 1893 by the trustees, and gradually enlarged
from year to year to meet the demands
Trade-
School.
Coloniza-
tion.
Agri- of Jewish youths for instruction in
cultural agriculture. At the present time (1903)
School. the buildings consist of a schoolhouse
of brick (completed in 1900) capable
of accommodating 250 pupils, a cottage for the staff
of teachers, a dormitory for 100 pupils, and the nec-
essary outhouses and paraphernalia of a farming
school.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
412
In 1898, lessons in English, arithmetic, etc., were
given to the boys; and for them as well as their
parents illustrated lectures on practical agriculture
were delivered once a week during the winter
months. The result was so encouraging that a
preliminary course was given from March to Oct.,
~ 1894, when 42 pupils received practical training in
planting, grafting, and the care of fruit-trees, and
inthe growing of truck and field crops. In Oct.,
1894, the first regular class, consisting of 15 boys,
was organized. Since that time the school has grad-
ually grown; there are enrolled at present (1903)
100 resident pupils, the full capacity of the dormi-
tory, besides a number of day pupils, the children
of residents of Woodbine and of the surrounding
farmers.
The school is entirely free. Since 1900 the course
of study and work extends over a period of four
years. The graduates have become farmers, florists,
machinists, etc., for the most part, but pupils of
exceptional ability have obtained positions under
the government and in educationalinstitutions. The
object of the school is “to raise intelligent, practical
farmers.” A competent faculty of experts in par-
ticular lines of work and study is in charge of the
pupils under the direction of the superintendent,
Prof. H. L.Sabsovich. The conditions of admission
are good moral character, good health, and an ele-
mentary education; and the minimum age of entry
is fourteen years. The pupils work from six to
eight hours in summer, and from four to five hours
in winter, and study from two to five hours daily
The Baron de Hirsch Fund gives a portion of its
yearly income to the Jewish Agricultural and In-
dustrial Aid Society, which has its offices in New
York. Among the objects of this association is the
encouragement of agriculture among Jews by lend-
ing money on mortgage for the purchase of farms.
It also, through a system of agents, organized as
the Industrial Removal Office, secures work in
cities and towns throughout the United States for
newly arrived Jewish immigrants and for dwellers in
the overcrowded part of New York, furnishing them
with free transportation to such places. <A regular
annual subvention is also granted to this society
by the Jewish Colonization Association.
The Baron de Hirsch Fund also grants yearly
sums to be used in Americanizing newly arrived
Jewish immigrants by means of education, etc., in
Philadelphia, Baltimore, St. Louis, Brooklyn, and
Boston.
A. M. RE.
HIRSCH, GASTON: French dramatic author;
born at Metz 1830. His chief plays are: “Le Pré-
jugé”; “Un Malheureux Caractére”; “La Mar-
quise des Rues” (music by Hervé), 1879; “ L’ Affaire
de Viroflay,” 1888; “Fanfreluche,” 1888; “Une
Actrice en Voyage,” 1884; “En Gréve,” 1885; “ Fla-
Fla,” 1886; “Benvenuto” (music by Diaz), 1890;
“Au-Deld du Réve” (music by Massenet), 1903.
Hirsch is also the author of the following works:
“Les Lagunes et le Tibre,” 1862; “Téhéran,” 1862;
“Le Roman de Deux Femmes,” 1887; and “Quel-
qu’un,” 1889.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nouveau Larousse Illustré.
8.
V. E.
413
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hirsch Fund
Hirsch, Markus
HIRSCH, JACOB VON: German banker;
grandfather of Maurice de Hirsch; born in 1764
at Konigshofen, near Witrzburg; died March
23, 1841, at Munich. Although in his youth he
had received an exclusively Talmudic education,
he later in life achieved the position of “ Hof-
bankier ” (court-banker) at Munich. He was the first
Jew in Bavaria permitted to engage in agricultural
enterprises. Hirsch took an active interest in Jew-
ish matters, and contributed large sums toward the
founding of many charitable and religious institu-
tions. During the German War of Liberation (1813-
1815) he organized, equipped, and supported a regi-
ment of soldiers at his own expense.
Pie enaeare Kayserling, Gedenkblitter, pp. 31-32, Leipsic,
5 LG. D.
HIRSCH JANOW: Polish rabbi; born about
1750; died at Firth, Bavaria, Nov. 18, 1785. On
account of his great keenness in Talmudical discus-
sions he was commonly called “ Hirsch Harif” (the
acute) When in 1776 his father-in-law, Raphael
Kohn, was elected rabbi of the three congregations
Hamburg, Altona, and Wandsbeck, he succeeded him
as rabbi of Posen. In the following year he was called
to the rabbinate of Firth. In 1779 he interdicted
Moses Mendelssohn’s German translation of the
Pentateuch. Salomon Maimon, in his “ Lebensge-
schichte” (pp. 280 e¢ seg.), highly praises Hirsch
Janow for his benevolence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. xi. 44, 586-587,
s S. Man,
HIRSCH, JENNY: German authoress and ad-
vocate of women’s rights; born Nov. 25, 1829, at
Zerbst, Anhalt; died March 9, 1902, at Berlin. After
the death of her parents she lectured in her native
town at the ducal high school for girls, and was em-
powered by the authorities to open a private school.
In 1860 she was called to Berlin to assist in editing
“Der Bazar,” a journal for women. She retained
this position until 1864, after which she devoted her-
self exclusively to an independent literary career.
Jenny Hirsch’s work naturally led her to take an
active interest in all movements for the advancement
of her sex. She attended the first women’s congress
(“Frauentag ”) in Leipsic, from which sprang the
Allgemeine Deutsche Frauenverein; and she was
among the first to join the Lette-Verein, a society
founded to assist women in supporting themselves,
and whose history she published in 1891 under the
title “Geschichte der 25 Jihrigen Wirksamkeit des
Lette-Vereins.” For seventeen years she devoted
her literary activity to the interests of the society,
and was its secretary until 1883. Thenceforward
she lived quietly in Berlin.
Of the works which Jenny Hirsch published some
appeared under her own name, and some under
pseudonyms. Her writings include: “Die Horig-
keit der Frau ” (2d ed., Berlin, 1892), a translation of
John Stuart Mill’s “Subjection of Women”; “ Fiir-
stin Frau Mutter: Historische Erzahlung,” Dresden,
1881; (under the pseudonym “L. Arenfeldt”) “Be-
freit,” Berlin, 1882; “Der Viiter Schuld,” 1882;
“Schwere Ketten,” 3d ed., 1884; “Die Erben,” 1889;
“Schlangenlist,” 1891. From 1870 to 1881 she
edited the “ Frauenanwalt,” the organ of the Frau-
enbildungsverein, and from 1887 to 1892 was one of
the editors of the “ Deutsche Hausfrauen-Zeitung.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Meyers Konversations-Levikon ; Lina Mor-
genstern, in Bloch’s Oesterreichische Wochenschrift, Vienna,
March 71, 1902; Allg. Zeit. des Jud. March 14, 1902.
8. M. W. L.
HIRSCH, JOSEPH VON: German banker;
father of Maurice de Hirsch; born July 2, 1805, at
Wirzburg; died Dec. 9, 1885, at Munich. After
completing his studies he entered his father’s bank-
ing establishment, and in 1841, on the latter’s death,
succeeded to the management of the firm. Hirsch
was the chief constructor of the Bavarian Ostbahn,
was a member of the central committee for the pro-
motion of forest-culture, and was connected with
many other agricultural and industrial enterprises.
He was an administrator of a number of chari-
table institutions, and during the cholera epidemic
of 1854 he helped greatly to relieve the sufferings of
its victims by establishing hospitals and supplying
the funds necessary for their maintenance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserling, Pica WeUlatt ers No. 82, Leipsic,
1892; Der Israelit, Dec. 21, 1885
8. i. G. D.
HIRSCH, LEVIN JOSEPH: German pbhysi-
cian; born at Schottland, near Danzig, 1758; died at
Konigsberg May 29, 1823. Destined by his parents
for a commercial career, he worked for three years
as a clerk in a small business house, but studied pri-
vately during that time, though under great difficul-
ties. In 1785 he entered the University of Kénigs-
berg, where he studied medicine (M.D. 1791, his
dissertation being “De Necrosi Ossium”). In 17938
he became prosector in the anatomical section; in
1795, docent; in 1805, director of the Entbindungs-
und Hebammen-Lehr-Institut at the Kénigsberg
University. When, as a result of the French in-
vasion, the funds of the institute had been confis-
cated, and its existence as an institution imperiled,
Hirsch provided the means necessary for its contin-
uance. Hirsch rendered great services during the
war, and was rewarded by the King of Prussia with
the title (1808) of “Medicinalrath” and the gift of
a diamond ring.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jolowicz, Gesch. der Juden in Koénigsberg,
1807, pp. 117-118. g
HIRSCH, MARKUS: Chief rabbi of Hamburg;
born at Tisza-Bed, Hungary, Feb. 17, 1838. In
1853 he went to Prague, where he became the pupil
of I. L. Rapoport, attending at the same time lec-
tures at the university. In1856he became rabbi at
Karezag, whence he was called to Bed as district
rabbi; and in 1861 he became rabbi of Alt-Ofen,
where he was also appointed director ofa great Tal-
mudical school. At that time Hungarian Judaism
was ina state of unrest, and Hirsch was urged by the
government to make peace between the conflicting .
parties. His “Dibre Shalom we-Emet ” was written
to that end. In the congress of Hungarian Jews (1869-
1870) Hirsch was the leader of the Status Quo party.
He was a member of the committee entrusted with the
elaboration of the statutes for the Budapest Rabbin-
ical Seminary. In 1880, after refusing calls to Raab
and Papa, Hirsch went to Prague as chief rabbi in
succession to his former teacher Rapoport. Being
Hirsch, Maurice
too conservative, and being unable to realize his ideals
there, he accepted in 1889 the chief rabbinate of the
Orihodox community of Hamburg, remaining there
many vears. He founded the Jiidische Hiéhere Toch-
terschule, and did much forthe Talmud Torah school,
whose spiritual head he was. He diced May 19, 1909.
BIBLIOGRAPHY ; Jewish Chronicle, Feb. 21, 1908, p. 24.
S. A. Kt.
HIRSCH, BARON MAURICE DE (MORITZ
HIRSCH, FREIHERR AUF GEREUTH):
German philanthropist; born at Munich Dec. 9, 1881;
died near Ersek-Ujvar, Hungary, April 21, 1896;
eldest son of Baron Joseph von IITrscu, and grandson
of Baron Jacob von Hrrscu, by whom the family
fortune was founded. Maurice de Hirsch received
a good, plain education at
Munich and Brussels. His
mother, née Caroline W ert-
heimer of Frankfort, took
care that he should have
the best instruction in He-
brew and religion. His
mind was very alert and
quick of comprehension ;
but he did not possess the
disposition of the student.
While yet in his teens he
took part in several busi-
ness ventures. In 1855
Hirsch married Clara, eld-
est daughter of Senator Ra-
phael Bischoffsheim of the
firm of Bischoffsheim &
Goldschmidt at Brussels,
which had branchesin Lon-
don and Paris. Though
only aclerk he soon became
the master mind of this
great international bank-
ing-house. Still, although
he was the son-in-law of
the senior member of the
house, he never became a
partner, for he was re-
garded as too enterpri-
sing and aggressive in
his plans to suit the con-
servative ideas of the
heads of the firm. Having inherited from his
father and grandfather a considerable fortune, which
was largely augmented by his wife’s dowry, he em-
barked in railway enterprises on his own account in
Austria, in the Balkans, and in Russia. A Brussels
banking-firm which had secured from the Turkish
government concessions for building a railway
through the Balkans to Constantinople, was uneble
to carry the project through. Hirsch obtained con-
trol of these concessions, went to Constantinople,
and, after tireless effort, succeeded in
Foundation having them amended and renewed.
of His This done, he formed a construction
Fortune. company and perfected arrangements
for the building of this important rail-
way, which was to connect Europe and the near East.
The project was not looked upon with favor, but
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Baron Maurice de Hirsch.
414
Baron Hirsch clearly saw its commercial value and
advantages, won over sufficient cooperation, and
personally superintended the enterprise, after having
summoned the most skilful railway engineers of
Europe to his assistance.
Until he had finished the railway, which, unlike
previous Turkish enterprises, proved to bea great
financial success, Hirsch was regarded as rather vi-
sionary and reckless. ‘The substantial success which
he achieved contrary to the predictions of conserva-
tive bankers, gained for him the reputation of being
one of the leading captains of industry and finan-
ciers of Europe. He had a large view of affairs
and was clear and quick of judgment.
In the course of his strenuous business preoccupa-
tion in connection with his railway-building, he be-
came acquainted with the
deplorable condition of the
Jews in the Orient, which
condition was due chiefly
to a lack of practical edu-
cation and of opportunities
to earn a livelihood. He
secured the services of
Emanuel VENEZIANI, who
made investigations for
himand became analmoner
of his munificence. Hirsch
was impressed with the
excellent educational work
and benevolent services
rendered by the Alliance
Israélite Universelle, and
placed large sums at its
disposal to enable it to
extend its work in Euro-
pean Turkey. In 1873 he
gave the Alliance 1,000,000
francs for the creation of
schools, and from 1880
till his death he undertook
to make up the annual
deficit of the Alliance,
which amounted each
year to several hundred
thousand francs. At the
same time he encouraged
the Alliance to establish
trade-schools, the entire
expense of which from 1878 until his death he
paid. In 1889 he consolidated his annual dona-
tions in a foundation which yielded
Connection an annual income of 400,000 francs.
with the In 1878, during the Russo-Turkish
Alliance war, he established and maintained
Israélite. hospitals for both armies, and sent
the Empress of Russia £40,000
for charitable purposes.
Deplorable as was the status of the Jews in Gali-
cia, Turkey, and the Balkans, their condition was
not to be compared with that of their coreligionists
in Russia, who suffered untold hardships under pre-
scriptions calculated to deprive them of every pos:
sible means of earning a respectable livelihood. In
1885 Hirsch, with the assistance of a commission.
drew up a scheme for improving the condition of the
415
Russian Jews. It was his idea at this period that
that object might be best attained by measures ap-
plied in Russia itself, without resorting to emigra-
tion, For the preliminary endowment of this
scheme he offered the Russian government 50,000, -
000 frances to be used for purposes of education.
This offer the government declined to accept unless
the fund be entrusted to it for exclusive control and
distribution,
Hirsch finally but reluctantly came to the conclu-
sion that, in view of this disposition on the part of
the Russian government, the only hopeful plan of
relief for the Russian Jew lay in emi-
Jewish gration. He therefore directed all his
Coloniza- energies to investigating and studying
tion As- the best plans of colonization, which
sociation. resulted in the formation of an inter-
national association, incorporated un-
der English laws and known as the JEwisH CoLonr-
ZATION ASSOCIATION. The nominal capital, which
was contributed entirely by Hirsch, was £2,000,000,
all of which save a hundred shares he retained in his
own hands as trustee. The purposes of the associa-
tion, as stated by Hirsch himself, were:
“To assist and promote the emigration of Jews from any part
of Europe or Asia—and principally from countries in which they
may for the time being be subjected to any special taxes or
political or other disabilities—to any parts of the world, and to
form and establish colonies in various parts of North and South
America and other countries, for agricultural, commercial, and
other purposes.’’
Immediately after the formation of the association
he addressed an appeal to the Jews of Russia with
regard to the scheme of emigration which he in-
tended to carry out, urging them to assist him by
obeying certain necessary prescribed regulations, so
that their emigration should not be headlong and
reckless and end in failure. Hereminded them that
he could do nothing without the support of the Rus-
sian government; that they should bear their bur-
dens patiently, as at first the number of emigrants
would have to be limited, but that as time progressed
the emigration could assume larger proportions.
Baron de Hirsch was a great believer in the regen-
eration of the Russian Jews through industrial pur-
suits, and especially through agriculture, from which
occupations they had been barred in Russia. With
this object in view he caused careful inquiries and
investigations to be made in countries that offered
suitable lands for agricultural development. He
sent agents to make investigations in various parts
of America—in Brazil, Mexico, Canada, and Ar-
gentina. Through the agency of Dr. Léwenthal,
who was chiefly entrusted with these inquiries, he
came to the conclusion that Argentina, in the first
instance, presented conditions most favorable for the
commencement of the plan of colonization. Large
tracts of land were purchased in Buenos Ayres, Sante
Fé, and Entre-Rios. The Russian government,
which had rejected the baron’s offer
The for the amelioration of the condition
Argentine of the Jews in the empire, cooperated
Colonies. with him in the organization of a sys-
tem of emigration. A central commit-
tee, selected by the baron, was formed in St. Peters-
burg, at the head of which were Barons Horace and
Pavid Ginzburg, together with 8. Poliakoff, M.Sack,
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hirsch, Maurice
Passower, and Raffalovich, the latter three being
distinguished members of the St. Petersburg bar.
The baron also formed a governing body in Argen-
tina; and the personal direction of the colonies was
entrusted to Col. Albert GoLDsMID, who obtained
temporary leave of absence from the English War
Office for the purpose.
The gigantic plan of colonization thus initiated
met with the usual percentage of failure and success
attending such enterprises, Baron de Hirseh con-
tinued to give his personal attention to every detail
of this great work, and organized a regular business
staff, which attended him wherever he was residing,
in Paris or in London. The first floor of his residence
was converted into a business bureau, where he reg-
ularly spent the morning hours receiving reports and
dictating his correspondence.
The large number of Russian Jews who emigrated
to the United States attracted his benevolent inter-
est; and in 1891 he caused to be organized under the
laws of the state of New York the Baron de Hrrscu
FunND, with a capital of $2,500,000, which was after-
ward increased.
Since Hirsch lived the greater part of his life in
Austria, it was quite natural that the deplorable
condition of the Jews in that empire
Galician should especially appeal to him. In
Founda- 1889, after consultation with Dr.
tion. Adolf Jellinek of Vienna, he formu-
lated a plan to aid the Jews of Galicia.
The objects of his proposed foundation, which was
to commemorate the forty years’ jubilee of the reign
of Emperor Francis Joseph (1888), were stated to be
as follows:
1. The establishment of primary schools and of children’s
recreation-grounds in Galicia and Bukowina.
2, The granting of subsidies to teachers.
3. The providing of school-books and other educational re-
quirements and of clothing and food for pupils.
4, The granting of subsidies for the establishment of schools
for Jewish children.
5. The apprenticing of Jewish youths to handicraftsmen and
agriculturists.
6. The granting of assistance to Jewish pupils at commercial
and professional schools.
%. The granting of loans, free of interest, to artisans and agri-
culturists.
8. The establishment of commercial, technical, and agricul-
tural schools.
In 1891 the Austrian government agreed to the
plan; and the baron thereupon placed 12,000,000
francs at the disposal of the trustees.
The foregoing are only a few of the benevolent
foundations made by the baron. In addition may
be mentioned the Canadian Baron de Hirsch Fund,
and the large sums given to London hospitals, to
which he also devoted the entire proceeds of his win-
nings on the turf. He always said that his horses ran
for charity.
It is impossible to form an accurate estimate of
the amount of money Baron de Hirsch devoted to
benevolent purposes. That, including the large
legacy (amounting to $45,000,000) left to the Jewish
Colonization Association, it exceeded $100,000,000
is an estimate justified by the amounts given by him
from time to time to the foundations already referred
to. There were, besides, many gifts to individuals
of which there is no record. In an article referring
to his charitable work he said:
Hirsch, Maurice
Hirsch, Samuel
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
416
‘In relieving human suffering I never ask whether the ery of
necessity comes from a being who belongs to my faith or not;
but What is more natural than that I should find my highest
purpose in bringing to the followers of Judaism, who have been
oppressed for a thousand years, who are starving in misery, the
possibilities of a physical and moral regeneration ?”
The baron was a remarkable man, gifted with ex-
traordinary powers, with a genius for large affairs,
which was displayed even ina higher degree in his
gigantic plans for the exodus of the Russian Jews
than in the amassing of his great fortune. He loved
pleasure, but disliked vanity, He was not endowed
with sentiment, nor was he religious in the ordinary
sense, His ideals were all merged in his devotion
to his far-reaching, carefully planned scheme of
benevolence. In 1887, when he lost his only child,
his son Lucian, a gifted and promising young man
of thirty, he said in reply to a message of sympa-
thy: “My son I have lost, but not my heir; human-
ity is my heir.” No appeals made to him—and there
were many—to endow some great institution in
France, or to erect some artistic public building to
perpetuate his name and family, ever induced him to
turn aside from his plans for effecting the emigration
of the Russian Jews and converting them into agri-
cultural communities. He was firmly convinced
that as the Jews were originally an agricultural and
pastoral people, they, and especially those in Russia,
would under favorable conditions again become
tillers of the soil. In an article contributed by the
baron to the “Forum,” Aug., 1891, he set forth his
views and purposes as follows:
““In the lands where Jews have been permitted to acquire
landed property, where they have found opportanity to devote
themselves to agriculture, they have proved theinselves excel-
lent farmers. For example, in Hungary they form a very large
part of the tillers of the soil; and this fact is acknowledged to
such an extent that the high Catholic clergy in Hungary almost
exclusively have Jews as tenants on mortmain properties, and
almost all large landholders give preference to the Jews on ac-
count of their industry, their rectitude, and their dexterity.
These are facts that can not be hid, and that have force; so
that the anti-Semitic movement, which for a long time flour-
ished in Hungary, must expire. It will expire because every
one sees that so important a factor in the productive activity of
the country—especially in agriculture—can not be spared. My
own personal experience, too, has led me to recognize that the
Jews have very good ability in agriculture. I have seen this
personally in the Jewish agricultural colonies of Turkey; and
the reports from the expedition that I have sent to the Argen-
tine Republic plainly show the same. fact. These convictions
led me to my activity to better the unhappy lot of the poor,
downtrodden Jews; and my efforts shall show that the Jews
have not lost the agricultural qualities that their forefathers
possessed. I shall try to make for them a new home in different
lands, where, as free farmers, on their own soil, they can make
themselves useful to the country.”
His particular concern was to avoid overcrowding
with his Russian protégés the countries to which they
might emigrate. Of hisown accord, quite apart from
restrictive laws, he took measures to regulate the ex-
odusand to select men who would apply themselves
to handicrafts and agriculture. He never tired of im-
pressing upon his agents and upon the emigrants
the importance of directing their energies in these
channels exclusively, so that they should become a
part of the sturdy yeomanry of the countries where-
in they settled, and should “sit every man under his
vine and under his fig-tree.” He realized that colo-
nizing, like planting a forest, required time and
patience. His hopes rested upon the second gener-
ation; he knew that the forty years in the wilder-
ness might be shortened but not cscaped. His idea
was that as colonies became firmly rooted in differ
ent parts of the world, they would become self.
attracting, and would draw from Russia vreater and
greater numbers, so that in one or two generations
Russia would materially suffer from the loss of the
energy and activity of her Jews, and would either
stop the exodus by according to those who remained
full civil rights, or would fall, as she deserve, the
logical victim of her own intolerance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: O. S. Straus, in Forwm, July, 1896; L. Wolf,
in Encyc. Brit. Supplement, s.v.
8. 0. 8. 8.
HIRSCH, MAX: German economist and dep-
uty; born in Halberstadt Dec. 30, 1832. His par-
ents removed at the end of the thirties to Magde-
burg, where Max received his early education. He
| studied (1850-55) natural science, foreign languages,
and jurisprudence at the universities of Tibingen,
Heidelberg, and Berlin. After having graduated
(1856) he traveled through France and northern Africa
to study the economic conditions of these regions. In
1861 he founded at Frankfort-on-the-Main a pub-
lishing-house, which he soon transferred to Berlin.
On the death of his father (1862) he succeeded
to the latter’s great produce business. Cherishing
political ambitions, he took an active part in the
organization of various political societies, and be-
came so prominent that in 1864 he was elected asa
member of the permanent executive committee of
the German Arbeiterbildungsverein. From 1867 he
devoted all his energies to politics. After a visit to
England, where he studied thoroughly the organiza-
tions of the English working classes, he became one
of the principal promoters of the Deutsche (Hirsch-
Dunckersche) Gewerksvereine. He was the attor-
ney at law of this great organization, and at the
same time editor of its organ, “ Der Gewerksverein.”
In 1869, 1877, 1881, and 1890 he was elected to the
Reichstag. In 1898 he was elected to the Chamber of
Deputies of Prussia. Asa member of the progressive
party he turned his attention principally to com-
mercial and industrial questions. At Hirsch’s in-
stance the Humboldt-Akademie, an institution simi-
lar to the American university extensions, was
founded in Berlin in 1878 by the Wissenschaftliche
Centralverein. Hirsch was atthe head of the insti-
tution.
Hirsch wrote the following works: “Ueber den
Kinfluss der Maschinen auf die Voikswirtschaft ”;
“Skizze der Volkswirtschaftlichen Zustinde in
Algerien” (Gottingen, 1857); “Reise in das Innere
von Algerien Durch die Kabylie und die Sahara”
(Berlin, 1862); “Soziale Briefe aus England ”; “ Nor-
malstatuten fiir Einigungsimter ” (2 vols., 7b. 1874);
“Gutachten tiber den Arbeitsvertragsbruch ” (in the
writings of the Verein fir Sozialpolitik, Leipsic,
1874); “Die Gegenseitigen Hilfskassen und die Ge-
setzgebung” (Berlin, 1875); “Gewerksvereins- Leit-
faden” (with Polke, 1876); “Der Staat und die
Versicherung ” (1881); “ Das Krankenversicherungs-
gesetz vor dem Reichstag ” (1883); “ Die Hauptsich-
lichsten Streitfragen der Arbeiterbewegung ” (1886);
“Die Grundzitige der Alters- und Invalidenversi-
cherung und die Arbeiter ” (1888); “ Arbeiterstimmen
ber Unfall- und Krankheitsverhitung” (1889);
417
“Das Jnvaliditiits- und Altersversicherungsgesetz ”
(2 vols., Breslau, 1890); “Die Arbeiterschutzgesetz-
gebung ” (2 vols., 2). 1892); “ Leitfaden mit Muster-
statuten fiir Freie Hilfskassen ” (Berlin, 1892); “ Die
Arbeiterfrage und die Deutschen Gewerksvereine ”
(Leipsic, 1893), He died March 4, 1909,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon ;
meine Zeit. des Jud. Jan. 2, 1
Allge-
S.
HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL: German
rabbi; born at Hamburg June 20, 1808; died at
Frankfort-on-the-Main Dec. 31, 1888. His father,
though a merchant, devoted much of his time to
Hebrew studies; his grandfather, Mendel Frank-
furter, was the founder
of the Talmud Torah
in Hamburg and un-
salaried assistant rabbi
of the neighboring con-
gregation of Altona;
and his granduncle,
Léb Frankfurter, was
the author of several
Hebrew works. Hirsch
B TaN :
A HAN was a pupil of Hakam
z this Bernays, and the Bib-
tice ai lical and Talmudical
i}
education which he re-
ceived, combined with
his teacher’s influence,
led him to deter-
mine not to become a
merchant, as his par-
ents had desired, but to
choose the rabbinical
vocation. In furtherance of this plan he studied
Talmud from 1828 to 1829 in Mannheim under Jacob
Ettlinger. He then entered the University of Bonn,
where he studied at the same time as his future
antagonist, Abraham Geiger.
In 1830 Hirsch was elected chief rabbi (“ Landrab-
biner”) of the principality of Oldenburg, where he
remained until 1841, when he was elected chief rabbi
of the Hanoverian districts of Aurich and Osna-
briick, with his residence in Emden. During this
period he wrote his “Neunzehn Briefe tiber Juden-
thum,” which were published, under the pseudonym
of “Ben Usiecl” (or “Uziel”), at Altona in 1836.
This work made a profound impression in German
Jewish circles because it was something new—a
brilliant, intellectual presentation of Orthodox Juda-
ism in classic German, and a fearless, uncompromi-
sing defense of all its institutions and ordinances.
From the appearance of the “ Nineteen Letters”
dates the origin of the so-called “ Neo-Orthodoxy,” or
the revival of Orthodox Judaism in somewhat mod-
ernized and esthetic form. The “ Letters” have been
translated into Hebrew and English (“Iggerot Za-
fon,” by M.8, Aronson, Wilna, 1892; and “ The Nine-
teen Letters of Ben Uziel,” by Bernard Drachman,
New York, 1899). In 1888 Hirsch published, as a nec-
essary concomitant of the ‘‘Letters,” his “ Horeb,
oder Versuche iiber Jissroel’s Pflichten in der Zer-
streuung,” which isa text-book on Judaism for educa-
ted Jewish youth; in 1889, “ Erste Mitthcilungen aus
Naphtali’s Briefwechsel,” a polemical essay against
VI.—27
Samson Raphael Hirsch.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hirsch, Maurice
Hirsch, Samuel
the reforms in Judaism proposed by Holdheim and
others; and in 1844, “Zweite Mittheilungen aus
einem Briefwechsel tiber die Neueste Jiidische
Literatur,” also polemical in tendency.
In 1846 Hirsch was called to the rabbinate of
Nikolsburg in Moravia, and in 1847 he became chief
rabbi of Moravia and Austrian Silesia, In Austria
he passed five years in the reorganization of the
Jewish congregations and the instruction of numer-
ous disciples; he was also, in his official capacity as
chief rabbi, a member of the Moravian Landtag.
In 1851 he accepted a call as rabbi of an Ortho-
dox separatist group in Frankfort-on-the-Main, a
part of the Jewish community of which had ac-
cepted Reform. This group, known as the “ Israel-
itish Religious Society ” (‘‘ Israelitische Religions-Ge-
sellschaft ”), became under his administration a great
congregation, numbering about 500 families. Here
Hirsch continued to labor until his death. He
organized the Burger- und Realschule, in which
thorough Jewish and secular training went hand in
hand; he founded and edited the monthly “Je-
schurun” (1855-70; new series, 1882 ¢¢ sey.), and
wrote the following independent works: ‘‘ Jiidische
Anmerkungen zu den Bemerkungen eines Protes-
tanten” (anon.), 1841; “Die Religion im Bunde mit
dem Fortschritt ” (anon.), 1854; “ Uebersetzung und
Erklarung des Pentateuchs,” 1867-78 (5 vols; 3d
ed. of vol i, 1893); “Das Princip der Gewis-
sensfretheit,” 1874; “Der Austritt aus der Ge-
meinde,” 1876 (the last two were written in advo-
cacy of the Lasker law, adopted July 28, 1876, per-
mitting Israelites to sever their connection with
local congregations without leaving Judaism );
“ Uebersetzung und Erklirung der Psalmen,” 1882;
“Ueber die Beziehungen des Talmuds zum Juden-
thum,” 1884, a defense of Talmudic literature against
anti-Semitic slanders. He left in manuscript at the
time of his death a translation and explanation of
the prayer-book which was subsequently published.
The publication, in several volumes, of his col-
lected writings (“Gesammelte Schriften”) was be-
gun in 1902.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Der Israelit, Mayence, Jan., 1889, and Sept.,
1896; B. Drachman, Samson Raphaet Hirsch, a Biograph-
ical Sketch, an introduction to his translation of the Newn-
zehn Briefe, ete.; Meyers Konversations-Lextkon, 5th ed.
8. B. D.
HIRSCH, SAMUEL: American rabbi; born at
Thalfang, near Treves, Rhenish Prussia, June 8,1815;
died in Chicago, IIl., May 14, 1889; educated at the
universities of Bonn, Berlin, and Leipsic (Ph.D.).
In 1888 he was appointed rabbi of the congrega-
tion in Dessau, where he remained until 1841
(“ Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” 1841, No. 15), when, on
account of his advanced views, he resigned. In
1843 he published his “ Die Messias-Lehre der Juden
in Kanzelvortriigen ” and “ Religionsphilosophie der
Juden.” In the same year he was appointed chief
rabbi of the grand duchy of Luxemburg by the
King of Holland, which office he filled until 1866.
During this period he published his “ Die Humani-
tiit als Religion.” He took an active part in the
annual rabbinical conferences held at Brunswick
(1844), Frankfort-on-the-Main (1845), and Breslau
(1846). In 1844 he published his “ Reform im Juden-
Hirsch, Samuel
Hirschfeld, Gustav
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
418
oT
thum.” Having received a call from the Reform
Congregation Keneseth Israel, Philadelphia, Pa., in
1866, he resigned his post in Europe and removed to
the United States, where he succeeded Dr. David
Einhorn, and where, from his arrival, he became
closely identified with, and an open advocate of,
radical Reform. In 1869 he was elected president
of the rabbinical conference held in Philadelphia, at
which the principles of Reformed Judaism were
formulated ; in that year he engaged also in numer-
ous ritual and doctrinal controversies.
Hirsch remained officiating rabbi of the Philadel-
phia congregation for twenty-two years, resigning
in 1888, after having spent fifty years of his life in
the ministry. Removing to Chicago, he took up his
abode there with his son, Emil G. Hirsch. During
hig rabbinate in Philadelphia Hirsch organized the
Orphans’ Guardian Society, and was the founder of
the first branch in the United States of the Alliance
Israélite Universelle. He was one of the first
to advocate the holding of Jewish services on
Sunday.
Hirsch is best known as the author of the “ Reli-
gionsphilosophie,” a work written from the Hegelian
point of view, but for the purpose of vindicating
the claim of Judaism to the rank denied it by Hegel,
the rank of an “absolute religion.” In this book he
proved himself to be an original thinker (see “ Allg.
Zeit. des Jud.” 1895, pp. 126 e¢ seg.). His “ Katechis-
mus der Israelitischen Religion ” was also constructed
on original lines; he considered the Biblical legends to
be psychological and typical allegories, and the cere-
monies of Judaism to be symbols of underlying ideas.
From this attitude his Reform principles are de-
rived. He denied that Judaism is a law; it is
“Lehre,” but is expressed in symbolic ceremonies
that may be changed in accordance with historic de-
velopment. Hirsch was among those that wrote in
defense of Judaism against Bruno Bauer (see his
“Briefe Gegen Bruno Bauer,” Leipsic, 1844). He
was also a contributor to the “ Archives Israélites,”
Paris, and to “ Die Deborah,” Cincinnati, Ohio.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jost, Geach. des Judentums und Seiner Sek-
ten, iii.; Karpeles, Literaturgesch. Index; Bernfeld, Da‘at
Elohim, Index.
A. | F. H. V.
HIRSCH SCHOOL JOURNAL. Sce PERI-
ODICALS.
HIRSCH, SIEGFRIED: German historian;
born at Berlin Nov. 5, 1816; died at Paris Sept. 11,
1860; cousin of Theodor Hirsch. From 1888 to
1886 he studied history at the universities of Berlin
and Kénigsberg. In 1834 he published a prize essay,
“Das Leben und die Thaten Konig Heinrichs I.”;
and in 1837, conjointly with Waitz, “Die Echtheit
der Chronik von Korvei.” His first important work
was “ De Vita et Scriptis Sigiberti,” Berlin, 1841. In
1842 he became privat-docent at the University of
Berlin, two years later receiving the appointment of
assistant professor. Like Stahl, another converted
Jew, Hirsch took an active interest in the purifica-
tion of the Church, and in this connection became a
frequent contributor to the “Kreuzzeitung.” His
principal work, the “Geschichte Heinrich II.,” was
unfinished at his death. It was published by Usin-
ger, Pabst, and Bresslau in the “Jahrbiicher des
Deutschen Reiches” (Berlin and Leipsic, 1862-75, 3
vols.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 1897; All-
gemeine Deutsche Biographie; Dele Roi, Juden-Mission,
Index. g
HIRSCH, SOLOMON: American merchant,
diplomatist, and politician; son of Samson Hirsch
and ElJja Kuhn; born in Wiirttemberg March 285,
1889. He went to the United States at the age of
fifteen, and lived successively in the states of New
York, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. In 1858
he removed to Oregon, and in 1864 became a resi-
dent of the city of Portland, being the head of one
of the largest mercantile establishments in the
Northwest. Jn 1872 he waselected a member of the
state legislature, as representative of Multnomah
county; and upon the expiration of his term of office
(1874) was elected state senator for the same county
for a term of four years, being reelected for two
successive terms in 1878 and 1882. He was presi-
dent of the state senate in the session of 1880. In
1885 he was a candidate for the office of United
States senator from Oregon. The legislature ad-
journed without proceeding to an election, though
Hirsch would have been elected had he voted for
himself. In 1889 President Harrison appointed him
United States minister to Turkey, which position he
filled until 1892, when he resigned. He was presi-
dent of the Jewish congregation in Portland, and
has been prominently associated with many Jewish
organizations.
A. Ss. S. W.
HIRSCH, THEODOR: German historian; born
Dec. 17, 1806, at Altschottland, near Danzig; died
Feb. 17, 1881. He studied theology, history, and
geography at Berlin (having previously embraced
Christianity); became professor at the Friedrich
Wilhelm Gymnasium; and in 1833 proceeded ina
similar capacity to Danzig, where he taught history
for thirty-two years. He was devoted to the study
of the history of his native town, by the munici-
pal council of which he was charged in 1850 with
the rearrangement and supervision of the city ar-
chives. His principal work is “ Danzig’s Handels-
und Gewerbegeschichte Unter der Herrschaft des
Deutschen Ordens,” Leipsic, 1858, He also edited,
with Strehlke and Toppen, the “Scriptores Rerum
Prussicarum,” 5 vols., 22. 1861-74. In 1865 Hirsch
became assistant professor of history at the Univer-
sity of Greifswald and director of the Royal Univer-
sity Library. In 1880 he published the sixth volume
of the “Urkunden und Aktenstiicke zur Geschichte
des Grossen Kurfiirsten.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 1897; Allg.
Deutsche Biographie, xiii. 506; Dele Roi, Juden-Mission,
part i., p. 207. S
HIRSCHBERG. See SILeEsta.
HIRSCHBERG, ERNST: German statistician;
born March 8, 1859, at Konigsberg, East Prussia.
He was educated in his native town, graduating in
1882. Soon afterward he was employed in the sta-
tistical office of the city of Berlin, where he at first
(1902) was assistant director and then (1908) became
‘director. He is also chief of the statistical bureau of
the city of Charlottenburg. The title of “ professor”
has been conferred upon him by the government.
419
Among Elirschberg’s works may be mentioned:
“ Arbeiterversicherungsz wang,” Berlin, 1882; “ Tren-
nung der Alters- und Invaliden-Versicherung,” 20,
1889; “Beitraige zur Statistik der Brodpreise,” 2d,
1893; “Die Soziale Lage der Arbeitenden Klassen
in Berlin,” 2d. 1897; and “ Arbeitlosen Versicherung
und Armenpflege,” 7d. 1903.
S. F. T. H.
HIRSCHBERG, JULIUS: German ophthal-
mologist; born at Potsdam Sept. 18, 1843. He re-
ceived his education at the gymnasium of his native
town and at the University of Berlin, graduating as
doctor of medicine in 1867. In the same year he
became assistant in the ophthalmologic clinic of A.
von Graefe. He commenced to practise in 1869,
and founded a private dispensary and hospital for
diseases of the eye. He was admitted in the follow-
ing year to the medical faculty of Berlin University
as privat-docent in surgery and ophthalmology. In
1879 he was appointed assistant professor; in 1895
he received the title “Geheimer Medizinalrat,” and
in 1900 was appointed honorary professor.
Hirschberg is one of the leading ophthalmologists
ofGermany. He has traveled extensively in Europe,
Asia, and North America, visiting all the important
ophthalmologic hospitals.
In 1877 Hirschberg founded the “Centralblatt fiir
Praktische Augenheilkunde.” In 1895, in an ap-
pendix to his report of twenty-five years’ work of
the ophthalmological hospital, he published a com-
plete list of his writings, numbering nearly 200.
Of Hirschberg’s works may be mentioned: “ Der
Markschwamm der Netzhaut,” Berlin, 1869; “ Kli-
nische Beobachtungen,” Vienna, 1874; “Die Mathe-
matischen Grundlagen der Medicinischen Statistik,”
1874; “Beitrige zur Praktischen Augenheilkunde,”
in three parts: Berlin, 1876; Leipsic, 1877 and 1878;
“Tunis,” 72. 1885; “Worterbuch der Augenheil-
kunde,” 2b. 1887; “Von New York nach San-Fran-
cisco,” 2. 1888; “ Aegypten,” 7b.; “EHinfithrung in
die Augenheilkunde,” i., 22. 1892; “ Hilfswérterbuch
zum Aristophanes,” 20. 1898; “Die Magnetopera-
tionen in der Augenheilkunde, nach Eigener Erfahr-
ung,” 2b. 1899; “ Augenheilkunde des Aétius,” 7.
1899; “Geschichte der Augenheilkunde im Alter-
thum,” 1899; “Um die Erde,” 2). 1900; “ Hinfiihr-
ung in die Augenheilkunde,” ii., 2b. 1901; (with J.
Lippert) “ Die Augenheilkunde des Ibn Sina,” trans-
lated from the Arabic, with explanatory notes, 2d.
1902.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lex. s.v.; Hirsch, Biog. Lex.
s.v.: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 8.V. F-H
8. e e °
HIRSCHEL. Sce VOLTAIRE.
HIRSCHEL, LEVI ELIAS: German physi-
cian; born Oct. 8, 1741, at Berlin; died there Dec. 17,
1772; educated at the Joachimsthalsche Gymnasium
in his native town and at the University of Halle
(M.D. 1763). He practised medicine for two years
in Berlin, then removed to Posen, and in 1770 trav-
eled through Germany, returning to Posen. Visit-
ing Berlin in 1772, he died there.
Among Hirschel’s works may be mentioned:
“Betrachtung tiber den Innerlichen Gebrauch des
Mercurii Sublimati Corrosi in den Venerischen
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hirsch, Samuel
Hirschfeld, Gustav
Krankheiten, und des Schierlings,” Berlin, 1768 and
1765; “Gedanken, die Heilungsart der Hinfallen-
den Sucht Betreffend,” 2d. 1767, 1770; French trans-
lation, Paris, 1769; “Gedanken von der Starrsucht,”
Berlin, 1769; “ Vermischte Beobachtungen zur Arz-
ney wissenschaft,” 7b. 1772.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Hirsch, Bing. Lex.
8. F,. fH:
HIRSCHEL LEVIN. See Levin, HirscHe.,
HIRSCHEL, MOSES (CHRISTIAN MO-
RITZ): German writer; born at Breslau Sept. 13,
1754; continued to live in that city. On being bap-
tized (1804) he took the name of “ Christian Moritz.”
He pubushed the following works: “Das Schach,”
Breslau, 1784; “Kampf der Jiidischen Hierarchie,”
2b, 1789; “Jiidische Intoleranz und Fanatismus in
Breslau,” 2b. 1789; “Patriotische Bemerkungen,” 20,
1790; “Ueber die Allzufrithen Ehen der Jiidischen
Nation,” 1790; “ Ueber das Schachspiel,” etc., 1791;
“ Apologie der Menschenrechte,” Zurich, 1793; “ Bi-
ographie des Jiidischen Gelehrten und Dichters
Ephraim Moses Kuh,” Zurich, 1791.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hamberger, Das Gelehrte Teutschiand, iii.
344, xi. 358.
8. B. Te.
HIRSCHENSOHN, ISAAC M.: Jerusalem
Talmudist; bibliophile; born at Pinsk, in the gov-
ernment of Minsk, Russia, in 1844. As a boy of
three he accompanied his father, Jacob Mordecai
Hirschensohn, to Jerusalem, and from him he re-
ceived instruction in the Talmud.
Hirschensohn was an ardent bibliophile, and col-
lected a valuable library of Hebrew books. He
treasured also rare and valuable manuscripts, to
publish which he founded a printing establishment.
Among the important works published by him were:
R. Nissim bar Reuben (RAN; c¢. 1850), on the treatise
Megillah (Jerusalem, 1883); “Bet ha-Behirah,” by
Menahem bar Solomon of Perpignan (second half of
the thirteenth century), to the treatise: Yoma (2d.
1884); a treatise on the holiness of Palestine, under
the title “Kedushat Erez Yisrael,” by Jacob Mor-
decai, with preface by Hirschensohn (22. 1884) ; a por-
tion of a collection of very valuable smaller works
(the remainder being still in manuscript), including |
responsa by Rashi, under the title “Kebuzat Kon-
tresim ”; “ Debar ha-Shemittah,” or responsa in favor
of the pursuit of agriculture in the “shemittah”
year, collected by Hirschensohn (2d. 1887), a work
of great importance.
Hirschensohn also founded a weekly under the
title “Ha-Zebi,” which was subsequently edited by
Benjudah. By this as well as by various pam-
phlets that he issued, he rendered great service to
the cause of progress in the Holy City. In 1897
Hirschensohn went to London at the instance of
some scholars, for the purpose of copying a num-
ber of manuscripts in the library of the British
Museum.
S. 8. L. Grv.
HIRSCHFELD, GUSTAV: German archeolo-
gist, geographer, and topographer; born Nov. 4,
1847, at Pyritz, Pomerania; died April 20, 1895,
at Wiesbaden. He studied philology and archeology
at the universities of Berlin, Tibingen, and Leipsic,
Hirschfeld, Hartwig
Hirschmann
and was particularly influenced by his” teacher,
Erust Curtius. He took his Ph.D. degree (Berlin,
1870) with the dissertation “De Titulis Statuarum
Sculptorumque Grecorum Capita Duo Priora,”
which he subsequently enlarged under the title
“'Tituli Statuarum Sculptorumque Grecorum cum
Prolegomenis” (Berlin, 1871). From 1871 to 1875
he traveled through Italy, Greece, and extensively
in Asia Minor, returning to Berlin with many epi-
graphic treasures and historico-topographic sketches.
From 1875 to 1877 he directed the excavations at
Olympia undertaken by the German government.
His name will forever be associated with the unearth-
ing of the Heraion, the Temple of Zeus and most of
its friezes, and the famous statues of Nike by
Paionios and Hermes by Praxiteles, which he bim-
self lifted out of the ground.
In 1877 Hirschfeld embraced Christianity, and in
the following year was appointed assistant professor
of archeology in the University of Kénigsberg. Two
years later he was made professor. His work there
was interrupted only by travels through Asia Minor.
Hirschfeld was the author of the following works:
“ Athena und Marsyas:72, Programm zum Winckel-
mannsfest der Archiiologischen Gesellschaft in Ber-
lin,” Berlin, 1872; “De Cn. Manlii Consulis Itinere
ex Pamphylia in Galatiam Facto,” 1879; “ Gedicht-
nissrede auf Karl Zéppritz,” Konigsberg, 1884; “The
Collection of Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the Brit-
ish Museum,” part iv., section i., “ Knidos, Halikar-
nassos, and Branchide,” Oxford, 1898; “Aus dem
Orient,” Berlin, 1897. He edited Moltke’s “Briefe
tiber Zustinde und Begebenheiten in der Tirkei,”
with introduction and notes, Berlin, 1898 (in Molt-
ke’s “Gesammelte Schriften,” vol. viii.). Besides
the preceding works he wrote many articles for the
publications of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
and for other journals.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Lehnerdt, Gustav Hirschfeld, in Biogra-
phisches Jahrbuch fitr Altertumskunde, 1899, pp. 6 et seq. ;
Erust Curtius, Zur Erinnerung an Gustav Hirschfeld, in
mor Rundschau, 1895, 1xxxiv. 377 et seq. S F
; RA.
HIRECHEMED: HARTWIG: English Orien-
talist; born at Thorn, Prussia. He studied at Posen,
at the universities of Berlin and Strasburg, and at
Paris under Derenbourg. In 1887 he edited Judah
ha-Levi’s “Cuzari” in Arabic and Hebrew, and
translated itinto German. Hirschfeld was professor
of Biblical exegesis, Semitic languages, and philos-
ophy at the Montefiore College, Ramsgate, England,
from 1889 to 1896, and then became master in Semitic
languages and sublibrarian at Jews’ College, Lon-
don, which position he still (1908) occupies. He
has written many articles on Arabic and Jewish sub-
jects in the “Revue des Etudes Juives,” “Jewish
Quarterly Review,” “Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society,” and other publications. The Asiatic soci-
ety published his “New Researches into the Com-
position and Exegesis of the Koran,” 1901. In 1892
he published an “ Arabic Chrestomathy in Hebrew
Characters.” Hirschfeld is also the author of a
“ Descriptive Catalogue of the Hebrew Manuscripts
of Jews’ College Library,” which appeared in the
*“ Jewish Quarterly Review,” 1902-08.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jewish Year Book, 1900-01.
J. V. E.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
420
HIRSCHFELD, LUDWIK MAURYCY:
Polish anatomist; born at Nadarzyn, government
of Warsaw, 1816; diced at Warsaw 1876. Hirsch-
feld received a Talmudical education at home, but,
not being studiously inclined, at the age of seven-
teen he went to Berlin, where he earned his living
asa Violinist. Later he went to Paris, where, after
many experiences, he becaine assistant janitorat the
anatomical institute of the Sorbonne. Professor
Orfila took an interest in him, and Hirschfeld soon
showed his skill in making anatomical preparations.
His patron rendered it possible for him to study
medicine, which resulted in his receiving the degree
of M.D. from the Sorbonne in 1853. T7111 1857 Hirsch-
feld was assistant at the anatomical institute, and
from 1857 to 1859 assistant at Rostan’s clinic. In
1859 he was appointed professor of descriptive anat-
omy at the medico-surgical academy at Warsaw,
and in 1871 was elected to the chair of anatomy in
Warsaw University, which position he held until
his death.
Hirschfeld was the author of: “ Atlas du Systéme
Nerveux,” Paris, 1853; “ Anatomie du Systéme Ner-
veux,” 7b, 1855; “Anatomja Opisowa Ciala Ludz-
kiego,” Warsaw, 1861-69.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tygodnik Ilustrovanny, Warsaw, 1876;
Luczkiewicz, in Klosy, ib. 1876; Eneyklopedya Powsiechna,
ib. 1900.
8. F. T. H.
HIRSCHFELD, OTTO: German historian, ep-
igrapher, and archeologist; born March 16,1848, at
Kénigsberg, Prussia. He studied philology and his-
tory at the universities of Kénigsberg and Bonn
(Ph. D. 1863), and then spent two years in Italy. In
1869 he acquired the right of holding university lec-
tures in G6ttingen, where he was baptized. In 1872
he was called to the University of Pragueas professor
of ancient history, going thence to Vienna in 1875 as
professor of ancient history, archeology, and epig-
raphy. Here he made valuable contributions to
archeology, especially in connection with the numer-
ous Roman inscriptions found in Austria, organ-
izing together with Alexander Conze the Archeo-
logic-Epigraphic Seminary at the University of
Vienna, which has gained a wide reputation as a
model for similar institutions.
In 1885 Hirschfeld went to Berlin University as
professor of ancient history, which position he still
(1903) holds. On the occasion of his sixtieth birth-
day a “ Festschrift ” was dedicated to him by his col-
leagues and pupils under the title “Beitrige zur
Alten Geschichte und Griechisch-Rémischen Alter-
tumskunde” (Berlin, 1908).
Hirschfeld’s works include: “De Incantamentis
et Divinationibus Amatoriis apud Greecos Romanos-
que,” 1863; “ Untersuchungen auf dem Gebiete dey
Romischen Verwaltungsgeschichte,” i., Berlin, 1877
“Lyon in der Kaiserzeit,” Vienna, i878: “Zur Ge.
schichte des Lateinischen Rechtes ” (in “ Festschrift
zur 50 Jiihrigen Griindungsfeier des Deutschen
Archiologischen Instituts in Rom”), 2b. 1879; “Gal-
lische Studien,” 7d. 1883-84; “Inscriptiones Gallix
Narbonensis Latine ” (“C. I. L.” vol. xii.), 7b. 1888;
together with Zangenmeister, “Inscriptiones Trium
Galliarum et Germaniarum Latineg” (“C. T. 1.” voi.
xili.), 7. 1899; “Inscriptionum Orientis et Illyrici
421
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hirschfeld, Hartwig
Hirschmann
a i i as
Latinarum Suppl.” (“C. I. L.” vol. iii., Supplement),
7b. 1902. Besides these Hirschfeld has published
numerous papers in the reports of the Prussian
Academy of Sciences, of which he is a member; in
the “ Annali dell’ Istituto Archeologico,” cte.
Hirschfeld is associate editor of the “ Abhand-
lungen des Archiiolougisch-Epigraphischen Seminars
der Universitit Wien,” of the “ Archiologisch-
Epigraphische Mitthcilungen aus Oesterreich,” and
of the “ Bphemeris Epigraphica.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bibliographisches Jahrbuch der Deutschen
Hochsehulen ; Frankfurter, Prof. Otto Hirschfeld, in Zeit-
schrift fir die Oesterreichischen Gymnasicn, 1903.
S. S. Fra.
HIRSCHFELD, ROBERT: Austrian writer
on music; born Sept. 17, 1857, in Moravia; educated
at the universitics of Breslau and Vienna. He also
studied at the Conservatorium of the latter city, in
which institution he was lecturer from 1882 till
1884, and thenceforward teacher of musical esthetics.
In the latter year, also, he took his degree of Ph.D.
Hirschfeld is the author of “ Joh. de Muris” (1884),
and of “Das Kritische Verfahren KE. Hanslicks” (8d
ed., 1885), an important polemical pamphlet against
Haunslick, written in defense of the old “a-cappella”
music, to promote the cultivation of which Hirsch-
feld founded the Renaissance Abende. He also pre-
pared an edition of the songs of Oswald von Wol-
kenstein, with the melodies, and of Schubert’s “ Der
Vierjihrige Posten” (18977).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Riemann, Mustk-Lexikon ; Baker, Biog. Dict.
of Musicians, New York, 1900.
g, A. P.
HIRSCHFELDER, JOSEPH OAKLAND:
American physician; born at Oakland, Cal., Sept.
8, 1854. He received his education at San Francisco,
Cal., and at the universities at Wiirzburg, Berlin,
Vienna, and Leipsic (M.D. 1876). Returning to
America, he settled in San Francisco and built up
a large practise.
In 1877 Hirschfelder became professor of materia
medica at the University of the Pacific; in 1881, pro-
fessor of clinical medicine. Jn 1882 he waselected to
the same chair at the Cooper Medical College.
Hirschfelder has contributed many essays to the
medical journals.
A. F. T. H.
HIRSCHFELDER, SOLOMON: German
geure painter; born May 16, 1832, at Dettensee, near
Horb, on the Neckar; died at Munich May 10, 1908.
He was a student at the Academy in Munich, where
he settled in 1858, Of his genre paintings the follow-
ing may be mentioned: “Scene in the Campaign of
1871”; “In Prison”; “Startled”; “The Intelligence
Burean”; “The Sweetheart’ S Letter, : S.
HIRSCHFELDT, HERMANN: German phy-
sician; born at Neustettin July 30, 1825; died at
Colberg June 17, 1885; M.D. Greifswald, 1852.
During the two following years he practised in
Greifenberg, Pomerania, and in 1854 removed to Col-
berg, where he continued to practise until his death,
receiving the title of “Sanitétsrath ”in 1879. Hirsch-
feldt was one of the physicians through whose
energy Colberg became known as a watering-place,
and in 1896 the citizens erected a monument in his
memory.
Hirschfeldt also took an active interest in the Jew-
ish community of Colberg, and was one of the found-
ers of the Jewish Kurhospital, of which he was the
chief physician for eleven years.
He was the author of several essays in medical
journals and of: “Die Summe Unseres Wissecns vom
Sool- und Scebade Kolberg,” Colberg, 1864 (2d ed.,
1876); “Jubelschrift des Sool- und Seebades Kol-
berg,” 70, 1884.
Ss. ¥F. T. H.
HIRSCHL, ADOLF: Hungarian painter; born
at Temesvar, Hungary, Jan. 31, 1860; studied (1874—
1882) at the Vienna Academy, where for two years
(1882-1884) he won a traveling scholarship of 3,000
kronen. In 1893 he settled at Rome. Among his
paintings are: “The Death of St. Cecilia”; “ Han-
nibal’s March Across the Alps”; “The Vandals At-
tacking Rome”; “The Plague at Rome”; “ Ahasue-
rus”; and “The Bridal Procession.” Hirschl has
been awarded many prizes at the art expositions of
Vienna, among them being the “ Kaiser-Preis ” (1891)
and the Great Golden State’s Medal (1898). - In 1899
he changed his name to Hiremy-Hirschl. 8.
HIRSCHLER, IGNAZ: Hungarian oculist;
born at Presburg 1823; died at Budapest Nov.
11, 1891. He studied medicine at Vienna. After
practising for two years at Paris he went to Buda-
pest, where he achieved a reputation as an oculist.
He wrote several works on the influence of alcohol
and nicotine on the vision, on clinical treatment of
the eyes, and on the pigments of the retina. He
was a corresponding member of the Royal Hunga-
rian Academy of Sciences, and was made a life-mem-
ber of the Hungarian House of Magnates by Francis
Joseph I. in recognition of hisservices to Hungarian
Judaism. From 1860 until his death he was the
intellectual leader of Jewish affairsin Hungary, being
for some years president of the Jewish community
of Pest. A personal friend of Baron Joseph E0trvds,
he became his closest adviser when, as minister of
public instruction and worship, Eétv3s convened the
Jewish congress at Budapest (1868) for regulating
the Jewish communal institutions, of which con-
gress Hirschler was elected president. His intelli-
gence and zeal gave a remarkable impetus to the
intellectual development of the Hungarian Jews,
but the bitter conflicts which divided Judaism
finally induced him to retire.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pallas Lex.: Magyar Joon eerie Viii.
705; Venetianer, A Zsiddésdg Szervezete, p.
s. L. V.
HIRSCHMANN, HENRI LOUIS: French
composer; born at Saint-Mandé, department of the
Seine, April 30, 1878. He studied under André Ge-
dalge, and, for two years, under J. Massenet at the
Paris Conserv atoire. His chief works are: “ Ahasu-
erus,” an oratorio (crowned by the French Institute
at the Concours Rossini, and performed at the con-
certs of the Paris Conservatoire Nov., 1892); asuite
for orchestra in four parts (presented at the Opéra
Jan., 1896); “L’ Amour 4 la Bastille,” comic opera
(crowned at the Concours Crescent; performed at
the Opéra Comique 1898); “Lovelace,” opera in
four acts (Théatre Lyrique, 1898); five ballets: “La
Favorite” (1898), “ Folles Amours” (1899), “ Néron ”
Hirschsprung
Historiography
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
422
(1899), “Les Sept Péchés Capitaux” (1899), “Les
Mille et Une Nuits” (1899), all produced at the Théa-
tre de l’Olympia in Paris.
s, A. A. G.
HIRSCHSPRUNG, HEINRICH: Danish
manufacturer and art-collector; born in Copenhagen
Feb. 7, 1886; son of Abraham Marcus Hirsch-
sprung (1793-1871), who in 1826 founded one of the
largest tobacco-factoriesin Denmark, of which Hein-
rich Hirschsprung is still (1908) the proprietor.
Hirschsprung’s great collection of paintings, pas-
tels, water-colors, etc., was exhibited in Copenhagen
in 1888. He is the founder of a legacy for Danish
artists (Hirschsprung og Hustru’s Kunstnerlegat).
Hirschsprung’s brother, Harald Hirschsprung
(born in Copenhagen Dec. 14, 1830), graduated as
M.D. from the University of Copenhagen in 1861. In
1877 his alma mater conferred upon him the title of
professor; and since 1879 he has been physician-in-
chief of the Queen Louise Hospital in Copenhagen.
He was president of the pediatric section at the
International Congress of Physicians in 1884.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. F. Bricka, Dansk Biografisk Lexicon:
Salmonsen’s Store Illustrerede Konversations-Lexicon.
J
HIRSHMAN, LEONARD LEOPOLDO-
VICH: Russian oculist; born at Goldingen, Cour-
land, in 1839. After graduating from the Univer-
sity of Kharkof he worked in the laboratories of
Graefe, Helmholtz, Jager, Knapp, and Pagenstecher.
In 1868 he was appointed docent at the Univer-
sity of Kharkof; in 1872, professor. His principal
works are: “Zur Lehre von der Durch Arzneimittel
Hervorgerufenen Myosis und Mydriosis,” in Dubois
Reymond’s “ Archiv fiir Physiologie,” 1868; “ Mate-
rialy Fiziologii Svyetooshchushcheniya,” 1868; “K
Lyechenii Trakhomy,” 1873.
EU URATEL? Encyclopedicheski Stovar, St. Petersburg,
H. R. JI.G L.
HIRSZENBERG, SAMUEL: Polish painter;
born at Lodz 1866. He studied at the Academy of
Cracow from 1881 to 1885, and completed his studies
at Munich (1885-89). He began his artistic career
with the paintings “ Urania” and “ Yeszybolen,” for
which he received a silver medal at the Paris Expo-
sition of 1889. In Paris he assimilated with the
French school, the result being seen in his “ Esther
and Haman.” Returning to Cracow in 1891, he pro-
duced “Silence of the Field,” a Jewish cemetery
being the subject. From 1893 he resided in his
native town, Lodz. Among his later paintings are
“A: Little Conference,” which won a silver medal
at the Berlin Exposition, and “Sabbath Peace,”
awarded the first prize at Warsaw and Cracow
(1894). His greatest work, “The Wandering Jew,”
was warmly praised at the Paris Exposition of 1900.
He died Sept. 15, 1908.
BipOGherays Encyklopedya Powsiechna, vit, Warsaw,
H. R. J. L. La.
HISDA: Babylonian amora of the third genera-
tion; died in 620 of the Seleucidan era (= 308-309;
Sherira Gaon, in Neubauer, “M. J.C.” i. 30; in 300,
according to Abraham ibn Daud, “Sefer ha-Kabba-
lah,” in Neubauer, /.c, p. 58), at the age of ninety- |
two (M. K. 28a); descended from a priestly family
(Ber. 44a). Hisdastudied under Rab(ABBA ARIKA),
who was his principal teacher; after the latter’s
death he attended the lectures of Huna, his com-
panion, and of the same age as himself. He and
Huna were styled “the hasidim of Babylon” (Ta‘an.
23b); he was also one of those just ones (“ zaddikim ”)
who could bring down rain by their prayers (M. K.
28a). At first he was so poor that he abstained
from vegetables because they incited the appetite
(Shab. 140b), and when he walked in thorny places
he raised his garments, saying: “The breaches in my
legs will heal of themselves, but the breaches in my
garments will not” (B. K. 91b). Later, as a brewer,
he became fabulously rich (Pes. 118a; M. K. 28a).
At the age of sixteen he married the daughter of
Hanan b. Raba (Kid. 29b), by whom he had seven
or more sons and twodaughters. Oneof his pupils,
Raba, became his son-in-law (Niddah 61b).
Hisda wasa great casuist (‘Er. 67a), and his acute
mind greatly enhanced the fame of Huna’s school
at Sura. But his very acuteness indirectly caused a
rupture between himself and Huna. Theseparation
was brought about by a question from Hisda as to
the obligations of a disciple toward a master to
whom he is indispensable. Huna saw the point and
said, “Hisda, I do not need thee; it is thou that
needst me!” Forty years passed before they be-
came reconciled (B. M. 33a). Hisda nevertheless
held Huna in great esteem, and although he had es-
tablished a school, built at hisown expense, at Mata
Mehasya four years before Huna’s death (Sherira,
l.c.), he never published any decision during the
lifetime of Huna (‘Er. 62b). Huna came to recog-
nize Hisda’s merit later, and recommended his son
Rabbah to attend his lectures (Shab. 82a).
Hisda presided over the Academy of Sura for ten
years following the death of R. Judah (298-299; She-
rira, /.c.), or following the death of Huna, according
to Abraham ibn Daud (/.c.). He always preserved
great respect for the memory of Rab, whom he re-
ferred to as “our great teacher, may God aid him”
(Suk. 33a, passim). Once, holding up the gifts which
are given to the priest, he declared that he would
give them to the man who could cite a hitherto un-
known halakah in the name of Rab (Shab. 10b).
Hisda’s halakot are frequent in the Babylonian Tal-
mud, some being given on the authority of his
pupils. His principal opponent was Sheshet. Be-
sides deducing his halakot in a casuistic way, Hisda
was peculiar in that he derived his halakot less
from the Pentateuch than from other parts of the
Bible.
Hisda was also an authority in Haggadah, and
employed special assistants to lecture in that depart-
ment (‘Er, 21b). Many ethical sentences of his have
been preserved (see especially Shab. 140b), mostly
for students. The following two sentences may be
cited: “Forbearance on the part of a father toward
his child may be permitted, but not forbearance on
the part of a master toward his disciple” (Kid. 32a);
“He who opposes his master is as though he op-
posed the Shekinah” (Sanh. 110a). It is said that
the Angel of Death, not being able to approach Hisda
because he never ceased from studying, cleft the
trunk of acedar-tree. Terrified by the noise, Hisda
423
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hirschspru
Historiography
interrupted his studies, whereupon the angel took
his soul (Mak. 10a).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Bab. Amor. pp. 61 et seq.; Heil-
prin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.; Weiss, Dor, iii. 184.
8. M. SEL.
HISTORIOGRAPHY: Method of writing his-
tory. In Bible times the Jews showed a strong his-
torical sense, as evidenced by the series of books
from Genesis to Kings devoted to the history of the
people. Without entering into the vexed question
of the sources of the historic statements in the Penta-
teuch, it is clear from actual references in the books
of Kings that even before their compilation a con-
siderable number of annals existed independently,
from which the statements in the Bible were com-
piled. These annals appear to have been called “The
Book of the Actsof Solomon ” ([ Kings xi. 41), “The
Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel,”
and “The Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of
Judah.” There seems, indeed, to have been a royal
official, known as the “mazkir,” appointed to keep
the official record of the events of each reign: those
of David (II Sam. viii. 16, xx. 24), Solomon (I Kings
iv. 3), and Hezekiah (II Kings xviii. 18, 87). Such
works appear to have contained statistical details
(I Chron. xxvii. 24), or genealogies (Neh. xii. 26).
The Book of Chronicles quotes also a “ Book of the
Kings of Judah and Israel,” which may possibly be
the canonical book, and a “ Midrash of the Book of
Kings” (iI Chron. xxiv. 27, Hebr.), which is prob-
ably a recasting of the Biblical narrative. Another
source of the Chronicles was a series of histories of
the Seers and Prophets, including Samuel, Nathan,
Gad, Iddo, and Shemaiah.
The same interest in the records of the past was
shown, in the Hellenistic period, by writers. in
Greek, who often translated from Hebrew or Ara-
maic sources. Thus the First Book of the Macca-
. bees is such a version, as is also the “ History of John
Hyrcanus,” of which nothing further is known
(comp. I Macc. xvi. 23-24). Other
Hellenistic adaptations from the Hebrew of the
Period. Bible are found in fragments contained
in a work of Alexander Polyhistor
from Demetrius, Eupolemus, Artapanus, Aristeas,
Cleodemus; but these are scarcely histories, and are
of no independent value. Jason of Cyrene wrote a
book, in five volumes, on the Maccabean period, of
which the Second Book of the Maccabees is an
abstract. Philo of Alexandria himself wrote an ac-
count of the persecutions under Caligula, in five
books, of which only two are extant (Schiirer,
“Gesch.” iii. 345-370).
All these are of slight account compared with the
contributions to Jewish history made by Joseph,
son of Matthias, known as JosEPHUS. Besides his
“Jewish Antiquities,” which has a
Josephus. certain apologetic tendency, he wrote
a “History of the Jewish War,” which
is the main source of information for the fall and de-
struction of the Jewish state. Apart from the value
of the information conveyed, the work has consider-
able literary grace and power of presentation. A
contemporary, JUSTUS OF TIBERIAS, also wrote a
history of the Jewish war, which is referred to and
sharply criticized by Josephus.
After the fall of Jerusalem and the dispersion of
the Jews, the absence of communication between
the scattered communities prevented any systematic
account being written of their doings; for a long
time, indeed, the only approach to historic composi-
tion was connected with ritual observances, as in
the Megillat Ta‘anit, or list of fast-days, or with the
succession of tradition, as in the Pirke Abot, con-
tinued later on in the Seder Tannaim we-Amoraim
(c. 887) and the Epistle of Sherira Gaon (c. 980).
The series of sketches giving the relations of various
rabbis to their predecessors, and which occur in
later works, though often coutaining historical
facts, are mainly useful in throwing light upon
literary annals, and do not call for treatment here,
The only work of the Talmudic period which can
be considered as historic in tendency is the Seder
‘Olam Rabba. A smaller work, Seder ‘Olam Zuta,
on the same subject, is devoted to proving that Bos-
tanai was not descended from David. The “ Megil-
lat Ebiatar,” published in Schecter’s “Saadyana,”
may also be mentioned here.
The revival of independent interest in history ap-
pears to be shown, in southern Italy, in the tenth
century, by the “ Yosippon,” a history of the period
of the Second Temple, attributed to Joseph b. Gorion
and written in fluent Hebrew. Some
‘*'Yosippon.” additions to this were written by one
Jerahmeel b. Solomon, about a cen-
tury later, in the same district. Of the same period
is the Ahimaaz Chronicle, describing the invasion of
southern Italy by the Saracens, with an account of
the Jews of Bari, Otranto, ete. (see AHIMAAZ).
The series of historic chronicles was begun in
Spain by the “Sefer ha-Kabbalah ” of Abraham ibn
Daud of Toledo (1161). A continuation of this, by
Abraham ben Solomon of Torutiel, has been lately
discovered and published by Neubauer. The con-
cluding chapter of Joseph b. Zaddik of Arevalo’s
“Zeker Zaddik ” gives a chronicle of the world from
the Creation to 1467. It was followed by Abraham
Zacuto’s similar but fuller work, “Sefer Yuhasin,”
carried down to the year 1505. Items of Jewish inter-
est are contained in general Jewish histories written
in Hebrew, like those of Elijah Capsali (1523; on
the history of the Ottomans) and Joseph ha-Kohen
(1554; on the same subject). David Gans gave a
general history of the world up to 1592, while Joseph
SAMBARY, in a work carried down to the year 1672,
deals more with the Jews of the East. Material for
the history of the Jews in the Middle Ages is given
in the various accounts of persecutions, especially
in the accounts of the Crusades by Eleazar ben
Nathan (on the First Crusade), Eleazar of Worms,
and Ephraim of Bonn (on the Second Crusade), and
in the Memor-Books, some of which were re-
cently printed by the German Jew-
Records of ish Historical Commission. With the
Per- invention of printing many cases of
secutions. persecution were recorded contempo-
raneously by Jewish writers, a whole
series, forexample, being devoted to the Chmielnicki
massacres. Many of these separate attempts are
enumerated by Steinschneider (“Jewish Literature,”
pp. 152-156). A summary of these persecutions was
written by Judah inn VERGA of Seville, and con-
Historiography
Hiti, Al-
tinued by his son, Joseph (1554), under the title
“Shebet Yehudah.” Another collection was given
by Joseph ha-Kohen under the title “‘Emek ha-
Baka” (1575), while Gedaliah ibn Yahya summed
up chronicles, genealogies, and persecutions in his
interesting and curious “Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah.”
Meanwhile, owing to the influence of the Protes-
tant Reformation and to other causes, the attention
of the outer world was drawn to the later destinies
of the Jews. Schudt, in his “Jitdische Merckwtr-
digkeiten,” gave a short history of the past and a
fairly accurate and complete account of the contem-
porary condition of the Jews. He was followed by
Jacob Christian BASNAGE, who for the first time put
in systematic form an account of the history of the
Jews during the Christian centuries. His work re-
mained for a long time the chief source of informa-
tion to the outer world on Jewish history. The
more popular sketch of Hannah ApDawms, and the
supplementary portions of Milman’s “History of
the Jews,” add very little to the work of Bas-
nage.
As the attention of Europe became attracted to
the constitutional position of the Jews, and as efforts
became directed toward their emancipation, recourse
was had to the large amount of material contained
in the medieval archives of western Europe. The
investigation of the sources began in England.
There Prynne, in his “Short Demurrer,” utilized his
unrix iled knowledge of the records to oppose the
return of the Jews to England. He was followed
later on by Tovey, Webb, and Blunt. On the
Continent, in the eighteenth century, similar collec-
tions of archival materials were made, by Ulrich
for Switzerland, by Aretin for Bavaria, and by
Wiirfel for Nuremberg. Other workers, dealing
on the same lines with the general history of a
country, often came across material relating to the
Jews, which they included in their works, as Madox,
in his “ History of the Exchequer,” and Laurent, in
“Ordonnances des Rois de France.” With the in-
creased attention paid to the study of sources by
Ranke and his school, this source of information
for Jewish history proved increasingly fruitful. In
England, in particular, a mass of material was col-
lected from the publications of the Record Commis-
sion and the Rolls Series; in Germany, from Pertz’s
“Monumenta Germanie Historica.”
Before these additional sources of information
were completely accessible to the inquirer, the in-
terest of the Jews themselves was once more at-
tracted to their own history, and at-
tempts were made to summarize its
various vicissitudes. I, M. Jost at-
tempted, in his “ Gesch. der Israeliten,”
to give the annals of the purely political history of
the Jews, combining at times an estimate of their
spiritual and Hterary development, which he ulti-
mately summed up separately and more exhaustive-
ly in his “ Gesch. des Judenthums.” He was followed
at even greater length by Heinrich Gratz, who made
his “Gesch. der Juden” in large measure a study of
the development of the Jewish spirit as influenced
by its historic environment. Griitz’s attention was
accordingly attracted mainly to the literary and re-
ligious development of Judaism rather than to the
Jost and
Gratz.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
424
secular lot of the Jews, though his work also con-
tained a fairly full account of their external history
so far as it bore upon the general development. He
scarcely claimed, however, to deal fully or ade-
quately with the history of the Jews in the strict-
er constitutional sense of the term. Beside these
should be mentioned the remarkable sketch of 8.
Cassel in the article “ Juden” in Ersch and Gruber’s
“Encyklopiidie,” still, in some ways, the most satis-
factory survey of the whole subject, though later
sketches by Isidore Loeb, in Vivien de St. Martin’s
“Dictionnaire Universel de Géographic,” and Théo-
dore Reinach, in “La Grande Encyclopédie,” have
also great merit. .
Meanwhile the establishment of many specialist
scientific journals devoted to Jewish topics gave op-
portunity for the collection, based on the local rec-
ords, of many monographs on special parts of Jewish
history, such as those of Perles on Posen, Wolf on
Worms, etc. The attention of specialist historians
not of the Jewish race was again drawn to the sub-
ject, resulting in such works as those of Depping
(“Les Juifs dans le Moyen Age”), Stobbe (“ Die
Juden in Deutschland”), Amador de los Rios, Ber-
shadski, Saige (“Les Juifs de Languedoc”), and
Lagumina (“ Gli Giudei in Sicilia”). The number of
these monographs has become so great that they
are enumerated annually in the “ Jahresberichte der
Geschichtswissenschaft,” at first by Steinschneider,
later by Kayserling.
The year 1887 to a certain extent marks an epoch
in the tendency of Jewish historical studies, when
Jews themselves turned to the secular archives of
their native lands. The Anglo-Jewish
Historical Historical Exhibition of that year was
Exhibition the first attempt to bring together his-
and torical records of the Jews; in the
Societies. same year the first publications of the
German Historical Commission were
issued, and a society founded in honor of Julius
Barasch started a series of historical researches into
the history of the Jews of Rumania which have
thrown altogether new light on the history of the
Jews in eastern Europe. The Anglo-Jewish His-
torical Exhibition included a series of works, among
which was a whole volume devoted to a bibliog-
raphy of Anglo-Jewish history by Jacobs and Wolf,
and which was itself followed by similar attempts
in Russo-Jewish history (“ Ukazatel”) and Spanish-
Jewish history (Jacobs, “ Sources”),
In 1892 the American Jewish Historical Society
was founded, and in 1895 the Jewish Historical So-
ciety of England, while the Société des Etudes
Juives has throughout given marked attention to
the history of the Jews in the French provinces and
colonies. These various societies have produced a
number of works and transactions during the past
decade which have for the first time put the con-
stitutional history of the Jews in various countries
on a firm basis, Aid has been given in this direction
by the collection of laws relating to the Jews in
France (Uhry and Halphen), Prussia (Heinemann),
and Russia (Levanda, Minz, and Gradowsky). The
first attempt at summing up conclusions with re-
gard to the medieval! position of the Jews in Europe
has been made by J. Scherer in an introductory
425
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Historiography
Hiti, 2
essay to his elaborate work on the legal position of
the Jews of the Austro-Hungarian empire (1901).
Asa result of these various lines of inquiry many
monographs have been produced devoted to special
sections of Jewish history, and derived in large
measure from manuscript and secular sources, which
are sometimes reproduced verbatim, as in Stern’s
“Urkundliche Beitriige” ; sometimes translated, as in
Jacobs’ “ Jews of Angevin England ” ; and sometimes
worked into a continuous narrative, as in Kayser-
ling’s “Gesch. der Juden in Portugal.” Work of a
similar kind has also been executed in the form of
calendars, or “regesta,” such as those made by Aro-
nius for Germany (up to 1278), and as the “ Regesti
y Nadpisi” for Russia (up to 1670).
Scarcely any country has yet had its Jewish his-
tory adequately described. The few monographs
that exist—like those of Koenen (“Geschiedenis der
Joden in Nederland,” 1834), on Holland; A. D.
Cohen (“De Mosaiske Troesbekendere,” Odense,
1837), on Denmark; Wertheimer (“ Gesch, der Juden
in Oesterreich ”), on Austria; J. Picciotto (“Sketches
of Anglo-Jewish History,” London, 1875), on Eng-
land; Daly (“Settlements of the Jews in North
America,” New York, 1893), on the United States—
were mainly written before any serious study of the
sources had been undertaken. The Iberian Pen-
insula has fared somewhat better, the works of
Amador de los Rios and Kayserling still remaining
the best monographs on the history of the Jews in
any one country. Few of the chief communities
have been adequately treated, the most thoroughly
described being those of Berlin (by L. Geiger),
Vienna (by G. Wolf, “Gesch. der Juden in Wien,”
Vienna, 1876), Paris (in a series of monographs by
L. Kahn), and, above all, Rome (twoexcellent works
by A. Berliner, 1893, and Rieger and Vogelstein,
1895).
As a rule, few strictly historical records exist in
Hebrew. For the Middle Ages these consist mostly
of business documents, such as the “shetarot” pub-
lished by the Anglo-Jewish Historical Exhibition
and a Hebrew ledger published by Isidore Loeb
in the “Revue des Etudes Juives,” Items of his-
toric interest, however, often occur in family papers
or juridical responsa; and David Kaufmann pro-
duced a considerable number of monographs in
which he made use both of the public archives and
of private family papers. He also showed great in-
terest in the genealogies of Jewish families, which
often throw light on obscure historical points. He
contributed to the publication of cemetery inscrip-
tions, and edited Gliickel von Hameln’s valuable
diary, which throws considerable light upon the
social history of the Jews in Germany in the seven-
teenth century.
Attention has also been given to the “ Culturge-
schichte” of the Jewsof the Middle Ages, chiefly by
Giidemann, Berliner, and Israel Abra-
‘¢Culturge- hams (“Jewish Life in the Middle
schichte.” Ages”). Work in this direction has
also been undertaken by the various
societies for the study of Jewish ecclesiastical art and
folk-lore, especially that founded at Hamburg by
Grunwald. As far as any general direction can be
discerned at the present day in Jewish historiog- |
raphy, it is in the direction of the study of “ Cultur-
geschichte ” and constitutional history.
As regards the historical treatment of the Biblical
phases of Jewish history, this has become part of
general Biblical exegesis, and does not call for treat-
ment in this place, especially as scarcely any Jewish
writers have produced works of importance on this
subject, Herzfeld being perhaps the only exception.
The portion of Griitz’s history relating to this sub-
ject is generally recognized to be the weakest side
of his work. On the other hand, the studies of the
development of the Jewish rcligion and literature,
as by Zunz, Geiger, Weiss, Halévy, Karpeles, etc.,
can scarcely be regarded as history in the strict
sense of the word (sce LITERATURE, HEBREW;
JUDAISM; RELIGION; TALMUD: THEOLOGY).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, pp. 10, 293
Neubauer, M. J. C. vol. i., Preface; T. Reinach, Histoire
des ie 2d ed., 1908, Appendix : Jacobs, Jewish Ideals,
ip. w =e
Pp 2; M. Kayserling, in Winter and Wiinsche, Die
Jtidische Litteratur, tii. 845-858.
HISTORISCHE COMMISSION: Commis-
sion appointed by the Deutsch-Israelitische Gemein-
debund in 1885 for the collection and publication of
material relating to the history of the Jews in Ger.
many. It consisted originally of Privy Councilor
Kristeller, and Professors Birwald, Bresslau, Geiger,
Lazarus, Steinthal, Stobbe, Wattenbach, and Weiz-
siicker. The commission treated the subject as part
of German history, and made a special point of util-
izing the archival sources. It published, under
the editorship of Prof. L. Geiger, “Zeitschrift ftir
Gesch. der Juden in Deutschland ” (5 vols., 1886-92).
Its special publications were divided into (1)
“Regesten,” or calendars of the history of the Ger-
man Jews (including those of the Carlovingian em-
pire) up to 1278, edited by Aronius (Berlin, 1887-
1902); and (2) sources, including the “ Judenschreins-
buch” of Cologne (1888); the Hebrew accounts
of the Jewish persecutions during the Crusades,
edited by Neubauer and M. Stern, and translated
by S. Baer (1892); and the “Memorbook of Nurem-
berg,” edited by Salfeld (1898). Much comment
was attracted at the time of the formation of the
commission owing to the fact that Professor Gritz
was not made a member of it. The omission per-
haps indicated the strict policy of the commission,
which regarded the history of the Jews in Germany
as part of the history of that country. :
D. ;
HITI, AL-: Karaite chronicler; flourished (prob-
ably in Egypt) in the first half of the fifteenth cen-
tury. Hewasanative of Hit (whence his surname),
on the Euphrates, about thirty leagues to the west
of Bagdad. He is supposed by Margoliouth to be
identical with David ben Sa‘ade] ben Joseph, the
writer of a manuscript (dated 811 a.H. = 1408-09)
quoted by Pinsker (“ Likkute Kadmoniyyot,” p. 64).
Margoliouth further assumes that Al-Hiti was a son
of Joshua ibn Sa‘adel ibn al-Hiti, who is cited by
Solomon ben Jeroham, the adversary of Saadia.
Al-Hiti was the author of a chronicle in which he
registered all the Karaite scholars and their works
down to Israel al-Maghrabi (anyon). Although the
author was misled in some important points, his
work furnishes valuable information concerning
well-known Karaite scholars, and mentions a great
Hitkdzségi Hivatalnok
Hittites
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
426
number of previously unknown names. AlI-Hiti’s
chronicle was published by Margoliouth from a geni-
zah fragment (“J. Q. Rt.” ix. 429).
G. I. Br.
HITKOZSEGI HIVATALNOK. See Penr-
ODICALS.
HITTITES (Hebrew, D’nn, nm"92; LAX. Xer-
taiot, Xetreiv, vioi [rot] Xér; Vulgate, “ Hethei,”
“Cethxi,” “filii Heth”; Assyrian, “ Khatti”; Egyp-
tian, “ Kh-ta”): A race of doubtful ethnic and lin-
guistic affinities that occupied, from the sixteenth
century until 717 B.c., a territory of vague extent,
but which probably centered about Kadesh on the
Orontes and Carchemish on the upper Euphrates.
The sources for present knowledge of this people are
five: the Old Testament, and Egyptian, Assyrian,
Hittite, and Vannic inscriptions.
——Biblical Data: In the Old Testament the
Hittites are represented as dwelling in the moun-
tains in the heart of Palestine (Num. xiii. 29), and
are frequently mentioned with the Canaanites,
Amorites, Perizzites, Hivites, and Jebusites (Ex. iii.
8,17; xiii. 5; xxiii. 23; xxxiv. 11; Deut. xx. 17),
as well as with the inhabitants of Jericho (Josh.
xxiv. 11), all dwelling to the west of the Jordan,
between Baal-gad in the valley of Lebanon and
Mount Seir (Josh. xii. 7-8). To this list the Girga-
shites are added in Deut. vii. 1, Josh. iii. 10, and Neh.
ix. 8, while Gen. xv. 19-21 adds also the Kenites,
Kenizzites, Kadmonites, and the Rephaim. Of all
these the Hittites, Canaanites, and Hivites seem to
have been the most important (Ex. xxiii. 28). The
geography of these lists is, however, quite vague.
In Josh. i. 4 the Hittite territory stretches from
Lebanon and the wilderness to the Euphrates (al-
though “all the land of the Hittites” is omitted in
the LXX.). Hittites also dwelt at Hebron, for Abra-
ham was buried ina cave in the field of Ephron, son
of Zohar, a Hittite (Gen, xxiii. 10,20; xxv. 9; xlix.
30; 1. 13), and the Hittites preserved a certain indi-
viduality as late as David’s time, since Uriah and
Ahimelech are expressly characterized as Hittites (I
Sam. xxvi. 6; IT Sam. xi. 3, 6,17, 21, 24; xii. 10;
xxiii. 839; I Kingsxv. 2°; 1Chron. xi. 41). They were
regarded as aliens, however, and taxed as such by
Solomon (I Kings ix. 20-21; II Chron. viii. 7-8).
The relations between the Israelites, on the one hand,
and the Hittites and the rest of the conquered peo-
ples, on the other, had long been friendly, for the
Hebrews had not only adopted some portion of the
Hittites’ religious cult soon after the invasion of
Palestine, but had intermarried with them (Judges
iii. 5-6), as Esau had done (Gen. xxvi. 34) and as Re-
bekah feared Jacob might do (Gen. xxvii. 46). ;
The Hittites are identical with the “children of
Heth” (nm 93; viol [rot] Xér: Gen. xxiii. 3, 5, 7, 10,
18, 20; xxv. 10; xlix. 32), while their close ethnic
affinity with the Canaanites and the other tribes with
which they are usually mentioned is implied by the
genealogical table of the sons of Canaan (Gen. x. 15-
19; I Chron. i. 18-16, where the LXX. and the Vul-
gate respectively render WM by Xerraiog and He-
theus”; I Chron. i. 13-16 is omitted in the LXX.).
While the Hittites mentioned in the Old Testament
are usually regarded as dwelling ta the south-central
part of Palestine, there are distinct traces of a more
northerly habitat in the location of the new city of
Luz in the land of the Hittites (Judges i. 26), and
this is confirmed by II Sam. xxiv. 6, if, on the basis of
the Septuagint (L) y#v Xerreiy Kady, the corrupt pas-
sage "YSN DNNN PAX (omitted in the Peshitta) may
be read AWTIP ONNA pax. It was probably for these
northern Hittites that Solomon imported Egyptian
horses (I Kings x. 29; II Chron. i. 17); and his ha-
rem contained Hittite princesses (I Kings xi.1). The
Hittites’ power and their friendship for Judah and
Israel are shown by the fact that an alliance of Jeho-
ram with the Hittites and Egyptians was regarded
by the Assyrians as neither impossible nor improb-
able (II Kings vii. 6). In the prophetic writings
the Hittites are mentioned only in Ezek. xvi. 3, 45
(R. V.), where Yuwu says of Jerusalem: “Thy
birth and thy nativity is of the land of the Canaan-
ite; the Amorite was thy father, and thy mother
was an Hittite.”
—Non-Jewish Sources: In the Egyptian in-
scriptions the Hittites, who had apparently conquered
Syria, first appear in the reign of Thothmes IT.
(1503-1449), when they received their first decisive
reverse. After a battle at Megiddo on the Kishon.
Thothmes captured the King of Ka-
In the desh; in successive campaigns the
Egyptian Egyptians advanced to Carchemish
In- and Kadesh, and traversed Naharina or
scriptions. Mesopotamia. The Hittites were only
temporarily checked, however, and on
the death of Thothmes they regained their prestige.
The conflict continued under Thothmes IV., while his
successor, Amenophis III., was obliged to enter into
an alliance with the Hittites, and to marry a prin-
cess of their royal house. Theson of this union was
Amenophis IJY., better known as Khu-n-aten, who,
attempting to overthrow the Egyptian religion, in-
troduced into Egypt the peculiarly Hittite worship
of thesun. Atthis period the Hittite power was such
that a treaty, offensive and defensive, was concluded
between Rameses I. and Sap(e)lel, King of the Hit-
tites. On the accession of Seti I. to the Egyptian
throne in 1366, the Hittite war was renewed, and Ka-
desh was taken by surprise, although peace was soon
restored. But in the following reign, that of Rameses
Ii., Kadesh was again the scene of a battle, which
was described by the Egyptian poet Pentaur two
years later. This battle seems to have been inde-
cisive, however, and a new treaty was concluded
which was confirmed by the marriage to Rameses
of the Hittite princess called by the Egyptians “ Ur-
ma Noferu-Ra.” The demoralization resulting from
these wars explains the slight opposition to the He-
brew invasion of Palestine after the Exodus. The
friendship of the Hittitesand Egyptians lasted, how-
ever, through the reign of the successor of Rameses,
Me(t)neptah IJ., who aided the Hittites with food
in the time of famine. Before long the Hittite
power revived, and in the reign of Rameses III.
(1180-1150) they were prominent umong the invaders
of Egypt. They were beaten back at Migdol, their
country was laid waste, their king was captured,
and their advance south of Kadesh was definitely
checked. From this time the Hittite powerin Syria
waned, and with the cessation of their conflict with
427
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
HitkSzségi Hivatalnok
Hittites
Egypt their name disappears from the Egyptian
inscriptions.
There is a gap of almost a century in the history
of the Hittites after their defeat by Rameses ITI.
About 1100, however, they became the enemies
of the Assyrians. The first expedition of Tiglath-
pileser I. was undertaken against them. He forced
his way through Kummukh, or Commagene, as far
as Malatiyeh, and penetrated to Car-
chemish. Despite a series of expedi-
tions, however, he was unable to pass
the last-named city. After the reign of
Tiglath-pileser there is no mention of
the Hittites in the Assyrian inscrip-
tions until the time of Assur-nasir-pal (885-860),
who extended his conquests to the Hittite cities of
Carchemish, Gaza, and Kanulua, penetrating as far
as the Mediterranean, and returning laden with
booty. The succeeding Assyrian monarch, Shal-
maneser IJ. (860-825), continued the war, and re-
peatedly ravaged Syria, draining its wealth, and
defeating the Hittites, by this time rich and deca-
dent, at Pethor, Sangara, Carchemish, Karkar, and
other cities, thus crushing the Hittite power south
of the Taurus. In the reign of Tiglath-pileser III.,
war against the Hittites again broke out, and in 717,
during the rule of Sargon, Carchemish was finally
conquered, and its last king, Pisiris, became an As-
syrian captive.
The inscriptions of Van, dating from the ninth
and eighth centuries B.c., contain several allusions
to expeditions against the Hittites. In
Inthe the ninth century the Vannic king
Vannic In- Menuas plundered the Hittite cities
scriptions Surisilis and Tarkhi-gamas, and later
andthe forced his way to Malatiyeh, setting
Classics. up a triumphal inscription at Palu on
the northern bank of the Euphrates,
the eastern boundary of the Hittite territory at that
period, as Malatiyeh was the western. Argistis I.,
guccessor of Menuas, continued his father’s policy,
eonquering Niriba and Melitene.
The Hittites are not mentioned by any of the clas-
sical writers excepting Herodotus (who speaks of
them as “Syrians ”), Strabo (who [p. 737] calls them
“ White Syrians” [Aevxdovpoc], localizing them about
Mount Taurus and the Black Sea), and possibly
Homer (if the Kazrecoe or X7recot, named once in the
“Odyssey ” [xi. 521] as allies of the Trojans, were
really the Hittites).
The Hittites as shown both on their own and on
Egyptian monuments were clearly Mongoloid in
type. They were short and stout, prognathous, and
had rather receding foreheads. The cheek-bones
were high, the nose was large and
Ethnology straight, forming almost a line with
and the forehead, and the upper lip pro-
Religion. truded. They were yellow in color,
with black hair and eyes, and beard-
less, while according to the Egyptian paintings
they wore their hair in pigtails, although this char-
acteristic does not appear in the Hittite sculptures.
They would seem to have come, therefore, from the
northeast of Mesopotamia, and to have worked south
into Palestine and west into Asia Minor. In Pales-
tine, however, they lost their ethnic individuality to
In the
Assyrian
In-
scriptions.
a large extent, and adapted their language and their
names to those of the Semites. In religion the Iit-
tites were in great part dependent on the Babylo-
nians. The chief god, according to the Egyptian in-
scriptions, was Sutekh, or Atys, and the chief goddess
was Antarata, who later became Athar-‘Ati—respect-
ively the Atargatis and Derceto of the classics.
Antarata corresponds closely in attributes and in art
Portrait of a Hittite.
(From an inlaid tile in the tomb of Rameses III.)
with the Babylonian Ishtar; her husband seems to
have been the sun-god Tar, or Tarku, called “ San-
dan” in Cilicia and Lydia. Atalater period she ap-
parently superseded Sutekh as the chief divinity.
The deluge-legend was known to the Hittites, who
called its hero “Sisythes.” They seem, moreover,
to have had cities of refuge and to have practised
sacred prostitution.
The Hittite monuments are numerous and are
found over a wide extent of territory. In their
sculpture Babylonian influence is evi-
Hittite dent, although the physiognomy and
Monu- costume of the subjects of representa.
ments. _ tion, as well as several minor details,
give Hittite art a distinct individual-
ity. Asis the case with Babylonian art, the sculp-
tures are usually accompanied with inscriptions.
Among the more important monuments of Hittite
art may be mentioned those at Ivris in the district
corresponding to the ancient Lycaonia; at the Pass
of Karabel, near Smyrna; at Sipylus, near Magne-
sia; at Ghiaurkalessi, in Galatia; at Fassili, in Isau-
ria; at Zenjirli, in the territory corresponding to
the ancient Commagene; at Euyuk; and at Bog-
hazkeui, east of the Halys. They are for the most
part, therefore, in Asia Minor, although one of the
Hittites
Hiwi
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
428
most noteworthy sculptures was found at Sakche-
g6zti in northern Syria. Representations of the
Hittites are found also on Egyptian monuments, as
at Abu-Simbel and Medinet-Abu. The character of
Hittite art is solid, at times even heavy, but excel-
lent in the portrayal of animal forms. The Hittites
were also skilled lapidaries and carvers on ivory, as
well as clever silversmiths, while their paintings of
Egypt give a vivid idea of Hittite tactics in war.
The inscriptions, which must be regarded as still
uninterpreted, are written in a script partly picto-
graphic and partly alphabetic, syllabic, or ideo-
graphic. The number
of pictographs _fre-
quently aids materially
in determining the gen-
eral content of an in-
scription, even though
the text can not be de-
ciphered. The lines
are in boustrophedon
style, reading alter-
nately from right to
left and from left to
right, and possibly in-
fluenced in this regard
archaic Greek inscrip-
tions. Determinatives,
or conventional signs,
denoting “god,”
“king,” “country,”
etc., seem to have been
employed. It has been
plausibly suggested
that the script origi-
nated in Cappadocia,
since the shoe with
pointed, upturned toe
(reminiscent of a snow-shoe) and the mitten (used
in cold countries) are among the most common signs,
while the ideogram for “country” is a mountain
peak. The characters thus far discovered number
over two hundred, and the list is doubtless still in-
complete. The style of carving is peculiar to the
Hittites, in that the figures and characters are in re-
lief, the stone having first been carefully dressed,
and the portions about the figures and characters
then cut away. The most important inscriptions
have been found at Babylon, Hamath, Jerabis (the
ancient Carchemish), Marash, Izgin, and Bulgarma-
den. In addition, a number of seals and cylinders
have been discovered.
-The Hittite language, whose alphabet shows at
least superficial affinities with the Cypriote and
Vannic scripts, is one of the most difficult problems
in linguistics, Fantastic theories have not been lack-
ing, of which the hypothesis of Clarke,
that the Hittites were akin to the Pe-
ruvian Kechua, and that of Campbell,
who finds Hittite names in France,
Japan, and ancient Mexico, are the
most bizarre. <A plausible view, defended especially
by Sayce and Wright, and more reservedly by
De Lantshecre, connects Hittite with the Georgian
group of languages, particularly on the basis of the
similarity of their formation of the nominative and
——-S
=
83
Bi
Hittite Divinity.
(After Wright, ‘‘ Empire of the Hittites. ’’)
Language
of the
Hittites.
genitive. Further developments of this view were
advanced by Lenormant and Hommel. The lat-
ter connects Hittite with New Elamitic, Cossiean,
Vannic, and the modern Georgian, and this entire
group with Sumerian, thus ultimately with the
Turko-Tatar branch of Ural-Altaic. The Altaic
affinity of Hittite has been especially emphasized by
Conder, whose arguments, however, overleap them-
selves and prove too much. Rejecting the Altaic
hypothesis, Halévy and, for a time, Ball sought to
prove Hittite a Semitic language. Their conclu-
sions, however, based on proper names obviously
borrowed in many cases from neighboring but un-
related stocks and languages, can not be regarded
as valid. The hypothesis has also been advanced
that Hittite was an Indo-Germanic language, and was
most closely akin to Armenian. The protagonist
of this theory is Jensen, who, though confessedly
not an expert in Armenian linguistics, has built up
a series of ingenious and daring identifications of
Hittite words with Armenian. The two Arzava
letters, discovered in 1902, are regarded by Bugge
and Knudtzon as Hittite, and as connected linguis-
tically with Armenian and even Lycian. The time
does not seem yet to have come for a final declaration
regarding the linguistic position of the Hittite
speech. Itisnotimpossible thata better knowledge
of the languages of Asia Minor, shown by the re-
searches of Kretschmer to be neither Semitic nor
Indo-Germanic, will throw new light on this prob-
lem. Meanwhile, the view which regards Hittite as
Georgian in its affinities seems on the whole most
probable, although the Armenian hypothesis has
certain arguments in its favor. The date of the ex-
tinction of Hittite isunknown. If (as isnot improb-
able from the presence of Hittite monuments in
Lycaonia) Lycaonian was a Hittite dialect, it was
spoken as late as the first century c.E. (Acts xiv. 11).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The bibliography on the Hittites is very ex-
tensive. Many studies are scattered through Oriental and
theological journals ; most of them are antiquated, and many
are incorporated in later and fuller works. The most impor-
tant books dealing with the subject are: Clarke, The Khita
and Khita-Peruvian Epoch, London, 1877; Conder, Heth
and Moab, ib. 1883; idem, Altaic Hieroglyphs and Hittite
Inscriptions, th. 1887; idem, The Hittites and Their Lan-
guage, Edinburgh, 1898; Wright, Kmpire of the Hittites,
New York, 1884; Perrot and Chipiez, Histoire de V Art dans
VAntiquite, vol. iv. (Sardinia, Judea, and Asia Minor), Paris,
1887; Sayce, The Hittites, London, 1888; Puchstein, Pseudo-
hethitische Kunst, Berlin, 1890; Campbell, The Hittites, Lon-
don, 1891 ; De Lantsheere, De la Race et de la Langue des
Hittites, Brussels, 1892; Peiser, Die Hetitischen Inschriften,
Berlin, 1892; Menant, EHléments du Syllabaire Hétéen,
Paris, 1892; De Cara, Gli Hethei-Pelasgi, Rome, 1894-1902;
Jensen, Hittiter und Armenier, Strasburg, 1898; Messer-
schmidt, Corpus Inscriptionum Hettiticarum, Berlin, 1900-
1902; Fossey, Quid de Hethawis Cuneatw Litterw Nobis Tra-
diderint, Versailles, 1902: Knudtzon, Die Zwet <Arzawa-
Briefe, Ceipsic, 1902; Hilprecht, H2plorations in Bible-
Lands, Philadelphia, 1903.
G. L. 1. G.
HITZIG, FERDINAND: German Christian
theologian; born at Hauingen, Baden, June 28, 1807;
died at Heidelberg Jan. 22, 1875. After studying
under Gesenius at Halle and under Ewald at Gat-
tingen, he taught at Heidelberg from 1830 to 1883,
in which year he received a call from the newly
founded University of Zurich. He returned to Hei-
delberg in 1861. Hitzig was one of the most eminent
and independent theologians of the nineteenth cen-
tury. He was an indefatigable worker, and edited
all the prophetical books and nearly all the poetical
429
writings of the Old Testament. IVis publications
include:
“Jsaiah,” 1838; “The Psalms,” two editions,
1835-36 and 1863-65; “The Twelve Minor Proph-
ets,” 1839; “Jeremiah,” 1841; “Ezekiel,” 1847;
“Ecclesiastes,” 1847; “Daniel,” 1850; “Song of
Solomon,” 1855; “ Proverbs,” 1858; “ History of the
People of Israel,” 1869; “Job,” 1874; and various
minor works. Hitzig united extensive scholar-
ship and brilliant penetration with a talent for
combination which often led him astray. He al-
ways aimed at positive results, and endeavored, for
instance, to ascertain the author and date of every
psalm. As carly as 1836 he maintained that some
psalms before the seventy-third, and all psalms after
and including the seventy-third, were Maccabean.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, xii. 507-
o09; J.J. Kneucker, Zur Hrinnerung an Ferdinand Hitzig,
in Dr. Ferdinand Hitzig’s Vorlesungen itber Biblische T he-
ologie und Messianische Weissagungen des Alten Testa-
ments, pp. 1-64, Carlsruhe, 1880.
J. K. H. C.
HIVITES (nn): One of the Canaanitic nations
dispossessed by the children of Israel (Gen. x. 17;
Ex. xxiii. 23, 28; e¢al.). In the Hebrew text the
name occurs only in the singular; its meaning
is, according to Gesenius, “the villager” (comp.
‘NX’ AN), or, according to Ewald (“Gesch. des
Volkes Israel,” i. 318), “the midlander,” the Hi-
vites having previously inhabited central Palestine.
The Hivite was the sixth son of Canaan (Gen. x.
17). In the first enumeration (Gen. xv. 19~21) of the
nations which occupied Palestine in the time of
Abraham, the Hivites are not mentioned. Hamor,
the Prince of Shechem, was a Hivite; if the Hivites
were Shechemites, they are represented as peaceful,
credulous, and given to trade and cattle-raising
(Gen, xxxiv. 2, 18-29). Like the Hittites, they held
their assemblies in the gates of their cities (Gen.
xxxiv. 20). Later, in the time of the conquest of
Palestine by Joshua, fearing to meet the Israelites in
battle, they resorted to stratagem; as they had been
outwitted by the sons of Jacob, so they duped
Joshua and all the Israelites (Josh. ix. 3-27). The
Hivites had then four cities—Gibeon, Chephirah,
Beeroth, and Kirjath-jearim (Josh. ix. 17), situated
a considerable distance apart. The Gibeonites were
spared by Joshua on account of his oath. The
Hivites spread toward the north of Palestine, their
main body lying under Mount Hermon, in the land
of Mizpeh (Josh. xi. 8), “in Mount Lebanon,” from
Baal-hermon to Hamath (Judgesiii. 8). Joab, when
numbering the Israelites, is stated to have come to
the stronghold of Tyre and to all the cities of the
Hivites (II Sam. xxiv. 7). Targ. Yer. Gen. x. 17
renders “ha-Hiwwi” by “ Teripola’e ” (Tripolitans?).
J. M. SEL.
HIWI AL-BALKHI (1555x yn): Exegete
and Biblical critic of the last quarter of the ninth
century; born at Balkh, Persia. He was the author
of a work in which he offered two hundred objec-
tions to the divine origin of the Bible (Judah ben
Barzillai’s commentary on the “Sefer Yezirah,” ed.
Halberstam, p. 21; Luzzatto, “Bet ha-Ozar,” p.
12a; d¢dem, in Polak’s “Halikot Kedem,” p. 71).
Hiwi’s critical views were widely read, and it is
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
(Abraham ibn Daud, in “M. J. C.” i. 66).
Hittites
iwi
said that his contemporary Saadia Gaon found in
Babylonia, in the district of Sura, some school-
masters who, in teaching children, used elementary
text-books which were based upon Hiwi's criticisins
Saadia
not only prohibited the use of these books, but com-
bated Hiwi’s arguments in a work entitled “ Kitab
al-Rudd ‘ala Hiwi al-Balkhi ” (see Saadia’s “ Kitab al-
Amanat wal-‘Itikadat,” ed. Landauer, p. 87). Un-
fortunately both Saadia’s and Hiwi’s books are
lost.
Hiwi’s book seems to have been one of the most
important contributions to skeptical Jewish litera-
ture. Only a few of his objections are preserved, in
quotations by other authors. In this way it became
known that Hiwi raised the question why God
preferred to live among unclean mankind instead of
living among the clean angels (Judah ben Barzillai),
and why He required sacrifices and showbread if
He did not eat them, and candles when He did not
need light (Solomon ben Yeruham’s commentary on
Eccl. vii. 10; Pinsker, “Likkute Kadmoniyyot,”
p. 28). Another objection of his was based on
the claim that God broke & promise which He had
made under oath (Harkavy, “Mcassef Niddahim,”
i. 8). All these objections are preserved in Saadia’s
“Kitab al-Amanat” (ed. Landauer, pp. 140 e¢ seg.),
among twelve other objections of a similar kind,
most of which are supposed to have originated with
Hiwi. They point out several discrepancies in the
Scriptures, and infer therefrom a non-divine author-
ship. Hiwi even objected to the teaching of the
unity of God, and referred to Deut. xxxii. 9. In
this case, as in several others, Saadia combats Hiwi
without mentioning his name. Some others of
Hiwi’s views are preserved in Ibn Ezra’s commen-
tary on the Pentateuch. The passing of the Israel-
ites through the Red Sea Hiwi explained by the
natural phenomenon of the ebb-tide; and the words
“the skin of his [Moses’] face shone” (“karan,” lit-
erally, “cast horns” or “rays”; Ex. xxxiv. 29) he ex-
plained as referring to the dryness of his skin in conse-
quence of long fasting (see Ibn Ezra on the passage
in Exodus). Hiwi further inquired why manna from
heaven no longer descends in the desert of Sinai
as it is said to have done in olden times (Ibn Ezra to
Ex. xvi. 18).
These few instances of Hiwi’s criticisms are suffi-
cient to show his skeptical and irreverent spirit, the
cause of which D. Kaufmann traced back to anti-
Jewish polemical Pahlavi literature (J. Darmesteter,
in “R. EB. J.” xviii. 5 e¢ seg.). In “J. Q. R.” xiii.
358 e¢ seg. Schechter has published one of the
most interesting genizah fragments, containing a
long series of critical remarks on the Bible which,
as Schechter demonstrates, recall very vividly Hiwi’s
method of argumentation. Continuing his essay,
Schechter givesalso the reasons which speak against
the presumption that Hiwi was the author of the
fragments; he comes to the conclusion, however,
that they at least emanated from the school of
Hiwi (see 72. pp. 3845 et seg.; Bacher, 7b. pp. 741
et seqg.; Poznanski, 7b. pp. 747 et seg.; Porges, 7.
xiv. 129 ef seq.).
Karaites and Rabbinites agreed in denouncing
Hiwi as a heretic. His real surname, “ Al-Balkhi,”
iyya bar Abba
iyya al-Daudi
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
430
is correctly preserved in one instance only; in all
others it is changed into “ Al-Kalbi” (= “the dog-
like”).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschnelder, Jewish Literature, p. 119;
First, in Orient, Lit. x. 94; Gritz, Gesch. v. 261 et seq., 464
et seq.; Guttmann, in Monatsschrift, xxviii. 260, 289; Har-
kavy, Meassef Niddahim, i., No.1; idem, Sefer ha-Galui,
pp. 146 et seq., 176; Israelsohn, in R. H.J. xvii. 310; D.
Kaufmann, ib. xxil. 287; Derenbourg, ib. xxv. 249; Winter
and Winsche, Die Jildische Litteratur, ii. 242 et aeq.;
Bacher, Bibeleregese der Jiidischen Religionsphiloso-
phen, p. 389
K M. Sc.
HIYYA BAR ABBA: Palestinian amora of
priestly descent; flourished at the end of the third
century. In the Palestinian Talmud he isalso called
Hiyya bar Ba or Hiyya bar Wa (xt); Yer. Ber.
iii. 6a, iv. 7d); and in both Talmuds he is frequently
mentioned merely as R. Hiyya, the context show-
ing that Hiyya bar Abbaismeant. Thoughanative
of Babylon, where, perhaps, for a very short time he
came under the influence of Mar Samuel (Weiss,
“Dor,” iii. 94), he migrated to Palestine at a very
early age. There he studied under Hanina and
Joshua b. Levi, and came into very close contact
with Simeon b. Lakish. He is, moreover, known
as a disciple of Johanan, after whose death he and
his friends Ammi and Assi were the recognized
authorities on the Halakah in Palestine.
Hiyya was distinguished for the care with which
he noted the sayings of his masters (Ber. 88b), and
in questions of doubt as to the phraseology of a tra-
dition the version of Hiyya was preferred (Ber. 32b,
38b). Though he was the author of many haggadot,
he denounced every attempt to collect and commit
them to writing, and upon secing such a collec-
tion he cursed the hand that wrote it (Yer. Shab.
xvi. 15c). His interest was centered in Halakah, in
the knowledge of which he probably excelled all his
Palestinian contemporaries. Together with Ammi
and Assi, he formed a court of justice before which
a certain woman named Tamar was tried. The
sentence involved Hiyya and his associates in diffi-
culty, and might have had disastrous results had not
Abbahu promptly come to their assistance (Yer. Meg.
iii. 74a).
Hiyya was very poor, and therefore was compelled
to go lecturing from town to town in search of a liveli-
hood; he even temporarily left Palestine (Yer. Ma‘as.
Sh. v. 56b), He was greatly annoyed that the lec-
turer on Haggadah drew a larger audience than he
(see JEW. Encyc. i. 86, 3.0. ABBAHU). Through
stress of poverty he accepted a commission from
Judah IT. to collect money to defray the expenses of
the decaying patriarchate. The esteem in which
Hiyya was held is manifested in the credentials ob-
tained for him by Eleazar b. Pedath: “Behold, we
have sent you a great man, our envoy. Until his re-
turn he possesses all the powers that we do.” <Ac-
cording to another version the introduction ran:
“Behold, we have sent you a great man. His great-
ness consists in this, that he is not ashamed to say
‘I know not’” (Yer. Hag. i. 76d; Yer. Ned. x. 42b).
At another time Hiyya, Ammi, and Assi were
appointed by Judah II. to visit the various commu-
nities in Palestine, with the view of reawakening
interest in the study of the Law (Yer. Hag. i. 76c).
Hiyya had several brothers: R. Nathan ha-
Kohen, also known as R. Kohen (or R. Nathan)
b. Abba; Rabbannai, or R. Bannai; and R.
Simeon b. Abba. He had several children, among
whom were R. Abba, R. Kahanah, and R. Ne-
hemiah.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Weiss, Dor, iii. 94-95: Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., iv.
1893: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. ii. 174-201.
gS. N. Sr.
HIYYA BAR ABBA (surnamed RABBAH,
“the Great ” or “the Elder,” to distinguish him from
an amora of the same name): Palestinian tanna; born
about the middle of the second century, at Kafri,
near Surain Babylonia; pupilof Judah I., and uncle
and teacher of Rab. He was a descendant of a
family which claimed to trace its origin from Shimei,
brother of King David (Ket. 62b). He passed the
earlier part of his life in Babylonia, where he married
a certain Judith. By her he had twin sons, Judah
and Hezekiah (both of whom became renowned
rabbis), and twin daughters, Pazi and Tavi (Yeb.
65b). Hiyya was unhappy in his married life, for
his wife was a shrew. This was so keenly felt by
Hiyya that when asked by his nephew for a blessing
he said: “May God preserve thee from an evil that
is worse than death—a contentious woman” (Yeb.
63a). Hiyya was especially affected by a trick she
played upon him. Disguising herself, she went to
him and asked whether the obligation of propagating
the human race extended to women; receiving an
answer in the negative, she took drugs which ren-
dered her barren (Yeb. 65b). However, Hiyya’s
good nature was so great that he overwhelmed her
with presents, meeting the astonishment of his
nephew by saying that men should show themselves
grateful to their wives for rearing their children and
for keeping their husbands from sin (Yeh. 68a).
In the latter part of his life Hiyya emigrated to
Tiberias, Palestine, where he established a business
in silks, which he exported to Tyre
In (Ruth R. i. 17; Lam. R. iii. 16; Gen.
Palestine. R. lxix.). The high reputation ac-
quired by him in his native country
had preceded him to Palestine, and ere long he be-
came the very center of the collegiate circle of the
patriarch Judah I. Regarding him more as a col-
league than as a pupil, Judah treated Hiyya as his
guest whenever the latter chanced to be at Sep-
phoris, consulted him, and took him with him when
he went to Cesarea to visit Antoninus (Tan., Waye-
sheb). His admiration for Hiyya was so great that
he used to say: “ Hiyyaand his sons are as meritori-
ous ag the Patriarchs” (B. M. 25b). Judah’s friend-
ship and high esteem for Hiyya are connected in the
Haggadah with a miracle. In course of a conver-
sation with him Judah said that if the Babylonian
exilarch R. Huna, who was believed to be a de-
scendant of the family of David, came to Palestine
he (Judah) would yield to him the office of patri-
arch. When R. Huna died and his body was brought
to Palestine for burial, Hiyya went to Judah and said,
“Huna is here,” and, after pausing to notice Judah’s
pallor, added, “his coffin has arrived.” Seriously
offended, Judah banished Hiyya for thirty days.
While the latter was away, the prophet Elijah, as-
suming Hiyya’s features, presented himself to Judah
and healed a toothache from which the patriarch
had suffered for thirteen years. Judah was not long
431
in discovering the truth of this wonderful cure, and
his respect for Hiyya increased (Yer. Kil. ix.).
It was a current saying among the Palestinians
that since the arrival of Hiyya in Palestine storms
did not occur and wine did not turn sour (Hul.
86a). His prayers are said to have brought rain in
a time of drought and to have caused a lion, which
had rendered the roads unsafe, to leave Palestine
(Gen. R. xxxi.). Other miracles of the same kind
are credited tohim. He was especially lauded by his
Babylonian compatriots. Simeon ben Lakish names
him after the two other Babylonians, Ezra and
Hillel, who came to Palestine to restore the study of
the Torah (Suk. 20a). However exaggerated this
assertion may be, Hiyya was certainly very active
in the promotion of learning in Palestine. He
founded schools for children and often
His Pres- acted as instructor. It is related that
ervation when Hanina boasted that he could
of the reconstruct the Torah by logic should
Torah. it be lost, Hiyya said: “To prevent
such a loss I proceed in the foHowing
way: I cultivate flax, spin thread, twist ropes, and
prepare traps by means of whichI catchdeer. The
flesh of these I distribute among poor orphans, and
I use the hides to make parchment, on which I write
the Torah. Provided with this I go to places where
there are no teachers, and instruct the children”
(Ket. 103b).
Hiyya’s activity in the field of the Halakah was
very extensive. To him and his pupil Hoshea is
due the redaction of the traditional halakot which
had not been included by Judah in the Mishnah.
These halakot are known under the various names
of “Baraitot de-Rabbi Hiyya,” “ Mishnat de-Rabbi
Hiyya,” and “ Mishnayot Gedolot.” Some of them
are introduced in the Talmud with the words
“Tane Rabbi Hiyya,” and are considered the only
correct version of the halakot omitted by Judah
(Hul.141a). Hiyya was the author of original bhala-
kot also, which he derived from the Mishnah by the
hermeneutic rules. Although very conservative, he
opposed the issuing of new prohibitions. “Make
not the fence higher than the Law itself, lest it should
fall and destroy the plants” (Gen. R. xix.). Hiyya
seems to have contributed to the Sifra the redaction
of the tannaitic midrash to Leviticus, where his say-
ings are often quoted. From the time of Sherira
Gaon, Hiyya was generally regarded as the author of
the Tosefta; but the supposition has been rejected
on very strong grounds by modern scholars (see To-
SEFTA). Hivya’s activity extended also to the Hag-
gadah. Sayings of his, and his controversies with
Simeon ben Halafta, Bar Kappara, Jonathan, and
Jannai are frequently quoted in haggadic literature.
The dawn is for Hiyyathe symbol of the deliverance
of Israel. “As the dawn spreads gradually, so will
the deliverance of Israel come gradually” (Yer.
Ber. 3b).
As a Babylonian Hiyya hated the Romans, whom
he compared to obnoxious insects (Tan.,
His Wayesheb, 17). “God foresaw that the
Hagegadot. Jews could not bear the yoke of the
Romans, and therefore designed Baby-
lonia for their place of residence” (Pes. 86a). Hiy-
ya’s views on some Biblical books are noteworthy.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hivye bar Abba
iyya al-Daudi
According to him the Book of Job is not the work
of a Jew (Yer. Sotah 15a); and Solomon wrote his
works in his old age (Cant. R. 2b). Hiyya’s hagga-
dot are particularly rich in thoughts concerning the
moral life and the relations of human beings to one
another.
Hiyya was a physician of high repute. The Tal-
mud quotes many of his medical utterances, among
which is a description of the development of the
embryo in the womb which betrays considerable
medical knowledge (Nid. 25a). Hiyyais represented
in the Talmud as having been a model of virtue and
goodness; his house is said to have been always open
to the poor (Shab. 151b); even his death is connected
by legend with an act of charity. “The angel of
death,” recites a haggadah, “could not approach
him. The angel therefore disguised himself as a
poor man and knocked at Hiyya’s door. Hiyya, as
usual, gave the order to bring bread for the poor.
Then the angel said: ‘Thou hast compassion on the
poor; why not have pity upon me? Give me thy
life and spare me the trouble of coming so many
times.’ Then Hiyya gave himself up” (M. K. 28a).
At his death, relates another iaggadah, stones of
fire fell from the skies (M. K. 25b).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ibn Yahya, Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah, 32b ; Heil-
prin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 128; Kirchheim, in Orient, Lit. ix.
611 et seq.; J. H. Weiss, Dor, ii. 198, 218; W. Bacher, Ag.
Tan. ii. 520 et seq.; Baer, Das Leben und Wirken des Tan-
naiten Chiyya, in Berliner’s Magazin, xvii. 115 et seq.; Miel-
ziner, Introduction to the Talmud, p. 39; Halévy, Dorot ha-
Rishonim, ii. 197.
s. I. Br.
HIYYA BAR ADDA: Palestinian amora of
the first half of the third century; son of the sister
of Bar Kappara; pupil of Simeon ben Lakish. His
name is connected with several halakot (Yer. Hor,
iii. 5), and he handed down a number of halakic
opinions in the names of Aha, Hanina, and Johanan
(Yer. Ber. vi. 1; Sanh. iv.). He disputed with his
uncle Bar Kappara concerning the explanation of
the word 33°OM (Deut. v. 25), which he rendered
“they embellished ” (Lev. R. xxxii.; Cant. R. ii. 14).
Hiyya died young, and in the funeral sermon pro-
nounced by Simeon ben Lakish he is compared, in
allusion to the verse, “My beloved [God] is gone
down into His garden, to the bed of spices, to feed
in the garden, and to gather lilies” (Cant. R. vi. 2),
to a lily which the gardener is desirous to gather.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 182; Bacher,
Ag. Pal. Amor. i. 841, 401. LB
8. . R.
HIYYA AL-DAUDI: Liturgical poet; died
in Castile in 1154; descendant of the Babylonian
nasi Hezekiah. Many selihot bearing the signature
of Hiyya (though whether all are by the subject of
this article is uncertain) are found in the Mahzors of
Tlemcen, Oran, Avignon, and in the Sephardic
Mahzor. In the selihah pwp yy abbr snbt the
surname “Al-Daudi” is added to the name of
Hiyya. Two of Hiyya al-Daudi’s selihot have
been published in “ Betulat Bat Yehudah” by 8. D.
Luzzatto, who mistook the author for Hiyya ha-
Ma‘arabi, the collector of Judah ha-Levi’s poems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, S. P. p. 218; Luzzatto, Betulat Bat
Yehudah, p. 7; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 840; Lands-
huth, ‘Ammude ha-’Abodah, p. 64; J. Derenbourg, in
Geiger’s Jiid. Zeit. v. 405.
a. I. Br.
Hiyya Gabriel
Héchheimer
HIYYA GABRIEL: Turkish Talmudist; lived
at Safed in the seventeenth ceutury. Wolf (“ Bibl.
Hebr.” iii., No. 595) and Fiirst (" Bibl. Jud.” i. 178)
call him “ Hiyya ben Gabriel.” He was the author of
a work called “Seder Zemannim,” a calendar for the
years 5485-64 = 1675-1704 (Venice, 1675).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 841.
D. M. SEL.
HIYYA B. GAMMADA: Palestinian amora of
the fourth generation (8d and 4th cent.). His prin-
cipal teacher was Jose b. Saul, in whose name Hiyya
transmitted several halakot COIL. K. 22a; R. H. 24a,
30a); but he was also a pupil of Jose b. Hanina
(Sotah 7b) and of Assi (Meg. 31b). He transmitted
halakot in the name of the council (“haburab ”) of
the last of the Tannaim (Hul. 30a; Shab. 3a; Pes.
64a, 78b). The following haggadic sentence Hiyya
transmitted in the name of Jose b. Saul: “At the
death of a just man the angels proclaim that one
who is righteous has come, and God answers, ‘ Let
the other zaddikim come out to meet him’” (Ket.
104a). A sentence of the same nature and ascribed
to Hleazar b. Pedat (¢d.) is attributed to R. Hiyya
ha-Gadol in Pesik. R. 2 (ed. Friedmann, p. 5, a, b).
Bacher accordingly suggests that the name is to be
amended into “Hiyya b. Gammada.” Hiyya’s love
for Palestine was so great that he rolled in the
dust of that country (Ket. 112b).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. ii. 85; Heilprin,
Seder ha-Dorot, ii.
Ss. M. SEL.
HIYYA KARA: Palestinian scholar of the
third and fourth centuries. He wasa pupil of Sam-
uel b. Nahman, in whose name he asserted that since
the destruction of the Temple neither good wine nor
white earthenware could be obtained (Lam. R. iv.
5). The name “Kara” was given him on account
of his familiarity with the Bible (comp. “ Mattenot
Kehunah ” on Lam. R. iv. 5).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.
8. M. SE.
HIYYA, MEfR BEN DAVID: Italian Tal-
mudist of the sixteenth century. He was dayyan of
Venice 1510-20, during the rabbinate of Benedet
ben Eliezer Acsildor, who esteemed him highly.
Like Benedet, he took part in the dispute between
Jacob Polak and Abraham Minz, being mentioned
third in the list of Italian rabbis who expressed their
views concerning this dispute. After 1520 he was
employed in the printing establishment of Daniel
Bomberg, being one of the editors of the Talmud.
He rendered great services as corrector, editing
among other works Israel Isserlein’s “ Terumat ha-
Deshen” and Joseph Colon’s responsa. His own
responsa are printed in Benjamin Ze’eb’s responsa
collection.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 6382, 2865;
Mose, Antologia Israetitica, v. 307; Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot
Gedole Yisrael, p. 573 mun, Z. G. D. 10; Eisenstadt-Wiener,
Da'‘at Kedoshim, p. 60.
K. A. PE.
HIYYA B. MERIA (once, in Yer. Sheb. vi. 1,
MEDIA): Palestinian amora of the fourth genera-
tion (8d and 4th cent.). Uliyya is mentioned only in
the Jerusalem Talmud; he was the pupil of R.
Jonah and R. Jose (Yer. Sheb. vi. 1; Yer. Ket. ix.
1; Yer. Sanh. i. 2; et al.). Hiyya transmitted, in the
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
432
name of R. Levi, the following haggadah: “ Psalm
xii. 10 proves that a man’s wife is chosen for him
before his birth” (Pesik. xxiii. 158b).. This hagga-
dah reappears in Lev, R. xxix. 7, as transmitted by
Hiyya b. Abba in the name of R. Levi, but this is
evidently a copyist’s mistake. A certain Rabbi b.
Meria who transmitted a haggadah (Pesik. Kt. 40
fed. Friedmann, p. 172a}) is supposed by Buber (note
58 to Pesik. 153b) to be the same as Rt. Hiyya b.
Meria.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. ii. 397; Heilprin»
Seder ha-Dorot, ii.
S. M. SEL.
HIYYA ROFE: Rabbi of Safed; died in 1620.
Having studied Talmud under Solomon Sagis and
Cabala under Hayyim Vital, Hiyya was ordained
in accordance with the old system (“semikah ”) re-
introduced into Palestine by Jacob BerasB. In 1612
Hiyya gave his approbation to Issachar Baer Eu-
lenburg’s “ Be’er Sheba‘.” Most of Hiyya’s works
have been lost; the remainder were published by his
son, Meir Rofe, under the title “Ma‘aseh Hiyya”
(Venice, 1652), containing novellem on several of
the Talmudic treatises, and twenty-seven responsa.
These were revised by Moses Zacuto, who added a
preface.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, pp. 4lb et seq. ;
Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 840.
G. M. SE.
HIYYA BEN SOLOMON HABIB: Spanish
Talmudist of the thirteenth and fourteenth cen-
turies; a native of Barcelona. He was a contempo-
rary of Solomon ADRET, but the assertion of Gross
that Hiyya was Adret’s pupil is without founda-
tion, for Hiyya never refers to Adret as his master.
Hiyya was the author of a work entitled “Sefer ha-
Shulhan,” a treatise, in four parts, on matters of
ritual. Gross conjectures that it is this work that
is quoted by Isaac b. Sheshet in No. 40 of his re-
sponsa. See GERSHON BEN SOLOMON BEN ASIIER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 100; Neubauer, Cat.
a Hebr. MSS. Nos. 665, 1; 904, 2.
M. SEv.
Eanes ABRAHAM: Bohemian Talmudist;
flourished about 1230. The name indicates a Czech
origin, an assumption supported by the fact that in
his commentary on the selihot he often explains
Hebrew by means of Bohemian words. He seems,
however, to have lived in France, according to Zunz,
and was the teacher of Hezekiah b. Jacob of Magde-
burg. He is often quoted in the Budapest and
Vienna manuscripts of the “Mordechai ben Hillel”
as well as ina manuscript of De Rossi, in the last
under the name of “ Abraham Hadlik.” In addition
to these Talmudic decisions of Abraham there have
been preserved minhagim by him for the whole year
(Codex De Rossi, Parma, No 506) and a selihah com-
mentary in manuscript (Munich, No. 346). Perles
attempts to identify Abraham Hladik with Abraham
b. Azriel, author of “ Arugat ha-Bosem.”
ee, Zunz, FRitus, pp. 22, 124, note 2; Steinschnei-
Cat. Munich, p. 168; Samuel Kotin, Mordechai ben
Salle, pp. 28, 158, note; Peries, in Monatsschrift, xxvi. 362.
Ss. A. PE.
HOBAB (353m): Name occurring twice in the Bi-
ble, and borne either by Moses’ father-in-law or by his
brother-in-law. In the first passage (Num. x. 29),
433
Hobab is said to have been the son of Raguel
(R. V. “ Reuel”), the Midianite, Moses’ father-in-law
(comp. Ex. ii. 18), while in Judges iv. 11 Hobab
himself is called Moses’ father-in-law. The Jewish
commentators, as Rashi and Nahmanides, are in-
clined to agree with the latter passage. They ex-
plain (Ex. ii. 18) that Raguel, who was Zipporah’s
grandfather, was called “father” by his grand-
daughters. Ibn Ezra, however, favored the inter-
pretation of “hoten Mosheh” (Judges iv. 11) as
“ Moses’ brother-in-law.” Hobab, whoever he was,
seems to have been well acquainted with the desert,
for Moses requested him to stay with the Israel-
ites and serve them as their “eyes” (Num. /. c.).
E. G. I. M. Set.
HOBAH (fain = “hiding-place”): Place to the
north of Damascus to which Abraham pursued the
defeated army of Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv. 15).
Wetzstein identified the Biblical Hobah with the
modern Hobah, 60 miles north of Damascus (De-
litzsch, “Genesis,” pp. 561 e¢ seg.). But the Jews of
Damascus affirm that the village of Jobar, not far
from Damascus, is the Hobah of the Bible. Rashi,
following pseudo-Jonathan, takes “ Hobah ” as a sub-
stitution for “Dan,” where Jeroboam had erected
a golden calf as an object of worship (I Kings xii.
29), interpreting “Hobah” as “the sinful place.”
The Targum of Jerusalem renders it by “‘Awweta,.”
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HOCHHEIMER (HOCHHEIM, HOCH-
HEIMER, HECHIM): Bavarian family, named
after its original home in Hochheim. The follow-
ing are its more important members:
Elias ben Hayyim Cohen Héchheimer: As-
tronomer of the eighteenth century; born in Hoch-
heim; died in Amsterdam, whither he had removed
after living a long time in Hildburghausen. He
was the author of: “Shebile di-Reki‘a,” on trigo-
nometry and astronomy (2 vols., Prague, 1784);
“Sefer Yalde ha-Zeman,” a commentary on Jedaiah
Bedersi’s “ Behinat ha-‘Olam” (7b. 1786); and two
German text-books on arithmetic.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. xliv. 652; Furst, Bibl.
Jud. i. 367, 402 (where Elias Hechim and Elias Héchheimer are
treated as two different authors).
D. M. K.
Henry (Hayyim) Hochheimer: American rabbi;
born Oct. 8, 1818, at Ansbach, Middle Franconia.
His father, Isaac Hochheimer, succeeded his mater-
nal grandfather, Meyer Ellinger, as rabbi at Ichen-
hausen, whither, at the age of ten, the boy removed
with his parents. Three years later he returned to
Ansbach to pursue secular studies at the Latein-
schule, and Hebrew studies under his paternal
grandfather, Moses HOCHNEIMER.
In 1885 he entered the gymnasium at Augsburg, and
in 1839 the University of Munich, graduating in 1844.
Meanwhile his Hebrew studies were continued under
Rabbis Guggenheimer, in Kriegshaber, near Augs-
burg, and Hirsch Aub, in Munich. From the latter
he received his rabbinical diploma in 1845. From 1844
to 1849 he acted as his father’s assistant in Ichen-
hausen. Political addresses and articles in “ Die
Zeitung fiir die Elegante Welt” and “Der Grenz-
bote” during 1848-49 caused warrants to be issued
against him, and he had to flee the country.
VI. —28
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hiyya Gabriel]
Hochheimer
Hochheimer emigrated to the United States, and on
his arrival (Oct. 3, 1849) in New York he was in-
vited to become the rabbi of the Nidche Israel con-
gregation, the oldest in Baltimore. There he offi-
ciated until Oct., 1859, when he accepted the rabbinate
of Fell’s Point Hebrew Friendship Congregation.
After an incumbency of thirty-three years he retireé
from active life in 1892. Since 1841, when he pub-
lished an article in First’s “Orient,” he has been a
contributor to the Jewish press, especially to “ Die
Deborah” (Cincinnati), and to the “Allg. Zeit. des
Jud.” under Philippson’s editorship. Several ser-
mons by him appeared in Kayserling’s “ Bibliothek
Jiidischer Kanzelredner ”; and many of his addresses
have been published in pamphlet form. His best-
known contribution to general journalistic literature
is “ Die Napoleoniden in Amerika,” which appeared
in “Die Europa” (Stuttgart). He collaborated with
Benjamin Szold and Marcus Jastrow in the revision
of the prayer-book “ ‘Abodat Yisrael ” (1871).
A. H. 8.
Isaac Hochheimer: Rabbi; born in Ausbacb
1790; died at Ichenhausen 1861; son of Moses ben
Hayyim Cohen Héchheimer. He was rabbi of Ich-
enhausen from 1828 until his death.
D. M. K.
Lewis Héchheimer: American attorney; boru
Aug. 1, 1858, at Baltimore, Md.; son of Rabbi Henry
HocHHEIMER. A graduate from the law depart-
ment of the University of Maryland, he now prac-
tises law in Baltimore. He is actively identified
with child-saving and prison work, and is the author
of two text-books, “Custody of Infants” (1891) and
“Digest of Criminal Procedure in Maryland ” (1892),
and of occasional magazine articles on subjects re-
lating to legal and social science.
A. H. S$.
Moses ben Hayyim Cohen Hoéchheimer:
Grammarian; born at Hochheim; died at an ad-
vanced age, Feb. 10, 1885, at Ansbach; brother of
Klias Cohen. He was dayyanin Firth, and from 1793
till his death district rabbi of Ansbach. He was the
author of “Sefer Safah Berurah,” a Hebrew grammar
(Firth, 1790), and of a commentary on David Kim-
hi’s “ Miklol ” (2), 1798). A number of his Hebrew
poems appeared in different periodicals.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. i. 367; Steinschneider, Bib-
liographisches Handhuch, p. 60, who follows First in citing
Hoéchheimer as ‘* Hechim ”’ (Hechingen); Geiger, Wiss. Zeit.
Jtid. Theol. i. 126.
D. M. K.
Simon Héchheimer: Physician and author;
born in Hochheim toward the middle of the eight-
eenth century; died at Firth after 1822. He wasa
very learned man and traveled extensively; but he
led an adventurous life. He lived for some years in
Berlin, where he associated with Moses Mendelssohn
and his friends. On his departure from that city
in the summer of 1785, Mendelssohn, Marcus Herz,
Marcus Eliezer Bloch, David Friedlander, and sev-
eral of Mendelssohn’s Christian friends gave him
their autographs. From Berlin he went to Munich,
and thence to Frankfort-on-the-Main. In 1791 he
was living in Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and in 1798 in
Vienna. On account of his erudition he was ex-
empted from the personal tax. At the time of his
Hochmeister
Hofmann
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
434
death he was physician to the Jewish hospital at
Furth.
Hoichheimer was the author of the following
works: “Ueber Moses Mendelssohns Tod,” Vienna
and Leipsic, 1786; “Bestimmte Bedeutung der
Worter Fanatismus, Enthusiasmus, und Schwir-
merei,” Vienna, 1786; “Systematisch-Theoretisch-
Praktische Abhandlung tiber Krankheiten aus
Schwiche und deren Behandlung,” Frankfort-on-
the-Main, 1803; “Der Spiegel ftir Israeliten, ein Ge-
genstiick zu Unserem Verkehr,” Nuremberg, 1817;
“Unterweisung Wie Man die Jugend Unterrichten,
Erwachsene Belehren, Menschen Glicklich Machen
Kann,” Firth, 1822; Hebrew ed., 7b. 1825.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Haenle, Gesch. der Juden im Ehemaligen
Firstenthum Ansbach, p. 172; Allg. Zett. des Jud. xliv.
493, 652: Furst, Bibl. Jud. i. 402; Roest, Cat. Rosenthal.
Bibl. i. 449.
D. M. K.
HOCHMEISTER: Name used in German medi-
eval documents for “rabbi” or “grand rabbi.” It
seems to have been first used in the Palatinate in
the fourteenth century. In 13864 Sussmann, the
“Hochmeister ” of Ratisbon, received permission to
open a school in Amberg. The most important in-
cident in connection with the name was the em-
peror Rupert’s appointment (1406) of Rabbi Israel
of Krems as “ Hochmeister” of the Jews of the Holy
Roman Empire. He failed, however, to obtain the
acquiescence of the Jews. The emperor’s intention
was toestablish a supreme judicial authority for the
Jews of Germany, who formed a separate body, the
motive being to strengthen hisclaim to the exclusive
right of taxing the Jews of the empire, which right
at that time was contested by the territorial lords.
This title is hardly different from BisHoP or THE
JEWws, or “Judenmeister,” or similar equivalents
for “rabbi.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., vill. 101-104 (Where the
older sources, notably Wiener’s Regesten, are quoted); L6-
wenstein, Gesch. der Juden in der Kurpfatiz. p. 5, Frankfort-
on-the-Main, 1895; Frankl-Grtin, Gesch. der Juden in Krem-
sier, 1. 14 et seg., Brestau, 1896; Ben Chananja, v.17; Allg.
Zeit, des Jud. 1862, pp. 194 et seq. D
HOCHMUTH, ABRAHAM: Hungarian rabbi;
born at Ban, Hungary, Dec. 14, 1816; died at Vesz-
prim June 10, 1889. While attending the Univer-
sity of Prague he pursued the study of the Talmud
with S. L. Rapoport. In 1846 he was appointed
principal of the newly founded Jewish school at
Miskolcz, where in 1850 he opened a private school.
In 1852 he was called to the rabbinate of Kula; in
1860, to that of Veszprim. He was a prominent
member of the Hungarian Jewish Congress and, later,
of the board of the rabbinical seminary in Budapest.
He was a contributor to “Ben Chananja,” “Neu-
zeit,” and other periodicals. His works include:
“Die Jidische Schule in Ungarn, Wie Sie Ist und
Wie Sie Sein Soll,” Miskolcz, 1851; “Leopold Léw
als Theologe, Historiker und Publicist, Gewiirdigt,”
Leipsic, 1871; “ Gotteserkenntniss und Gottesverehr-
ung auf Grundlage der Heiligen Schrift und Spa-
terer Quellen, Bearbeitet als Lehr- und Handbuch
zum Religionsunterricht ” (also in Hungarian), Buda-
pest, 1882.
sap penta 45 Magyar Zeidé Szémie, vi. 543 et seq.; Pallas
ea. ix. 264,
8. M. K.
HOCHSCHULE, BERLIN. See LEHRAN-
STALT FUR DIE WISSENSCHAFT DES J UDENTHUMS.
HOCHSTADTER, BENJAMIN: German
rabbi; born 1810 at Hiirben, Bavaria; died at Frank-
fort-on-the- Main Dec. 8, 1888. As teacher and
preacher at Heddernheim, near Frankfort (1883-38),
andat Wiesbaden (1838-45), and as rabbi at Langen-
schwalbach and at Ems, he exercised a great infiu-
ence upon Jewish affairs in the duchy of Nassau. It
was chiefly at his suggestion that by the new regula-
tions of the Jewish cult (Feb. 3, 1848) four district rab-
binates were organized; in 1860, when Treuenfels of
Weilburg was elected rabbi of Stettin, these were
reduced to three. In 1846 Hochstidter established a
teachers’ seminary, which by order of the government
received an annual subsidy from the general Jew-
ish fund. At Wiesbaden Hochsta&dter had already
prepared some young men for the teacher’s vocation,
among whom was Seligman Baer of Biebrich. In
1851 Ems became the seat of his rabbinate and of the
seminary. The latter existed until 1866, when Nas-
sau was annexed to Prussia. Hochstidter remained
at his post until 1883, when he retired to Frankfort.
He took an active part in the Jewish synods of Leip-
sic and Augsburg.
Hochstidter wrote scientific articles for Geiger’s
“Wiss. Zeit. Jiid. Theol.” and other periodicals.
Besides some sermons, he published: “Kol Omer
Kera,” a Hebrew phonetic primer, Wiesbaden, 1839;
“ Die Glaubens- und Pflichtenlehre des Judenthums,”
Ems, 1862; “Sefer ha-Meforash, Religionsphiloso-
phische Erlauterungen zur Glaubens- und Pflich-
tenlehre,” 2b. 1864; “Biblische und Talmudische
Erzihlungen fiir die Israelitische Schuljugend,” 2.
1865; “ Zweistimmige Israelitische Sabbat- und Fest-
lieder fiir Kleinere Synagogengemeinden.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1888, p. 813; Lippe, Bib-
ae acai Lexicon, Vienna, 1881; Schwab, Répertoire,
‘D. S. Man.
HOCHWART, LOTHAR VON. See FRANKEL,
Lupwie Avucoust, RirreER vON HocHwaRkt.
HOCK, SIMON: Austrian writer; born at
Prague Nov. 27, 1815; died at Vienna Oct. 22,
1887. Forseveral decades he gave his spare time to
the collection of material relating to the history of
the Jews in Prague. Theaccumulated material was
edited and published by David Kaufmann in 1892,
under the title “ Die Familien Prags nach den Epi-
taphien des Alten Jiidischen Friedhofes in Prag.”
Hock is also known as the author of the biograph-
ical sketches in Koppelmann Lieben’s “Gal ‘Ed,”
1856.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kaufmann’s preface to Hock, Die Familien
Prags, Presburg, 1892.
8. A. Ky,
HODAVIAH (nay): 1. The son of Elioenai,
one of the last members of the royal line of Judah
(I Chron. iii. 24, the “ketib” being $miin). 2. A
Levite, founder of an important family of Levites
(Ezra ii. 40). In the parallel list of Nehemiah (vii.
43) the name is written AYIA, but its “keri” is
3577.
E. G. H,
HODU. See HALLeEL.
M. SEL.
435
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hochmeister
Hofmann
HOFFA, JOSEPH: German philologist and
archeologist; born Aug. 18, 1803, at Cassel; died
about 1843. His father was paymaster of the army.
In 1816 he entered the lyceum at Cassel, and in 1821
went to the University of Marburg, where he de-
voted himself chiefly to philology and archeology,
continuing these studies for a year at Heidelberg.
Forced by poverty to leave the university, he
went, with letters of introduction from the histo-
rian Schlosser, to Frankfort-on-the-Main. Here he
taught for two years at the institute of Dr. Weil,
and thenacted as private tutor. He took his Ph.D.
degree in 1823 with the dissertation “De Senatu
Romano,” part i. In the fall of 1827 he obtained
the “ venia legendi.”
During his short life Hoffa displayed a many-
sided literary activity, being equally at home in clas-
sical, French, and English literature. He published
chiefly manuals and text-books, including the fol-
lowing: “Des C. Plinius’ Lobrede auf den Kaiser
Traian,” from the Latin, with introduction and
notes, Marburg, 1834; “Qu. Ciceronis de Petitione
Consulatus ad M. Tullium Fratrem Liber... ,”
Leipsic, 1887; Isocrates’ “ Panegyricus,” from the
Greek, with notes, Marburg, 1838; Cicero, “ Cato der
Aeltere, oder Abhandlung vom Greisenalter,” from
the Latin, with introduction and notes, 7th ed., Cas-
sel, 1841; “Handbuch der Roémischen Antiquititen
Nebst einer Kurzen Rémischen Literaturgesch.” from
the Danish of C, F. Bojesen, Giessen, 1841; “ Hulfs-
buch zum Erlernen der Englischen Sprache ... ,”
Marburg, 1841; “Ciceronis Epistolarum ad Q. Fra-
trem, |. iii. . . .,” with notes, Heidelberg, 1848.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Strieder-Justi, Hessische Gelehrten- und
Schriftsteller Gesch. xix. 263-268, Marburg. 1831; Hoffa, Aw-
pocoraphy of the Year 1827; Jenaer Allg. Literaturzeit,
8 S. Fra.
HOFFER, LEOPOLD: Journalist and chess edi-
tor; born 1842, in Budapest. He removed to France
about 1866, and began to play chess in Paris. In
_ 1870 he settled in London, where he has since resided.
Hoffer has become widely known as a writer on
chess, and has been active in the organization of
some of the more important international tourna-
ments held of late years in England, notably that at
Hastings in 1895.
From 1879 to 1888 he was coeditor with Zukertort
of “The Chess Monthly,” and on Zukertort’s death
he became its sole editor. For some years he has
been the chess editor of the London papers “The
Field” and “The Standard.” He is one of the lJead-
ing analysts of the game.
Hoffer was one of the founders of the Pester
Schachklub, and founder and honorary secretary of
the British Chess Association.
PIPTOGRAr ae: Berger, Schach-Jahrbuch, 1892-98, Leipsic,
J A. P.
HOFFMAN, CHARLES ISAIAH: Ameri-
can editor and communal worker; born at Phila-
delphia, Pa., Jan. 3, 1864; educated at the University
of Pennsylvania, at that of Cambridge, England,
and atthe Jewish Theological Seminary of America.
Hoffman was the editor and one of the founders of
“The Jewish Exponent” (Philadelphia); president
of the Beth Israel congregation of Philadelphia;
president of District No. 3, I.0.B.B.; and was one
of the founders and for fifteen years the secretary
of the Association of Jewish Immigrants, at Phila-
deiphia.
A. I. G. D.
HOFFMANN, DAVID: Rector of the Rabbin-
ical Seminary at Berlin; born at Verbé, Hungary,
Nov. 24, 1843, After attending various yeshibot in
his native town he entered the lyceum at Presburg,
from which he graduated in 1865. He then studied
philosophy, history, and Oriental languages at
Vienna and Berlin, taking his doctor’s degree in
1871. Soon afterward he accepted the appointment
of teacher at the Jewish Realschule at Frankfort-on-
the-Main. In October, 1873, he became instructor in
the Rabbinical Seminary at Berlin, founded by Israel
Hildesheimer, and on the death of the latter succeeded
him as rector (1899). He has written: “Mar Sam-
uel,” Leipsic, 18738; “ Abhandlungen iiber die Penta-
teuchischen Gesetze,” Berlin, 1878; “ Der Shulchan-
Aruch,” Berlin, 1885 (2d ed., enlarged, 1895); “Col-
lectaneen aus einer Mechilta zu Deuteronomium,”
Berlin, 1890; “ Die Mischna-Crdnung Nesikin, Ueber-
setzt und Erklart, mit Hinleitung,” Berlin, 1893-97.
He published the following essays in the programs
of the Rabbinical Seminary: “Die Zeit der Omer-
schwingung und das Wochenfest,” 1874; “Der
Oberste Gerichtshof in der Stadt des Heiligthums,”
1878; “Die Erste Mischna und die Controversen der
Tannaim,” 1882; “Zur Einleitung in die Halachi-
schen Midraschim,” 1888; “ Nene Collectaneen aus
einer Mechilta zu Deuteronomium,” 1897. Of his
commentary to the Pentateuch the first volume
(Leviticus) has been published (1904). He edited
the “ Magazin fiir die Wissenschaft des Judenthums”
(with Dr. A. Berliner),18 vols., Berlin, 1876-93. From
1884 to 1895 he edited the “Israelitische Monats-
schrift,” the literary supplement to the “ Jiidische
Presse.” Hoffmann has contributed many articles
to these and other periodicals, among which may be
mentioned “Die Neueste (Wellhausen’sche) Hypo-
these tiber den Pentateuchischen Priestercodex,” in
Berliner’s “ Magazin,” 1879 and 1880, and “ Die Me
chilta des R. Simon ben Jochai,” in “Ha-Peles,”
i.-iv. (1900-03). 8.
HOFFNUNG, DIE. See PERIopIcats.
HOFMANN, ISAAK LOW, EDLER VON
HOFMANNSTHAL: Austrian merchant; born
June 10, 1759, at Prostiebor, near Kladrau, in the
district of Pilsen, Bohemia; died at Vienna Dec. 12,
1849. During the famine in Ansbach in the middle
of the eighteenth century, Hofmann’s parents had
emigrated from Pretzendorf, near Bayreuth, to Bo-
hemia, where they lived in very poor circumstances.
His early training he received at home, and from his
thirteenth year he studied at Prague asa “bahur”
(Talmudic scholar) under Rabbi Abraham Plohn.
After completing his studies he entered as
teacher the house of Joel Baruch, a rich merchant
who farmed the tobacco monopoly for the Austrian
government, Besides giving instruction to the
children, Hofmann took charge of the books of his
employer. When in 1788 Baruch moved to Vienna
and opened a wholesale house there, Hofmann was
appointed manager of the entire business. Having
ore .
Holdheim
received the same year a permit from the Austrian
government to do business in Vienna, he chose
the name “Isaak Léw Hofmann.” On the death
of Baruch he was madea partner In, and in 1794
became sole member of, the firm, which bore the
name “Tfofmann und Lowinger.” Becoming inter-
ested in 1796 in the manufacture of silk, he was one
of the first to farm the silk monopoly from the Hun-
garian government (1802), a privilege which his
house retained for nearly halfacentury. At his insti-
gation his sou Emanuel wrote a pamphlet, “ Einlei-
tung zur Seidenzucht,” of which more than 16,000
copies were distributed. Hofmann was very active
in business, and succeeded in making his firm one of
the leading houses of Austria-Hungary.
Hofmann took great interest in the Jewish com-
munity of Vienna, being president in 1806 and rep-
resentative in 1812, which latter office he held until
hisdeath. In 1822 he founded the institution for the
poor (“Armenanstalt ”), which is still flourishing.
He received many honors, and was knighted by the
Emperor of Austria in 1835.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Wolf, Gesch. der Israelitischen Cultus-
gemeinde in Wien, p. 59, Vienna, 1861; David Léwy, Gal-
lerie der Verdienstvollsten Juden des XIX. Jahrhunderts,
. ib. 1882,
8. F. T. H.
HOGA, STANISLAUS: English convert to
Christianity ; lived in London in the nineteenth cen-
tury. He published “Songs of Zion,” a selection of
English and German hymns translated into Hebrew
(1834; 2d ed., with additions, 1842). Hoga also
wrote, in Hebrew, “ A Grammar of the English Lan-
guage for the Use of Hebrews” (London, 1840), and
“The Controversy of Zion: a Meditation on Judaism
and Christianity ” (1845). He translated into He-
brew Bunyan’s “ Pilgrim’s Progress ” (London, 1844;
2d ed., 1851-52), and McCaul’s “Old Paths” (1851).
It is said that he ultimately reverted to Judaism.
J S. LE.
HOHAM: King of Hebronin the time of Joshua.
He was one of the five kings who made war on the
inhabitants of Gibeon to punish them for making
peace with Israel (Josh. x. 38-5). Joshua went to the
aid of the Gibeonites, and the five kings, defeated,
hid inacavern, They were put to death by order
of Joshua, and hanged on trees till evening (Josh. x.
16-27).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HOHE RABBI LOW, DER. Sce Jupan Low
B. BEZALEEL.
HOHENEMS: Town in Vorarlberg, Austria,
between Tyrol and Lake Constance.
had a total population of 3,988, of whom 118 were
Jews. In the period of its greatest prosperity (1862)
the community numbered 564 souls. The town be-
longed originally to the sovereign (“reichsunmittel-
bare ”) counts of Hohenems, and was ceded to Aus-
tria in 1765. In 1617 the Jews who were driven
from Burgau found shelter in Hohenems, and each
family was obliged to pay for protection an annual
sum of ten florins together with two fattened geese.
Later the protection-fee was increased. In 1676 the
Jews were expelled from Hohenems, but were re-
admitted in 1688. Some of the exiles settled in
the neighboring Austrian village of Sulz, where
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
In 1890 it |
436
————
they formed a small community until 1744, when
they were driven out. Thereupon they also re-
turned to Hohenems. A descendant of one of the
families which came back from Sulz was the cele-
brated cantor, Prof. Salomon SuLzeER of Vienna;
the house at Hohenems in which he was born is
marked by a slab bearing an appropriate inscrip-
tion. In 1765 Hohenems fell as a ficf to the house
of Austria, which issued a writ of protection for
the Jews in 1769. This contained regulations re-
strictiug their trade and acquisition of real estate,
and fixed the annual fee for protection at fifteen
florins for cach family. During the period of Bava-
rian control in Vorarlberg (1806-14) the Jews of
Hohenems adopted German family names in accord-
ance with the edict of 1813.
From 1849 to 1878 the Jews of Hohenems formed
a politically independent community; since that
time they have formed a religious community, with
a constitution confirmed by the authorities. Theirs
is the only congregation in Tyrol and Vorarlberg, and
it comprises all the Jews living in both provinces.
The Jewish congregation of Hohenems has a large
synagogue (founded 1772), a German school (founded
1785), a poorhouse (Rosenthal Foundation: 1871),
a cemetery (1617), and several charitable societies.
The religious tendencies of the community are
liberal. It has had several prominent rabbis, among
them being Léb and Samuel Ullmann, Abraham
Kohn, and Danicl Eq RMANN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tanzer, Gesch. der Juden in Tirol und
Vorariberg, 1903, vol. i.; idem, Der Israelitische Friedhof
in Hohenems, 1901; idem, Hohenems und Seine Umge-
bung, 1908.
dD. A. TA.
HOHENZOLLERN: Two principalities, Ho-
henzollern - Hechingen and Hohenzollern - Sigma-
ringen, named from the castle of Zollern, in Swabia;
formerly sovereign states, but since 1849 incorpo-
rated into the kingdom of Prussia. In a total pop-
ulation of 66,783 there are 576 Jews.
Whereas in the Middle Ages the Frankish line,
that of the Burgrave of Nuremberg, had a great many
Jews in its territory, under the house of Swabia,
which was divided in the seventeenth century into
Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigma-
ringen, they were found only in isolated cases. In
1701 Prince Frederick William I. (1671-1732) took
six Jewish families under his protection, and later
gave them a burying-ground “near the gallows.”
His successor, Frederick Ludwig (1782-1750) was
tolerant toward the Jews; but Joseph William (1750-
1798), at the wish of his bride, Princess Marie of
Spain, proposed to drive them out, This measure,
however, was prevented by the suddén death of the
princess. The Jews then, through letters of pro-
tection, received permission at various times to set-
tle in Hohenzollern; and in 1754 for the first time a
small Jewish colony was formed in the Friedrich-
strasse of Hechingen. The Jewish community of
that town was organized in the following year.
The condition of the Jews soon improved through
the influence of Frau Kaulla, daughter of President
Raphael of Buchau who had removed to Hechingen
from Haigerloch in 1754, and through the efforts of
her brother and her son-in-law, Jacob Kaulla, who
induced Prince Hermann Frederick Otto (1798-1810)
437
to treat the Jews kindly. The latter could then
settle in the principality without difficulty; so that
in 1842 their number had increased to 809.
The conditions in Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen were
similar to those in Hohenzollern-Hechingen; the
Jews suffered there also at first from
Emancipa- prejudices and restrictions, which dis-
tion. appeared under liberal princes. In-
deed, the legal position of the Jews as
citizens was established there Aug. 9, 1837, whereas
in Hechingen it was not established until 1843.
The legal status of the Jewish community as then
determined has been preserved under Prussian rule.
The community forms a department of the public
administration; the Jewish population is divided
into “church” communities which are administered
by aboard. The rabbis are state officials; the relig-
ious teachers are examined by the state; and the
state holds the right of supervision.
Among the rabbis who have held office in Hohen-
zollern may be mentioned the following:
Nathanael Weil, rabbi of the Schwarzwald district; resided in
Mithringen from 1745 to 1751, when he was called to Baden-
Durlach. Simon Flehingen, who was afterward rabbi at Darm-
stadt. David Dispeck (1770), afterward rabbi
at Metz. Loéb Aach, stationed at Hechingen,
and later rabbi over the Sigmaringen commu-
bities of Haigerloch and Dettensee, as well as director of the
bet ha-midrash founded by the Kaulla family in 1803; he oe-
cupied the rabbinate until 1817. In 1830, after an interregnum,
Dr. Samuel Mayer became district rabbi.
To-day (1908) the Prussian governmental district
Rabbis.
of Sigmaringen has only the following three com- '
munities: Dettensee (19 Jews, 2 hebra kaddishas, 1
school-fund), Haigerloch (274 Jews, 2 hebra kad-
dishas, and numerous benevolent societies), and
Hechingen (rabbi, Felix Wolff; 192 Jews, 1 public
school, 1 hebra kaddisha for men and women, and
several benevolent institutions).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Mayer, Geseh. der Israeliten in Hohenzol-
lern-Hechingen, in Orient, Lit. 1844, Nos. 29 et seq.; Leopold
Auerbach, Das Judenthum und Seine Bekcenner in Preussen
undin den Anderen Deutschen Bundesstacten, pp. 346, 347,
Berlin, 1890; Statistisches Jahrbuch des Deutsch-Tsraeli-
tischen Gemeindebundes, Berlin, 1903.
D. S. Sa.
HOL HA-MO‘ED. See Hoty Days.
HOLDHEIM, SAMUEL: German rabbi and
author; leader of the extreme wing of the Reform
movement; born at Kempen, Posen, in 1806; died
at Berlin Aug. 22, 1860. The son of rigidly Or-
thodox parents, Holdheim was early inducted into
yabbinical literature according to the methods in
vogue at the Talmudical yeshibot. Before he was
able to speak German with even moderate correct-
ness he had become a master of Talmudic dispu-
tatious argumentation, and his fame had traveled
far beyond the limits of his native place. This rep-
utation secured for him employment as teacher of
young boys in private families both in Kempen and
in larger cities of his native province. It was while
thus engaged that he began to supplement his store
of rabbinical knowledge by private studies in the
secular and classical branches. Hold-
heim went to Prague and subsequently
to Berlin to study philosophy and the
humanities; and his keen intellect,
combined with his eagerness to learn, made it possible
for him to reach his goal in an incredibly short
Early
Training.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hoga
Holdheim
time, though the lack of preliminary systematic
preparation left its imprint upon his mind, to a cer-
tain degree, to the last. Under Samuel Landau of
Prague he continued also his Talmudical studies.
While stilla young man it became his ambition to
occupy @ rabbinical position in a larger German
town; for he desired to show the older rabbis that
secular and philosophical scholarship could well be
harmonized with rabbinical erudition. But he had
to wait until 1836, when, after several disappoint-
ments elsewhere, he was called asrabbito Frankfort-
on-the-Oder. Here he remained until 1840, encoun-
tering many difficulties, due both to the distrust of
those within the congregation who suspected the
piety of a rabbi able to speak grammatical German,
and who was a graduate of a German university,
and to the peculiar legislation which in Prussia
under Frederick William II[. regulated the status
of the Jewish congregations.
To bring abouta change in this state of affairs was
the purpose of Holdheim. In the preface to his “ Got-
tesdienstliche Vortrige” (Frankfort-on-the-Oder,
1889) he appealed both to the govern-
Attitude ment to accora the modern rabbinate
Toward = the dignity due toit, and to the congre-
Gov- gations to cease regarding the rabbi as
ernment. an expert in Jewish casuistics mainly
charged with the duty of answering
“she’elot ” (ritual questions) and inquiries concern-
ing dietary laws. He insisted upon the recogni-
tion of the rabbi as preacher and teacher, who at
the same time gives attention to the practical re-
quirements of his office as the expert iu Talmudical
law.
While in Frankfort, Holdheim scrupulously de-
cided every question according to the Halakah. In
his pulpit discourses belonging to this period the
intention is plain to steer clear of mere rationalistic
moralizing, on the one hand, and dry legalizing and
unscientific speculation (in the style of the old
“derashah ”), onthe other. Hojdhcim thus deserves
to be remembered as one of the pioneers in the field
of modern Jewish HomILetTics, who showed what
use should be made of the Midrashim and other
Jewish writings. He also repeatedly took pains to
arouse his congregation to help carry out Geiger’s
and Philippson’s project of founding a Jewish theo-
logical faculty. Judaism even then had ceased for
Holdheim to be an end unto itself. He had begun
to view it as a force in the larger life of humanity.
Holdbeim now became a contributor to the Jewish
periodicals (¢.g., Philippson’s “Allgemeine Zeitung
des Judenthums” and Jost’s “Israelitische An-
nalen”). Among his articles two especially are
worthy of note. One (in “Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” ii,
Nos. 4-9) discusses the essential principles of Juda-
ism, arriving at the conclusion that Judaism has no
binding dogmas; the other (Jost’s “ Annalen,” 1839,
Nos. 30-82) treats of the oath demanded of Jewish
witnesses in criminal procedures. In
Pro- the former of these papers Holdheim
gressive formulates the principle which is ba-
Views. sic to his position and that of other
Reformers: Judaism is not a religion
of dead creed, but of living deeds. In the latter
essay he utilizes his Talmudic juridical erudition
Holdheim
Holiness
to demonstrate the injustice done tothe Jews by the
Prussian courts. Another of his Frankfort publica-
tions bears the title “Der Religiése Fortschritt im
Deutschen Judenthume,” Leipsic, 1840. The occa-
sion which called forth this booklet was the contro-
versy waging around Geiger’s election as rabbi in
Breslau. Holdheim pleads for progress, on the
ground that at all times the Torah has been taught
in accordance with the changing conditions of suc-
ceeding ages; but this progress he holds to be a
gradual development, never a noisy opposition to
recognized existing standards.
In the meantime Holdheim had received the de-
gree of Ph.D. from the University of Leipsic, and
had come to be looked upon by congregations as
well as by Jewish scholars as a leader (see “ Orient,
Lit.” 1840, No. 35 e passim; Jost’s “ Annalen,”
1840, No. 39). Frankfort having become too re-
stricted a sphere for him, he accepted a call to
Schwerin as “ Landesrabbiner,” leaving Frankfort
on Aug. 15, 1840.
In his new field Holdheim gave his first attention
to the founding of schools for Jewish children.
The Hamburg Temple controversy led him to take
part in the discussion (see “ Annalen,” 1841, Nos. 45,
46). He hailed the new movement as an important
augury of the quickening influences of modern
views. He defended the Hamburg program as
thoroughly founded in Judaism and
Hamburg inthe very line of theSynagogue’sown
Temple history, though he was not blind to its
Contro- inconsistencies. Yet, even though au-
versy. thority of tradition wasdenied and rec-
ognized at one and the same time, the
movement stood for the differentiation of the Jewish
national from the Jewish religious elements. He
wrote also an opinion (“Gutachten”) on the prayer-
book of the Hamburg Temple (Hamburg, 1841),
justifying its departures from the old forms by ap-
pealing to Talmudical precedents (Sotah vii. 1; Ber.
10a, 27b, 88a; Maimonides, “Yad,” Tefillah, xi. 9).
Among the many rejoinders which Hakam Bernays’
excommunication of this prayer-book evoked, Hold-
heim’s deserves to be ranked as the most thorough
and incisive.
Soon after, the most important work by Holdheim
appeared under the title “ Die Autonomie der Rab-
binen,” Schwerin and Berlin, 1848. In this he pleads
for the abolition of the antiquated Jewish marriage
and divorce regulations mainly on the ground that
the Jews do not constitute a political nation. The
Jewish religious institutions must be rigidly kept
distinct from the Jewish national ones, to which lat-
ter belong the laws of marriage and divorce. The
laws of the modern states are not in conflict with
the principles of the Jewish religion; therefore these
modern laws, and not the Jewish national laws
of other days, should regulate Jewish marriages and
divorces (see Samuel Hirsch in “Orient, Lit.” 1848,
No. 44). The importance of this book is attested by
the stir it created among German Jew-
Con- ish communities, many members of
troversies. which found in its attitude the solution
of the problem how loyalty to Judaism
could be combined with unqualified allegiance to
their German nationality. Evidence of its incisive
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
438
character is furnished also by the polemical litera-
ture that grew out of it. In these discussions such
men as A. Bernstein, Mendel Hess, Samson Raphael
Hirsch, Zacharias Frankel, Raphael Kirchheim, Leo-
pold Zunz, Leopold Léw, and Adolf Jellinek took
part.
The foundation of the Reform Verein in Frank-
fort-on-the-Main led to another agitation in German
Jewry. Einhorn, Stein, Samuel Hirsch, and others
deplored the rise of the Verein as a step toward
schismatic separation. The obligatory character of
the rite of circumcision was the focal issue discussed
by no less than forty-one rabbis. Holdheim, in his
“Ueber die Beschneidung Zunichst in Rcligids-
Dogmatischer Beziehung” (Schwerin and Berlin,
1844), takes the position that circumcision is not, like
baptism, a sacrament of initiation, but is mercly a
command like any other. Nevertheless he classifies
it not as a national but as a Jewish religious law, and
pleads forits retention. Indeed, he was not unreserv-
edly an adherent of the program of the Frankfort
Reform Verein. This is clear from his “ Vortrige
tiber die Mosaische Religion fiir Denkende Israeliten ”
(Schwerin, 1844). While the Verein assumed un-
limited possibilities of development, according to
Holdheim the Mosaic element, after the elimination
of the national, is eternal. Religion must be placed
above all temporal needs and desires. To yield to
the spirit of the age would make that spirit the su-
preme factor and lead to the production of a new
ninetecenth-century Talmud as little warranted as
was the Talmud of the fifth century.
Mosaism as contained in the Bible is the continu-
ous religion of Judaism. The belief in this revela-
tion is the constant factor in all variants of Judaism.
This is also the main thesis of his “ Das Ceremonial-
gesetz im Messiasreich ” (Schwerin and Berlin, 1845).
He shows the inconsistency of Talmudism, which,
assuming the inviolability of all Biblical laws, still
recognizes the suspension of many. Hence the Tal-
mudic insistence on the restoration of the Jewish
state. Some ceremonial laws were meant to assure
the holiness of the people; others to assure that of
the priests. These ceremonies lose their meaning
and are rendered obsolete the moment Israel no
longer requires special protection for its monotheis-
tic distinctness. As soon as all men have become
ethical monotheists, Israel is nowhere in danger of
losing its own monotheism; nor is its distinctness
further required. Hence in the Messianic time the
ceremonies will lose all binding or effective force.
This book, too, called forth much discussion, in
which Reform rabbis like Herzfeld took a stand op-
posed to Holdheim’s. Answering some of his critics’
objections, Holdheim insisted upon being recognized
as an adherent of: positive historic Judaism. The
doctrines, religious and ethical, of Biblical Judaism
are, he claimed, the positive contents of Judaism;
and a truly historical reform must, for the sake of
these positive doctrines, liberate Judaism from Tal-
mudism.
Holdheim took part in the rabbinical conferences
at Brunswick (1844), Frankfort-on-the-Main (1845),
and Breslau (1846). The stand taken by the last
with regard to the Sabbath did not satisfy him.
He rightly held it to bea weak compromise. For him
439
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Holdheim
Holiness
the essential element of a true Sabbath was not wor-
ship, but rest (see his “Offene Briefe tiber die
Dritte Rabbinerversammlung,” in “Is-
At raelit,” 1846, Nos. 46-48). The debates
Rabbinical at these conferences had touched on vi-
Con- tal subjects. Holdheim felt prompted
ferences. to treat some of these at greater
length, and therefore in quick sue-
cession he published the following essays: “Was
Lehrt das Rabbinische Judenthum iiber den Fid?”
1844; “Ueber Auflésbarkeit der Eide,” Hamburg,
1845; “Vorschlige zu einer Zeitgemiissen Reform
der Jtidischen Ehegesetze,” Schwerin, 1845; “Die
Religiése Stellung des Weiblichen Geschlechts im
Talmudischen Judenthum,” 7b. 1846; “ Prinzipien
eines dem Gegenwirtigen Religionsbewusstsein Ent-
sprechenden Cultus,” 1846.
Holdheim, consulted among others when the
Jiidische Reformgenossenschaft was founded in
Berlin, was called to be its rabbi and preacher in
1847, delivering his inaugural discourse on Sept. 5.
As leader of the Reformgenossenschaft he had a
share in the editing of its prayer-book. Under him
Sunday became the day of worship, and the “second
days” of the holy days (except the second day of
Rosh ha-Shanah) were abolished. Three volumes of
his sermons preached in Berlin have been published.
He officiated at so-called “mixed” marriages (see his
“Gemischte Ehen Zwischen Juden und Christen,”
Berlin, 1850). He had to defend his congregation
against many attacks (sce his “ Das Gutachten des
Herrn L. Schwab, Rabbiner zu Pesth,” 7. 1848).
Though engaged in many ways in the development
of his society and in the organization of its institu-
tions, during the thirteen years of his stay in Berlin he
found leisure to write a text-book for schools on the
religious and moral doctrines of the Mishnah (Berlin,
1854), a criticism of Stahl (“Ueber Stahl’s Christ-
liche Toleranz,” 2). 1856), and a catechism (“ Jidische
Glaubens- und Sittenlehre,” 2b. 1857). He also wrote
a history of the Reformgenossenschaft (“ Gesch. der
Jidischen Reformgemeinde,” 1857) and a more am-
bitious work (in Hebrew) on the rabbinical and Ka-
raite interpretations of the marriage laws (“ Ma’amar
ha-Ishut,” 1860).
Holdheim died suddenly, and his opponents even
refused to pay his remains the honors due to him as
a great rabbi. Sachs objected to his interment in
the row reserved for rabbis in the Jewish cemetery ;
but Oettinger had granted permission for the burial,
and so Holdheim was laid to rest among the great
dead of the Berlin congregation, Geiger preaching
the funeral oration. By a strange coincidence
Sachs’s grave is very near that of Holdheim. Gratz
also has not done Holdheim justice: in vol. x. of his
“Gesch. der Juden,” the chapter on Holdheim has,
not without justice, come to be regarded as a blem-
ish on the whole work. Gritz, who would make of
Holdheim an arch-enemy of Judaism—a second Paul
—has to admit that none of the families connected
with Holdheim’s congregation has deserted Judaism
through baptism. This fact is sufficient reply to
Gritz’s misconceptions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ritter, Gesch. der Jtidischen Reformation,
iii. (Samuel Holdheim, Sein Leben, etc.), Berlin, 1865; Ein-
horn, in Sinai, Baltimore, Oct. and Nov., 1860
8. “E. G. H.
HOLIDAYS. See Hoty Days.
HOLINESS (Hebr. “kodesh” and “kedushah,”
from a root preserved in the Assyrian “kudusu”
= “bright”): Unapproachableness; the state of
separation from, and elevation above, things com-
mon, profane, or sensual, first in a physical and ex-
ternal, and later in a spiritual, sense; moral purity
and perfection incapable of sin and wrong.
——Biblical Data: To Moses and afterward to
Israel, YawH on Sinai manifested
Holiness Himself in fire as an unapproachable
of deity, and therefore as a holy being
(Ex. iii, 2-5, xix. 18-22, xxiv. 9-17:
“like devouring fire”; comp. Ex.
Xxxiv. 29-35, the radiant face of
Moses being the effect of his intercourse with
YHWB#H).
In his first vision Isaiah sees the Lord surrounded
by “fiery beings,” seraphim, their faces covered
with wings so that they can not gaze upon the Lord;
and he hears the seraphim cry, “Holy, Holy, Holy
[that is, “unapproachable”] is the Lord of Hosts;
the whole earth is full of His glory.” Isaiah is in
fear for his life because his eyes have seen the Lord
(Isa. vi. 1-5). Henceforth the burden of his mes-
sage to Israel is God’s holiness (Isa. i. 4; v. 19, 24;
x. 20; xii. 6; xvil. 7; xxix. 19, 23; xxx. 11 e¢ seg.;
xxxvii. 28), and the Isaian expression, “the Holy
One of Israel,” reappears in the exilic chapters (Isa.
xli. 14 et seg. ; xlili. 3 et seg.; xlv. 11; xkvii. 4; x] viii.
17; xlix. 7; lv. 5; lx. 9,14). It was owing to this
conception that the fiery nature of God, which made
Him unapproachable, and His nearness awful in its
effects upon frail human beings (Lev. xvi. 1; Num.
iv. 20; II Sam. vi. 7), was so sublimated and spiri-
tualized that it became a power for righteousness, a
fire devouring wrong-doing and injustice, and puri-
fying the doers of evil. Compare Deut. iv, 22-23
(“Take heed unto yourselves, lest ye forget the
covenant of the Lord . . . and make you a graven
image . .., for the Lord thy God is a consuming
fire, even a jealous God”); or Josh. xxiv. 19-20
(“ Ye can not serve the Lord: for he is an holy God;
he is a jealous God; . .. if ye forsake the Lord
... he will... consume you” (comp. I Sam.
vi. 20).
There is still something of that elemental holiness
or fiery nature implied when it is said in Job that
before Him man and stars, the heavens, and His
angels (literally, “His holy ones”) are not clean
(Job xv. 14-15, xxv.5; comp. iv. 18). On account
of their fiery nature the angels, though not pure
when compared with God, are called “the holy
ones,” that is “unapproachable ” or “ majestic” (Job
v. I, vi. 10, xv. 15; Ps. Ixxxix. 6; Zech. xiv. 5:
Prov, ix. 10, xxx. 3; Dan. iv. 14[A. V.17]). But
God alone is the Holy and Incomparable One (Hab.
iii. 8; I Sam. ii. 2; Ex. xv. 11: “None is wrapt
[A. V. “glorious ”] in holiness like him ”).
God’s holiness is manifested chiefly in His puni-
tive justice and righteousness (Isa. v. 16; Ps. xcix.
38-5; Lev. x. 8; Num. xx. 12-18; Ezek. xxviii. 22,
XXXviii, 23). Therefore sinners must stand in awe
of His “devouring fire,” and only those free from
blemish shall behold the King in His beauty (Isa.
Holiness
xxxili. 14-17; comp. iv. 8, vi. 7). It is owing to His
holiness that He is too pure to permit His eyes to “ be-
hold evil and look on iniquity ” with-
Jewish out punishing them (Hab. i. 18); “the
Idealof eyes of His glory are provoked ” at the
Holiness. sight of wrong (Isa. iii. 8). At times
itis the unapproachable loftiness of
God that is expressed in the term “holiness” (Ps.
Ixxvii. 14 [A. V. 18]: “Thy way is in holiness”;
Ps, Ixviii, 25 [A. V. 24]: “The goings of my God
and King in holiness” [A. V., in both cases inaccu-
rately, “in the sanctuary ”]; Isa, lx. 15: “I dwell in
the high and holy place”; comp. Jer. xvii. 12; Ps.
cii. 20), It is by this “holiness,” in the sense of
“majesty ” or “exaltedness,” that God swears(Amos
lv. 2; comp. vi. 8; Ps, lxxxix. 35 [A. V. 34]; comp.
Isa. )xii. 8); and it is the arm of His holiness (A. V.
“his holy arm”) that does all His wondrous deeds
(Isa. lii 10, Ps. xcviii. 1). His holiness invests His
“words” with power (Jer. xxiii. 9; Ps cv. 42) and
His “name” with awe (Amos ii. %; Ezek. xx. 39;
Lev. xx. 8). Finally, God, as the Holy Being, high
above ajl things profane and sensual, became the
highest ideal and pattern of purity and perfection:
“Ye shall be holy, for I the Lord am holy” (Lev.
xix. 2; xx. 7, 26).
Here must be noted the striking contrast between
the spccifically Jewish and the general Semitic
conception of holiness. The term “kadosh” (also
“herem”; = “holy ”),—perhaps originally “ kadesh”
(“ brightness,” ¢.g., of the well as the fountain of life
[“‘En Kadesh ”]; see Brugsch, “Gesch. Aegyptens,”
1877, p. 200; Movers, “ Phoenizier,” i. 188)—is applied
to Astarte, the goddess of fertility, known for abomi-
nable orgies, and her lascivious priests and _ priest-
esses are called “kedeshim” and “kedeshot” (the
holy ones; Gen. xxxviii. 21; Deut. xxiii. 18; I Kings
xiv. 24, xxii. 47; II Kings xxiii. 7; also Hosea xi.
9, xii. 1, where the Masoretic text betrays later
emendation). It was the imitation by Israel of this
abominable Astarte cult that roused the prophet’s
indignation (Amos ii. 7), and caused the Israelitish
lawgiver to draw the distinction between the holy
God of Israel and the gods of the surrounding nations
(Lev. xviii. 24-30, xx. 22-26; Deut. xxiii. 18-19),
and to insist on the avoidance of every impure act
in the camp of Israel, in the midst of which God as
the Holy One was present (Deut. xxiii. 15 [A.V. 14];
Num. xv. 39-40).
It is in congruity with this view that God as the
Holy One also sanctifies persons and things. In the
ancient conception holiness was a transmissible qual-
ity; wherefore they that offered incense before the
Lord were “hallowed” (Num. xvii. 2-3), and what-
soever touched the altar was thereby made holy
(Ex. xxix. 37, comp. xxx. 29; Lev. vi. i1, 20; I Sam.
xxi. 6; Hag. ii. 12); even he who touched the offici-
ating priest (Ezek. xliv. 19, xlvi. 20; Isa. Ixv. 5)
was rendered holy. In the Mosaic system the holi-
ness of consecrated persons and things emanated
from God, but men must at the same time declare
them holy (comp. Ex. xxix. 44 with xxviii. 41, xxix.
1, 21, 38; Lev. viii. 11; Num. vii. 1; I Sam. xvi. 5; IT
Sam. viii. 11; I Kings viii. 64). It is the Lord who
sanctifies the priestly house of Aaron (Lev. xxi. 15,
238; xxii, 9,16; Ezek, xx. 16); the Levites (Num.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
440
vill. 17); the first-born (Num. tii. 138; comp. Ex. xiii.
2; Deut. xv. 19); Israel (Ex. xxxi, 18; Lev. xx. 8,
xxi. 8; Ezek. xx. 12, xxxvi. 28); the Sabbath (Gen.
ii. 8; Ex, xx. 11); and the prophet (Jer. i. 5).
All things become “holy” that are excluded from
common or profane use (“hol”; I Sam. xxi. 5) by
being connected with the worship of
The God: (1) The places in which God is
Holiness supposed to dwell or where He ap-
of Persons peared (Ex. iii. 5; Josh. v. 15; Deut.
and xxii, 15; II Chron. viii. 11); hence,
Things. every sanctuary (“mikdash,” Ex. xxv.
8, or “kodesh,” Ex. xxviii. 29; Ezek.
xiii. 20), and every part of the sanctuary, and every
vessel used therein (Ex. xxvi. 33; 1 Sam. xxi. 6;
Ezek, xhi. 138; Num. iii. 81). Such a place with its
site was marked off as holy (Ex. xix. 28; Ezek. xlv.
1). The hill of the Temple (Isa. xi. 9 and elsewhere)
became “ the holy hill”; Jerusalem, “the holy city”
(Ps. xlvi. 5; Zeph. iii. 11; Isa. xlviii. 2); and Pales-
tine, “the holy land” (Zech. ii. 16; comp. Hosea ix.
8-4). God’s heavenly habitation, “the seat of His
holiness,” is holy, because of His unapproachable
(fiery) majesty (Micah i. 2; Hab. ii. 20; and else-
where); so, likewise, is “the throne of His holiness”
(Ps. xlvii. 9; comp. Ezek. xxviii. 14: “the fiery
mountain of the [heathen] gods”).
(2) All the things consecrated or brought as sac-
rifices to God (Ex. xxviii. 38, xxx. 85, xxxvi. 6; I
Sam. xxi. 5; Num. xviii. 17, 32; Lev. x. 10; Zech.
xiv. 20), and whatever is used in worshiping in the
sanctuary (Ex. Xxvill. 2 et seg.; xxx. 25, 35). These
things are not holy in themselves, but “holy unto
the Lord” (Ex. xxviii. 36, xxx. 87; Lev. xix. 8,
xxiii. 20; and elsewhere); that is, their relation to
the divinity renders them holy; and in accordance
with their more or less close external or internal re-
lationship to God and His dwelling-place they are
differentiated in their degree of holiness, as “holy,”
or “holy of holies” (Ex. xxvi. 33; xxx. 10, 29, 36;
Lev. xvi. 33; and elsewhere).
(3) All persons “separated” from the rest of man-
kind to serve God or serve in the sanctuary of God.
The priest is “holy unto God” (Lev. xxi. 6, 7), and
Aaron, being separated from the rest of the Levites,
is called “holy of holies” (I Chron. xxiii. 13 [A. V.
incorrect]); so also are the Nazarite (Num. vi. 5)
and the prophet (II Kings iv. 9).
Especially is Israel “holy unto the Lord” (Deut.
vii. 6; xiv. 2, 21; xxvi. 19; xxviii. 9; Jer, ii. 3);
Israel is “ His holy kingdom” (Ps. cxiv.
Israel 1), “His holy people” (Isa. }xii. 2,
a Holy = 1xiii. 18; Dan. xii. 7), “ His holy seed”
People. (Isa. vi, 18; Ezra ix. 2); Israel is “the
people of holy ones” (Dan. vii. 21,
27; viii. 24). It is “a holy nation” because it has
been separated as “a kingdom of priests” from
amidst the nations of the earth (Ex. xix. 6); and as
“holy men” the people of Israel are to abstain from
unclean meat (Ex. xxii. 30; Deut. xiv. 21; Lev.
xxi. 25-26; comp. Ezek. xliv. 31). from intermar-
riage with the idolatrous nations (Deut. vii. 2-6;
Mal. ii. 11; Ezra vi. 21, ix. 11), from heathen modes
of disfigurement (Deut. xiv. 2); and they are to wear
a mark of distinction on their body (Dan. xi. 28, 30)
and on their dress (Num, xv. 20).
441
Here, too, is noticeable a difference between the
ancient view of holiness maintained in the priestly
legislation, and the higher prophetic view which
lends it a loftier ethical meaning. The place where
God dwells or the sacrifice is offered wherewith He
is especially approached is physically holy, and to
draw near or to look upon it brings death (Ex.
xxviii. 48, xxx. 20; Lev. x. 2, 9; Num. iii, 10, iv. 20;
comp. Ex, xix. 24), The holiness of Israel, also, is
at times regarded as inherent in the nation (Num.
Xvi. 8), or in the land as the seat of Israel’s God
(Amos vii. 17); but it developed more and more into
an ethical obligation (Deut. xxvi. 19, xxviii. 9; Lev.
xix. 2, xx. 7), a state of moral perfection to be at-
tained by abstinence from evil and by self control.
The title “the holy ones” is given later on to the
class of pious ones (Ps. xvi. 3; xxxiv. 110; Ixxxix.
6, 8[A. V.5, 7]). Possibly it was given to those be-
lieved to be imbued with the divine spirit of holiness
(see Hoty Sprrrr),
——In Rabbinical Literature: While the Levit-
ical legislation—the so-called “Law of Holiness,”
which, according to the critical view of the Bible, is
the precipitate of the writings of the priest-prophet
Ezekiel—made holiness the central idea of the Mo-
saic law (Lev. xix. 2, xx. 26), post-exilic Judaism
developed the system in two different directions, the
Sadducean priesthood laying all the stress on exter-
nal sanctity in its various gradations and ramifica-
tions, Whereas the ancient Hasidim, and their succes-
sors, the Pharisees and Essenes, made inner holiness
more and more the aim of life. It is the priestly
system which, following the example of Ezekiel (xl. ~
xlvili.), counted ten degrees of holiness (beginning
with the land of Palestine as the Holy Land and with
the Holy City, and ending with the holy of holies of
the Temple) and the corresponding ten degrees of im-
purity (Kelim i. 6-9; Tosef., Kelim, i.; for the holi-
ness of Jerusalem see Tosef., Neg. vi. 2). Similarly,
the different sacrifices were classified according to
their degrees of holiness (Zeb. v.-xiv.: Me‘i. i.-iii. ;
Niddah vii. 1), In fact, the entire Temple ritual in
all its detail as given in the Mishnah is based upon
the sacerdotal view of holiness. The quaint notion
that the Holy Scriptures contaminate (“ taboo”) the
hands (Yad. ii. 2-5) is derived from priestly practise
(see Geiger, “Urschrift,” pp. 170-174; comp. As-
sumptio Mosis, vii. 10). So does the claim to supe-
rior rank made by the Aaronite over the Levite, by
the Levite over the common people (Git. 59b), and
by the high priest over the Nazarite (Naz. vii. 1)
emanate from the Temple, and not from the school-
house (Sifra, Ahare Mot, xii).
The Hasidim, in their battle against Syrian idola-
try aud the Jewish apostates among the Hellenistic
party of the Sadducean priesthood, extended the
rules of Levitical holiness to the extent of declaring
the very soil of the heathen impure (Shab. 15a). The
leading idea is expressed in the Book of Jubilees,
xxii. 16-17: “Separate thyself from the nations and
eat not with them, and do not according to their
works, . . . for their works are unclean and all their
ways a pollution, an abomination, and uncleanness.
They offer their sacrifices to the dead and worship
evil spirits” (see notes in Charles, “The Book of
Jubilees,” 1902, pp. 140 e¢ seg.). Accordingly, the
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Holiness
Hasidim understood the very command “Be holy”
to signify “Separate yourselves from the rest of
men” (Sifra, Kedoshim, i.), their maxim being,
“Wherever the Torah speaks of holiness, it has in
view abstinence from idolatry and from its concom-
itant moral depravity and licentiousness” (#6. ix. 11;
Lev. R. xxiv.). Holiness “like that of the priests,”
holiness in body “like that of the angels,” became
the Hasidean ideal (Targ. Yer. to Ex. xxii. 30; Lev.
xx. 7; Num. xv. 40); hence, most probably, the
name “ Perisha ” (the one separated from persons and
things that may contaminate; sce PHARISEES).
Part of that system of holiness were regular alblu-
tions before morning prayer and before every meal
(Ber. 58b), and nazir-like abstinence from things
permitted which may lead to things forbidden (Yeb.
20a; Ta‘an. tla), and especially from impure sights
and thoughts (Shab. 86a, 118b; Shebu. 18b). The
Israelites in general are called “holy men” (Sibyl-
lines, ii. 168), especially the martyred Hasidim (2d.
ii. 263); Israel of the future will be “a holy gen-
eration” (2b. xiv. 359; Psalms of Solomon, xvii. 28,
36); “Israel’s character of holiness has been given
him by God to last forever” (Lev. R. xxiv.).
In rabbinical ethics, too, holiness is the highest
ideal (Sotah ix. 15). Only the few elect ones were
called “saints” (Wisdom v. 5; Pes. 104a; Shab.
118b; Ket. 108b). “Holy Congregation,” or “Con-
gregation of the Saints,” was the name given toa
brotherhood bound together for a life of prayer,
study, and labor, in expectation of the Holy Spirit
and in preparation for the Messianic time (see ‘EDAH
KEDOSHAH; ESsENES); hence also the saints of the
New Testament. All the more significant is the
teaching of rabbinical Judaism: “ None can be called
saint before death” (Midr. Teh. to Ps. xvi. 3), which
is interpreted to mean: “The saints are to be
trusted only when they are in the earth,” because
God Himself “ putteth no trust in His saints” (Job
xv. 15).
Holiness is an ideal state of perfection attained
only by God (Yer. Ber. ix. 18a). “Man grows in
holiness the more he aspires to the divine while rising
above the sensual” (Yoma 39a). The entire system
of the Jewish law has the hallowing of life as its
aim, to be reached through good works, through
observance of the Sabbath and holy days (Kinpwusn),
and through the sanctification of God’s name (“ Kid-
dush ha-Shem”;see Midr. Teh. to Ps. xx. 5). It is
holiness which elevates and permeates the thoughts
and motives of life, and hence it is the highest pos-
sible principle of ethics.
“ Holiness” became for rabbinical Judaism syn.
onymous with purity of life, purity of action, and
purity of thought; it lent its peculiar sanctifica-
tion to the Sabbath, to the name of God—nay, to
the whole motive of moral conduct (see KIppuUsH
HA-SHEM)—to portions of the prayers (see Kap.
DISH), and to the relations of man and wife (see
MARRIAGE); and under its influence personal purity
in Judaism became the highest standard and maxim
of ethics found in any religious system. Hence
Maimonides gave the name “ Kedushah” (= “ Holi-
ness”) to the fifth book of his Yad ha-Hazakah,
which treats of the sexual relations, and Nahmani-
des laid down rules of conduct for conjugal life in
Holitscher
Holofernes
a book entitled “Iggeret ha-Kedushah” (= “ Letter
on Holiness ”).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hastings, Dict. Bible; Hamburger, R. B. T.,
and Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyc., s.v. Heiligkeit; Elijah de
Vidas, Reshit Hokmah, Sha‘ar Kedushah; M. Lazarus,
Ethics of Judaism, ii. ch. 4 and 7. K
HOLITSCHER, PHILIP: Hungarian land-
holder and author; born in Budapest Aug. 19, 1822.
His parents destined him fora mercantile career, and
in 1842 he took over his father’sfactory. Heretired,
however, from business about thirty years later, and
since then has lived on his estate in Alag, devoting
himself to economic questions. Under the name of
“Fidelius” he wrote a work on political economy
entitled “ Die Oesterreichische Nationalbank und Ihr
Einfluss auf die Wirtschaftlichen Verhiltnisse der
Monarchie” (Vienna, 1875). He wrote also: “Im
Banne Fortunas,” a romance (Budapest, 1882); “ Er-
zihlungen” (1884); “Gedanken und Gestalten,”
poems (Breslau, 1887); “Skanderbeg,” a drama (2d.
1890); “Carols Weltreisen und Abentheuer” (Stutt-
gart, 1892); “ Der Letzte Kénig von Polen,” a drama
(46. 1893); “Splitter und Balken,” poems (7d. 1895);
“Neues Leben ” (cd, 1895).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Horvath, Kényvészet, 1884; Szinnyel, Magyar
4, a Elete, iv.; Ktirschner, Deutscher Literatur Kalender,
8. L. V.
HOLLAENDERSKI, LEON LOB BEN
DAVID: Polish scholar and author; born at Wis-
tiniecz, government of Suwalki, Russian Poland,
1808; died in Paris Dec. 20, 1878. He studied at
Konigsberg, Prussia, and on his return in 1883 was
appointed an interpreter at the tribunal of Suwalki.
There, in 1835, he founded the first printing and
lithographic establishment in the government, as
well as three bookstores. His Polish sympathies,
however, soon attracted the attention of the Russian
government. He was denounced, his property was
confiscated, and he barely escaped with his life to
Paris (1843).
Through the recommendation of Arago he ob-
tained a position in one of the railroad offices, and
employed his leisure time in literary pursuits, which
gave him in after years considerable reputation as a
philosopher, moralist, historian, and bibliographer.
Of his published works may be mentioned: “ Cé-
line la Niéce de Abbé” (1882); “Les Israélites
de Pologne,” the first in its field (1846); “Trilogie
Philosophique et Populaire: Moschek,” a romance in
which are faithfully depicted the Polish customs of
that time; “ Dix-huit Siécles de Prejugés Chrétiens ” ;
“Dictionnaire Universel Francais-Hébreu”; “ L’Ex-
emple,” an essay on morals; “Israel et Sa Vocation,”
published in “Arch. Isr.” (Paris, 1863-64). Besides
these works, he is the author of the following,
in verse: “Méditations d’un Proscrit Polonais”;
“L’Amour et ’Hymen”; “La Liberté de Franc-
Macons”; “Lamentation de Juifs Polonais sous Nic-
olas 1°.” He also translated Ibn Ezra’s “ Ma‘adanne
Melek,” under the title of “Délices Royales ou le
Jeu des Echecs”; “Mémoire de Kilinsky ” from the
Polish into French; and the third part of Berakot
(Paris, 1871).
His numerous contributions to periodical literature
as well as his works appeared variously under the
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
442
names of “Holland,” “Hollander,” “ Hollaender,”
and “H. L.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Larousse, Dict.; Zeitlin, Bibl. Jud.
H, R. I. 8S. B.
HOLLAND. Sec NETHERLANDS.
HOLLANDER, JACOB H.: Associate profess-
or of political economy and head of the department
of political economy in the Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity; born in Baltimore July 23, 1871. He was edu-
cated in the university to which he is attached (B.A.
1891; Ph.D. 1894). Prior to graduation he was ap-
pointed instructor in political economy in Amherst
College, and taught there in the autumn of 1894,
when he was recalled to Johns Hopkins by appoint-
ment as assistant in political economy. Since then
he has remained a member of its faculty, being suc-
cessively promoted to the rank of instructor (1895),
associate (1896), associate professor of finance (1899),
and associate professor of political economy and
director of the department (1902). In 1897 he was
selected as secretary of the special mission of the
United States sent by President McKinley to nego-
tiate a monetary agreement with the leading coun-
tries of Europe. He has served as chairman of the
committee on municipal finance of the Baltimore
Reform League and as chairman of the Municipal
Lighting Commission of Baltimore.
Early in 1900 the United States government ap-
pointed Hollander special commissioner to revise the
laws relating to taxation in Porto Rico, and on May
1, in the same year, treasurer of Porto Rico, which
position he held until July 25, 1901, when the island
was declared self-supporting. Hollander is now
(1903) chairman of the publication committee of the
American Jewish Historical Society, and is a member
of the publication committee of the Jewish Publica-
tion Society. His more important works are: “The
Cincinnati Southern Railway: A Study in Municipal
Activity ” (Baltimore, 1894); “Letters of David
Ricardo to John Ramsay McCullah” (New York,
1895); “Letters of David Ricardo to Hutches
Trower” (Oxford, 1899); “The Financial History of
Baltimore” (Baltimore, 1899); “Studies in State
Taxation” (edited; 2b. 1900); “Reports of Treasurer
of Porto Rico” (Washington, 1900-01). He has writ-
ten many minor papers on financial and economic
subjects in scientific journals, and has contributed
to the publications of the American Jewish Histor-
ical Society articles relating to the history of the
Jews in Maryland.
A F. H. V.
HOLLANDER, LUDWIG HEINRICH: Ger-
man denta) surgeon; born at Leobschiitz Feb. 4,
1888; died at Halle March 14, 1897; educated at
the universities at Wirzburg and Breslau (M.D.
1856). During the following nine years he practised
medicine in South Africa. Returning to Germany
in 1866, he settled in Halle as a dental surgeon, and
was admitted to the medical faculty of the univer-
sity as privat-docent in 1878. When in 1878 a dental
department was added to the medical institutions of
the university, Hollander became its principal, with
the title of professor, which position he held until
his death.
Hollander published his experiences in South
4438
Africa in the “Globus,” 1866 and 1867. He contrib-
uted several essays on dental subjects to the medical
journals, and in 1877 translated into German Tomes’s
“Manual of Dental Anatomy.” He was also the au-
thor of “ Beitrige zur Zahnheilkunde,” Leipsic, 1881,
and “Die Extraction der Ziihne,” 2b. 1882.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biographisches Lexikon.
8. F. T. H.
HOLLE KREISH: The ceremony of naming
infants, especially yirls, in the cradle (“shem ha-
‘arisah ”), adopted by the German Jews from their
neighbors. On the Sabbath when the mother of the
child attends the synagogue for the first time after
her confinement, children of from eight to ten years
of age are invited to the house for a festivity, where
they form a circle around thé cradle in which the
infant (as arule, amonthold)lies. Lifting the cradle
three times, they cry: “Holle! Holle! What shall
the child’s name be?” Whereupon the child’s com-
mon, or non-Hebrew, name is called out in a loud
voice, while the father of the child recites the first
verse of Leviticus. In some places the Book of
Leviticus is laid in the cradle, under the child’s head.
In parts of Germany this ceremony of naming the
child was performed in the case of both boys and
girls; but generally only girls were named on such
occasions, the naming of boys being done in connec-
tion with circumcision.
From Moses Minz (Responsa, No. 19), Yuspa Hahn
(“ Yosef Omez,” p. 212a), and Sefer Hasidim, pp.
1139-1140, it appears that the custom was established
among the German Jews in the fifteenth century,
and that its origin was so little known that the name
given it was taken to be partly Hebrew (“hol”
= “profane,” and “kreish” = “naming ”), and was
interpreted: “the giving of the profane [or non-holy]
name.” Thisexplanation is even accepted by Zunz
(“G. V.” p. 439) and by M. Briick (“ Pharisiische
Volkssitten,” 1840, p. 27; see also L. Low, “ Lebens-
alter,” 1895, p. 105, where “holla” is taken as an
interjection), But Dr. Perles has shown that the
custom originated in Germany, where Holle, like the
Babylonian and Jewish Li.irH, was a demon eager
to carry off infants; and, in order to protect the
child from injury, a circle was drawn around it and
a name given under forms intended to ward off the
power of Holle. Ascircumcision seemed a sufficient
safeguard for boys, holle kreish by the Jews was
generally performed in the case of girls only.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Perles, in Grditz Jubelschrift, 1887, p. 26.
HOLLESCHAU: City in Moravia, with about
5,600 inhabitants. The old ghetto of Holleschau
still forms a separate township, and contains there-
fore a German interdenominational school, which is
mostly frequented by Jewish children. The Jewish
community numbers 1,500. In 1560 the synagogue
was rebuilt by permission of Henry von Sternberg,
the lord of the manor. The war of Bethlen Gabor
against Ferdinand II. (1622) entailed much suffering
upon the community, due to Hungarian troops.
Twenty-one years later the community was plun-
dered by the Swedes. At a synod held at Holle-
schau in 1653 the old statutes for the Jewish com-
munities in Moravia (MIIPN Nw) were for the first
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Holitscher
Holofernes
time revised and amended. In 1682 the Jews were
forbidden to appear in the market-place during a
procession. During the flood of 1686 hundreds of
graves were obliterated, the stones being washed
from their original places. In 1741 the community
was laid under contribution by the Prussians, and
in 1742 it was ordered to pay, within a fortnight,
2,301 guiden as war-tax; the constant exactions of
the war left the congregation burdened with a debt
of 40,000 florins. When Maria Theresa issued an
edict banishing the Jews from Moravia (1745), the
synagogue in Holleschau and the sacred vessels were
seized, and the most prominent of the Jews arrested.
To complete their misery, a fire broke out in the
same year, destroying a third of the Jewish quar-
ter. In 1774, when Abraham Skrain killed his serv-
ant Josepha Trumczmin, the populace were about
to storm and burn the Jewish quarter, but were
prevented by the clergy, who placed altars with
holy images in front of Skrain’s house.
The next hundred years seem to have been com-
paratively uneventful. Rudolph Eugene, Count of
Wrbna and Freudenthal, acted as mayor for the
Jewish community from 1864 until his death in
1883. In 1891 the parish of Holleschau was fixed,
and since Jan. 1, 1892, the community has included
those of the counties of Holleschau, Bistritz, and
Wisowitz. A new synagogue was dedicated in 1893.
Serious anti-Semitic disturbances occurred in 1899,
which were traceable to friction between Germans
and Czechs.
The rabbinate of Holleschau, from 1630 to the pres-
ent century, has been held by:
Isaac Segal, 1630.
Menahem Mendel, 1646.
Eliezer b. Abdeel Isaac, author of ** Tikkun Soferim *’ (Prague,
1658).
Shabbethai Cohen, the **Schach,”* 1662.
Moses Isaac J. L. Zunz, 1668-78.
Menahem Mendel, 1679-85; author of ‘* Zinzenet Menahem.”
Israel Frankel, one of the Vienna exiles; died 1700.
Eliezer Oettinger, 1689-1709; relative and teacher of Jonathan
Eybeschitz.
Joseph Oppenheim, 1710-14; son of the bibliophile David Op-
penheim.
David Strauss, 1714-22.
Saadia Katzenellenbogen, 1723-26.
Aaron M. M. Hamburg, 1730-59.
Joseph Freistadt, 1760-65.
Isaac b. Abraham, 1767-86.
Judah Léb Teomin (Judah Lisser), 1788-94.
Abraham Stern, author of ‘‘ Mizrahi Ma‘arabi,”’ 1796-97.
Menahem Mendel Deutsch, 1802-19.
Joseph Biach Feilbogen, 1841-67.
Markus Pollak, 1867-93.
Jacob Freimann (since 1893).
In addition to two synagogues the community has
had a bet ha-midrash since 1808; among the scholars
appointed to it was Salomon Haas (d. 1847), author
of “Kerem Shelomoh.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Schwoy, Topographie vom Markgraftum
Mdhren, Vienna, 1794: Wolny, Die Markgrafschaft Miah-
Boe prone 1885-38; Freimapn, Die Rabbiner in Hoile-
schau, ,
D J. FREI
HOLOCAUST. See Burnt OFFERING; SACRI-
FICE.
HOLOFERNES, HOLOPHERNES: General
of Nebuchadnezzar, mentioned in the apocryphal
Book of Judith; killed at Bethulia (Judith xiii. 6-8),
The name is evidently of Persian origin, similar in
Holofernes
Holy Days
formation to “ Artaphernes,” “ Dataphernes,” “ Tis-
saphernes,” the last element of each of which is
“ pharna ” = “ glorious” Blochet, in “R. EB. J.” xxxi.
281). <A similar name, “Orophernes,” or “ Qlo-
phernes,” occurs in Cappadocian history, and is
found on coins at Pirene, in inscriptions at Cnidos,
and later in classical writers. According to Dio-
dorus of Sicily, a Holofernes, brother of the sa-
trap Ariarathes of Cappadocia, lived at the time of
Artaxerxes Ochus (359-887 B.c.). Another was king
of Cappadocia (158 B.c.) and a friend of Demetrius
I., Soter; with this Holofernes many scholars, fol-
lowing Ewald, E. L. Hicks, and Willrich, identify
the subject of this article. Winckler originally
(“ Altorientalische Forschungen,” ii. 278) identified
the latter with Asnapper (Assurbanipal); but in
Schrader’s “ K. A. T.” 3d ed., p. 290, he seems to con-
sider Cambyses as being the original of the general
in the Book of Judith. Klein has not been followed by
scholars in identifying Holofernes with Hadrian’s
general Julius Severus (“ Actes du Huitiéme Congrés
. . . des Orientalistes,” ii, 85 e¢ seg., Leyden, 1893).
For a fuller discussion of this subject see JUDITH.
lt is worthy of notice that, though the longer He-
brew midrash based on the Book of Judith does
mention Holofernes, the shorter version (which
Gaster, “Proceedings Soc. Bib. Archeology,” xvi.
156, believes to be the older) substitutes Seleucus.
According to the Book of Judith, Holofernes is
said to have been despatched by Nebuchadnezzar
with an army of 120,000 foot and 12,000 horse
for the purpose of taking vengeance “on all the
earth ” (Judith ii. 5). After having devastated
many countries, Holofernes reached Esdraelon, and
encamped between Geba and Scythopolis to collect
his forces. The Jews, resolved to defend themselves,
fortified the mountain passes. Holofernes was ad.
vised by Achior, the captain of Ammon, not to at-
tack the Jews; but, ignoring the advice, he pro-
ceeded against Bethulia. Instead of attacking the
city, however, he seized the wells, hoping thereby
to compel the inhabitants to capitulate. In this he
would have succeeded but for a beautiful widow
named Judith who visited him at his camp, and,
after a banquet at which Holofernes became drunk,
cut off his head and escaped to Bethulia. The death
of the general spread confusion through the ranks of
the army, which retired in disorder before the attack
of the Jews. Sce JUDITH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hicks, in Journal of Hellenie Studies, vi.
261; Marquardt, in Philologus, liv. 3, p. 509; Willrich, Judaica,
p. 28; Schtirer, Gesch. 3d ed., iii. 169.
I. Br.—G.
HOLON (5n=“sandy place” or “halting-
place”): 1. City of Judah, in the Hebron hills, a)-
lotted, with its suburbs, to the priests (Josh. xv. 51,
xxi. 15). In the parallel passage in I Chron. vi. 73
this city is called “ Hilen” (A. V.“Anem”). 2. City
of Moab, in the plain of Moab and east of the Jor-
dan; mentioned with Heshbon, Dibon, and other
cities (Jer. xlviii. 21).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HOLST, CARSTEN. Sce Benprx, Frits Emit.
HOLY CITY. Sce JERUSALEM.
HOLY DAYS.—Biblical Data and Critical
View. See FESTIVALS.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
444
—AIn Talmudic Law: Upon the six holy days in
the Jewish calendar—the first and seventh days of
Passover, the first and eighth days of Sukkot (Taber-
nacles), the day of Shebu‘ot (Weeks), and the day of
Rosh ha-Shanah (New-Year)—the Bible prohibits
every kind of labor (Lev. xxiii. 7, 8, 21, 25, 35, 36).
The punishment prescribed for the transgressor of
this law is stripes (see Crime). All kinds of work
forbidden on the Sabbath are forbidden also on the
holy days, except such work as is necessary for the
preparation of food for the day of the festival (Ex.
xii. 16;. Bezah 36a), The Day of Atonement is like
the Sabbath in this respect, that work of any kind is
forbidden; the only difference is in the punishment
meted out to the transgressor: for Sabbath-breaking
the punishment is stoning; for working on the Day
of Atonement it is excision (KARET).
Carrying objects from place to place or kindling
a fire, permissible in connection with the preparation
of food, is also permitted when done
What for other purposes, so long as too
Work much labor is not involved. Even
Permitted. with regard to the preparation of food
only such work is permitted as could
not be done before the holy day, or such as, if done
before the holy day, would not result satisfactorily.
Thus, it is permitted to slaughter an animal and to
cook and bake on the holy day, because, if done be-
fore, the food would not taste as well. But it is for-
bidden to harvest, to gather fruit from a tree, to
grind ina mill, or todo anything that could have been
done as well before the holy day. The general pur-
pose underlying these laws is to enhance the joy of
the festival, and therefore the Rabbis permitted all
work necessary to that end, while guarding against
turning it into a working-day (Maimonides, “ Yad,”
Shebitot Yom-Tob, i. 5-8).
Although only so much work is permitted as is
absolutely necessary for the preparation of the food
for the day of the festival, an increase, for instance,
in the amount of meat cooked, when no extra labor
is caused thereby, even though not necessary for the
day, is permitted. The housewife may fill the ket-
tle with meat, although only a portion of it will be
used on the holy day; she may fill the oven with
bread, even though she needs but one loaf (Bezah
wa; “Yad,” Shebitot Yom-Tob, i. 10). Washing
and anointing were considered by the Rabbis of as
much importance as eating, and therefore they per-
mitted the heating of water for the purpose of wash-
ing face, hands, and feet, but not for the whole body
(Bezah 21b; “ Yad,” Shebitot Yom-Tob, i. 16; Shul-
han ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 511, 2).
On the holy days some authorities forbid the use
of any object not previously designated for that pur-
pose (“mukzeh”). A chicken kept
‘¢Mukzeh” for its eggs, or an ox kept for plow-
and ‘‘Ha- ing, or fruit kept for business may
kanah.” not be used as food on a holy day un-
less it has been expressly stated before
the holy day that these were destined to be used as
food (“hakanah ”). Allauthorities agree that objects
that come into existence on a holy day (“nolad”)
may not be used on that day (“ Yad,” Shebitot Yom-
Tob, i. 17, 18; RAbD and Kesef Mishneh ad loc. ;
Orah Hayyim, 495, 4, Isserles’ gloss). It is forbid-
445
den to eat an egg laid on the day ofa festival, not-
withstanding the fact that it may have been ready the
day before. The reason for this law as given in Bezah
2b is, according to Rabba, as follows: It is not per-
mitted to prepare on the Sabbath for a festival that
follows it, or ona festival for the Sabbath following
it. Hence, an egg laid on a festival immediately fol-
lowing the Sabbath may not be used on that day be-
cause it was prepared on the Sabbath, and in order
to make the law uniform so that no mistake could
occur (“gezerah”), it was forbidden even if laid on
a festival not immediately preceded by a Sabbath.
If the holy day occurred on a Friday, no food could
be prepared for the coming Sabbath unless express
provision had been made for such preparation on
the day preceding the holy day by means of “ ‘erub
tabshilin ” (see ‘ERuB). This consists of bread and
some dish over which the blessing is pronounced
and an Aramaic formula recited in which the sig-
nificance of the ‘erub is declared. The idea of the
‘erub is that this dish, prepared before a festival
for the Sabbath, is regarded as the beginning of the
Sabbatical preparations, which need only be contin-
ued on the holy day (Bezah 15b; “Yad,” Shebitot
Yom-Tob, vi. 1, 2; Orah Hayyim, 521; see BEzan).
The second-day holy day, although a rabbinical in-
stitution established because of the uncertainty of
the calendar, was still regarded by the Rabbis as of
equal sanctity with the first day, and all work for-
bidden on the first day is also forbidden on the sec-
ond. While no punishment is pre-
Second _ scribed for the violator of a second-day
Days of holy day, the Jewish communities took
Festivals. it upon themselves to inflict punish-
ment upon him. Excommunication,
even beating (“makkat mardut ”), was frequently the
lot of such a transgressor (see EXCOMMUNICATION).
The only distinction the Rabbis make between the
first and second days concerns burials; on the first
day the burial must be carried out by non-Jews, on
the second day Jews are permitted to conductit. The
two days are regarded in all respects as two distinct
holy days, and objects that come into existence on the
first day can be used on the second. The two days
of New-Year, however, are considered as one day,
exceptin the case of a burial, which is permitted on
the second day (Bezah 6a; “ Yad,” Shebitot Yom-
Tob, i. 22-24; Orah Hayyim, 496, 526). For the
laws concerning Palestinian Jews, who do not ob-
serve the second day, but who have settled in a place
outside Palestine where it is observed, or vice versa,
see CONFLICT OF Laws; CUSTOM. |
To rejoice and be cheerful on the holy days is rec-
ommended by the Rabbis. It is customary to give
new toys and fruit to children, new garments and
ornaments to women, and to have meat and wine on
the table during these days. The day should be di-
vided into halves, one to be spent in eating, drink-
ing, and amusement, the other in worship and study.
Fasting or the delivering of funeral orations is for-
bidden. Too much drinking and excessive hilarity,
however, are not encouraged. The court used to
appoint overseers, who visited the public parks and
gardens to see that men and women in their jovial-
ity should not commit sin. The law thus succeeded
in establishing a dignified observance of the festivals
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Holofernes
Holy Days
by the Jews, free from asceticism or licentious hilar-
ity (Bezah 15b; Shebitot Yom-Tob, vi. 16-21; Orah
Hayyim, 529). For the ritual of the holy days see
the articles on the several holy days.
The week-days of the festivals (“Hol ha-Mo‘ed ”)
of Passover and of Sukkot are considered as semiholy
days, and only certain kinds of work
Hol are permitted on them, Any kind of
ha-Mo‘ed. labor requiring immediate attention
may be done on these days. The Rab-
bis, however, included a great many kinds of labor
under this head, while preserving the sanctity of the
hol ha-mo‘ed by providing certain signs which should
remind the Jew of the festival (““shinnui”). It is for-
bidden to transact regular business on these days,
though a man may buy or sell privately, and thus
be enabled to spend more for the coming festival.
At present in many lands it is customary for store-
keepers to goto their places of business during these
days, but to make some change by keeping the doors
only half open or by keeping the shades down. It
is forbidden to write on these days, but it is custom-
ary to write Ictters, though some change is made, as
by writing lengthwise insteac of across the paper,
ete. There is a certain leniency in the interpreta-
tion of a)] these laws; and while the sanctity of the
festival is still maintained in various ways, few hesi-
tate to do various kinds of work or to pursue their
daily occupations (Hag. 18a; M. K.i., ii., tii. ; Shebi-
tot Yom-Tob, vii., vili.; Orah Hayyim, 580-548),
No marriage should be celebrated on these days,
on the principle that one joy should not be confused
with another joy. It is permitted, however, to cele-
brate a betrothal or to remarry a divorced wife (M.
K. 8a). In the case of a funeral there should be no
excessive mourning (see MOURNING). Shaving or
hair-cutting is forbidden, as every one should pre-
pare himself before the holy day begins. Only such
as could not possibly do so before the holy day, as the
prisoner who has just been released, or the excom-
municate whose term has expired, or one arrived
from a far-off land, may have his hair cut on these
days (M. K. 14a; Orah Hayyim, 531, 582; Isserles
forbids also the cutting of one’s nails).
The order of services is the same as on working-
days, except that the prayer “Ya‘aleh we-Yabo”
(May Our Remembrance) is inserted in the “Shemo-
neh ‘Esreh.” After the regular morning service the
“allel ” is recited and a section of the Law is read,
after which the additional service of she festival
(“Musaf”), in which, according to the Ashkenazic
ritual, the Biblical verses for the day are inserted, is
read. During the middle days of Passover, “half
Halle] ” is read, that is, the first eleven
verses of Psalms cxv. and cxvi. are
omitted (see HALLEL). The lesson of
the Law for Hol ha-Mo‘ed contains Biblical selec-
tions connected in some way with the character of
the day. If one of these days falls on a Sabbath, the
weekly portion is omitted, and instead a portion
from Exodus (xxxiii. 12-xxxiv. 26), which contains
a short reference to the three festivals, is read. The
HAFTARAH for Passover is the vision of the valley
of the dry bones (Ezek. xxxvi. 37-xxxvii. 14), and
for Sukkot the account of the wars of Gog and
Magog (Ezek. xxxviii. 18-xxxix. 16). It is also
Ritual.
Holy Days
Holy Spirit
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
446
customary in many communities to read the scroll of
Canticles on the Sabbath of the middle days of
Passover, and of Ecclesiastes on that of the middle
days of Sukkot (Orah Hayyim, 490, 663). Peculiar
ceremonies attend the services on the last of the
middle days of Sukkot, which is known by a distinct
name—* Hosha‘na Rabbah.”
There is a difference of opinion among the early
authorities as to whether tefillin are to be worn on
these days or not, and in consequence various cus-
toms arose. The Sephardic Jews do not wear tefil-
lin on these days, while the Ashkenazim do. Some
are careful not to pronounce the blessings on tefillin
at all, while others say them in a whisper. The
Hasidim follow the Sephardim in this as in many
other customs. However, before Musaf on the mid-
dle daysof Passover, and before “ Hallel” on Sukkot,
the tefillin are always removed (Orah Hayyim, 31, 2,
Isserles’ gloss; see PHYLACTERIES).
These days being a period of leisure to many
Jews, they were devoted by the medieval Jewish
communities to the consideration of congregational
affairs. In Germany the election of the governing
body of the congregation took place upon them.
Collections for charity were taken up, and house-
to-house begging was also permitted (sometimes also
on Fridays). In spite of the stringent laws against
gambling in some medieval Jewish communities,
many indulged in card-playing and in other games
of chance (see GAMBLING).
In commemoration of the rejoicings that accom-
panied the ceremony of the “drawing of water” in
Temple times (Suk. 51a; “ Yad,” Lulab, viii. 12-15),
many Jewish communities, especially in Russia and
Poland, indulge in festivities and merrymaking
during the evenings of the middle days of Taber-
nacles (“Simhat Bet ha-Sho’ebah”). Various hymns
taken from the ritual are chanted, refreshments are
served in the bet ha-midrash, and the young are
permitted to indulge in various pleasures.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dembitz, Services in the Synagogue and
Home, Philadelphia, 1898; Abrahams, Jewish Life in the
Midale Ages, Philadelphia, 1896.
J. H. G.
Ss. 8.
HOLY GHOST. See Hoty Spirit.
HOLY OF HOLIES (Vulgate, “Sanctum Sanc-
torum”; Hebr. “Kodesh ha-Kodashim,” or, more
fully, “Bet Kodesh ha-Kodashim,” IT Chron. iii. 8,
10; R. V. “the most holy house”): That part of the
Tabernacle and of the Temple which was regarded
as possessing the utmost degree of holiness (or inac-
cessibility), and into which none but the Hicu
Priest—and he only once during the year, on the
Day of Atonement—was permitted to enter (see
ATONEMENT, DAy OF).
A similarly high degree of holiness was ascribed
to the following: tke altar (Ex. xxix. 37; A. V.
“most holy”); the incense-altar (2d. xxx. 10); all
the implements of the sanctuary (¢b. xxx. 29; Num.
iv. 4, 19); the things reserved for the priests (“ min-
hah”; Lev. ii. 3, 10; vi. 10; x. 12; Num. xviii. 9;
Ezra xlii. 18); the sin-offering (Lev. vi. 18, 22; x.
17); the guilt-offering (Lev. vii. 1, 6; xxxi. 14); the
offering of the leper (because it belongs to the priests;
Lev. xiv. 18); and the showbread (Lev. xxiv. 9).
The designation “most holy ” is applied also to the
work of Aaron and his sons (I Chron. vi, 49).
The inner room or cell of the sanctuary, termed
also the “mikdash ha-kodesh” (Lev. xvi. 33; A. V.
“the holy sanctuary ”), is known as the
Inthe “Holy of Holies” par excellence. As
Tabernacle such it comprised that smaller western
and the part of the Tabernacle, the “ mishkan,”
Temple. which was divided off from the re-
mainder of the meeting-tent by a cur-
tain or veil suspended from four pillars of acacia
overlaid with gold and having sockets of silver (Ex.
Xxvi. 82, xxxvi. 36, R. V.). This curtain was
woven in four colors: white, blue, scarlet, and pur-
ple, and was made of byssus, 7.e., linen. The cell
was cubelike in shape, being 10 ells high, 10 ells
long, and 10 ells broad. It contained the ARK oF
THE COVENANT (Ex. xxvi. 84; comp. Josephus,
“Ant.” iii. 6, $8 4, 5).
In Solomon’s Temple the Holy of Holies formed a
part of the house of YuwuH (I Kings vi. 1 é¢ seq.),
which was 60 cubits in length, 20 cubits in breadth,
30 cubits in height, and built of stone (Josephus,
“Ant.” viii, 3, $2: “white marble”), and was di-
vided into two sections by a partition of cedar-wood
with a door covered by a costly curtain (Josephus,
é.c.§3; II Chron. iii. 14), The section farthest from
the entrance, designated also as the “debir” (the
“oracle,” “the most holy place,” I Kings vi. 5, R.
VY. margin), was 20 cubits high and presented the
shape of acube. The stone of this inner or hinder
part, like the outer room, was completely hidden
with cedar boards carved with knops or gourds and
open flowers and then covered with pure gold. This
room must have been without light. Init was placed
the Ark (25. vi. 18, 19).
In the Second Temple, details of the construction
of which are not preserved in the Biblical documents
(Ezra vi. 3 mentions dimensions), the Holy of Holies
was curtained off (I Macc. i. 22, iv. 51). It was
empty, except fora stone three fingers in breadth
ou which the high priest deposited the censer (Jo-
sephus, “B. J.” v. 55; Yoma v. 2). In Ezekiel’s
ideal Temple the Holy of Holies measured 20 cubits
in length and the same in breadth (Ezek. xli. 4).
Ezekiel (2. 21, 23) calls this inner section simply
veto (R. V. “sanctuary ”), in contrast to the “hekal”
(= “temple ”).
In the Herodian Temple the Holy of Holies was
not divided off from the rest of the hekal by a wall,
but two curtains, a cubit apart, par-
In the titioned the inner chamber from the
Herodian outer room. These curtains were
Temple. richly wrought (Shek. viii, 5), and were
so arranged that in order to enter the
high priest had to lift them diagonally at the sides;
the outer opening was at the south end, the inner at
the north (Yoma v. 1). The length of the Holy of
Holies was 20 cubits. Above both the inner and the
outer rooms was an upper chamber, constructed to
enable builders to make the necessary repairs. A
trap-door was above the Holy of Holies, and through
this the workmen were lowered in boxes, to guard
against profanation (lit. “feasting their eyes”). In
this upper chamber the location of the two rooms
underneath was marked off (Mid. iv. 5).
According to Maimonides (“ Yad,” Bet ha-Behirah,
iv. 1; see Yoma 28a), in the Holy of Holies of the
447
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Holy Days
Holy Spirit
Tabernacle was a stone on which the Ark rested;
before it was placed the flask of manna and Aaron’s
staff. Solomon madea depression in order that these
objects might, if necessary, be hidden therein, which
was done by Josiah (comp. Hor. 12a; Ker. 5b; Yoma
21a, 52a).
Critical View: It is generally contended that
the Tabernacle represents a later priestly reconstruc-
tion patterned after the Solomonic and Ezekiel’s
ideal Temples (see Graf, “Die Geschichtl. Biicher
des Alten Testaments,” Leipsic, 1868; Popper, “ Der
Biblische Bericht tiber die Stiftshiitte”). The ac-
count of Solomon’s Temple (I Kings vi.) is also very
much involved, and probably represents various
sources. The legislation in P is based partly on
actual practise, partly on theoretical insistences an-
ticipated to a certain extent in Ezekiel, gradually
realized in the Second (Zerubbabel’s) Temple and
fully recognized as authoritative in the Maccabean-
Herodian-Mishnaic Temple. According to Bichler
(“Die Priester und der Cultus,” Vienna, 1895), dur-
ing the last period of the Temple’s existence certain
concessions were made with latitude for “laymen.”
On the one hand, the use of the term “ Kodesh ha-
Kodashim ” as a synonym for, or a later explanation
of, “debir” (= “ oracle”), and the application of the
same designation to all the things that were acces-
sible only to the priests, and, on the other, the un-
certainty of the use of the double phrase in Ezekiel
(see above ; Smend, Commentary on Ezek. lxi. ; Bleek,
* Hinleitung,” 4th ed., p. 234), indicatea gradual evo-
lution of the notion that certain places and things
partook of a higher degree of holiness than others.
The analysis of the various passages shows that
“Kodesh,” originally designating “property of or
reserved for YHwuH,” only gradually came to admit
of different degrees. In distinction from all tithes
which are holy those belonging to the priests are
further designated as “mikdash” (Num. xviii. 29;
comp. 2), viii. 32).
Applied to locality, this distinction in degrees is
noticeable first in Ezekiel. His idea of the ascend-
ing scale of holiness is apparent in his designation
of the Temple territory as“ Holy of Holies” in com-
parison with the surrounding Levitical land (Ezek.
xlili, 12, xlviii. 12). This notion pervades the
Priestly Code and is determinative of the later Jew-
ish conception, which ascribes to the land of Israel,
the city of Jerusalem, the different courts and build-
ings of the Temple, in a fixed but ascending scale,
different degrees of sanctity (Sanh. 2a, 16a; Sheb.
14a; “ Yad,” é.c. vi.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Saalschiitz, Arehdologie der Hebrder, ii. 318 ;
Haneberg, Die Religidsen Altertiimer, Munich, 1869; Bahr,
Symbolik des Mosaischen Cultus, 2d ed., i.; Wellhausen,
Prolegomena zur Gesch. Israels; Josephus, B. J. v. 53
Winer, B. R. ii. Spiess, Das Jerusalem des Josephus, 1881 ;
De Vogiié, Le Temple de Jérusalem, Paris, 1864; Hildes-
heimer, Die Beschreibung des Herod, Tempels, etc., Berlin,
1876; Baudissin, Studien zur Semitischen Religionsgesch. ii.,
Leipsiec, 1878, E. G. H.
HOLY LAND. Sce PALestIne.
HOLY SCRIPTURES. Sce BrsitE Canon.
HOLY SPIRIT (Hebr. wpn min; Greek, tvetpa
ayiov): The most noticeable difference between sen-
tient beingsand dead things, between the living and
the dead, isin the breath. Whatever lives breathes;
whatever is dead does not breathe. Aquila, by
strangling some camels and then asking Hadrian to
set them on their iegs again, proved to the emperor
that the world is based on “spirit” (Yer. Hag. 41,
Via). In most languages breath and spirit are des-
ignated by the same term. The life-giving breath
can not be of earthly origin, for nothing is found
whence it may be taken. It isderived
Biblical from the supernatural world, from
View of the God. God blew the breath of life into
Spirit. Adam (Gen. ii.7). “The Spirit of God
hath made me, and the breath of the
Almighty hath given me life” (Job xxxiii. 4; comp.
tb, xxvii. 3). God “giveth breath unto the people
upon it [the earth], and spirit to them that walk
therein” (Isa. xHi. 5). “In whose hand is the soul
of every living thing, and the breath of all man-
kind” (Job xii. 10). Through Nis spirit all living
things are created; and when He withdraws it they
perish (¢b. xxxiv. 14; Ps. civ. 29, 30). He is there-
fore the God of the spirits of all flesh (Num. xvi.
22, xxvii. 16). The breath of animals also is derived
from Him (Gen, vi. 17; Ps. civ. 30 [A. V. 29]; Ecel.
iii. 19-21; Isa. xlii. 5). The heavenly bodies like-
wise are living beings, who havc received their spirit
from God (Job xxvi. 18; Ps. xxxiii. 6). God’s spirit
hovered over the form of lifeless matter, thereby
making the Creation possible; and it still causes the
most tremendous changes (Gen. i, 2; Isa. xxxii. 15).
Hence all creatures live only through the spirit
given by God. In amore restricted sense, however,
the spirit of God is not identical with this life-giving
spirit. He pours out His own spirit upon all whom
He has chosen to execute His will and behests, and
this spirit imbues them with higher reason and
powers, making them capable of heroic speech and
action (Gen. xli. 88; Ex. xxxi. 3; Num. xxiv, 2;
Judges iii. 10; II Sam, xxiii. 2). This special spirit
of God rests upon man (Isa. xi. 2, xlii. 1); it sur-
rounds him like a garment (Judges vi. 34; II Chron.
xxiv. 20); it falls upon him and holds him like a
hand (Ezek. xi. 5, xxxvii. 1). It may also be taken
away from the chosen one and transferred to some
one else (Num. xi. 17). It may enter into man
and speak with his voice (II Sam. xxiii. 2; Ezek. ii.
2; comp. Jer. x. 14). The prophet sees and hears
by means of the spirit (Num. xxiv. 2; I Sam. x. 6;
II Sam. xxiii. 2; Isa. xlii. 1; Zech. vii. 12). The
Messianic passage in Joel ii. 28-29, to which special
significance was subsequently attached, is charac-
teristic of the view regarding the nature of the
spirit: “ And it shall come to pass afterward. that I
will pour out my Spirit upon all flesh; and your sons
and your daughters shall prophesy, your old men
shall dream dreams, your young men shall see
visions: And also upon the servants and upon the
handmaids in those days will I pour out my Spirit.”
What the Bible calls “Spirit of YawuH” and
“Spirit of Elohim” is called in the Talmud and
Midrash “Holy Spirit” (“ Ruah ha-Kodesh,” never
“Ruah Kedoshah,” as Hilgenfeld says,
The in “Ketzergesch.” p. 237). Although
Divine _ the expression “ Holy Spirit ” occurs in
Spirit. Ps. li. 11 (LXX. wveipa 76 ayiov) and
in Isa. lxiii. 10, 11, it had not yet the
definite meaning which was attached to it in rabbin-
ical literature: in the latter it is equivalent to the
Holy Spirit
expression “Spirit of the Lord,” which was avoided
on account of the disinclination to the use of the Tet-
ragramimaton (see, for example, Targ. to Isa. x]. 18).
It is probably owing to this fact that the Shekinah is
often referred to Instead of the Holy Spirit. It is
said of the former, as of the Holy Spirit, that it rests
upon a person. The difference between the two in
such cases has not yet been determined. It is cer-
tain that the New Testament has mvetya dytoy in
those passages, also, where the Hebrew and Aramaic
had “Shekinah”; forin Greck there is no equivalent
to the latter, unless it be ddga (= “ gleam of light ”),
by which “ ziw ha-shekinah ” may be rendered. Be-
cause of the identification of the Holy Spirit with
the Shekinah, tvetya ayrov is much more frequently
mentioned in the New Testament than is “ Ruah ha-
Kodesh ” in rabbinical literature.
Although the [oly Spirit is often named in-
stead of God (e¢.g., in Sifre, Deut. 31
Nature = [ed. Friedmann, p. 72]), yet it was con-
of the Holy ceived as being something distinct.
Spirit. The Spirit was among the ten things
that were created on the first day
(Hag. 12a, b). Though the nature of the Holy Spirit
is really nowhere described, the name indicates that it
was conceived asa kind of wind that became mani-
fest through noise aud light. As early as Ezek. iii.
12 it is stated, “the spirit took me up, and I heard
behind me a voice of a great rushing,” the expres-
sion “behind me” characterizing the unusual nature
of the noise. The Shekinah made a noise before
Samson like a bell (Sotah 9b, below). When the
Holy Spirit was resting upon him, his hair gave
forth a sound like a bell, which could be heard
from afar. It imbued him with such strength that
he could uproot two mountains and rub them to-
gether like pebbles, and could cover leagues at one
step (¢b.17b; Lev. R. viii. 2). Similarly Acts ii. 2
reads: “And suddenly there came a sound from
heaven as of a rushing mighty wind, and it filled
allthe house where they were sitting” (it must be
noted that this happened at Pentecost, ¢.e., the Feast
of Revelation), Although the accompanying lights
are not expressly mentioned, the frequently recur-
ring phrase “he beheld [“ heziz ” | in the Holy Spit ”
shows that he upon whom the spirit rested saw a
light. The Holy Spirit gleamed in the court of Shem,
of Samuel, and of King Solomon (Gen. R. Ixxxv. 12).
Tt “ glimmercd ” in Tamar (Gen, xxxviii. 18), in the
sons of Jacob (Gen. xlii. 11), and in Moses (Ex. ii.
12), ¢.e., it settled upon the persons in question (see
Gen. R. Ixxxv. 9, xei. 7; Lev. R. xxxii. 4, “nizo-
zah” and “heziz” ; comp. also Lev. R. viii. 2, “ hit-
hil le-gashgesh”). From the day that Joseph was
sold the Holy Spirit left Jacob, who saw and heard
only indistinctly (Gen. R. xci. 6). The Holy Spirit,
being of heavenly origin, is composed, like every-
thing that comes from heaven, of light and fire.
When it rested upon Phinehas his face burned like
a torch (Lev. R. xxi., end). Whenthe Temple was
destroyed and Israel went into exile, the Holy Spirit
returned to heaven; this is indicated in Eccl. xii.
7: “the spirit shall return unto God” (Eccl. R. xii.
7). The spirit talks sometimes with a masculine and
sometimes with a feminine voice (Eccl. vii. 29 [A. V.
28]); 2.¢., as the word “ruah ” is both masculine and
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
448
feminine, the Holy Spirit was conceived as being
sometimes a man and sometimes a woman.
The four Gospels agree in saying that when Je-
sus was baptized the Holy Spirit in the shape of a
dove came down from the opening
In the heaven and rested upon him. The
Form of phraseology of the passages, especially
a Dove. in Luke, shows that this description
was not meant symbolically, as Cony-
beare (“ Expositor,” iv., ix. 455) assumes, following
Alexandrian views (comp. Matt. iii. 16; Mark i. 10;
Luke iti, 22; John iv. 33; and Hastings, * Dict. Bi-
ble,” it, 406a). This idea of a dove-like form is found
in Jewish literature also. The phrase in Cant. ii. 12,
“the voice of the dove” (A. V. “turtle”), is transla-
ted in the Targum “the voice of the Holy Spirit.”
The passage in Gen. i. 2, “And the Spirit of God
moved upon the face of the waters,” is interpreted
by Ben Zoma (c, 100) to mean, “ As a dove that hovers
above her brood without touching it ” (Hag. 15a). As
the corresponding passagein the Palestinian Talmud
(Hag. 77b, above) mentions the cagle instead of the
dove, the latter is perhaps not named here with refer-
ence tothe Holy Spirit. <A teacher of the Law heard
in a ruina kind of voice (“bat kol”) that complained
like a dove: “ Wo to the children, because of whose
sins I have destroyed my house” (Ber. 8a, below).
Evidently God Himself, or rather the Holy Spirit, is
here referred to as cooing like a dove (comp. Abbot,
“From Letter to Spirit,” pp. 106-135). See Dovr.
The Holy Spirit dwells only among a worthy gen-
eration, and the frequency of its manifestations is
proportionate to the worthiness. There was no mani-
festation of it in the tiine of the Second Temple (Yoma
21b), while there were many during the time of
Elijah (Tosef., Sotah, xii. 5). Accord-
Dissemina- ing to Job xxviii. 25, the Holy Spirit
tion rested upon the Prophets in varying
of the Holy degrees, some prophesying to the ex-
Spirit. tent of one book only, and others fill-
ing two books (Lev. R. xv. 2). Nor
did it rest upon them continually, but only for a
time. The stages of development, the highest of
which is the Holy Spirit, are as follows: zeal, in-
tegrity, purity, holiness, humility, fear of sin, the
Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit conducts Elijah, who
brings the dead to life (Yer. Shab. 3c, above, and
parallel passage). The pious act through the Holy
Spirit (Tan., Wayehi, 14); whoever teaches the
Torah in public partakes of the Holy Spirit (Cant.
R. i. 9, end; comp. Lev. R. xxxv. 7). When
Phinehas sinned the Holy Spirit departed from him
(Lev. R. xxxvii. 4; comp. Gen. R. xix. 6; Pesik. 9a),
In Biblical times the Holy Spirit was widely dis-
seminated, resting on those who, according to the
Bible, displayed a propitious activity; thus it rested
on Eber and, according to Josh. ii. 16, even on
Rahab (Seder ‘Olam, 1; Sifre, Deut. 22). It was
necessary to reiterate frequently that Solomon
wrote his three books, Proverbs, Canticles, and Ec-
clesiastes, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit
(Cant. R. i. 6-10), because there was a continual
opposition not only to the wise king personally, but
also to his writings. A teacher of the Law says that
probably for this reason the Holy Spirit rested upon
Solomon in his old age only (zd. i. 10, end).
449
re
The visible results of the activity of the Holy
Spirit, according to the Jewish conception, are the
books of the Bible, all of which have been composed
under its inspiration. All the Prophets spoke “in
the Holy Spirit”; and the most char-
Holy Spirit acteristic sign of the presence of the
and Holy Spirit is the gift of prophecy, in
Prophecy. the sense that the person upon whom
it rests beholds the past and the fu-
ture. With the death of the last three prophets,
Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, the Holy Spirit
ceased to manifest itself in Israel; but the Bar Kon
was still available. “A bat kol announced twice at
assemblies of the scribes: ‘There is a man who is
worthy to have the Holy Spirit rest upon him.’ On
one of these occasions all eyes turned to Hillel; on
the other, to Samuel the Lesser ” (Tosef., Sotah, xiii.
2-4, and parallels). Although the Holy Spirit was
not continually present, and did not rest for any
length of time upon any individual, yet there were
cases in which it appeared and made knowledge of
the past and of the future possible (23.; also with
reference to Akiba, Lev. R. xxi. 8; to Gamaliel IL,
wb, Xxxvii. 3, and Tosef., Pes. i. 27; to Meir, Lev.
R. ix. 9; etc.).
The Holy Spirit rested not only on the children
of Israel who crossed the Red Sea (Tosef., Sotah, vi.
2), but, toward the end of the time of the Second
Temple, occasionally on ordinary mortals; for “if
they are not prophets, they are at least the sons of
prophets” (Tosef., Pes. iv. 2). The Holy Spirit is at
times identified with the spirit of prophecy (comp.
Seder ‘Olam, 1, beginning; Targ. Yer. to Gen.
xli. 38, xliii. 14; II Kings ix. 26; Isa. xxxii. 15,
xl. 18, xliv. 3; Cant. R. i. 2). Sifre 170 (to Deut.
xviii. 18) remarks: “ ‘I will put My words into his
mouth,’ means ‘I put them into his mouth, but I do
not speak with him face to face’; know, therefore,
that henceforth the Holy Spirit is put into the
mouths of the Prophets.” The “ knowledge of God ”
is the Holy Spirit (Cant. R. i. 9). The division of
the country by lot among the several tribes was
likewise effected by means of the Holy Spirit (Sifre,
Num. 132, p. 49a). On “inspiration” see JEw.
Encyc. iii. 147, 3.7. BIBLE Canon, § 9; especially
Meg. 7a; and InsprraTIoN. It may simply be noted
here that in rabbinical literature single passages are
often considered as direct utterances of the Holy
Spirit (Sifre, Num. 86; Tosef., Sotah, ix. 2; Sifre,
Deut. 355, p. 148a, six times; Gen. R. Ixxviii. 8,
Ixxxiv. 12; Lev. R. iv. 1 [the expression “and the
Holy Spirit cries” occurs five times], xiv. 2, XXvii.
2: Num. R. xv. 21; xvii. 2, end; Deut. R. xi., end).
The opposite of the Holy Spirit is the unclean
spirit (“ruah tum’ah ”; lit. “spirit of uncleanliness ”).
The Holy Spirit rests on the person who seeks the
Shekinah (God), while the unclean spirit rests upon
him who seeks uncleanness (Sifre, Deut. 173, and
parallel passage). Hence arises the
Gentiles contrast, as in the New Testament be-
and tween tvedpa Gyov and mvedpa axdbap-
the Holy ov. On the basis of II Kings iii. 13,
Spirit. the statement is made, probably as a
polemic against the founder of Chris-
tianity, that the Holy Spirit rests only upon a happy
soul (Yer. Suk. 55a, and elsewhere). Among the
VI.—29
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Holy Spirit
pagans Balaam, from being a mere interpreter of
dreams, rose to be a magician and then a possessor
of the Holy Spirit (Num. R. xx. 7). But the Holy
Spirit did not appear to him except at night, all
pagan prophets being in possession of their gift only
then (26. xx. 12). The Balaam section was written
in order to show why the Holy Spirit was taken
from the heathen—7.e., because Balaam desired to
destroy a whole people without cause (2. xx. 1). A
very ancient source (Sifre, Deut. 175) explains, on
the basis of Deut. xvili. 15, that in the Holy Land
the gift of prophecy is not granted to the heathen or
in the interest of the heathen, nor is it given outside
of Palestine even to Jews. In the Messianic time,
however, the Holy Spirit will, according to Joel ii.
28, 29, be poured out upon all Israel; 7.¢., all the
people will be prophets (Num. R. xv., end). Accord-
ing to the remarkable statement of Tanna debe
Eliyahu, ed. Friedmann, the Holy Spirit will be
poured out equally upon Jews and pagans, both
men and women, freemen and slaves.
The doctrine that after the advent of the Messiah
the Holy Spirit will be poured out upon all mankind
explains the fact that in the }"ew Testament such
great importance is assigned to the Holy Spirit. The
phrase 76 rvetya 76 Gytov occurs from
In the New eighty to ninety times (Swete, in Has-
Testament. tings, “ Dict. Bible,” ii. 404); while the
phrase 76 mvevtya tov deov is compara-
tively rare, it occurs several times. In Acts i.
5, 8 it is said, as in the midrash quoted above,
that in the Messianic time the Holy Spirit will be
poured out upon every one, and in Acts ii. 16 ef seg.
Peter states that Joel’s prophecy regarding the Holy
Spirit has been fulfilled. “While Peter yet spake
these words, the Holy Ghost fell on all them which
heard the word. And they of the circumcision
which believed were astonished, as many as came
with Peter, because that on the Gentiles also was
poured out the gift of the Holy Ghost. For they
heard them speak with tongues, and magnify God”
(tb. x. 44-46). Luke also says (Luke xi. 18) that
God gives the Holy Spirit to those that ask Him.
The phrase “joy of the Holy Ghost” (I Thess. i. 6)
also recalls the Midrash sentence quoted above re-
ferring to the contrast between the clean and the
unclean spirit (Mark iii. 80). The inspiration of the
Biblical writers is acknowledged in the same way
as in rabbinical literature (Matt. xxii. 48; Mark xii.
36; II Peter i. 21). Hence the conception of the
Holy Spirit is derived from one and the same source,
But as the New Testament writers look upon the
Messiah, who is actually identified with the Holy
Spirit, as having arrived, their view assumes a form
fundamentally different from that of the Jewish view
in certain respects; 7.¢., as regards: (1) the conception
and birth of the Messiah through the Holy Spirit
(Matt. i. 18 e¢ seg.; Luke i. 85; John iii. 5-8); (2) the
speaking in different tongues (“ glossolalia ”; Acts il.
et passim): (8) the materialistic view of the Holy
Spirit, evidenced in the idea that it may be com-
municated by means of the breath (¢.g., John xx.
22); and (4) the strongly developed view of the
personality of the Holy Spirit (comp., for example,
Matt. xii. 832; Acts v. 3; I Cor. iii.16; Eph. ii. 22,
I Peter ii. 5; Gospel to the Hebrews, quoted in
Holzmann
Homicide
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
450
Hastings, “ Dict. Bible,” ii. 406, foot, et passem). In
consequence of these fundamental differences many
points of the Christian conception of the Holy Spirit
have remained obscure, at least to the uninitiated.
It is noteworthy that the Holy Spirit is less
frequently referred to in the Apocrypha and by
the Hellenistic Jewish writers; and
In this circumstance leads to the conclu-
the Apoc- sion that the conception of the Holy
rypha. Spirit was not prominent in the intel-
lectual life of the Jewish people, espe-
cially in the Diaspora. In I Mace. iv. 45, xiv. 41
prophecy is referred to as something long since
passed. Wisdom ix. 17 refers to the Holy Spirit
which God sends down from heaven, whereby His
behests are recognized. The discipline of the Holy
Spirit preserves from deceit (2b. i. 5; comp, 2. vii.
21-26). It is said in the Psalms of Solomon, xvii.
42, in reference to the Messiah, the son of David:
“he is mighty in the Holy Spirit”; and in Susanna,
45, that “God raised up the Holy Spirit of a
youth, whose name was Daniel.” Josephus (“Con-
tra Ap.” i. 8) expresses the same view in regard to
prophetic inspiration that is found in rabbinical lit-
erature (comp. JEW. Encyc. iii. 147b, s.v. BIBLE
Canon; Josephus, “Ant.” iv. 6, § 5; vi. 8, § 2;
also Sifre, Deut. 305; Ber. 31b, above; Gen. R. lxx.
8, Ixxv. 5; Lev. R. vi.; Deut. R. vi.—the Holy
Spirit defending Israe! before God; Eccl. R. vii. 28;
Pirke R. El. xxxvii., beginning). See also Ho-
BANNA; INSPIRATION; ORDINATION; TABERNACLES,
FEAST OF.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Weber, Jlidische Theotogie, 2a ed., pp. 80
et seq., 190 et seq., and Index, s.v. Geist, Leipsic, 1897 ; Her-
zog-Hauck, Real-Encyc. 8d ed., vi. 444-450 (with full bibliog-
raphy); Hastings, Dict. Bible, iii. 402-411; Bacher, Ag.
Tan. passim: idem, Ag. Pal. Amor. passim; E. A. Abbot,
From Letter to Spirit, ch. vii. et passim, London, 1903; E.
Sokolowsky, Die Begriffe Geist und Leben bei Paulus, Got-
tingen. 1908; H. Weinel, Die Wirkungen des Geistes und
der Geister (his quotations [pp. 81, 1381, 164, 190) from Christian
writers are interesting from a Jewish point of view).
J L. B.
HOLZMANN, MICHAEL: Austrian historian
of literature; born at Slavaten, Moravia, June 21,
1860; studied at Lemberg, Vienna, and Berlin
(Ph.D. 1888). Since 1891 he has been connected with
the library of the University of Vienna. He has
written: “Ludwig Borne, Sein Leben und Sein
Wirken” (Berlin, 1888); “ Adressbuch der Biblio-
theken der Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchic ”
(with Hans Bohatta; Vienna, 1890); “ Deutsches
Anonymen Lexikon,” a lexicon of anonymous au-
thors in German hterature from 1501 to 1850, parts
A-K having so far appeared (Weimar, 1901-03);
“Aus dem Lager der Goethe-Gegner” (Berlin, 1904).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Dewtsch-Oesterreichisches Ktinstler- und
Schriftsteller-Lexicon, i. 326. D
HOMBERG, HERZ: Austrian educator and
writer; born at Lieben, near Prague, Sept., 1749;
died Aug. 24,1841. He studied Talmud at Prague,
Presburg, and Gross-Glogau, and began the study
of general literature in his seventeenth year. The
reading of Rousseau’s “ Emile” awakened in him the
desire to devote himself to pedagogy. He prepared
himself at Berlin, where he became tutor (1779) to
Mendelssolin’s eldest son, Joseph. During the three
years he remained under Mendelssohn’s roof he him-
self became a pupil of the philosopher, who contin-
ued to take an interest in him, as may be seen by his
fifteen letters to Homberg (Mendelssohn’s “ Gesam-
melte Schriften,” v., Leipsic, 1844).
Under Emperor Joseph II. the status of the Jews
in Austria underwent a complete change. German
normal schools were to be introduced into the Jew-
ish communities, but there were no men available
to organize these schools and take charge of the
public instruction. Homberg now decided to return
to his native country. Being very highly recom-
mended by Mendelssohn, he was appointed (1784)
superintendent of all the German-Jewish schools of
Galicia. In 1793 he was called by Emperor Francis
I[. to Vienna to formulate laws regulating the moral
and political status of the Jews in Austria. The
work appeared in 1797, and won for Homberg the
great gold medal. When the normal schools of
Galicia were placed under the gencral direction of
the district schools, Homberg retired to Vienna, em-
ploying his time partly as censorand partly in com-
piling such readers for Jews as had been ordered by
the royal commission for studies. He was not success-
ful in either of these directions. Homberg was later
appointed assistant professor of religious and moral
philosophy at Prague, with the title of “Schulrath,”
retaining this position until hisdeath. His published
works include:
Bi’ur, Hebrew commentary to Deuteronomy. Berlin, 1783.
Vertheidigung der Jiidischen Nation Gegen die in den Pro-
Vinzblittern Enthaltenen Angriffe. Gé6rz, 1785.
Sendschreiben tiber das Unterrichtswesen in Galizien. Pub-
lished in “Der Sammler,” p. 227.
Sendschreiben an die Rabbiner und Jidischen Gemeindevor-
steher in Galizien. Published in Hebrew and German. Lem-
berg, 1788.
Ueber die Moralische und Politische Verbesserung der Israe-
litenin Bbhmen. Published in ** Hufnagel’s Journal.” Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, 1796.
Imre Shefer (his chief work), a religious and moral reader
for young people. Published in Hebrew andGerman. Vienna,
1802.
Zwolf Fragen, vom Minister des Innern in Frankreich der
Israelitischen Deputation in Paris Vorgelegt und von Ihr
Beantwortet. From the French, with notes. Vienna, 1806.
Bne Zion, religious-moral reader for children. Augsburg,
1812.
Ben Yakkir, Ueber Glaubenswahrheiten und Sittenlehren fiir
die Israelitische Jugend. Prague, 1814.
Ha-Korem, a commentary on the Pentateuch and on Job and
Jeremiah. Prague, 1817.
Rede bei Eréffnung der Religiés-Moralischen Vorlesungen ftir
Israeliten in Prag. 1818.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Stlamith, iii. 4, pp. 258 ef seq.s Wiener
Zeitung, Aug., 1841; Der Jiidische Plutarch, pp. 88-91;
Allg. Deutsche Biographie, s.v.
S A. Ku.
HOMBURG. See HESSeE,
HOMEL or GOMEL (in Russian documents,
Gomior Gum; among Hebrew writers, Homiah):
District town in the government of Moghilef, Rus-
sia, situated on the right bank of the River Sozh, an
affluent of the Dnieper. In 1902 its Jews numbered
26,161 in a total population of 46,446, or 56.4 per
cent. It is not certain when Jews first settled in
Homel; but as it came into the possession of Lithu-
ania in 1587, it is probable that a Jewish community
was established soon after that date. During the
Cossacks’ uprising in 1648 about 1,500 Jews were
killed at Homel. Shabbethai Cohen in “ Megillat
Efah ” and Gabriel Schusburg in “ Petah Teshubah ”
451
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Holzmann
Homicide
gave full accounts of the massacre. They relate that
many of the wealthy Jews of the Ukraine sought
refuge in Homel, which was a strongly fortified
town after it came into the possession of Prince
shartoryski, and that the commandant of the for-
tress treacherously delivered them over to Hodki,
leader of the Cossacks, in consideration of a pay-
ment of 1,200 florins. Outside of the city walls the
Jews were stripped, and, surrounded by the Cos-
sacks, were called upon to embrace the Greek Or-
thodox religion or meet a most. ter-
Cossack rible death. The rabbi, whose name
Per- was Eliezer (Shusburg calls him
secutions. “Rabbi Moses”), persuaded them to
hold fast to their faith. With the ex-
ception of a small number who managed to escape
to the adjacent woods and of a few young men, the
Jews remained faithful to their religion, and were
killed in a horrible manner. Gritz (“Gesch.” 2d
ed., xi. 107) erroneously speaks of another massacre
of thousands of Jews in Homel by the Haidamacks
under Gonta June 20, 1768. He mistook Uman,
which among the old Hebrew writers was called
“Homian,” for Homel (known in Hebrew as “Ho-
miah ”).
Anti-Jewish outbreaks occurred in Home) in Sept.,
1908. Rumors of impending riots had been circu-
lated in the latter part of the previous month. The
trouble arose on Friday, Sept. 11, when a watchman
wished to buy from a Jewish woman a barrel of
herring worth six rubles for one ruble fifty co-
pecks. In the fight which followed between the
Jewish pedlers of the market-place and the Christians
who came to the aid of the watchman, one of the
Christians was injured and died the same day. The
riot was renewed on the following day, and when it
had been quelled the town was practically under
martial law.
Meanwhile a number of anti-Semitic agitators,
probably exccuting the orders of the authorities, in-
flamed the passions of the mob, exhorting them not to
leave their fellow Christians unavenged. On Mon-
day, Sept. 14, about 100 railway employees gathered
and began to break the windows and to enter and
plunder the houses of the Jews in the poorest quar-
ters of the town, one of which is called “ Novaya
Amerika” (= “New America”), A number of Jews
armed and began to defend themselves; but the
soldiers prevented them from entering
Anti- the streets where the plundering was
Jewish going on, and forced them back to
Riotsin their homes, beating and arresting
1903. those who resisted. According to a
reliable report, other soldiers and the
police looked on in an indifferent way while the mob
continued its plundering and committed all kinds of
excesses. The shrieks of children could be heard in
the streets which the soldiers had blocked against
the Jews without; and when some of the Jews tried
to force their way down the side-streets, the sol-
diers fired on them, wounding several among them
and killing six.
The total number of Jews killed is given as 25; se-
riously injured, 100; slightly injured, 200. Three
hundred and seventy-two Jewish houses and 200
stores were plundered and destroyed.
On Sept. 17 the bodies of the following persons
who had been killed in the riots were buried in the
Jewish cemetery of Homel: Elijah Oberman (tailor);
Phoebus Halperin (aged 24; merchant); Zalman
Kaganski (aged 20; only son): Mordecai Kaganski;
Boruch Petitzki (aged 25); Behr Leikin (aged 45);
Meir Davydov; Zalman Cohn; Hayyim Piachetzki;
and Behr Kevas.
The scroll of the Law, which was torn by the riot-
ers during the destruction of the synagogue, was
also buried. About one-third of the Jewish popula-
tion escaped. While the chief of police and cer-
tain other God-fearing Christians gave shelter to
some of the victims, several of the merchants took
part in the riots.
From a report presented by representatives of the
Jewish community of Homel to Assistant Minister
of the Interior Durnovo (Oct. 1, 1908), it is evident
that the first account of the riots in the official organ
of the government was incorrect, and that they had
been carefully planned several weeks previously.
H.R. G. D. R.
HOMEM, ANTONIO: Jewish martyr; born in
1564 of Neo-Christian parents at Coimbra, Portu-
gal; suffered death at the stake in Lisbon May 5,
1624. His father’s name was Vaez Brandio: and
his mother was a granddaughter of Nufiez Cardozo,
called “the rich Jew of Aveiro.” Like many secret
Jews who, in order to escape from the snares and
persecutions of the Inquisition, caused their sons to
embrace a clerical career, the parents of Antonio had
him educated for the Church. He entered a relig-
ious orderand studied at the university of his native
town. On Feb. 22, 1592, he took his degree as doc-
tor and “magister,” and after having served the
Church in various offices he was appointed deacon
and professor of canon law at Coimbra University.
He aroused the suspicion of the Inquisition and had
toappear before its tribunal (Feb. 1, 1611), but as the
author of some theological works he was acquitted.
His colleagues closely watched him, however; and in
1619a secret synagogue was discovered in Lisbon in
which Homem conducted the services and preached.
On Dec. 18 of that year he was brought before the
tribunal of the Inquisition and condemned to death;
and five years later at an auto da fé at Lisbon he was
burned alive. His house was demolished, and in its
place was erected a pillar bearing the inscription
“ Preeceptor infelix.”
BIBLIOGRAPIIY; Kayserling, Gesch. der Juden in Portugal,
pp. 291-292.
D, S. Man.
HOMER. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
HOMESH. See PENTATEUCH.
HOMICIDE.—Biblical Data: That bloodshed
should be punished with bloodshed was, according
to Scripture, proclaimed to Noah and his family:
“Surely your blood of your lives will I require; at
the hand of every beast will I require it, and at the
hand of man; at the hand of every man’s brother
will I require the life of man. Whoso sheddeth
man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed: for in
the image of God made he man” (Gen. ix. 5, 6).
The main prohibition, however, is contained in the
Homicide
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
452
a i cf
not kill.”
Scripture distinguishes two kinds of unlawful
homicide, the voluntary (murder) and the involun-
tary (manslaughter). Homicide is voluntary when
the killing is the result of malice and premeditation
(Ex. xxi. 14; Num. xxxv. 20; Deut. xix. 11); it is
involuntary when it is caused by accident (Ex. lc.
18; Num. J.c. 22; Deut. Zc. 4). The criteria of
voluntary homicide are the following: enmity, ha-
tred (AD"N, ANIW) on the part of the perpetrator
(Num. Le. 20, 21; Deut. 2c 11); lying in wait,
ambushing (298, MY; 7.); guile, premeditation
(mo ny; Ex. 7.c. 14); the procuring of the instrument
or means calculated to produce fatal results (Num.
lc. 16-20; comp. Ex. fc. 20), Where these or
any of these indices are present the killing, accord-
ing to the Bible, is to be considered voluntary and
felonious. On the other hand, where there is neither
lying in wait nor premeditation, neither enmity nor
a deadly weapon or other means calculated to prove
fatal, the killing is to be adjudged involuntary or
accidental (Ex. d.c. 18; Num. @.c. 22; Deut. @.c. 4).
As an example of accidental homicide the Bible
(Deut. J.c. 5) cites the supposititious case of a man
who “ goeth into the wood with his neighbor to hew
wood, and his hand fetcheth a stroke with the ax to
cut down the tree, and the head slippeth from the
helve, and lighteth upon his neighbor, that he die”
(see below).
The penalty imposed for homicide in ante-Mosaic
times, alike for unpremeditated and for premed-
itated killing, seems to have been
Penalties. death at the hands of any man (comp.
Gen. iv. 14), man and beast being in-
cluded in the same statute (2b. ix. 5,6). In the
Mosaic law discrimination is made between the two
species. In this law the punishment of the wilful
manslayer is, after trial and conviction (Num. /.c.
24; Deut. d.c, 12), death at the hands of the victim’s
nearest relation, the “redeemer of the blood” (3x3
osm: Num. /.c. 19, 21; Deut. /.c.); and the pen-
alty for accidental homicide is seclusion in asylum,
in one of the “cities of refuge” (odpn; Ex. U.c. 18;
Num. J,c, 11, 15; Deut, 7.¢c. 5), where theslayer must
“abide until the death of the high priest” (Num.
lc, 25-28). In neither case is satisfaction or ransom
(355) permitted to substitute or commute the statu-
tory penalty. The voluntary murderer must be put
to death, and the involuntary manslayer must retire
into and abide in asylum (Num. U.c. 31-88).
In case an animal kills a man, the animal must be
stoned to death, and its flesh must not be eaten; but
its owner is not to be punished except the victim
be a slave, when he must remunerate the master of
the slave. Where, however, the animal was known
to be vicious, and the owner was warned of the fact
and did not confine it, the animal is, as in the first
case, stoned to death, and its owner is also liable to
be punished with death; but the latter’s punishment
may be commuted for asum of redemption money
(Ex. f.c, 28-32).
When @ human body is found lying in the field,
and it is not known who the murderer is, then the
elders and the judges of the nearest city must strike
off the head of a heifer in a barren valley, and in the
presence of priests they must wash their hands over
the beheaded animal, declaring that neither have
their hands shed the blood of the slain nor have their
eyes seen the deed committed. Thereupon they
must invoke God to be merciful, and not to lay the
innocent blood to Israel’s charge (Deut. xxi. 1-9).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hetzel, Die Todesstrafe, p. 41; Mayer,
Rechte der Israeliten, iii. 5138; Michaelis, Mosaisches Recht,
vi. 10; Saalschiitz, Mosaisches Recht, pp. 71-74; Salvador,
Inst. de Moise, book i., cb. i.
——In Rabbinic Law: By the rabbinic system
homicide is clearly classified as (1) justifiable, (2)
misadventurous, (8) accidental, (4) culpable, or (5)
felonious.
(1) Homicide is justifiable when it is committed in
obedience to duty, as in executing a condemned
criminal (Lev. xx. 2; Deut. xvii. 5, 7; xxii. 24); or
in defense of human life or chastity (Sanh. vii. 7,
78a; see below); or even in killing the
When thief who breaks in at night (Ex. xxii.
Justifiable. 2; see BurGLARY), whether the killing
is done by the proprietor of the prem-
ises or by a stranger (Sanh. viii. 6, 72b; Maimon-
ides, “ Yad,” Genebah, ix. 7).
(2) Homicide is misad venturous (ond 319)) when
the killing is the result of pure chance; as when, in
the Biblical example quoted above, the head of the
ax, instead of slipping from the helve swayed by the
hewer, rebounds from the block and kills (Mak. ii.
1, 7b; comp. “ Yad,” Rozeah, vi. 15); or when one
throws a missile on his own premises, and a stranger,
without the proprietor’s knowledge or consent, just
then intruding, is struck and killed by such missile
(Mak. Z.c. 2, 8a; B. K. 82b). In such cases no blame
attaches to the unfortunate slayer; therefore no
punishment of any kind is incurred by him, not even
at the hands of the redeemer of blood, the “ go’el”
(Mak. @.c.; B. K. Z.¢.; “ Yad,” de. 8).
(8) Homicide is accidental (13w) when it is the
effect of constructive negligence, but entirely free
from felonious intention; as when an officer of the
court, in chastising a convict (Deut. xxv. 2, 3), by
mistake administers more than the
Accidental number of stripes awarded in the sen-
Homicide. tence, and thereby causes the death of
the culprit (Mak. iii. 14, 22a; B. K.
32b); or when one throws a missile on his own prem-
ises, and a visitor just then entering by permission
is struck and killed by the missile (Mak. ii. 2, 8a;
“Yad,” lc. vi. 11). This species of homicide, al-
though not attended by premeditation or malice,
savors of negligence, and is therefore not altogether
free from blame and consequent punishment, which
latter is exile ($13; Mak. ii. 1, 2, 7a; see above), or
the risk of being killed by the go’el (Mak. lc. 7, 12a;
“Yad,” U.c. v. 9,10). However, the accidental man-
slayer is not subject to exile, unless the victim dies
immediately after the accident. If the victim sur-
vives the accident even a single astronomical day,
no exile is imposed (Yeb. 120b; Git. 70b; “ Yad,”
ic. V. 2).
(4) Homicide is culpable Ghiep anp) when it is
the result of actual negligence on the part of the
perpetrator; as when one engaged in razing a struc-
ture near a thoroughfare thoughtlessly lets some of
the material fall on a passer-by, killing him (B. K.
453
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Homicide
338b; Mak. ii. 2, 8a); or when one endeavoring to
prevent the commission of murder or of rape (see
above) intentionally kills the would-be criminal
without attempting any other means of prevention
(Sanh. 74a; “ Yad,” /.¢c.i. 18); or when
Culpable one commits homicide in the belief that
Homicide. he hasaright to do it (see Hatra’an),
e.g., when one kills a criminal before
his judicial conviction (Mak. 7b, 9b). In all such
cases the perpetrators are outlaws in the broadest
sense of the term: they are criminals, but stand be-
yond the provisions of the penal laws. The laws
concerning murder (see below) can not be applied to
them, because the slaying was not preceded by de-
liberation; and the law concerning accidental homi-
cide can not be applied to them, because the slaying
was either the result of criminal negligence or the
consequence of choice; therefore the go’el may kill
them at any time or place, exile not protecting them
against him (“ Yad,” d.c. vi. 4).
In the following cases, though they are even more
criminal than those just mentioned, the homicide is
likewise included among the culpable: Where a man
is an accessory, é.g., hires others to do the deed (see
ABETMENT); where the perpetrator is a principal in
the crime, but the victim has a chance to avert fatal
results, as where one wilfully throws another into a
well which at the time is provided with a ladder,
but the assailant removes the ladder and the victim
is drowned (Sanh. 77b; “ Yad,” dc. tii. 9); where
the death is the result of miscarried felonious intent,
as where one maliciously aims a deadly missile at
a certain person, and it strikes and kills another
(Sanh. ix. 2, 79a; B. K. 44b); where the missile, not
deadly if striking the part aimed at, miscarries and
strikes the intended victim in a more vital spot,
with fatal results (Sanh. .c.; “ Yad,” d.¢. iv. 2); and
even where none of the aggravating circumstances
here detailed are present, but it is proved that the
slayer had nourished enmity against the victim (Mak.
ii. 3, 7b; Sifre, Num. 160). The penalty for the
culpables, whom, as stated, exile does not protect
against the go’el, depends on the exigencies of the
times. If circumstances require exemplary rigor,
the court may order the infliction of capital punish-
ment; otherwise scourging and imprisonment (M.
K. 16a; Sanh. 46a; “ Yad,” /. ¢. ii. 4,5). To the cat-
egory of culpable homicides excluded from the penal
statute may be added the suicide.
(5) Homicide is felonious when the act is the re-
sult of wilful and malicious deliberation (4*}%; see
aboveand Hatra’AH). Toestablishit assuch, there
must be none of the mitigating circum-
stances attending any of the cases hith-
erto enumerated. It must be perpe-
trated by one man only, without the physical aid of
others (see ABETMENT); but persuasion or threats
(see DUREss) will not be considered as an excuse for
or extenuation of the crime (Sanh. 74b; Yeb. 53a).
Where danger threatens the lives of two men, and
one can save his fe by increasing the danger of the
other, the Rabbis lay down the ethical principle,
“Thine own life takes precedence over that of thy
neighbor” (B. M. 62a; comp. Yer. Hor. iit. 48b);
but where one is threatened with the forfeiture of
his own life unless he take that of an innocent party,
Murder.
the Rabbis argue, “There is no reason for supposing
that thy blood is redder than that of the other”;
hence One may not save his own life by spilling the
innocent blood of another (Sanh. 74a).
The perpetrator, to be amenable to the penalty in-
curred by the commission of the crime, may be a
male or a female, a free person or a slave; but he or
she must be an adult, and of sound mental and phys-
ical condition (Mek., Nez. 7; Sifra,
Condition of Emor, xx.; see ABDUCTION). In cuse
Murderer he isa diseased person, the species of
and the crime is determined by the parties
Victim. witnessing it. If the crime is com-
mitted in the presence of a full court
(twenty-three qualified judges), the perpetrator
will be convicted of murder and suffer the full
penalty ; otherwise he will be classed as a culpable
homicide (Sanh. 78a; “Yad,” Rozeah, ii. 9).
As to the victim, the Rabbis understand by the
term vx (“man ”), used in connection with the crime
(Ex. xxi, 12; Lev. xxiii. 17), a person; hence male
or female, free or slave, old or young (Mek., lc. ;
Sifra, @.c.; “Yad,” @.c. 10). If young, by which
is meant a new-born infant it must be proved
that it was not of premature birth; if prematurely
born, it must be at least thirty days old to be con-
sidered a human being (Sifra, i¢.; Niddah 44b;
“Yad,” Rozeah, ii. 2). Butthe unborn child is con-
sidered as part of its mother (Sanh. 80b); killing it
in its mother’s womb is therefore a finable offense
only (Mek., Nez. 8; B. K.42b). And where the victim
is a diseased person, even moribund, the killing will
be considered murder, unless the malady was the
direct result of an assault previously made on him
by man or brute, and competent physicians declare
it to be in itself inevitably fatal (Sanh. 78a; Mak.
Ya; “Yad,” le. ii. 8).
It matters not by what means the crime is ac-
complished (Sifre, Num. 160; Sanh. 76b), provided
the fatality is the immediate and natural result of
the assault (Sanh. 79; “ Yad,” é.c. tii.). Hence it is
the duty of the court to investigate the nature of the
missile used (Sanh. ix. 2, 79b; B. K. 90), the force of
the blow, and the part hit (Sanh. 78a); or to note the
height of the fall (Sanh. 76b), and estimate whether
there was sufficient weight or force or momentum to
cause the fatal result. If a sharp or pointed metal
instrument was the weapon, neither weight nor bulk
nor size will enter into consideration, since even a
needle may cause death (Sanh. 76b; “Yad,” d.c. ili.
4). Also, the physique and condition of the criminal
and those of the victim at the moment of the assault
must be compared, to determine the likelihood of the
one causing the death of the other (Sanh. ix. 2;
“Yad,” Z.c. 5). Where doubt arises as to whether
the death was really the natural result of the assault,
the benefit of that doubt is given to the culprit (B.
K. 90a; Sanh. 79a). Thus, if the fatal missile be
placed among others, and can not be identified, the
smallest of the number is selected and considered as
the one used (Tosef., Sanh. xii. 4; Mek., Nez. 6).
If the victim is found alive, the court must care-
fully examine his condition and ascertain the nature
of the injuries and whether there is a probability of
his recovery. If the diagnosis is favorable, the cul-
prit is set at liberty after being assessed legal dam-
Homiletics
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
454
i
ages (see DAMAGES), and he can not be again called
upon to answer for his crime, even if the victim
subsequently dies (Sanh. ix. 1, 78b;
Diagno- “Yad,” lc. iv. 3). If the court, how-
sing ever, regards the injuries as necessarily
Injuries. fatal, the culprit is placed in detention
to await the final result. When death
ensues the culprit is tried for his life; if recov-
cry follows, he pays the amercements (Sanh. Jc. ;
“Yad,” le. iv. 4). If, however, the victim improves
sufficiently to give promise of ultimate recovery,
and the court so diagnoses, even if his condition
afterward grows worse and he dies, the favorable
diagnosis will protect the culprit against retrial
(Sanh. ix. 1, 78b; Tosef., B. K. ix. 6; comp. Yer.
Sanh. ix. 27; “ Yad,” de. iv. 5).
The penalty for murder is death by the sword,
slaying (997; see CAPITAL PUNISHMENT). The duty
of carrying out the sentence of the court devolves
primarily upon the go’el (see above); but where
the go’el shirks his duty, the court must see that it is
performed by others (Sanh. 45b; Mak. 12b). If for
some reason the legal death can not be inflicted, the
convict may be put to death by any means possible
(Sanh. é.c.; “Yad,” dc. i. 2).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benny, Criminal Code of the Jews, p. 96;
Fassel, Strafagesetz, $8 35-42 ; Hamburger, R. B. T. 1. 766;
Mayer, Rechte der Israeliten, iii. 5138; Mek., ‘Mishpatim. g§
4-8; Mendelsohn, Criminal Jurisprudence of the Hebrews,
8§ 33-44; Saalschiitz, Mosaisches Recht, pp. 524-550 ; Salvador,
Inst. de "Moise, iv. 1; Semag, prohibitions 160-165 ; ib. pre-
cept 75; Sifre, Num. 160, 161; ib. Deut. 181-187, rsa
gs. 8. . M.
HOMILETICS (“derush,” “ derashah ” = “ homi-
ly”; “darshan” [pl. “darshanim”], “darosha”=
“ preacher ”): That branch of rhetoric which treats of
the composition and delivery of sermons or homilies.
Although from the very nature of the case provision
had been made for public worship among the people
of Israel from the earliest times, this was confined to
the sacrificial ritual and to the Levitical, priestly,
and musical functions, Of preaching as a feature of
the service there is no trace tillafter the Exile. True,
the Deuteronomist commands that the Torah be read
to the people at the end of seven years, on the Feast
of Tabernacles, “ when all Israel is come to appear
before the Lord” (Deut. xxxi. 11-18); and the Rab-
bis refer the institution of the religious address to
Moses (Sifra, Emor, xvii.; Meg. 32a; Yalk., Ex.
408). Moreover, the belief was cur-
Traditional rent that preaching was a very old
Antiquity institution, as is seen from the tra-
of dition ascribing activity in this direc-
Preaching. tion to Noah (Sibyllines, i. 149; Sanh.
108a). Still it may be safely asserted
that the preacher and the homily were late growths
on the stem of Jewish religious development.
-In the Bible the nearest approach to the art of
preaching is found in the activity of the Prophets.
These were not officials in any sense of the word,
however, nor were their addresses delivered only on
stated religious occasions or in fixed places de-
voted to religious purposes. They spoke as the
spirit moved them, anywhere and everywhere they
felt that circumstances made it necessary to do so.
Some of their addresses were undoubtedly delivered
on Sabbaths and holy days (see Isa. i. 10-17, lviii.),
but not as part of the public services in the Temple;
the “nabi” was more often in opposition to than in
accord with the professional representatives of relig-
ion. Still, in spite of this, it remains true that the
prophet was the forerunner of the preacher, and that
the Prophets’ addresses, though not an official relig-
ious institution, were the earliest sermons.
The real beginning of the exposition of Scripture
as a homiletic exercise on the Sabbath, on holy days,
and on other occasions when the people assembled
for religious purposes is to be found in the custom,
instituted by Ezra, of reading a por-
Beginnings tion of the Torah at the service and
of Sermons. explaining or paraphrasing it in the
vernacular (Neh. viii. 1-9, ix. 3). This
translation or paraphrase was called TareumM, and
from it developed the practise of preaching in the
synagogue—a custom that was in all likelihood in
vogue as early as the fourth century B.c. (Zunz,
“G. V.” p. 380). Josephus (“Contra Ap.” ii. 17)
speaks of it as a very ancient custom (comp. Acts
xv. 21); Philo mentions it as an important clement
of the public services (“ De Septennario,” vi. ; “Quod
Omnis Probus Liber,” xii.); and in a fragment pre-
served in Eusebius (“ Praeparatio Evangelica,” viii. 7,
12-13) the same author reports that the Jews of
Rome assembled on Sabbaths in the synagogues,
where they were instructed in the philosophy of
their fathers (“ Legatio ad Caium,” xxiii.).
In the New Testament “teaching in the syna-
gogue” is mentioned so frequéntly that by that time
preaching must have become very general among
the Jews (comp. Matt. iv. 23; Mark i. 21, vi. 2;
Luke iv. 15, vi. 6, xiii. 10; John vi, 59, xviii. 20;
Acts xiii. 42, xv. 21). The two heads of the Sanhe-
drin in the first century B.c., Shemaiah and Abta-
lion, are distinguished by the title “darshanim ” (=
“»reachers”; Pes. 70b). Doubtless the term “ dar-
shan” was originally applied to the expounder of
the Law, and hence to the teacher of the Halakah;
but the title lost this significance in the course of
time, and became the designation of the preacher as
such, who addressed the people in general, taught
them the doctrines of religion and morality, com-
forted them in the grievous days that followed the
destruction of the Temple, and expounded texts of
Scripture not with a view to their halakic or legal
interpretation, but to their haggadic or edifying
possibilities. [Hence also “darash” and “ darshan ”
for the allegorization of Scripture (Hag. ii. 1; Sotah
49a; Gen. R. v. 2; comp. “doreshe reshumot,” Mek.,
Beshallah, 1, 5, and elsewhere).—x. ]
After the discontinuance of the sacrifices conse-
quent upon the destruction of the Temple, prayer
and the religious address were the elements of the
services; all the rabbis of note instructed and solaced
the people who flocked to hear them.
After the Rabbi Meir’s sermons on Friday eve-
De- nings and Sabbath afternoons attract-
struction ed large congregations (Lev. R. ix. 9;
of the Yer. Sotah i. 16d). The sermons were
Temple. delivered citherin the synagogue orin
the school. Preaching took place not
only in public, but also on private occasions, as at
weddings and funerals (Ber. 6b; Shab. 158a; M. K.
25b; Meg. Ga; Ket. 8b; Ned. 61b), upon departure
455
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Homiletics
from a house where hospitality had been enjoyed
(M. K. 9b), or at the ordination of rabbis (Sanh. 14a).
The expounder-of the Law used to address the con-
gregation through an interpreter called “ meturge-
man” or “amora” (Pes. 50b; Hag. 14a; Meg. 28b,
24a; M. K. 21a; Ket. 8b; Sotah 87b; Sanh. 7b).
The sentiment entertained for the interpreter was
not always the most cordial, as may be inferred
from the interpretation of the verse: “It is better to
hear the rebuke of the wise than for a man to hear
the song of fools” (Eccl. vii. 5). Says the Midrash
(Eccl. R.) to this verse: “‘It is better to hear the
rebuke of the wise’—these are the darshanim, the
preachers—‘ than the song of fools’—these are the
meturgemanim, the interpreters who raise their
voices aloft in song in order to be heard by the whole
congregation.”
The homiletic addresses of the rabbis of the Tal-
mudic period are found in the Talmud, but particu-
Jarly in the so-called midrashic collections. As faras
can be distinguished from the remains that have been
thus preserved, it appears that there was a regular
form for the sermon. It consisted of three parts:
(1) the opening or introduction (“ petiha”), (2) the
exposition proper of the text (“derush”), and (8)
the conclusion. The preacher began by quoting a
verse from some portion of the Bible other than the
Pentateuch text, explaining the same by illustration
or parable, gradually leading up to his text. This
connecting of the introductory verse with the text
was called “ haruz” (= “stringing together ”), a term
taken from the custom of boring pearls preparatory
to stringing them together.
Thus, when preaching on the text, “And Abra-
ham was old ” (Gen. xxiv. 1), a rabbi began by quo-
ting the verse, “ The hoary head is a crown of glory;
it shall be found in the way of righteousness” (Prov.
xvi. 31, R. V.), and continued by illustrating it with
the following incident:
** Rabbi Meir went to Mimla, where he noticed that all the in-
habitants were black-haired. He therefore said to them: ‘ Tell
me, are you all descended from the house of Eli? as it is written :
** And al) the increase of thy house shall dieas young men.’’’
They answered, * Rabbi, pray for us’; whereupon he said, ‘Go
and practise righteousness, and you will become worthy of old
age.’ Whence did he derive his reason for this statement? From
the words ‘ A hoary head isa crown of glory.’ And where is old
age found? ‘In the way of righteousness.’ From whom dost
thou learn this? From Abraham, of whom it is written: * He
will command his children to observe the way of the Lord, to
do righteousness and justice’; therefore he was found worthy
to reach old age, as it is written, ‘And Abraham was old, well
stricken in age’”’ (Gen. R. lix. 1),
The preacher, having thus led up to his text, ex-
plained it, and the ideas he derived from it, by para-
ble, story, fable, allegory, or other extracts from the
Bible. The Midrash is replete with such expositions,
whereof the following may serve as an example:
Rabbi Hama is preaching from the text, ““And Abraham gave
all that he had unto Isaac. But unto the sonsof the concubines,
which Abraham had, Abraham gave gifts” (Gen. xxv. 5-6).
Said the preacher: ** Abraham gave Isaac not blessings, but
gifts. The case was like unto that of a king who had a beauti-
ful park, which he entrusted to a gardener. In it were two
trees whose branches were interlocked : one tree was Nlled with
the sap of life; the other, with the poison of death. Said the
gardener, ‘If I water the tree which fiows with the sap of life,
the other will flourish also; and if I do not water the tree con-
taining the poison of death, the goodly tree will perish too.’
Upon consideration he continued, ‘I shall do my duty as gar-
dener and water both trees; then let the owner of the park do
as he will.” Thus also said Abraham: ‘If I bless Isaac, the chil-
dren of Ishmael and Keturah, who are also my children, will be
included in the blessing ; and if I do not bless the children of
Ishmael and Keturah, how can I bless Isaac?’ Upon considera-
tion, he continued: ‘Iam but mortal: to-day I am here, and to-
morrow in my grave. Jean butdo my duty. I will make gifts to
all my children: the outcome rests with God, who wil] do what
He wishes in His world.” When Abraham our father died God
revealed Himself to Isaac, and blessed him, asit is written ; “And
it came to pass after the death of Abraham that God blessed
Isaac his son’’’ (Gen. R. Lxi. 6).
The final portion of the homily consisted of a brief —
repetition of the ideas drawn from the text; and the
preacher closed with a prayer of praise, usually the
KADDISH.
The great homiletic collections in Hebrew litera-
ture date from the period immediately following the
redaction of the Babylonian Talmud ; viz., from the
sixth to the tenth century, known usually as the
period of the Geonim. During this era the Midrash
Rabbah, the Pesikta de-Rab Kahana, the Midrash
Tanhuma, the Jerusalem Targwin, and the Tanna
debe Eliyahu were compiled. The Yalkut Shi-
m‘oni dates from the eleventh century.
The “ derashah,” or sermon of the geonic period, was
not so much a, clearly worked-out exposition of a text
as a string of midrashic passages. The sermon asa
skilfully elaborated explanation of the text occurs in
the preaching of Spanish darshanim of the post-
geonic period, such as Jacob Anatoli and Nahmanides
in the thirteenth century and Nissim Gerondi in the
fourteenth. It was particularly among the Sephar-
dic Jews in Spain, Portugal, Italy, the Orient,
northern Africa, Holland, and Eng-
land, between the fifteenth and the
eighteenth century, that the darsha-
nim flourished. Their sermons had a
definite form. There were usually a double text, a
verse of Scripture called “ ma’amar,” and a Talmudic
or midrashic passage termed “ nose ha-derush ”; this
was followed by an introduction that led to the de_
rashahiproper. This latter consisted of a great num.
ber of Scriptural verses and Talmudic and midrashic
quotations which the preacher expounded, each
quotation serving as an explanation of the prece-
ding, and the last being used to interpret the text
itself. The derashah closed with a prayer for the
redemption and moral improvement of the people,
many of the later darshanim using the concluding
words: “May the Redeemer come to Zion, and may
this be the will of God.”
The rabbis themselves were the preachers. The
sermon was delivered from the “almemar” in the
synagogue at either the morning or the afternoon
service. Funeral addresses were usually made in
the cemetery; but on the death of a celebrated man
they were delivered in the synagogue or the school.
The sermons touched all or any points of interest
in the lives and experiences of the hearers; and the
preachers did not even hesitate to quote passages
from the sages of pagan antiquity and to deduce
moral lessons from them (see “J. Q. R.” viii. 518).
The most celebrated preachers in the Spanish tongue were
Isaac Aboab, Abraham Bibago, and Isaac Arama in the fifteenth
century ; Isaac Adarbi, Moses Albelda, Moses Almosnino, Solo-
mon Levi, and Samuel Laniado, all of whom lived in the Orient,
in the sixteenth century; Judah Bigo, Isaac Pardo, Solomon
Algazi, Joshua Benveniste, and Solomon Almarillo, also in the
Levant, in the seventeenth century. A number of celebrated
preachers officiated in the Spanish congregation of Amsterdam
The Dar-
shanim.
Homiletics
Honig
in the seventeenth century; viz., Isaac Uzziel, Abraham Lom-
broso, Manasseh ben Israel, Saul Levi Mortara, and Joshua da
Silva. All of these rabbis preached in Spanish; but whenever
they published their **derashot,” they did so in Hebrew, be-
cause they felt that by this means they could reach Jews every-
where.
Italy, too, had many Jewish preachers during this period;
notably Juda Moscato, Samuel Judah Katzenellenbogen, Jacob
Albo, Judah Leon di Modena, Azariah Figo,
Jacob Zahalon, Judah Perez, and Isaac Caval-
lero. A number of Spanish-speaking Jewish
preachers of note fiourished also during the frst half of the
eighteenth century in various localities; among them may be
mentioned Abraham Yizhaki and Israet Algazi in Jerusalem,
Elia Cohen in Smyrna, David Nieto in London, Isaac Abendana
and Solomon Shalom in Amsterdam, and Abraham Isaac Cas-
tello in Leghorn.
In Italy.
In Germany and France the title “darshan” can
be traced back as far as the eleventh century (Zunz,
“G. V.” p. 416); but preaching was not so general
in these countries during the medieval period as
among the Sephardim; this was due to the fact that
the prayer-book was overloaded with piyyutim
which so lengthened the service that there was no
time left for the derashah. In truth, the German
and French Jews paid far more attention to the
study of the Halakah than to the cultivation of the
Haggadah, with the result that in time the delivery
of sermons ceased almost altogether. The only ap-
proach to preaching took place on
In Germany three occasions of the year. Two of
and France. these were the Sabbath ha-Gadol
(immediately preceding the Passover
Feast) and the Sabbath Teshubah (in the penitential
season between the New-Year’s Day and the Day
of Atonement). On these two Sabbaths the rabbi
explained to the congregation the laws to be ob-
served in connection with the coming holy days.
The third occasion was the eve of the Day of Atone-
ment, when a discourse more haggadic in character,
dwelling on sin and repentance, was delivered.
The terrible persecutions experienced by the Jews
in Germany and France, and the inferior social posi-
tion which they occupied, combined so to depress
the spirit that “thought was paralyzed, the ear was
deafened to the word of comfort, and hope became a
mute glance to the heights” (Zunz, l.c. p. 418). A
further reasou for the neglect of the sermon lay in
the ever-increasing attention that was paid to the
pilpulistic dialectics of the Talmud. The_hair-
splitting argumentation sharpened the wits, it is
true; but it engrossed the interest of the rabbis and
their pupils to the exclusion of all else. In lieu of
discourses by regularly appointed preachers, occa-
sional sermons were delivered in various communi-
ties by waudering preachers, who hailed for the most
part from Poland and were called “maggidim” or
“ mokihim.”
Preaching became somewhat more general, how-
ever, among German-speaking Jews in the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries; a
Eighteenth number of darshanim flourished in
Century. Germany and Poland during this time.
Some of the larger congregations had
regularly appointed darshanim; and in places where
there were yeshibot, preachers were never lacking.
The smaller communities, it is true, never heard a
derashah unless perchance a wandering maggid
happened their way. The derashah among Ger-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
456
man-speaking Jews (which designation includes, of
course, the Jews of Poland, Austria, Bohemia, Gali-
cia, Moravia, etc.) reflected the pilpulistic method in
vogue in the study of the Talmud. The object of
the darshan was not so much religious and moral
edification as the ingenious explanation of a text.
His greatest feat was to spring a surprise upon the
congregation by a new and startling interpretation
of a passage; and the more unexpected the “hid-
dush” (novelty)and the more striking the “ harifut ”
(sharpness), the more praised was the darshan. Chief
among the darshanim of this time were Jacob Mél-
lin ha-Levi (MaHaRiL) and Jonathan Eybeschitz
in Germany; Solomon Ephraim Lenczyz and Hlie-
zer Fleckeles in Austria; and Zebi Hirsch Waidi-
slow and Jacob Dubno in Poland. The last-named
was particularly celebrated as a preacher, and is
known as the “Dubnoer Maggid.” He preached in
the Judeo-German jargon, which was spoken by
the people whom he addressed.
The first sermons in pure German were written
by Moses Mendelssohn; they were three in number,
and were preached in the synagogue of Berlin by
Rabbi David Hirschel Frankel in cele-
Beginnings bration of the victories of Frederick
of Modern the Great at Rossbach and Leuthen
Vernacular and of the conclusion of the treaty
Sermons. of peace at Hubertsberg. These ser-
mons were, however, exceptional. It
was not until 1806 that preaching in the vernacular
became a feature of the service in the synagogue.
In that year Joseph Wolf inaugurated preaching in
the German tongue in the town of Dessau; and he
was soon followed by Israel Jacobson at Cassel; by
I. L. Auerbach and Karl Siegfried Ginsberg in the
Beer private synagogue at Berlin; and by Kley and
Salomon at Hamburg. Since then preaching in the
vernacular has become general among the Jews in
all lands where they have acquired modern culture.
Where formerly the service was all-important, and
of such length as to displace the derashah altogether
from the Sabbath morning service, quite the con-
trary is now the case. The service has been much
shortened, particularly by the elimination of the
piyyutim; and the sermon in the vernacular has
taken its place asa regular and perhaps the most
popular feature of the services.
During the nineteenth century the Jews produced
many notable preachers; the most prominent among
those no longer living have been:
Gotthold Salomon in Hamburg; Isaac Noah Mannheimer in
Vienna; Abraham Geiger in Breslau and Berlin; Samuel Hold-
heim and Michael Sachs in Berlin; David Einhorn in Mecklen-
burg-Schwerin; Samuel Hirsch in Luxemburg ; Samson Raphael
Hirsch and Leopold Stein in Frankfort-on-the-Main; Ludwig
Philippson in Magdeburg; Adolf Jellinek in Vienna; M. Joél in
Breslau; E.-A. Astruc in Brussels; Lelio della Torre in Italy;
A. A. Wolff in Denmark; Leopold Léw in Hungary. Among
the rabbis who emigrated to the United States a number became
prominent as preachers; of these the most noteworthy were
(besides David Einhorn and Samuel Hirsch) Isaac M.Wise, Max
Lilienthal, Isaac Leeser, M. Jastrow, Liebmann Adler, G. Gott-
heil, Adolf Hitbsch, B. Szold, James K. Gutheim, and Adolf
Moses. Among the men who are still officiating in the pulpit
are quite a number who have taken high places among the
preachers of the day.
The sermon in the vernacular when introduced in
Germany followed tlre Protestant model in form and
| structure; the old-style derashah gave way to the
457
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Homiletics
Honig
modern sermon. An introduction led to the text,
after which followed the sermon proper, usually in
three parts, ending with anappeal. Adolf Jellinek
of Vienna gave a new turn to modern
Jewish preaching by the skilful use of
the old midrashim: he showed in his
sermons what fine homiletical material
for the modern preacher is to be found in the old
midrashic collections. This gave a distinctiveness
to the Jewish sermon; and the path that the great
Viennese preacher blazed has been followed more
and more by other Jewish preachers.
Instruction in homiletics has been introduced into
the Jewish theological seminaries both in Europe
and in America. In the Berlin rabbinical seminary
(“ Hochschule ”) it is conducted by Sigmund May-
baum; in the rabbinical seminary at Breslau by Saul
Horovitz; at Vienna by Adolf Schwarz; at Buda-
pest by Wilhelm Bacher; at New York (Jewish Theo-
logical Seminary) by Joseph M. Asher; and at Cin-
cinnati (Hebrew Union College) by David Philipson.
Many collections of sermons have been published
both in Europe and in America which give evidence
of the important position that preaching has taken
in Jewish religious life during the past century: in-
deed, this has become the chief work of the rabbi.
The juridical functions that at one time primarily en-
listed his attention have been displaced by his homi-
letical activity; and this promises to be the case to
an ever greater extent as the medieval codes become
less and less the norms of authority in Jewish life,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, G. V.; L. Philippson, Die Rhetorik und
Jiidische Homiletik, Leipsic, 1890; S. Maybaum, Jtidische
Hlomiletik, Berlin, 1890; 8. Back, Die Juldischen Prediger,
Sittenlehren und A pologeten vom 13. bis zum 18. Jahrhun-
derts, Berlin, 1895; idem, Die Darschanim vom 15. bis Ende
des 18. Jahrhunderts, in Winter and Winsche, Jiidische Lit-
teratur, ii. 609-696: M. Kayserling, Predigt, ib. iii. 772-824;
idem, Bibliothek Jiidischer Kanzelredner, Introduction;
M. Joseph, About Preaching, in J. Q. R. iii, 120-145; M. Le-
vin, in Jahrb. fiir Jidische Gesch. und Literatur, vi. 104-
119, Berlin, 1903 ; the many volumes of sermons, most of which
are mentioned by title in Maybaum’s selection of texts and
themes for Sabbaths and holy days in the appendix to his Jiti-
dische Homiletik, pp. 191-385.
K D. P.
HOMILETISCHE MONATSSCHRIFT,
DIE. See PERIODICALS,
HOMUNCULUS. Sce GOLEM.
HONDURAS. See SouTH AND CENTRAL AMER-
ICA,
HONEY (w27): Often mentioned in the Old Tes-
tament as a choice article of food. It was eaten
alone (Judges xiv. 9; I Sam. xiv. 27, ef al.), as well
as with other foods. In pastry it took the place of
sugar (Ex. xvi. 31), It was, with milk, the food of
children (Isa. vii. 15). Canaan is frequently praised
as a land “flowing with milk and honey ” (Ex. iii. 8,
etal.; Jer. xi. 5; Ezek. xx. 6). Palestine abounded
and still abounds in wild bees, but it is to be as-
sumed that bees were domesticated in Palestine in
Biblical times. Ina few passages (e.g., Gen. xlili.
11; Ezek. xxvii. 17) “debash ” may denote artiticial
honey, or sirup, prepared from the juice of various
fruits, which to the present day forms, under the
name of “dibs,” an important article of export in
Syria and Palestine (comp. Bliss, “A Mound of Many
Cities,” pp. 69-71, who describes an apparatus for
boiling down fruit into a sirup, found at Tell al-
Adolf
Jellinek.
Hasi, the ancient Lachish). Though the first-fruits of
honey were brought to the sanctuary (II Chron.
XXXi. 5), it was excluded from sacrifices on account
of its fermenting properties (Lev. ii. 11; comp.
Pliny, “ Historia Naturalis,” xi. 15). “ Because com-
ing from an unclean animal” is the reason given by
Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 255, for its exclusion. On
account of its sweetness, honey is used as a figure
for gracious and pleasant things (for the words of
God, Ps. xix. 11 [A. V. 10], cxix. 108; for wisdom,
Prov. xxiv. 138, xxv. 16; for the speech of a friend,
Prov. xvi, 24; Cant. iv. 11).
The Talmud dilates on the preciousness of honey.
It is one-sixtieth as sweet as manna (Ber. 57b), and
to infants manna had the taste of honey (Yoma
75b); it lighteth up the eye of man (7b, 88b; comp.
I Sam. xiv. 27). A drink composed of honey, wine,
and oil is mentioned under the name of “nomelim ”
or “onomelin” (otvéwerr; Ter. xi. 1; Shab. 189b).
Honey by itself was considered a beverage (Maksh.
v. 9; comp. Kid. 48b). In taking out the combs
(“hallot”; comp. the Biblical “ya‘arah,” I ‘Sam.
xiv. 27; Cant. v. 1) from the hive (“kawweret ”),
which was made of straw < r wickerwork, the bees
were first stupetied by smoke; at least two combs
were left in the hive as food for the bees during the
winter (B. B. 80a; Kelim xvi. 7). Adulteration of
honey by admixture of water or flour is referred to
(Sotah 48b; Maksh. v. 9). Honey was produced
from dates (Ter. xi. 2; comp. Josephus, “B. J.” v. 8).
For the medicinal use of honey see Ber. 44b; Shab.
76b, 154b; B. M. 38a. The employment of honey in
embalming is mentioned by Josephus (“ Ant.” xiv.
7,84; comp. Pliny, lc. xv. 18; B. B. 3b). See
BEE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Robinson, Researches, ii. 717; Bochart, Hie-
rozoicon, iii. 365; L. Lewysohn, Zoologie des Talmudads, p. 302.
E. G. H. I. M. C.
HONI HA-ME‘AGGEL. See OnrAs (HA-
ME‘AGGEL).
HONIG, ISRAEL (EDLER VON HONIGS-
BERG): Austrian tobacco-manufacturer; born at
Kuttenplan, Bohemia, Oct., 1724; died at Vienna
Jan. 19, 1808, He is noteworthy in the history of the
Austrian Jews as the first among them to be ennobled.
The son of a poor merchant, he received his early in-
struction in Bible and Talmud from his father. At
the age of thirteen he went to Prague to continue his
Talmudic studies, but two years later was obliged
to join his father in business. During his business
trips in company with his brother Moses he became
acquainted with the tobacco industry, which at that
time was almost unknown in Austria. Jn 1752 he
was able, with his father and brother, to take over
the lease of the tobacco trade of Prague, which lease,
under contract with the government, he extended
to several Austrian provinces. During the Seven
Years’ war his firm held the imperial army pro-
vision contracts. The empress Maria Theresa re-
warded his services by twice granting him letters
patent (“ Freibriefe”). In conformity with the wish
of Emperor Joseph II., Hénig surrendered his con-
tract in 1788, before its expiration, and the emperor
then appointed him councilor and “ Tabak- und Sie-
gelgefilldirektor,” and in the following year “Ban-
Kaldirektor.” In 1789 the emperor conferred upon
Honig
Hope
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
458
him the patent of hereditary nobility with the title
“Edler von Hénigsberg.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wurzbach, Biog. Lex. des Kaiserthums-
Oesterreich, ix. 121 et seq.; Busch, Kalender und Jahrb.
ftir Israeliten auf das Schattjahr 1848 = 5608, ed © seq.
8 ‘ E.
HONIG, SIDONIE: Austrian actress; born at
Vienna 1871; prize-winner at the Vienna Conserva-
torium. She made her début in 1889, at the Hof-
theater, Carlsruhe, as Jane Zyre in “Die Waise aus
Lowood.” In 1890 she went to the Deutsche Volks-
theater, Vienna. Two years later she joined the
Stadttheater, Hamburg. In addition to Jane Hyre,
her most successful réles are Desdemona, Rutland,
and Philippine Weiser.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Das Geistige Wien, i. 221; Fliggen, Btihnen-
Lexikon, p. 146.
8. E. Ms.
HONIGSMANN, OSWALD: Austrian dep-
uty; born in Rzeszow, Austrian Galicia, Dec. 2,
1824; died Oct. 24, 1880. He was educated at Lem-
berg, where he graduated as doctor of law. His
democratic tendencies delayed his admission to the
bar in Lemberg for several years. Hénigsmann was
a member of both the city and communal councils of
Lemberg. He defended Dr. Florian Ziemialkowski,
afterward minister, who was accused of participa-
tion in the Polish revolution of 1868.
Hdnigsmann represented the city of Brody in the
Galician Diet, and delivered (Oct. 8, 1868) an effect-
ive speech in behalf of the emancipation of the
Jews, bringing about a victory for Franz Smolka’s
efforts in that direction. In 1872 he settled in
Vienna. In 1878, after a hard campaign, Honigs-
mann was returned to the Austrian Parliament from
the Galician district of Kolomea-Sniatyn-Buczacz.
S L. Y.
HONOR (Hebr. “kabod”; Aramaic, “yekar”; in
A. V. used also as translation of “hadar”): Either
the distinction or excellence manifested by a man,
or the mark of distinction accorded to him. “ Ka-
bod,” when a manifestation of God, is translated
“glory” (Ex. xvi. 10, and elsewhere); occasionally
also when predicated of man (Ps. Ixii. 7; Prov. iii.
30); but when coupled with “hod” (= “glory ”) it
is rendered “honor” (Ps. xxix. 2; Mal. i. 6). From
God comes honor to man (I Chron. xxix. 12; Ps.
_vili. 6 [A. V. 5]; I Kings iii. 18; Dan. v. 18).
Honor comes through wisdom (Prov, iii. 16, iv. 8)
and fear of the Lord (2). xxii. 4). “Before honor is
humility ” (Prov. xv. 33, xviii. 12); the humble in
spirit upholds it (Prov. xxix. 33). Honor is due to
God. (Prov. iii. 9; Mal. i.6; comp. Isa. xxix. 13;
Prov. xiv, 31), to parents (Ex. xx, 12), to the aged
(Lev. xix. 32), to the Sabbath (Isa. lviii. 18), and to
those that fear the Lord (Ps, xv. 4).
Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus) enlarges upon the idea of
honor: the honor of parents (“Take not honor to
thyself by the shame of thy father, for it is no honor
to thee”; iii. 10, Greek); the honor of the priest (vii.
31); the honor of those that fear the Lord, whose
honor is greater than that of judges and potentates
(x. 19-24): the honor of self, or self-respect (x. 28-
31, xli. 12). God being the source of all glory and
honor (I Chron. xvi. 27; Ps. xcvi. 6, civ. 1), man,
endowed by Him with honor (Ps. viii. 5-6), claims
honor or recognition by his fellow man. “Let the
honor of thy fellow man be as near to thee as thine
own” (Abotii. 10; see especially Ab. R. N. xv., Re-
cension A; xxix., Recension B [ed. Schechter, p. 60}).
“Who is honored? He that honors mankind; for it
is said, ‘Forthem that honor me I will honor’” (I
Sam. ii. 80; Abotiv. 1). “Great is the honor due
to mankind; it supersedes a prohibition of the Law ”
(Ber. 19b; comp. B. K. 79b). “He who seeks honor
by the shame of his fellow man has no share in the
world to come” (Gen. R.i.; comp. Meg. 28a). “He
who honors the Torah ig honored by mankind”;
“Selfish desire for honor is one of the things that
drive man out of the world” (Abot iv. 4, 6, 21).
On the other hand, true honor “is one of the things
befitting the righteous and of benefit to the world”
(Abot vi. 8).
Honor is, above all, due to God, whose glory (hon-
or) fills the world (Ber. 48b; Yoma 88a; Hag. 11b).
Similar to the honor of God are the honor of parents
(Yer. Peahi. 15c; Sifra, Kedoshim, i1.; Kid. 30 ef
seq.) and the honorof the teachers of the Law (Kid.
32b et seg.; Shab, 114a); even if the latter be wiser
in but one thing, honor is due them (Abot vi. 8;
Pes. 118b); even a teacher who has forgotten his
learning is entitled to honor (Ber. 8b). Honor is due
to the assembly (Yoma 70a; Sotah 89b; M. K. 21b);
to pupils and associates (Abot iv. 12); to the wife
(B. M. 59a; Hul. 44b); to oneself, through cleanliness
(see Hille] in Lev. R. xxxiv.) and proper garments
(Shab. 118b), as wellas through the labor which ren-
ders man independent (Ned. 49b). “Itis not the place
that honors the man, but the man that honors the
place” (Ta‘an. 21b). K.
HONORIUS: Emperor of the Western Roman
Empire (895-423). The lawsof Arcavivs, the East-
ern emperor, regarding the Jews were signed also by
Honorius, and applied at first equally to the West-
ern Empire. But Honorius later promulgated inde-
pendent laws in reference to them, mostly with hos-
tile intent. He annulled the decree exempting the
Jews of Apulia and Calabria from holding curial of-
fices (“ Codex Theodosianus,” xii. 1, $10). In 396 he
assured state protection to the “illustrious” patriarch
of the Jews, but ina law dated from Milan, April
11, 399, he designated the patriarch as a “robber of
the Jews,” forbade the payment of the patriarch’s
tax, and seized for the royal treasury the sum al-
ready collected. It is possible that he merely in-
tended thereby to erect a barrier between his domin-
ions and those of his brother Arcadius. Five years
later (July 25, 404), however, he again permitted as
a special favor the collection of the patriarch’s tax
(ib. xvi. 8,817). On April 22, 404, he decreed at
Rome that Jews and Samaritans should not be ad-
mitted into the army (¢b. xvi. 8, § 16), a decrce that
the Jews certainly did not regard as a deprivation,
but as a privilege.
From that time on the laws of the Western empire
were in general more favorable than those of the
Eastern. In 409 the authorities were enjoined to re-
spect the Sabbath of the Jews, and neither to call
them into court nor impose work upon them on
that day (2. ii. 8, § 3); but in 412 this law was
changed. At the same time disturbance of the Jew-
459
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Honig
Hope
ish worship and robbing of synagogues were forbid-
den, and Jews were even permitted to keep Christian
slaves, on condition, however, of not converting
them to Judaism, MHonorius also permitted them to
study and practise law, remarking that their unfit-
ness for military service did not imply unfitness for
the legal profession. Baptized Jews were permitted
to return to Judaism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Gans, in Zunz, Zeit. flir Wissenschaft des
Judenthums, p. 271: Jost, Gesch. der Juden, iv. + Gratz,
Gesch. 3d ed., iv. 359; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Ju-
den in Rom, i. 124 et seq.
G. S. Kr.
HOOGSTRATEN (HOCHSTRATEN), JA-
COBVAN: Belgian controversialist; born at Hoog-
straeten, Belgium, about 1460; died at Cologne Jan.
21, 1527. He studied at Louvain and Cologne, and
became prior of a Dominican convent, professor of
theology at Cologne University, and inquisitor (cen-
sor et questor fidet) in the archbishoprics of Cologne,
Mayence, and Treves. <A fanatical opponent of the
humanists and of the Reformation, he exercised a
strong influence in the councils of the Church. He
took under his protection the baptized Jew John
Pfefferkorn, and assisted him in his attacks upon
his former coreligionists and upon Reuchlin. In his
ambition to emulate the example of his Spanish
predecessors, Torquemada and Ximenes, he attacked
the Talmud and other Jewish books, with their de-
fenders. With his assistance, Pfefferkorn, on Aug.
19, 1509, secured from the emperor Maximilian au-
thority to confiscate and examine all Jewish writings
and to destroy those directed against the Christian
faith. When these plans failed, Pfefferkorn turned
upon Reuchlin, who had given a formal] opinion
against the suppression of the Jewish books. At-
tacked by Pfefferkorn (1511) in a gross libel under
the title of “ Handspiegel,” Reuchlin retorted in his
“ Augenspiegel.” Hoogstraten and the other mem-
bers of the Cologne faculty declared the “ Augen-
spiegel” a dangerous book, and called upon its au-
thor to recant. Reuchlin successfully refuted their
accusations in “ Defensio Contra Calumniatores Suos
Colonienses ” (Tiibingen, 1518).
Notwithstanding an imperial edict imposing si-
lence upon both parties, the Dominicans continued
the controversy. In his capacity as inquisitor, and
without authorization from his provincial, Hoog-
straten summoned Reuchlin (Sept. 15, 1518) to ap-
pear within six days before the ecclesiastical court
of Mayence to be tried on the charges of favoring
the Jews and of heresy. On Sept. 20, with a num-
ber of Dominicans, Hoogstraten arrived at Mayence,
and opened the session as accuser and judge. He
was encouraged in his procedure by the universities
of Cologne, Louvain, and Erfurt, which had declared
against Reuchlin. At this point Archbishop Uriel
of Mayence interfered; and Pope Leo X. authorized
the Bishop of Speyer to decide the question. Mean-
while Hoogstraten had Reuchlin’s “ Augenspiegel ”
publicly burned at Cologne. On March 29, 1514,
the Bishop of Speyer pronounced judgment in favor
of Reuchlin, and condemned Hoogstraten to pay the
expenses incurred (111 guilders).
Against this decision Hoogstraten appealed to the
pope, founding his hope of success upon the venal-
ity of the court of Rome. “At Rome everything
can be had for money,” he used to say. At Rome
he made use of all the means at his disposal, but he
had to content himself with a decision of the pope
indetinitely postponing the trial (July, 1516). The
Dominicans, intimidated by Knight Franz von
Sickingen, divested Hoogstraten of the offices of
prior and inquisitor. But four years later, Jan. 23,
1520, the pope reversed the judgment of the Bishop
of Speyer, condemned Reuchlin’s “ Augenspiegel,”
and reinstated Hoogstraten.
During these four years Hoogstraten and Ortuin
Gratius were the butt of satirical attacks in the “ Epis-
tole Obscurorum Virorum.” In an“ Apologia” (Co-
logne, 1518), addressed to the pope, Hoogstraten de-
fended himself against such attacks, and especially
against George Benignus, a warm defender of Reuch-
lin, and stigmatized the latter as a heretic and
a champion of the Jews. Against this pamphlet
Reuchlin, Busch, and Hutten addressed letters to Her-
mann von Neuenaar, who published them under the
title “ Epistole Trium Illustrium Virorum.” Neuc-
naar, who, in a letter to Emperor Maximilian, had
called Hoogstraten “the pestilence of Germany,” also
published an apology of Reuculin’s entitled “ Defen-
sio Nuper ex Urbe Roma Allata,” which Hoogstraten
auswered in “Apologia Secunda” (Cologne, 1519).
In the same year he wrote “ Destructio Cabal,” in
which he endeavored to refute Reuchlin’s cabalistic
works, but showed his own ignorance of this liter-
ature.
In Luther Hoogstraten saw the most dangerous
enemy of the Church. Chiefly at his instigation,
Luther’s writings were burned at Cologne (Nov. 27,
1519). Hoogstraten’s “Colloquia cum Divo Augus-
tino” (1521), “De Christiana Libertate Tractatus V
Contra Lutherum ” (1526), and “ Disputationes Con-
tra Lutherum Aliquot” were directed against Lu-
ther. In these and in other polemical writings he
defended the worship of saints, the celibacy of
priests, and other institutions of the Church, and
justified the burning of two heretics for which he
was mainly responsible.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Deutsche Biog.; Gritz, Gesch. ix. 68-
2138; Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encye. s.v. Reuchlin: Meyerhoff,
Reuchlin und Seine Zeit, Leipsic, 18381; Ludwig Geiger,
Reuchlin, Sein Leben und Seine Werke, ib. 1871; Wetzer
and Welte’s Kirchenlexikon.
D. 8S. Man.
HOORNBEEK, JOHN: Dutch controversialist
of the seventeenth century. He was the author of
“Libri VIII pro Convincendis et Convertendis Ju-
dis,” a manual for missionaries to the Jews, with
copious prolegomena(Leyden-Amsterdam, 1655), Al-
though he was apparently insympathy with the Jews,
his real purpose was to attack their religion. These
eight books, without the prolegomena, had already ap-
peared under the title “ Disputationes Anti-Judaice ”
(Utrecht, 1645). He also wrote “Summa Controver-
siarum Religionis cum Infidelibus,” a manual for
missionaries to the heathen (Frankfort-on-the-Main,
1697).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. i. 407; Gritz, Geseh. x. 118.
D S. Man.
HOPE: The expectation of something desired.
The Hebrew terms for “hope” are “ tik wah” and “ se-
ber,” while “mikweh” and “kislah ” denote “ trust ”;
and “tohelet” signifies “expectation,”
Hope
Horayot
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
460
Biblical Data: Hope, a characteristic element
of religionin general, is fundamentally such in the
Old Testament.
‘*The Lord is my portion, saith my soul; therefore will I hope
in him. The Lord is good unto them that wait for him, to the
soul that seeketh him. It is good that a man should hope and
quietly wait for the salvation of the Lord’’ (Lam. iii. 24-26),
“Trust ye in the Lord forever” (Isa. xxvi. 4). ‘*To God alone
silently submit, O my soul; for my hope depends upon him”
(Ps. Lxii. 5, Hebr.; comp. éb. 1xxi. 5).
This hope was kindled by the firm belief that the
Lord, the Creator of the world, controls all things
for the special happiness of man. This was espe-
cially felt in regard to Israel, God being the Re-
deemer (Ex. vi. 6-8; comp. Deut. vii. 6; Isa. xliii.
4, lxv. 19-25; Ps. ciii. 18). Israel was the chosen
people, and God, the friend of the Patriarchs, its
special guardian (Isa. xli. 8, xlviii. 20). Relying on
the experiences of the past and on the promise of
their God for the future, the hope of the people
naturally turned to the Lord in all emergencies.
“O the hope of Israel, the savior thereof in time of
trouble” (Jer. xiv. 8; comp. 2), xvii. 18, 1.7; Ps.
xivi. 5, cxix. 116). —
In the darkest hour of adversity the Prophets did
not despair for Israel. When Jerusalem was deso-
late and in captivity, the voice of prophecy spoke
most confidently, pointing back to the divine guid-
ance that had watched over the race. Nor was the
hope of a brighter future ever entirely lost by the
people; especially did it increase after the Macca-
bean rising. Whenever any incongruity appeared
between their actual condition and the belief that
the Israelites were especially favored by Providence,
refuge was taken in the hope of the establishment of
the kingdom of God. When Antiochus Epiphanes
(175-163) assailed the religion of the Fathers, Daniel
dreamed of the kingdomof Heaven. The righteous
nation, being immortal, was to be delivered from
thraldom and ushered into an era of peace and pros-
perity; and from that kingdom belief in the true
God was to spread over the face of the earth (see
PROPHECY).
Hope was further based upon the conviction that
God was the moral governorand judge of the world.
Thus, the ever-recurring theme of prophecy and
psalm and the basic thought of the Wisdom litera-
ture are the final vindication of virtue and the de-
struction of vice. “The hope of the righteons shall
be gladness: but the expectation of the wicked shall
perish ” (Prov. x. 28; comp. Ps. ix. 19, xxxiii. 5,
Xlvii. 2 et seg., xevii.). This belief stayed the Jew-
ish mind when face to face with the great mysteries
of life. No matter what were the doubts produced
by foreign doctrine, confidence in the moral govern-
ment of the universe remained steadfast.
“Is not thy fear [of God] thy confidence, and thy hope the in-
tegrity of thy ways?” (Job iv. 6, Hebr.). ‘* Blessed is the man
that maketh the Lord his trust” (Ps. xl. 4). “God is our
refuge and strength, a very present help in trouble” (ib. xlvi.
1; comp. Job v. 16; Ps. lvii. 8, 1xxxv. 9; Isa. liv. 10).
In the Apocrypha and the Talmud: In the
Apocrypha the following passages occur:
‘Trust in Him, and He will help thee; order thy ways aright
and set thy hope on Him” (Ecclus. [Sirach] ii. 6). ** Whatso-
ever is brought upon thee, take cheerfully, and be patient when
thou art changed to a low estate’ (ib. ii. 4). * Ye that fear the
Lord, believe Him; and your reward shall not fail. Ye that
fear the Lord, hope for good, and for everlasting joy and mercy ”’
(ib. ii. 8-9). “*For though they be punished in the sight of
men, yet is their hope full of immortality’? (Wisdom iii. 4).
** But by such works hast Thou taugbt Tby people that the Just
man should be merciful, and hast made Thy children to be of a
good hope”’ (ib. xii. 19). “* There is promised us an everlasting
hope’? (If Esd. vii. 50). “For my hope ts in the Everlasting ”’
(Baruch iv. 22; comp. Ecclus. [Sirach] xiii. 6, xxiv. 18, xxxiv.
13, xlix. 10; II Macc. ii. 17; vii. 11, 14, 20; ix. 20).
The following are some of the Talmudic refer-
ences to hope:
*Tohim who puts his hope in God will the Lord be a pro-
tection in this world and in the world hereafter” (Men. 29b).
* Those who have faith in God need not worry about the coming
day’ (Sotah 48b). ‘*Man ought to accustom himself to say,
‘All that happens, God lets happen for the best’ ’? (Yoma 76a).
** All Israel will inherit the future world” (Sanh. x. 1).
Hope ina brighter day, based upon ardent faith
in God's justiceand in His special friendship for the
descendants of Jacob, has been the stay and conso-
lation of the Jew throughout the ages. The darker
the present, the brighter appears the future. Comp.
Agadat Bereshit, § 42; Midrash ha-Gadol, pp. 414
et seq.
K, A. G.
HOPHNI (°35n): The older of Eli’s two sons
who officiated as priests in the tabernacle of Shiloh
(I Sam. i. 3). Hophni and his younger brother
Phinehas are reproved as sons of Belial, and as
rapacious and lustful (I Sam. ii. 12-17, 22), Their
misdeeds provoked the indignation of the people,
and the divine curse was pronounced first by an un-
known prophet and afterw rd by Samuel (I Sam. ii.
23-36, iii. 11-14). They were both killed on the
same day, ina battle between the Israelites and the
Philistines (I Sam. iv. 11). The Talmudists do not
agree as to the wickedness of both brothers: Rab
concluded (Shab. 55b) that Phinehas was not guilty
of any of the crimes mentioned, but that Hophni
alone committed them; but R. Jonathan, quoted by
R. Samuel b. Nahmani (/.c.), declares that neither
was wicked, and that the words in which the crimes
are imputed to them in I Sam. ii. 22 have a figurative
meaning in this instance,
E, G. H. M. SEt.
HOPHRA (y75n): King of Egypt at the time of
the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar.
The name occurs but once in the Bible (Jer. xliv. 30);
in the other passages where this king is referred to
(Jer. xxxvii. 5, 7, 11; Ezek. xxix, 2 et seq.) he ig
called “ Pharaoh.” He is to be identified with the
'‘Ovagone of Manetho and the ’Azpi7c of Herodotus and
Diodorus. Hophra was the fourth king of the
twenty-sixth dynasty, the son of Psammetichus IT.
and grandson of Necho. When Jerusalem was be-
sieged by Nebuchadnezzar, Hophra marched to the
assistance of the Jews, and the siege was interrupted
for a short time (Jer. xxxvii. 5, 7, 11). According
to Herodotus (ii. 161), Hophra also helped the Tyr-
ians against Nebuchadnezzar, and had a certain de-
gree of success. It is very likely that the words of
Ezekiel xxix. 18 refer to this event. Jeremiah
(xliv. 30) and Ezekiel (xxix. 2-xxxii.) predicted the
fall of Hophra and Egypt through the Babylonians;
but according to historical statements these predic-
tions were not fulfiiled. Hophra was dethroned by
Amasis and strangled by the mob (Ilerodotus, ii. 169).
E. G, H. M. SEL.
461
HOR (s7 3Nn): 1. Mountain on the border-land
of Idumea; the next stopping-place after Kadesh of
the children of Isracl during their wanderings in
the wilderness; famous as the scene of Aaron’s
death (Num. Xx. 22 e¢ seg., XXxili. 37, and elsewhere).
Josephus (“ Ant.” iv. 4, 8 7%, without giving the
name, says that Aaron died on a mountain near
Petra; the same topography is indicated by Euse-
bius (* Onomasticon,” s.z.“Or”). This corresponds
With the situation of Jabal Harun (“the mountain of
Aaron”), atwo-peaked mountain on the eastern edge
of Wadi al-‘Arabah. ‘The double peak may account
for the Biblical name “ Hor ha-Har” (“a mountain
ona mountain”; comp. Rashi to Num. xx. 232).
2. Mountain which marked the northern limit of
the inheritance of the Israelites in the land of Canaan
(Num, xxxiv. 7-8). The line was to be drawn from
the Mediterranean Sea to Mount Hor, and thence to
Hamath. The term “ Hor ha-Har” (Num. J.c.) indi-
cates, probably, some conspicuous mountain, per-
haps Mount Hermon. But pseudo-Jonathan renders
it, as well as No. 1, by “Tawros Umanos”; and the
Jerusalem Targum renders it by “Tawros Manos”
(=“Mount Amanus”), apparently identifying it
with the “Amana” of Cant. iv. 8. In the Talmud
the northern limit of the Holy Land is Ture Amnon
(Git. 8a) or Ture Amanah (Yer. Sheb. vi. 1), on
which mountain there is a place called “ Kapelaria.”
According to Estori Farhi (“ Kaftor wa. Ferah,” ed.
Berlin, ii. 42), the Biblical Mount Hor is to be
identified with Jabal al-Akra‘, the ancient Mons
Casius, between Latakia and Antioch. Ue supports
his contention by identifyimg several places in the
territory of Asher, along the northern frontier, with
towns in the neighborhood of Jabal al-Akra‘. His
contention is alsosupported by the Targuin of Jeru-
salem, which renders the “Hamath” of Num. xxxiv.
8 by “Antioch.” Schwarz (“Das Heilige Land,” p.
18), refuting Estori’s opinion, identifies Mount Hor
with the Ras al-Shakka, on the road from Tripoli to
Beirut.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Neubauer, G. 7. pp. 8, 9; McClintock and
Strong, Cyc. $.v.; Smith, Dict. of Bible, s.v.
M. S21.
EK. G. H.
HORAM: King of Gezer at the time of the war
between Joshua and the inhabitants of the land of
Canaan. Horam went to the assistance of Lachish,
but Joshua slew him and all his people (Josh. x. 38).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HORAYOT (“decisions”): The name of a Tal-
mudic treatise in Seder Nezikin (“damages”), the
fourth in order of the six “sedarim” of the Mishnah.
In the Mishnah edition it occupies the tenth and last
place in the “seder”; in the Babylonian Talmud the
ninth place, in the Jerusalem Talmud the eighth.
The treatise has gemara in both Talmuds. It con-
sists of three chapters in the Mishnah and of two in
the Tosefta, and treats of the special sin-offerings
to be brought by the community, the anointed
priest, and the “nasi” (ruler) for sins committed un-
wittingly. The Biblical law (Lev. iv.) distinguishes,
with regard to the kind of sacrifice and the manner of
offering, between « private individual, an anointed
priest, a nasi, and anentire community. A private
individual who transgressed a commandment unwit-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hope
Horayot
tingly (“shogeg ”) was required to offer a female kid,
@ prince (“nasi”) a male kid, and an anointed priest
or a community a ram. Various forms connected
with the offering of the sacrifice are also prescribed
for each case. The discussion of these laws occu-
pies the greater part of the treatise.
Ch. I. The special communal offering may be
brought only when thesin was committed in accord-
ance with an erroneous enactment passed by the
higher court. Maimonides (introduc-
Sacrifice tion to commentary on the mishnah of
for Un-_ this treatise) sums up the conditions
intentional necessary for the bringing of such a
Sins. sacrifice, found in the first and second
chapters, as follows: (1) the head of
the Sanhedrin and all its members must have been
present when the decision was rendered; (2) every
one of them must have been fully qualified to serve as
a member of that body; (8) the decision must have
been passed by a unanimous vote; (4) the error must
concern a Biblical law; (5) at least a majority of the
people must have followed the decision in practise;
(6) those who followed the decision in practise must
have been unaware of the mistake, and must have sup-
posed that they were acting in accordance with law;
(7) the error must have been due merely to ignorance
of a matter of detail, and not toignorance of the ex-
istence of the whole Biblical law in question. Unless
these conditions are present every one of those who
has acted in accordance with the erroneous enact-
ment must bring an individual offering.
Ch. II. The anointed priest who had interpreted
some Biblical law erroneously and had acted accord-
ingly was required to bring a special sacrifice. The
same conditions that governed the case of an errone-
ous enactment of the court with regard to the prac-
tise of the community governed also the erroneous
decision of the anointed priest with regard to his
own practise, The laws regarding the special sac-
rifice of the nasi are also discussed in this chapter.
Ch. III. In the cases of the anointed priest and
the nasi, whose tenure of office is temporary, a ques-
tion might arise as to the kind of sacrifice they must
bring for sins committed before entering upon their
respective offices, or after relinquishing them. If
the sin was committed before they assumed office,
they were both regarded as private individuals, and
were obliged to bring a female kid. If, however, the
sin was committed after they had relinquished their
offices, the nasi was regarded as an individual, while
the status of the anointed priest was unchanged.
After the Mishnah has defined the term “anointed
priest ” and determined his position in the Temple,
it enters upon a discussion of matters
Precedence. of priority —as between man and
woman in cases of charity, or as re-
gardsthereturn of a lostobject. It then enumerates
the various castes among the Jewsand their order of
priority with regard to the calling up to read the
Law, etc. — priests, Levites, Israelites, illegitimates,
“netinim ” (the Gibeonites), proselytes, and freed
slaves. In conclusion, the following significant re-
mark is made: “This is only when all other things
are equal, but in the case of an ignorant priest and
a scholar who is an illegitimate, the latter must pre-
cede the priest in all honors.”
Horeb
Horology
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
462
The gemara is mainly devoted to the interpreta-
tion of the laws of the Mishnah, with a few hag-
gadic digrcssions in the third chapter. Rashi’s com-
mentary is much more profuse here than in other
parts of the Talmud, and the tosafot published in
the new Wilna edition of 1889 extend only to the
first two chapters, the style and method, mainly of
an interpretative nature, being very different from
those of the tosafot to other books, In the same
edition, besides the commentary of Hananceel, there
is a commentary called “Tosafot ha-Rosh,” attrib-
uted to Asher b. Jehiel. The laws of Horayot are
classified in Maimonides’ “ Yad” under “Shegagot,”
xii.-xv.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Schwab, Le Talmud de Jerusalem, xi., Paris,
1889; Wiinsche, Der Babylonische Talmud, vol. iii., part 2,
Leipsic, 1889; idem, Der Jerusalemische Talmud, hag-
gadic part, pp. 291-296, Zurich, 1880; Rabbinowitz, Législa-
tion Civile du Thalmud, vol. v., Paris, 1880
J H. G.
BE. C.
HOREB, MOUNT. See Srnat.
HOREM (on = “sacred” or “ fortified”): For-
tified city of Naphtali, named with Iron and Mig-
dalel (Josh. xix. 88). It is generally identified with
the modern Hurah, west of Kedesh-naphtali.
KE, G. I. M. SEL.
HORESH: The word swsns, indicating the
place in the wilderness of Ziph where David hid
himself from Saul (I Sam. xxiii. 15, 18, 19), gener-
ally translated “in the wood,” is taken in the R. V.
(tb. xxxiii. 15, margin) and by several modern crit-
ics as a proper name. The final 7 is considered by
them as the local “ postpositive,” though it never
occurs elsewhcre in a word with the preposition 3.
The word has the appearance of a proper name; if
it be one it must be translated “in Horeshah.” The
Septuagint version renders ’ev 79 kavg, reading
nwina, “in the new city.”
E, G. Hh. M. SEL.
HOR-HAGIDGAD (93937 4N): Place in the
desert where the Israelites encamped; said to be sit-
uated between Bene-jaakan and Jotbathah (Num.
xxxiii. 32, 33; in R. V. “ Hor-haggidgad ”). In Deut.
x. 7 the name is changed to “Gudgodah” (715557).
Robinson (“ Researches,” i. 267) mentions a Wadi al-
Ghudaghid on the west side of the ‘Arabah.
BE. G. H. M. SEL.
HORI (nn; plural, Horites, op snmn = “the
cave-dwellers”): 1, Surname of Seir, who, with his
descendants, the Horites, occupied the land subse-
quently called “ Edom ” (Gen, xxxvi, 20 e¢seg.). The
name occurs in the plural only once (Deut. ii. 12),
and with the definite article; its meaning indicates
the nature of the dwellings of the aboriginal inhab-
itants of _Idumiea, and is confirmed by the presence
of excavated dwellings in the mountains of Edom.
The Horites are first mentioned in connection with
their defeat by Chedorlaomer and his allies in the
time of Abraham (Gen. xiv. 6). They were finally
destroyed by the Edomites, who occupied their land
(Deut. ii. 12, 22; see Epom).
2. Son of Lotan, a Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 22; I
Chron. i. 39),
3. Father of Shaphat, who represented the tribe
of Simeon among the spies sent by Moses into Ca-
naan (Num. xiii. 5). In this case the name is writ-
ten "nN, and may mean “the noble.”
E. G. Ht. M. SEL.
HORMAH (nds = “inviolable,” “asylum”; in
Biblical folk-etymology it is explained as signify-
ing “ under the ban [“ herem ”],” “devoted to destruc-
tion”): Name of acity, usually found without the
article, but in Num. xiv. 45 (Hebr.) written “ha-
Hormah.” It is not certain whether only one, or
more than one, place is represented by the name,
though the latter is more probable. Hormah is
mentioned between Chesil and Ziklag in the list of
the “uttermost cities ” of Judah, toward the territory
of Edom “southward,” in the Negeb (Josh. xv. 21,
30-81). It is also among the places allotted to
Simeon, and is mentioned between Bethul and Zik-
lag (Josh. xix. 4-5; I Chron. iv. 30).
The “eldersof Judah . . . which were in Hormah”
were included by David among those that shared in
the distribution of the spoils captured from the
Amalekites (I Sam. xxx. 30). Situated in the south-
western part of the Judean Negeb, this Hormah can
not well be held to be identical with the Hormah
described as being in Scir, though modern critics
suggest the emendation “mi-Se‘ir” = “from Seir,”
in the account of the repulse the invading Israclites
met at the hands of the Canaanites (Deut. i. 44).
This Hormah must have been situated not far from
Kadesh (Num. xiv. 45). It is not plain to which of
these two localities (if they are distinct) the narra-
tive that is twice given to account for the name
(Num. xxi. 1-3; Judgesi. 17) refers. The first pas-
sage suggests that the older native name was
“Arad”; with the neighboring cities the place was
destroyed by the Israelites during their earlier wan-
derings, as a punishment for the hostilities of its
king. Hence the new name, “devoted to destruc-
tion.” The second passage (Judges i. 17) gives
“Zephath ” asthe original appellation; Judah aiding
Simeon to destroy it, it came to be known as “ Hor-
mah.” Some critics (among them Johannes Bach-
mann) have contended that the city was twice des-
troyed; othersexplain that Num. xxi. 3 narrates by
anticipation the destruction of the town by Judah
and Simeon.
Arad and Zephath must then also be held to be
identical, which raises new difficulties. For this
reason the change of “ Zephath ” into “ Arad” in the
reading of Judges i. 17 has been suggested, while
Moore (“Judges,” p. 86) would omit the words
“melek Arad” in Num. xxi. 1 (Hebr.) as an inter-
polation. This would leave the two passages with-
out any connection, except in that they both contain
explanations of the name “Hormah.” Robinson
connects Zephath with the pass Nakb al-Safa, south-
east of Kurnub (“ Researches,” 2d ed., ii. 181). Row-
lands identifies it with Sebata or Sebaita (see Will-
iams, “Holy City,” 2d ed., i. 464), and is supported
by Palmer (“The Desert of the Exodus,” pp. 371
et seq.). Moore (i.c.) rejects both identifications.
Cheyne (“Encyc. Bibl.”) solves the difficulties by
the transposition of the consonants of the name ADAG
to read MONT, which, of course, is then brought into
relation with the Jerahmeelites. EK. G. H.
463
HORN, EDUARD.
(EDUARD Horn).
HORNET. = See INSECTS.
HORNS OF MOSES: Owing to the represen-
tations of the old painters and sculptors, it has be-
come a wide-spread belief that Moses, when he came
down from Mount Sinai with the tables of the Law,
had two horns on his forehead. This strange idea,
however, is based upon a wrong interpretation of
Ex. xxxiv. 29, 35, 195 WW pop mm (“And behold
the skin of his face shone”), in which fp means “to
shine” (comp. Hab. iii. 4, % TD Dp = “ bright-
hess was on his side ”).
The old translations give |\p = “shine,” with the
exception of Aquila and the Vulgate, which read “ his
face had horns,” This misunderstanding, however,
may have been favored by the Babylonian and Egyp-
tian conception of horned deities (Sin, Ammon), and
by the legend of the two-horned Alexander the
Great (see the Koran, sura xvili. 85).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cheyne and Black, Encyc. Bibl. s.v.; Dill-
C.
Inann, Commentary on Exodus, ad
E. G. i. M. Sc.
HORNTHAL, FRANZ LUDWIG VON:
German jurist and author; born in Hamburg March
5, 1763; died at Bamberg June 27, 1853. After
studying at Bamberg he was appointed teacher to the
pages of the Bishop of Bamberg. A few years later
he established himself as an attorney atlaw. In 1808
he became district president (“ Landescommissar ”),
and then attained in quick succession the positions
of “Landesdirectionsrath,” “Stadtcommissar,” and
chief of police. In 1806 he became “ Regicrungscom-
missar,” and judge at the supreme court of justice of
Franconia. At this time he was called upon to reg-
ulate the disorganized financial affairs of the city of
Nuremberg. In 1809 he visited Vienna. During the
War of Liberation (1813-15) he was very active in re-
cruiting and equipping volunteers in Bavaria. For
the services thus rendered to his fatherland he was en-
nobled (1815). About this time he became mayor
of Bamberg, and through his organization of phil-
anthropic and other institutions rendered the great-
est. services to his fellow citizens.
Hornthal wrote: “Ueber das Anlehensgeschiift
der Vercinigten Baycrischen Gutsbesitzer,” Bam-
berg, 1824; “Ansichten tiber den Wechselseitigen
Einfluss der Umwilzung des Staats und des Staats-
credites,” 1816: “Werden die Deutschen Bundes-
fiirsten an einem Feindlichen Einfalle in Spanien
Theil Nehmen?” Nuremberg, 1823; “ Ueber den Con-
gress zu Verona,” 2), 1822; “ Darstellung der Ereig-
nisse bei dem vom Fiirsten Hohenlohe Unternom-
menen Heilverfahren,” Bamberg, 1822; “ Darstellung
der Verhiltnisse der Stiftungen in Bamberg,” 20.
1821; “Ueber Souverainetat, Staatsverfassung und
Reprisentativform,” Nuremberg, 1816; “Ueber das
Grossherzoglich Weimar’sche Strafurtheil Gegen den
Hofrath Ofen,” 2b. 1819; “ Vorschlige tiber Abwen-
dung der Fruchttheuerung,” 7b. 1817; “ Briefe aus
Bamberg tiber das Wundervolle des Firsten v.
Hohenlohe,” Erlangen, 1821; “Minister London-
derry und Sein Federmesser,” Nuremberg, 1822.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jtidischer Plutarch, ii. 91-94.
See EINHORN, IaNnatz
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
' Horeb
Horology
HOROLOGY: The science of the measurement
of time. Portions of time are distinguished in the
first chapter of Genesis. The term “from time to
time” (I Chron. ix. 25) means from hour to hour,
that is, a complete day, just as in the Talmud and
in rabbinical literature ny>d nyp denotes twenty-four
hours, a full day. The phrase p’yay pny (“hours
and minutes”; Ber. 8b) shows that ny is sometimes
used to distinguish the hour. The Hebrew word
yan is used in the Talmud to describe also a second,
a moment. The Chaldaic equivalent for “hour” is
myw, xnyyw (Dan. iv. 16, 30 [A. V. 19, 33]). Other
Biblical expressions of time are oY Dy (“noon”),
ominy (“midday ”), Syt3 ov (“high day”), and °yn
aon or myn (“midnight”). According to the Tal-
mud, the night is divided into three or four parts
(ninowy = “watches”; Ber. 8a). Other subdivi-
sions of the day are nw (“dawn”) and DATA Pa
(“twilight”). In the Midrash the hour is divided
into quarters termed “hands” (Yalk., Gen. 76). A
“hand ” signifies a quarter of an hour, as the hands
and feet are the four principal members of the
body.
The length of the hour is nut given in the Bible,
but in the Talmud, as stated above, twenty-four
hours constitute a day. The hours of the night
begin with sunset; and twelve hours from this the
twelve hours of the day begin. The third hour of
the day corresponds to 9 A.mM.; the sixth hour to
noon; the ninth hour to3 p.M.; andsoon. Itis very
probable that the same division of hours prevailed
in Biblicaltimes. Theapportioning of twelve hours
each to the day and the night was doubtless due to the
Babylonian astrologers or authorities on horoscopes,
who thought that the twelve constellations (nibtn ;
Ber. 82b) represented the hours, each having a su-
pernatural power over a certain hour of the day or
the night.
The device of the circle knownas the dial, divided
into twelve equal segments with a rod in the center,
was probably first invented to point out the constel-
lations. “ Whoever wishes to know, may take a
straight-cut rod and set it up on the level [in the
center] between twelve fingers [inches, spaces] and
measure its shadow for twelve degrees ” (“ Baraita di-
Shemuel ha-Katan,” iii. 11, Frankfort-on-the-Main,
1863). Shabbethaib. Abraham (tenth century) writes
that a Gentile of Babylon taught him the art of
measuring the rod-shadow described in the Baraita
of Samuel (Zunz, “G. V.” p. 98).
The first use of the sun-dial (mbypn by — “the
shadow of the degrees”; Isa. xxxviii. 8) in Biblical
times is generally credited to Ahaz,
King of Judah (739 3B.c.); and some
authorities suppose that he imported it
from Assyria when he visited Tiglath-
pileser at Damascus, where he also copied the archi-
tecture of the altar (II Kings xvi. 10). Probably
Ahaz constructed the dial in connection with the
“covert of the Sabbath ” (2b. verse 18), explained by
Rashi to be a shaded place which Ahaz had built
in the court of the Temple for rest and recreation.
See Dian. The Talmud, however, does not credit
the dial to Ahaz personally, as it must have been
in existence before him, and it igs not mentioned in
his lifetime.
Sun-
Dial.
Horology
Horowitz, Isaiah
The sun-dial is known in the Mishnah as the
“hour-stone ” (AYYWR JIN); and ils style or gnomon
is called "MDD (= “nail” or “wire”; ‘Eduy. iii. 8).
Maimonides (Commentary to ‘Eduy. ad loc.) de-
scribes the contrivance as “a broad and level stone
set in the ground, with a circular line drawn on
it; a perpendicular style [in the center] is raised on
Sun-Dial as Described by Maimonides.
(After a sketch by J. D. Eisenstein.)
a perpendicular projection, in length usually a little
less than that of a quarter of the segment indicated
on the stone. The shadow of the style at every
hour is marked and numbered on the circle of the
stone.”
The Mishnah relates that Helen, the mother of
Monobaz II., King of Adiabene, made a gold “ne-
brashta,” which she caused to be
The Gold placed in front of the entrance to the
Can- Temple (Yoma iii. 10). The Tosefta
delabrum. adds that at daybreak sparks were
emitted by the nebrashta; and it was
then known that it was time to say the “Shema‘”
(ib. ed. Zuckermandel, ii. 188; comp. Gem. Yoma
37b). The Temple was situated on the west side of
Mt. Moriah, and the nebrashta at its entrance on the
east side. The latter thus caught the first rays of
the sun, and served the useful purpose of indicating
to the multitude in front of the entrance the exact
time of sunrise. There are two interpretations for
*“nebrashta”: one amora defines it as a candela-
brum; another as a “konbeta” (Yer. Yoma iii. 41b;
comp. Jastrow, “ Dict.” s.o. NMIANpP = “snuffers ”).
The sun-dial in its primitive state was a series of
marks showing the position of the sun’s shadow on
a wall at various hours of the day. The Midrash,
commenting on Abraham’s visitors who predicted
the birth of Isaac at the anniversary of “this existing
hour” (7'h Ny; Gen. xviii. 10), states that the visitors
made a scratch on the wall, and said “when the sun
reaches this spot” (Pesik. R. 6 [ed. Friedmann, p.
24b}). Regarding a similar phrase, “ to-morrow about
this time” (IN) Aya = “at the same hour”; Ex.
ix. 18), Zebedee b. Levi says Moses made a scratch
on the wall and predicted the hailstorm “ when the
sun reached thisspot on the following day” (Ex. R.
xii. 3). Rabban Simeon b. Gamaliel says any one can
detect the difference between the lunar and the solar
year (354 and 365 days respectively) by marking the
shadow of the sun at the time of the solstice in
Tammuz (July) and watching when the sun reaches
the same spot in the following year. He will find
a gain of eleven days over the lunar year (Seder
‘Olam iv., end; Gen. R. xxxitii. 10).
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
464
While the sun-dial was used to indicate the hours
of the day when the sun shone, the clepsydra, or
water-clock, was designed to designate
The the hours in cloudy weather and at
Clepsydra. night. Its earliest use was probably
limited to the indication of the exact
time of midnight. ‘The Talmud explains that Moses,
because he feared that the astronomers of Pharaoh
would err in their calculations and consider him
unreliable, said the Lord would kill the first-born
in Egypt “about” midnight (Ex. xi. 4), whereas
the event happened exactly at midnight (2d. xii. 29;
Ber. 4a).
A unique and artistic contrivance to indicate mid-
night is said to have been invented by King David.
As told by R. Simeon Hasida, David had his harp
hanging over his couch and adjusted to the north
wind, which at midnight blew across the strings,
thus playing the instrument automatically. The
music awakened David, who immediately prepared
to study the Law until the morning star appeared
(Ber. 3b). This story is based on the passages: “ At
midnight I will rise to give thanks unto thee” (Ps.
cxix. 62), and “Awake up, my glory; awake,
psaltery and harp: I myself will awake early ” (2d.
lvii. 9[A. V. 8]).
The clepsydra is mentioned in Mishnah and Tal-
mud under various names, perhaps to distinguish
different forms and designs, all, however, signifying
one thing; namely, the slow escape—literally the
stealing away—of the water, drop by drop, which is
the meaning of “clepsydra” in Greek. The actual
word occurs in Gen. R. xlix., § 12 in the form on
mp = ssqppbn. The variety known as “arpa-
kas” (= D358 [misspelled DIVAN] = derek, dpra-
yor = “harpax,” or perhaps = mpéyovc) was made
v4 { 4
va
fH ;
Clepsydra as Described in the Zohar.
(After a sketch by J. D,. Lisenstein.)
both of metal and of glass (Kelim xiv. 8, xxx. 4),
This device was so arranged that, when completely
filled, the pressing of a finger on the top, making it
air-tight, would stop the running of the water from
the bottom (Gen. R. iv. 3), Another form, callea
“tiatorus” (dcarépoc = DYNO"), was made of metal.
R. Jose considered it a “receptacle ” because its con-
tents dropped out slowly (Kelim ii. 6).
A third kind was called “arak” (pag). The
version in ‘Er. 104a, prwp paonr ‘pita poyn,
465
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Horology
Horowitz, Isaiah
shouid be read DIN WD PH DD) POV roy (= “it
is permitted to raise the plummet [d:afyrn¢ =
“weight” or “ball” ] and to allow the water to drop
from the clepsydra”). This kind was used in a sick-
room to awaken the patient at certain intervals.
According to another account, the constant drop-
ping of the water had a soothing effect on the
patient’s nerves (¢d.). A correct de-
In scription of this form of clepsydra
the Zohar. is given in the Zohar, where it is
related that R. Abba, on his way
from Tiberias, stopped at an inn in the village of
Tarsus. Before retiring he asked the innkeeper
whether he had a rooster that would awaken him
exactly at midnight for “hazot.” The innkeeper
assured Abba that he had a better device ; namely: “A
scale, having on one side a weight, and on the other
a jug filled with water which escapes drop by drop.
Exactly at midnight the vessel becomes empty,
causing the weight on the other side to fall and
sound an alarm throughout the house, thus announ-
cing the hour of midnight. We made this appli-
ance for the old man who stays here and who arises
regularly at midnight to study the Law” (Zohar,
Lek Leka, p. 182, Wilna, 1882).
The clepsydra in its simplest form is traced by
some historians to the Greeks (about 430 B.c.), and
by others to the censor Scipio Nasico (595 B.c.).
The general term “horologe” for a timepiece is
used in Talmud and Midrash with reference to the
passage, “ This month shall be unto you the begin-
ning of months” (Ex, xii. 2). The Rabbis under-
stood the word p55 (= “unto you”) as indicating a
surrender of the right to fix the time of the calendar;
and they illustrate the idea,in the Midrash witha
parable of the horologe (pda) which was deliv-
ered by the king to his son who succeeded him.
Similarly the Almighty delivered the key for regu-
lating the time for the months and the festivals to
Israel (Yer. R. H. 1.38; Pesik, R. 15 [ed. Friedmann,
p. 7%a]). In medieval literature the clock is known
as miyw mw (“the hour-guide”); in modern He-
brew, as ip. |
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hour-Glasses, in Jour. Archeological Asso-
ctation (London), 1848, iii. 301; 1856, xii. 265; 1873, xxix.
180: The Dial of Ahaz, in Jour. of Sacred Literature, 1.
406, ii. 163, London, 1855-56 ; Wood, Curiosities of Ciocks and
Watches, p. 7, London, 1866; The Dial of Ahaz,in Popular
Astronomy, Dec., 1898, pp. 537-549.
8. J. D. E.
HOROMITE, See SANBALLAT.
HORONAIM (p'sin=“the two hollows”):
City of Moab (Isa. xv. 5; Jer. xlviii, 3, 5), men-
tioned also in the Mesha inscription (lines 31, 32)
under the name }3117. Its site is supposed by some
to be to the south of the Arnon. Josephus (“ Ant.”
xiii, 15, § 4; xiv. 1, § 4) speaks of a Moabite city
named “ Oronas” or “Orone” as having been taken
by Alexander Jannzus.
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HOROVITZ, MARKUS: German rabbi and
historian; born March 14, 1844, at Ladany, near
Tokaj, Hungary. The descendant of an ancient
family of scholars, he pursued his rabbinical studies
at the yeshibot of Ujhely, Verbé, and Hisenstadt
(the last-named then in charge of Israel Hildes-
VIL—30
heimer). He studied (1868-71) philosophy and
Orientalia at the universities of Vienna, Budapest,
and Berlin, taking his Ph.D. degree at Tiibingen.
In Dec., 1871, he was called as rabbi to Lauenburg
in Pomerania; in 1874, to Gnesen, Prussian Posen;
and in Sept., 1878, to Frankfort-on-the-Main. At
Frankfort he organized two model religious schools.
Horovitz was one of the directors of the Dentsche
Rabbinerverband, and president of the German
Jewish orphan asylum at Jerusalem.
Besides numerous sermons; “Matteh Lewi,” a
work in Hebrew on letters of divorce (Frankfort-
on-the-Main, 1891); and essays on the origin of the
Hungarian Jews (in “Izraelita Kézlény,” 1869)
Horovitz published the followiag works: ‘ Zur
Gesch. der Jiidischen Gemeinde in Eisenstadt,’ 1869:
“Jose ben Jose,” in “Jiidische Presse,” 1873;
“Frankfurter Rabbinen,” 4 parts, Frankfort-on-the-
Main, 1882-85; “ Jiidische Aerzte in Frankfurt-a.-M.”
1886; “Die Wohlthatigkeitspflege bei den Juden im
Alten Frankfurt,” 1896; “Zur Statistik der Jtidi-
schen Bevélkerung im Alten Frankfurt,” 1896; “ Die
Frankfurter Rabbinerversammlung vom Jahre 1608,”
1897; “Die Inschriften des A‘ten Friedhofes der
Israelitischen Gemeinde zu Frankfurt-a.-M.’’ 1901.
He died March 27, 1910. A. F.
HOROWITZ, AARON BEN JACOB HA-
LEVI: Russian Talmudist; lived in the second half
of the seventeenth century; son-in-law of Joseph
ben Lodb, rabbi of Minsk. He revised David ben
Samuel’s commentary to Rashi on the Pentateuch,
published at Dyhernfurth in 1689 under the title
“ Dibre Dawid,” to which he added a commentary
of his own covering the whole of Genesis, as well
as a letter justifying his work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Soe ae Cat. Bodl. col. 886; Michael,
Or ha-Hayyim, No. 297.
Hl. R. I. Br.
HOROWITZ, ISAIAH: German cabalist,
rabbi, and author; born at Prague about 1555; died
at Safed about 1680. At an early age he accom-
panied his father, Abraham Horowitz, to Poland
and studied under Solomon Rabbi Lebush’s in Cra-
cow. He married the daughter of Abraham Maul,
a wealthy resident of Vienna, and seems to have
enjoyed comfortable circumstances during his
whole lifetime, devoting a large part of his income
to charity and to the acquisition of a library. He
soon became one of the leaders in the communal
affairs of the Jews of Poland. Thus he appears as
early as 1590 as one of the signatories of the resolu-
tion, passed at the fair of Lublin, which condemned
the giving of bribes for rabbinical positions. He hela
various rabbinical offices; his son mentions those 1n
Posen and Cracow; contemporary sources show
him to have held rabbinates at Dubno (1600; Meir
Lublin, Responsa, No. 89), Ostrog, Volhynia (1608;
see his approbation to Solomon of Miezdzyrzecz’s
“Mizbah bha-Zahab,” Basel, 1602), Frankfort-on-the-
Main (about 1606), and Prague (1614). He left
Frankfort-on-the-Main, probably on account of the
FETTMILCH riots, in 1614; at Prague he was at first
corabbi with Solomon Ephraim of Lenezyza; upon
the death of the latter, however, he became sole
rabbi.
Horowitz, Isaiah
Horowitz, Moses
In 1621, after the death of his wife, Horowitz went
to Palestine, where he lived during the remainder of
his life. According to cabalistic views (see Emden’s
autobiography in “ Ha-Meassef,” 1810, i. 79), no one
should live in Palestine unmarried; Horowitz pro-
posed to marry Eva Bacharach, who, however, de-
clined (Jair Hayyim Bacharach, in the preface to
“Hawwot Ya'ir”). Horowitz nevertheless married
again, and left a widow and a little daughter, the
latter of whom died soon after him (“ ‘Ateret ha: Le-
wiyim,” p. 42). Though various Palestinian con-
gregations offered him rabbinates, he preferred to
go to Jerusalem, where he arrived Nov. 19, 1621.
His fame tempted the pasha to adopt one of the
usual methods of extortion practised in the East:
the pasha imprisoned the famous rabbiand held him
for ransom (1625). After being liberated, Horowitz
settled in Safed, where he died.
Horowitz wrote the following works: (1) notes
to his father’s “ Emek Berakah,” on benedictions,
Cracow, 1597; (2) notes on his father’s ethical will,
“Yesh Nohalin,” 7, 1597, often reprinted; (8)
“Shene Luhot ha-Berit,” usually kuown by the ab-
breviation “Shelah” (4°Sw), edited by
His Works his son Shabbethai Sheftel, Amster.
and dam, 1649; (4) “ Sha‘ ar ha-Shamayim, ”
Theology. prayer book, edited by his great-
grandson Abraham ben Isaiah Horo-
witz, 2b. 1717, (5) notes on Mordecai ben Hillel’s
compendium, of which one part only, with an edi-
tion of “‘Emek Berakah,” was printed by the au-
thor’s descendant Shabbethai Sheftel Frankel of
Breslau, 7. 1787. A compendium of the laws of
tefillin and his notes on the Tur and on the Zohar
remained in manuscript. Various religious hymns
are scattered through his works, but they are with-
out poetic value.
Of Horowitz’s works the “Shene Luhot ha-Berit”
has become the most popular; it, as well as its au-
thor, came -to be known as “Shelah ha Kadosh”
(Holy Shelah). Gltickel of HAMELN records that,
not long afterits publication, her husband, Hayyim,
read it on his death-bed (“ Memoiren,” ed. Kaufmann,
p. 199, Frankfort-on-the Main, 1896). Aaron Bern-
stein, in his novel “ Végele der Maggid,” depicts one
of the characters, Hayyim Mikwenitzer, as finding
everything in his “Holy Shelah.” Pious Jews drew
consolation and instruction from this book (see
Mielziner in “Ben Chananja,” iv. 96), which has
frequently been printed in abridged form (see Ben-
jacob, “Ozar ha-Sefarim,” p. 535). As the title in-
dicates, it was intended as a compendium of the
Jewish religion. Its divisions are, however, very
unsystematic, and its confusion of titles and sub-
titles renders it difficult to analyze. The principal
divisions fall under the heading “The Gate of the
Letters,” and comprise: a compendium of religious
ethics, alphabetically arranged; a division dealing
with the laws of the holy days and beginning with a
section entitled “ Masseket Hullin,” treating largely
of the laws of zizit, tefillin, mezuzah,
The etc., enjoining rigorous observance of
‘*Shelah.” the Law, and emphasizing the moral les-
sons derived from its practise; another
division treating of the weekly Pentateuchal por.
tions from the halakic view-point, and of their mystic
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
466
meanings and moral lessons (the moral lessons, en-
titled “Tokahot Musar,” are printed in some edi-
tions of the Pentateuch, as those of Amsterdam, 1760
and 1764, and Vienna, 1794); an essay on the prin-
ciples of rabbinical law entitled “Torah she-Be‘al
Peh,” of some scientific value. Horowitz finds
mystical lessons in the number of the fingers and of
their bones, which numbers indicate symbolically
the Ten Sefirot and the name of God. He believes
strictly every word found in rabbinical literature;
thus he derives from the Talmudic legend of David’s
death an argument against a decision found in the
Shulhan ‘Aruk (13%a; comp. 408a), He is very
strict indeed in matters concerning ritual law. His
book contains likewise many ethical teachings of an
exalted character (see 242a, where he advises the
advocates always to remember that real power
does not come from kings and princes, but from
God alone).
While Horowitz’s prayer-book is full of sincere
religious ideas, it is also a presentation of cabalistic
doctrines, Thus he says that the morning prayer is
an appeal to divine mercy because the growing
light represents God’s kindness, while the declining
light of the afternoon represents God’s stern jus-
tice. Abraham ordained the morning prayer because
he was the incarnation of divine mercy, and Isaac
ordained the afternoon prayer because he was the
incarnation of divine power (p. 144a).
Horowitz quoted extensively from his immediate
predecessors in cabalistic literature, especially from
De Vidas, Cordovero, and Isaac Luria. The fame of
-the last-named had attracted Horowitz to Palestine,
where he expected to find the master’s disciples
and to acquire through them some of his esoteric
teachings; his own work, however, became far
more popular than those of any other of the disciples.
At least ten editions are known of the “Shene Luhot
ha-Berit,” while his prayer-book, though not so often
reprinted, has largely influenced all subsequent edi-
tions of the ritual.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, p. 4ib: Azulai,
Shem ha-Gedolim; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl.; Landshuth,
*‘Ammude ha-‘Abodah, pp. 183-134, Berlin, 1862; Frumkin,
Eben Shemuel, pp. 111-122, Jerusalem and Wilna, 1874; Ho-
rovitz, Frankfurter Rabbinen, i. 41-44, 58-60 Cn which
Horowitz’s contract with the Frankfort congregation is repro
duced); Pesis, “Ateret ha-Lewiyim, Warsaw, 1902.
HOROWITZ, LAZAR (ELEAZAR): <Aus-
trian rabbi; born at Flosz, Bavaria, 1803; died at
Voslau, near Vienna, June 11, 1868. He was the
son of David Joshua Hoeshel, rabbi of Flosz, and
grandson of Zebi [Hirsch Horwitz, rabbi of Frank-
fort-on-the-Main. In 1822 his father was called to
the rabbinate of Frauenkirchen, Hungary. Horo-
witz was educated in Talmud by his father until, at
the age of eighteen, he was sent to Presburg to con-
tinue his studies under Moses SCHREIBER (from 1821
to 1825). In the latter year he was called home by the
death of his father, and the congregation of Frauen-
kirchen elected him as his successor; Horowitz,
however, refused the call. He lived for some time
at Deutsch-Kreuz, where he married. In 1828 pri-
vate affairs called him to Vienna, where he made the
acquaintance of the banker Isaac Léw von Hoff-
mannsthal, through whose influence he was ap-
pointed rabbi of the community; Horowitz held
467
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Horowitz, Isaiah
Horowitz, Moses
that position until his death. As the Jews of
Vienna, however, were not recognized as a corpora-
tion and could not engage a rabbi, his official title
was that of “supervisor of ritual” (“ Ritualienauf-
seher ”) until the constitution of 1848 abolished their
disabilities. In 1828 he instituted the Talmud To-
rah; in 18385 he established a society (Shas Hebra)
for the study of the Talmud.
Among Horowitz's disciples were Albert Cohn,
Gerson Wolf, and Abraham Schmicdel. True to
the teachings of his master, he was very strict in all
questions of the ritual law, though he made many
concessions to the spirit of the time, especially where
the harmony and peace of the congregation were in-
volved. He prohibited not only the use, but even
the sale, during Passover, of loaf sugar which had
not been manufactured under ritual supervision
(“ Yad Eleazar,” No, 22); he would not allow during
Passover the use of enameled vessels which had been
used during the year (7b. Nos. 84, 96); he prohibited
the saie of sacred scrolls to non-Jews, even when it
could be safely presumed that they would not pro-
fane them (¢b. No. 76) ; he prohibited the use of stearin
candles in the synagogue (2), No. 58); in the case
of a Jewish manufacturer of chinaware, he insisted
that he should not manufacture any human figure
without a defect sufficient to avoid transgression of
the second commandment (7. No. 129). He sup-
ported those who decided, in the Florsheim case in
Frank fort.on-the-Main, that an uncircumcised boy
was not a Jew (Trier, “ Rabbinische Gutachten tiber
die Beschneidung,” Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1844),
as well as those who protested against the rabbin-
ical conference of Brunswick (“Shelome Emune Yis-
rael,” 1845); and he rendered a decision against the
Reform party in Mantua who wished to abolish the
second day of the holy days(“ Yad Eleazar,” No. 181).
On the other hand, he decided, supported by Moses
Schreiber, that mezizah was not obligatory in Crr-
CUMCISION, physicians having declared it danger-
ous (20, No, 55; “ Kokebe Yizhak,” i. 44-51). When
a difficulty arose in the congregation of Dessau
in regard to performing in the synagogue a mar-
riage ceremony which the Orthodox had condemned,
he declared that the maintenance of peace in the
congregation was of far greater weight than such
a question.
Horowitz’s mildattitude toward those who differed
with him was especially noticeable in the case
against Leopold Kompert, who was accused of hav-
ing libeled the “Orthodox Jewish religion ” by pub-
lishing in his year-book an article by Gritz, who
had denied that Isaiah taught a personal Messiah.
Horowitz, who was called as an expert, declared at
the trial (Dec. 80, 1868) that he knew no “ Orthodox
Judaism” as a distinct church, and that, while he
considered the belief in a personal Messiah as essen-
tial in Judaism, there was room for differences in
regard to the explanation of the prophecies of the
coming of the Messiah. This broad-mindedness pro-
voked a strong opposition. Israel Hildesheimer,
then in Eisenstadt, issued a protest against this view
which received the signatures of 156 rabbis, who had
not looked with favor upon the fact that Horowitz
lectured in the bet ha-midrash founded by Jellinek ;
hut the storm soon subsided, and, as may be seen from
the names of the rabbis who addressed ritualistic
questions to him, Horowitz came to be a recognized
authority Besides articles in various Hebrew period-
icals, and an introduction to the “ Heker Halakah”
(Vienna, 1838) of his maternal grandfather, Horo-
witz wrote a volume of responsa (“Yad Eleazar,”
Vienna, 1870), published after his death by his sons
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Die Neuzeit, 1868, No. 25: Ha-Shahar, i. 3~-
18; preface to Yad Eleazar. On the controversy with Hil-
desheimer see Neuzeit, 1864, No. 5, passim: I. H. Weiss,
Nezah Yisrael, Vienna, 1864. D
HOROWITZ, LEOPOLD: Hungarian painter,
born in 18387 at Rozgony, near Kaschau, where he
attended the gymnasium, He received instruction
in painting from Roth until 1850, when he went to
the Vienna Academy to study under Geiger, Meyer,
and Wurzinger. ‘There he remained for seven years,
winning the first prize at his graduation. In 1860
he visited Berlin, Dresden, Munich, and finally Paris,
where he resided for eight years, and obtained a
reputation as an excellent portrait. and genre-
painter, his subjects at this time being taken prin-
cipally from child life. His most important picture
of this period is “ The First-B>-rn.” In his portraits
he followed at first Rembrandt, and then Van Dyck,
the character of his women’s portraits being strongly
reminiscent of the latter’s style.
In 1868 he went to Warsaw in order to familiarize
himself with the life of the Polish Jews. He also
made frequent visits to Budapest, Vienna, and Ber-
lin, where he was especially esteemed as a portrait-
painter by the ladies of the nobility. Among the
scenes taken from the life of the Polish Jews may be
mentioned: “Prayers in a Polish Synagogue on the
Anniversary of the Destruction of the Temple of
Jerusalem”; “The Polish Tutor”; “The Harmless
War” His finest portraits are those of the Princess
of Sapieha, the Countess of Wedel, Georg Brandes.
Maurice Jd6kai, Count Bariatinszky, Count and
Countess Zamoyiski, and F. von Pulszky, director
of the museum in Budapest. In 1891 Horowitz re-
ceived a gold medal at the Berlin International Ex-
hibition.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Seybert, Kitlnstler-Lexikon, Meyers Kon-
versations-Lexikon ; Ost und West, 1903, iii. 513-526,
8. J. So.
HOROWITZ, MOSES HA-LEVI: Judezo-
German playwright; born on the 7th of Adar, 1844,
at Stanislau, Galicia. After the usual Jewish edu-
cation he studied German and went to Bucharest,
In 1876 he established a Jewish theater there,
and thereafter was connected with the Jewish stage.
He was the first to introduce actresses on the
Jewish stage; previously men had always taken the
feminine réles in Jewish plays. Horowitz went to
New York in 1884, taking with him a company of
his own. .
Horowitz wrote no less than 169 plays, “Das
Polishe Yingel” being his first dramatic production.
Among his more successful plays are: “Schlome
Chochom,” “Kuzri,” “Chochmath Noshim,” “Ben
Hador,” and “ Yetziath Mizraim.” Most of Horo-
witz’s plays are historical, but he was always on the
lookout for ‘‘ zeit piessen ”’ (topical subjects). Thus
he found dramatic material in the strike at Home-
stead and in the massacre of Kishinef (1903) The
Morowitz, Phinehas
Horse
most successful of his “zeit piessen” was “Tissa
Eslar.” Many of his dramas were composed in the
course of a few days, and he utilized without hesita-
tion whole scenes of foreign dramas. Thouglasuc-
cessful playwright, Horowitz failed as an actor, and
after he went to America he abandoned acting en-
tirely. Ile died March 4, 1910.
H. R. B. G.
HOROWITZ (HORWITZ), PHINEHAS
LEVI: Rabbi and Talmudic author; born in Po-
land about 1731; died in Frank fort-on-the-Main July
1, 1805. The descendant of a long line of rabbinical
ancestors and the son of Rabbi Zebi Hirsch Horo-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
468
it in unmeasured terms, admonishing his hearers to
shun the work as unclean, and approving the action
of those persons who had publicly burned it in Wilna
(1782). Following the same principle, he opposed
the establishment of a secular school (1794). To-
ward the end of his life he became blind, and his son,
Hirsch Horowitz, acted as his substitute.
Horowitz’s chief work is “ Hafla’ah,” novelle on
the tractate Ketubot, with an appendix, “ Kontres
Aharon,” or “Shebet Ahim,” Offenbach, 1786. The
second part, containing novelle on the tractate Kid-
dushin, also with an appendix, appeared under the
title “Sefer ha-Miknah,” 7, 1800. Other works are:
THE NINTH OF AB IN 4 POLISH SYNAGOGUE,
(From the paiuting by Leopold Horowitz.)
witz of Czortkow, he received a thorough Talmudic
education, chiefly from his older brother, Schmelke.
He married at an early age the daughter of the
wealthy Joel Heilpern, who provided for him and
permitted him to eccupy himself exclusively with his
studies. Adverse circumstances then forced him to
accept a rabbinical position, and he became rabbi of
Witkowo, from which place he was called later on
to Lachovice. A decision rendered in a complicated
divorce case attracted attention to him, and in 1771
he was elected rabbi of Frankfort-on-the-Main. AJ-
though a cahalist, he joined the agitation against Na-
than ADLER, who held separate services in his house
according to the cabalistic ritual. When Mendels-
sohn’s Pentateuch appeared, Horowitz denounced
“ Netibot la-Shabet,” glosses on sections 1-24 of the
Shulhan ‘Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer, Lemberg, 1837;
“Gib‘at Pinehas,” a collection of cighty-four re-
sponsa, 2b. 1887; and “Panim Yafot,” a cabalistic
commentary on the Pentateuch, printed with the
Pentateuch, Ostrog, 1824 (separate ed. 1851, n.p.).
Horowitz was one of the last pilpulists in Ger-
many, and he therefore represents the most highly
developed stage of rabbinical dialectics. It was
in keeping with these views that he opposed sec-
ular education and even the slightest change of
the traditional form of public worship (see his de-
nunciation of a choir in the synagogue, in “Gib‘at
Pinehas,” No. 45). The progress of modern civili-
zation toward the end of the eighteenth century
469
made him partly change his views, and in 1803
he mdorsed Wolf Heidenheim’s translation of the
Mahzor,
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Walden, Shem ha-Gedolim he-Hadash, s.v.;
M. Horovitz, Frankfurter Rabbinen, iv., Frankfort-on-the-
Main, 1885.
D
HOROWITZ, SCHMELKE (Schmuelche,
pet name for *“Samuel”): Rabbi and = cabalist;
born in Poland 1726; died at Nikolsburg April 28,
1778, son of Tirseh Horowitz, rabbi of Czortkow,
and brother of Phinehas Horowitz of Frankfort-on-
the-Main. <A disciple of Bar of Meseritz, he was
a devotee of the Cabala; and this brought him the
reputation of a saint, to which he owed his call
to Nikolsburg in 1773, after he had been rabbi of
Ryczywol (Ritschenwalde) in Poland. In 1775 he
was appointed chief rabbi of the province of Mora-
via. Horowitz's fame as a saint increased; and his
arrival was supposed to have broken a long spell of
drought. In Nikolsburg he established for those ob-
serving the Hasidic rite a synagogue (“Chasidim-
schul”) which existed to the end of the nineteenth
century. His cabalistic homilies on the Pentateuch
were published under the title “Dibre Shemu’el ”
(Lemberg, c. 1870).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Trebitsech, Korot ha-‘Ittim, p. 25b, Briinn,
1801; Low, Gesammelte Schriften, ii. 170: Walden, Shem
ha-Gedolim he-Hadash, s.v.; Kaufmann Gedenkbuch.
HOROWITZ, SHABBETHAT (usually called
“the Younger”): Rabbi and Talmudist; born, prob-
ably in Ostrog, Volhynia, about 1590; died at Vi-
enna April 12, 1660. He was the son of the caba-
list Isaiah Horowitz, and at an early age married
the daughter of the wealthy and scholarly Moses
Harif of Lublin. With his father he seems to have
gone to Prague, where he occupied a position as
preacher; from Prague he went as rabbi to Ftrth,
whence he was called to Frankfort-on-the-Main
about 1632, and finally to Vienna about 1650.
Horowitz wrote additions to his grandfather Abra-
ham’s “‘Emek Berakah” (which appeared first in the
Amsterdam edition of 1729), additions to his father’s
prayer-book, and a treatise on religious ethics under
the title “Wawe ha-‘Ammudim.” This work he
modestly designated as an introduction to his father’s
celebrated work entitled “The Two Tablets of the
Covenant,” with which it is always printed as an
appendix. He also wrote an ethical testament
(* Zawwa’ah,” Frankfort-on-the-Oder, n.d., often re-
printed). It contains, besides some very charita-
ble teachings, exhortations to strictness in ritual
practise and in cabalistic studies. Shabbethai fur-
ther wrote some prayers (included in his father’s
prayer-book), especially a selihah for the 20th of
Siwan.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Horovitz, Frankfurter Rabbinen, pp. 30-38,
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 18838; Kaufmann, Letzte Vertrei-
buny der Juden aus Wien, pp. 66 et seqg., Vienna, sa
HOROWITZ, SHABBETHAI SHEFTEL
(commonly called “the Elder”): Cabalistic author;
flourished in Prague in the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries. His father, named Akiba accord-
ing to Steinschneider and Benjacob, not Jacob, was
the son of Abraham Sheftels and the brother of
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Horowitz, Phinehas
orse
Isaiah Horowitz. He wrote “Nishmat Shabbethai
eha-Lewi,” a cabalistic treatise on the nature of the
soul (Prague, 1616), and “Shefa‘ Tal” (Prague,
1612; Frankfort-on-the-Main. 1719), another caba-
listic compendium, containing also some works of
others. The latter has been often reprinted, and is
highly recommended by his cousin, Shabbethai the
Younger, in his will.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl.; Benjacob, Ozar
ha-Sefarim.
D
HORSCHETZKY, MORITZ: Austrian physi-
cian and writer; born at Bydzov, Bohemia, in 1788;
died Nov. 7, 1859, at Nagy-Kanizsa, Hungary,
where he had been practising medicine since 1811.
As a writer he devoted himself chiefly to the works
of Josephus, whose “ Antiquities ” he translated and
in part annotated (1826, 1848, 1851). Horschetzky
possessed remarkable humor, which appears in his .
fictitious “Reiseberichte Nathan Ghazzati’s” (in
“Orient, Lit.” 1848). This work Julius First took
to be a translation from the Hebrew.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ben Chananja, i. 207; Steinschneider, Hebr.
Bibl. ti. 110; First, Bibl. Jud. i. +08. MK
S
HORSE.—Biblical Data: The Hebrew terms
are: DID, the generic and most common term; ws
(I Kings v. 8; Micah i. 18; Esth. viii, 10, 14), the
swift horse (A. V. “mule”); wp (only in the plu-
ral), the riding-horse, also the horseman (I Sam. viii.
11; Isa. xxviii. 28); 4105, in the combination 33
Doni (Esth. viii. 10; A. V. “ young dromedaries”;
Rk. V. “breed of stud”); and lastly, more as a poet-
ical epithet, Wx, “the strong one” (Judges v. 22;
Jer, viii. 16).
The horse is not indigenous to Palestine, nor is it
among the ordinary possessions of the Semitic pas-
toral nomads. This accounts for its omission from
the catalogue of the domestic animals of the Patri-
archs; and in the Decalogue, while the ox and the
ass are among the animals the coveting of which is
prohibited, the horse is not mentioned (see Michae-
lis, “ Mosaisches Recht,” 2d ed., part iii., Appendix,
“Etwas von der Aeltesten Gesch. der Pferde,” etc.).
Where the horse is referred to, it is the war-steed of
the enemy, from whom for warlike purposes the
Hebrews must have learned the art of training and
utilizing the animal. The horse was not used for
riding. It is represented as harnessed to the war-
chariot manned by archers; for the soldier equipped
with bow and arrows had to have both of his hands
free. Where upon the monuments the bowman is
depicted on horseback, he is always attended by an-
other horseman, whose business it was to lead the
bowman’s horse. InJI Kings xxiii, 11 bronze horses
are mentioned as being dedicated to the sun, which
idolatrous institution Josiah is reported to have re-
moved. This gloss corroborates the assumption of
the foreign origin of the use of the horse (Victor
Hehn, “ Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere,” 3d ed., pp.
29 et seg., Berlin, 1877).
The first mention of the horse in the Old Testa-
ment is in connection with Egypt (Gen. xlvi. 17).
The only allusion in the Pentateuch to the horse as
a factor in Israel’s life is found in the law forbidding
the king to “multiply horses” (Deut. xvii. 16). On
Horse
Horticulture
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
470
Palestinian soil the animal was employed as a war-
horse by the noa-Israelite tribes (Joshua xi. 4).
David seems to have been the first to
Introduced adopt this use of the horse (II Sam.
from viii. 4, xv. 1); Solomon imported many
Egypt. horsesand chariots from Egypt( Kings
x. 28); and they became a permanent
feature of the armies of the later kings (II Kings ix.
21, 88; xiii. 7). The horse was not used for draft
purposes, though Isa. xxviii. 28 mentions the use of
the horse for thrashing. Asa king’s state animal it
is mentioned in connection with the Persian court
(Esth. vi. 8). From the horse asa war animal are
derived various descriptions and similes, e.g., from its
strength and swiftness (Hab. i. 8; Jer. iv. 18), its
flint-like hoofs (Isa. v. 28); its prancing and tram-
pling (Judges v. 22; Jer. xlvii. 38; Nahum iii. 2); the
splendid poetical description in Job xxxix. 19-25
should be especially noted. Frequent warning is
given against putting one’s trust in the horse (Isa.
xxx. 16; Ps. xx. 7%, xxxili. 17).
In later times the horse seems to have become
common in Palestine. The exiles brought with
them horses from Babylon (Neh. vii. 68); and there
was a “horse gate” in Jerusalem (II Chron. xxiii.
15). Horses were imported into Palestine from
Egy pt (Isa. xxxi. 1,3; Ezek. xvii. 15), and especially
through the Phenicians from Armenia (Togarmah),
which was one of the staple markets for horses
(Ezek. xxvii. 14). The whip and trappings and
ornaments of the horse are mentioned in Ps. xxxii
9; Prov. xxvi. 3; and Zech. xiv. 20.
——In Rabbinical Literature: Six character-
istics are predicated of the horse in the Talmud: (1)
it is salacious (comp. Ezek. xxiii. 20); (2) it loves
war; (3) it is high-spirited; (4) it needs little sleep ;
(5) it consumes large quantities of food; and (6) its
evacuations are small (Pes. 118b and parallels), The
Medes and Persians were especially rich in horses
(Sanh. 98b). In connection with Zech. i. 8 the Tal-
mud distinguishes red, yellow, and white horses
(Sanh. 98a).
The horse was considered one of the most useful
of the domestic animals; hence one should not live
in a city where the neighing of the horse is not heard
(Pes. 118a). It was used for riding (Bek. 2a) and in
the chase (Shab. 94a), and covers were made of the
hair of its mane and tail (Suk. 20b, Rashi). Non-
Israelites ate its flesh (Yer. Shek. xii. 2).
Much labor was spent in the care of the horse
(Shab. 118b; M. K. 10a, b). The general use of
horseshoes is not mentioned in the Talmud; but in
war time horses were sometimes provided with metal
shoes (Shab. 59a). Among the objects used for the
outfit of the horse are mentioned the bridle, an iron
mouthpiece called “scorpion” (“‘akrab”), and the
collar (Kelim xi. 5, xxi. 2). For a white horsea red
bridle was considered becoming (Hag. 9b). The
forehead was decorated with scarlet-colored orna-
ments, and for protection against the evil eye the
tail of a fox was hung between the eyes (Shab. 53a).
At the death of its master the horse of a king was
disabled by cutting through the tendons of the hoofs,
so that it should not be used by any one else (‘Ab.
Zarah 11a). The horse was also employed as an in-
strument of punishment, culprits being bound to its
tail and dragged over thorns (Sanh. 26b; Yoma 69a).
The appearance in a dream of a white horse was
considered a favorable omen (Sanh. 93a).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tristram, Natural History of the Bible, p.
102; Lewysohn, Zoologie des Talmuds, p. 136.
E.@ H I. M. C.
HORTICULTURE: That department of the
science of agriculture which relates to the cultiva-
tion of gardens. The garden is called “gan” or
“gvannah” in the later Biblical books, and in the
Mishnah “ginnah.” Originally the word “gan”
was probably applied to all kinds of gardens; but
in later Biblical times an orchard came to be denoted
by the Persian word “ pardes,” which, as connoting
the religious idea of paradise, was introduced into the
vocabularies of all civilized nations (“Z. D. M. G.”
xxxii, 761; S. Friinkel, “Die Aramiéischen Fremd-
worter im Arabischen,” p. 149), and gained a wider
recognition than the Biblical expression “Eden.”
The words “ gannah” and “ pardes” are both used in
Ecclesiastes (see “parc” in Rashi to Ps. 1. 9; Ibn
Ezra to Eccl. ii. 5; Cant. iv. 18; Bacher, Ibn Ezra,
p. 170). In ancient Israel the garden
The was probably an orchard, vineyard, or
Garden. kitchen-garden, although the royal
gardens had doubtless more the nature
of a park. The references to the nut-orchard in Cant.
vi. 1i—a passage often interpreted symbolically
—and to the “orchard of pomegranates” (“ pardes
rimmonim ”) in the same book (2), iv. 13) indicate
the late origin of the Song of Solomon and the strong
foreign influence under whichit wascomposed. The
description of the garden in Cant. iv. 13-14 is not
that of an existing Palestinian garden, but of a
purely imaginary one. The Biblical words “ kerem,”
doubtless at first applied only to a vineyard, and
“karmel,” denoting cultivated land in contrast to the
fallow field, were also used later to designate a
garden. ,
The garden, which was divided into beds (* ‘aru-
got”), was naturally laid out near water, or was pro-
vided with cisterns and channels for irrigation (com-
pare the stories of Bath sheba and Susanna). The
place-name “‘En Gannim” (lit. “garden-spring ”)
occurs twice in Palestine (Baedeker-Socin, “ Paliis-
tina,” 5th ed., p. 255). There are direct Biblical ref-
erences to gardens near Jerusalem; and another is
found in the name “Gate of Gennath” (7.e., “ gar-
den gate”), which is mentioned by Josephus
(Baedeker -Socin, J.c. p. 28). The gardener has
often been confounded with the farmer (in the
Mishnah “aris,” which in the Midrash, however,
probably does mean also “ gardener”). An overseer
of the royal forests, “shomer ha-pardes,” is men-
tionedin Neh. ii. 8; otherwise “nozer ” and “ noter,”
the equivalents of the Aramaic “natora” and the
Arabic “natura,” are used. In post-Biblical times
there are many references to gardens and gardeners;
and the number of terms used to denote them in-
creases correspondingly. Side by side with the
Biblical “ gannot u-pardesim ” (gardens and parks)
—a favorite phrase in Mishnaic times — the Persian
words “baga” and “bustana,” found also in Syriac
and other related languages, appear in the Talmud,
indicating the prevalence of Persian horticulture
(comp. “Sha‘are Zedek,” p. 87d). In tannaitic
471
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Horse
Horticulture
works, side by side with “gan,” is used the form
“ginnah”; the older form “ gannah,” found in the
Mishnah, being due apparently to incorrect tradition.
The plural “ gannim” seems to have become obsolete
by that time.
The Halakah gave occasion for many references
to gardens in the Mishnah, some of which refer-
ences may be noted here. It is declared that the
garden should always be fenced in, though this cus-
tom is not uniformly observed (B. B. i. 4a; Yer. B.
B. i. 12d). The garden generally lay near the house
(B. M. x.5; Yer. B. B. iii. 14b).. Asa person had to
pass through the courtyard into the garden, the two
are often contrasted (Ma‘as. tii. 10; Ter. viii. 3; Yer.
Bb. B. i. 12d; Yer. Git. viii. 49b); do-
mestic fowls could easily go from the
yard into the kitchen-garden and do
damage there (Tosef., B. K. ii. 847; Hul. xii. 1;
Tosef., Hul. x. 511; Tosef., Bezah, i. 201). Swarm-
ing bees frequently settled in neighboring gardens
(Tosef., B. K. x. 369).
Legal ordinances refer to: the right of the poor to
enter gardens (Sheb. ix. 7); the right of a merchant
to pass through a garden belonging to one person
into that of another whose fruit he desires to buy
(B. B. vi. 6; comp. Mek., Beshallah, 30b); the dam-
ages to be paid for cattle entering a garden (B. K.
vi. 2); and the right of planting gardens and parks
upon the site of acity destroyed for idolatry (Sanh.
x. 6; Tosef., Sanh, xiv. 487).
The Biblical command not to cut down fruit-
trees is treated in detail by Talmudic and rabbinical
authorities, including the latest casuists; for exam-
ple, in connection with the questions whether a nut-
tree standing among vines may be cut down (“ Zemah
Zcdek,” No. 41), and whether worthless grape-vines
may be uprooted to make room for something else
(Steinach, “Yoreh De‘ah,” No. 63; on the cutting
down of fruit-trees in general see “Simlat Binya-
min,” p. 169c). The existence of parks around
synagogues is not sanctioned, in view of their re-
semblance to “asherim” (“Ben Chananja,” vi. 688,
viii. 589), although, according to Philo, many syna-
gogues in Alexandria were surrounded by trees,
as is the Elijah synagogue in that city to-day.
As irrigation was necessary in post-Biblical times,
there are many halakic and midrashic references
to it (Gen. R. xv. 3; Lev. R. xv. 8).
Manure was applied both in Biblical and in Tal-
mudic times, dung, the blood of animals, fine sand,
ashes, leaves, straw, chaff, the scum of oil, and the
residue of the fruits of the field being used. Blood
was used exclusively for gardens; ashes and oil-
scum, only for orchards; sand, for orchards and
vegetable gardens; dung, chiefly for gardens, Gar-
dens were often laid out in terraces on mountain-
sides (B. M. x. 4-6). The owneris called “ ba‘al ha-
ginnah,” the term being also used haggadically of
God (Yer. B. M. iii. 50d). A garden may be so
small that the vintner may just enter within the
enclosure with his basket (‘Eduy. ii. 4), though the
minimum size is fixed by some at 130 square meters;
by R. Akiba at 32.7 square meters (B. B. i. 6, vii. 2).
Plants were sometimes raised in pots.
Traces of Greek influence upon Palestinian horti-
culture are few; indeed, this science was brought to
Halakot.
Europe from the Aramean countries. The grape-
pole (6/kpavov) was of Greek origin, as were the follow-
ing plants: the laurel (da@vy), iris (ipic), ivy (Kioadc),
mint (#ivéa), narcissus (vapkiocog), rue (THyavor), box,
and the oleander (jvdodagyy),
A famous garden of Mishnaic time was the rose-
garden at Jerusalem, said to date from the time of
the Prophets (Ma‘as, ii. 5), but this, it is declared,
was the only garden or park permitted in that city
(Tosef., Neg. vi. 625; B. K. 82b). The parks of
Sebaste must be mentioned, as well as those of
Jericho, and the gardens of Ashkelon (‘Ar. iii. 2;
Tosef., ‘Ar. ii. 544; Sifra, Behukkotai, ed. Weiss,
p. 114a). Of the Middle Ages the garden of the
community of Worms should be mentioned (“ Lik-
kute Maharil,” p. 109b; “ Monatsschrift,” xlv. 62).
The gardener is called “gannan” (Talmudic,
“ginna’a” or “gannana”), The guardiansare called
“shomere gannot u-fardesim.” The planter is called
“shattala ” (B. M. 98a; Yer. B. M. viii. 11c). Babli
mentions a gardener in the service of Rabina. In
the Haggadah, aside from God Himself, Noah is
designated as the first gardener; he planted also
cedar-trees (Gen. R. xxx.). ole said to his children
after the Flood, “You will go and build cities for
yourselves, and will plant in them all the plants that
are on the earth, and all the trees that bear fruit”
(Book of Jubilees, vii. 35). Abraham is also consid-
ered asa planter, as is Solomon, the appurtenances of
the latter’s kingship being, among other things,
vineyards, gardens, and parks (Kallah, ed. Coronel,
p. 16a). Because the Egyptians forced the children
of Israel to lay out gardens and parks, in order to
prevent them from multiplying (Seder Eliyahu R.
vii. 42, ed. Friedmann), the plague of hail was sent
upon their land, in order to fulfil the words of Ps.
Ixxviii. 47.
The Haggadah often refers to gardens and parks,
especially the gardens of the emperor. The pas-
sages in which such references occur
Haggadic have been collected by Ziegler, “ Die
References. Kénigsgleichnisse des Midrasch,” pp.
286 et seg. Similes and metaphors
in which reference is made to impcrial gardens are
found as early as the tannaitic period; e¢.g., in Tosef.,
Hag. ii. 284, and in the Mekilta; also in Exodus
Rabbah, Tanhuima, and Pesikta—hence within the
domain of the Roman empire—while the Babylonian
sources contain hardly any such figures. These fig-
ures show a deeper and more intimate observation of
nature than is found in later rabbinic times, The
Haggadah in general confines itself to the Biblical
figures that have suggested the comparison. Canti-
cles especially has stimulated the imagination of the
hag gadists.
In Biblical times the garden was perhaps also used
as a burial-ground (II Kings xxi. 18, 26; comp. John
xix, 41), though later on the Jewish cemeteries did
not present the appearance of gardens. R. Hana-
neel cites an old Babylonian tradition, according to
which Abba Arika planted trees upon graves, but
only a small part of them took root and blossomed,
and such as did were all on the graves of those that
had not died before their time (“‘Aruk,” vi. 157).
The following proverbs referring to gardens may
be mentioned: “As the garden, so the gardener”;
Horticulture
Hosea
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
472
“ Whoever rents one garden may eat birds; whoever
rents more than one at the same time will be eaten by
the birds” (Dukes, “ Rabbinische Blumenlese,” Nos.
202, 456; Weissberg, “ Mishle Kadmonim,” p. 6).
The Jews of the Middle Ages did not possess a
highly developed sense of natural beauty, nor were
they much given to horticulture. Poets writing in
Hebrew were restricted, for the names
of flowers, to the Biblical vocabulary,
Foreign influence is shown in the predi-
lection for horticultural names as book-
titles, and in the division of books into “ flower-beds” ;
for example, “ Gan Elohim” (* R. E. J.” xi. 304); “ Gan
‘Eden,” the numerical value of which corresponds to
the number of chapters in Maimonides’ “ Moreh”
(Steinschneider, “ Hebr. Uebers.” p, 429); “ Pardes,”
in which the methods of Scriptural exegesis were
summed up (Bacher, in Stade’s “ Zeitschrift,” 1893,
p. 294; Jew. Encyc. iii. 171); “Ginuat Weradim ”
(rose-garden), occurring twice as a book-title; “ Gin-
nat Egoz” (nut-garden), “Ginnat ha-Bitan” (palace
garden), occurring once each; “Kaftor wa-ferah ”
(if the original meaning of the words, which in the
Bible are descriptive of the golden candlestick, may
be taken to assign the title to this class), used as a
book -title three times; and “ Kerem,” occurring six-
teen times in different combinations, six of these being
“Kerem Shelomoh.” “ Maskit ha-Orot ke-Pardes
ha-Nizzanim ” is the title of Ghazali’s work in Isaac
b. Joseph Alfasi’s translation (Steinschneider, Jc,
p. 346). “Neta‘” (plantation) is found twelve times
in titles, three of these being “ Nit‘e Na‘amanim,”
and five “Neta‘ Sha‘ashu‘im,” “Sefer ha-Perah ”
= “Flores” of Abu Ma‘asher; “ Shoshan ha-Refu’ah”
= Lilium medicine; “ Perah ha-Refu’ah” = Flos medt-
cine (Steinschneider, f.c. pp. 581, 785, 800); there is
also a Karaite “Sefer ha-Nizzanim ” (Steinschneider,
dc. p. 450). Joseph al-Kirkisani’s commentary on
the passages of the Pentateuch referring to the
Law is “ Al-Riyad wal-Hada’ik ” (beds and gardens;
see Steinschneider, “Arabische Literatur der Ju-
den,” p. 79). Better known is Rashi’s “Sefer ha-Par-
des.” Under “‘Arugat ha-Bosem ” (Steinschneider,
“Hebr. Uebers.” pp. 411, 753) Benjacob records ten
titles of books; under “ Pardes,” eighteen; and in
combination with “Perah,” eighteen. Aside from
“Sefer ha-Gan,” occurring twice, sixteen titles are
combinations of “gan,” while “shoshannah ” (lily)
enters into twenty-three titles; comp. also the titles
“*Arugat Bosem ha~-Mezimmah,” “ Pardes Rimmone
ha-Hokmah,” “ Pardes ha-Hokmah,” “Gan Te‘udot ”
(“Z. D. M. G.” xxvii. 555, 557, 559; Steinschneider,
lc. pp. 889, 392, 894). See Botany; FLOWERS IN
THE HoME; PLANTs.
E. G. H. I. Lo,
HORTUS JUDZZORUM. See CEMETERY.
HORWITZ, AARON B. JOSEPH HA-
LEVI: Russo-German rabbi; born in Lithuania in
the early part of the eighteenth century; died at
Berlin 1779. Early in life he lived at Konigsberg
and at Prague, where he acquired a fair knowledge
of German. He then held the position of rabbi suc-
cessively at Shkud, Lithuania, at Hasenpoth, Cour-
land, and at Berlin. He was recognized as a rabbin-
ical authority, and his approbations appear in the
Book-
Titles.
first edition of Mendelssohn's translation of the
Bible, in the “‘Ammude Bet Yehudah” of Judah
b. Mordecai ha-Levi Hurwitz (Amsterdam, 1764),
and in other well-known works. He was theauthor
of hiddushim, etc., to the Talmud, with a supple-
meut, and containing a responsum on the law of
divorce (Frankfort-on-the Main, 1770).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 83; Wunderbar,
Gesch. d. Juden in Liv- Est-und Kurland, Mitau, 1853;
Landshuth, Jvledot Anshe Shem, p. 83. IL R
HORWITZ, ARYEH LOB BEN ZEBI HA-
LEVI (otherwise known as R. Léb Zietiler):
Lithuanian Talmudist of the seventeenth century.
After having been “rosh yeshibah” in several Ger-
man towns Horwitz was called in a similar capacity
to the yeshibah of Minsk while Jehiel Hernurrin
was chief rabbi there. Horwitz was the author of
“ Margenita Taba,” a defense of Maimonides’ “Sefer
ha-Mizwot” against the strictures of Nahmanides,
published with the “ Sefer ha-Mizwot” at Frankfort
on-the-Main, 1756. According to the preface, added
by his son, Horwitz wrote also novell on the Tal-
mud, and “Elef ha Magen,” defending Maimonides
against the attacks of Abraham b. David.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 5383; Benjacob,
Ozgar ha-Sefarim, p. 862: Ben-Zion Eisenstadt, Habbane
Minsk, p. 15.
Rg. 8. M. SEt.
HORWITZ, BELLA (called also Bella Haz.
zan): Daughter of the martyr Be’er ben Hezekiah
ha-Levi Horwitz and wife of Joseph ben Hayyim
Hazzan, who died at Prague in 17138. In 1705 she
published “ Gesch. des Hauses David.” In conjunc-
tion with Rachel Porges, the wife of L6b Porges,
she edited a primeval history, mostly legendary, of
the Prague Jews, entitled “Eine Schéne Geschichte,
so Ist Geschehen, Ehe noch Jehudim zu Prag Ge-
wohnt.” She also wrote a “ Tehinnah” for the ten
penitential days.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael; Kayserling, Die
Jitdischen Frauen, pp. 158 et seq.: Kaufmann, Die Letzte
ae der Juden aus Wien und Niederdsterreich,
s. IZ
HORWITZ, BERNARD: Chess player and
writer on chess; born 1809 in the grand duchy of
Mecklenburg; died in London 1885. A chess pupil
of Mendheim in Berlin, he became known as one of
the “ Pleiades,” a name given to the seven leaders of
the new school of chess which arose in that city be-
tween 1830 and 1840. After residing some time in
Hamburg, Horwitz wentto England, in which coun-
try he settled about 1845, and competed in most of
the tournaments up to 1862.
With J. Kling, Horwitz published “Chess Stud-
ies” (London, 1851), devoted mainly to end games
(previous works on chess having treated principally
of the openings); and with the same collaborator he
issued “The Chess-Player,” of which four volumes
appeared (24. 1851-53). His last work was “Chess
Studies and End Games Systematically Arranged ”
(2, 1884).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Times, London, Aug. 30, 1885; Dict. Na-
tional Biography, xxvii. 393.
J. A. P.
HORWITZ, ZEBI HIRSCH BEN PHIN-
EHAS; Rabbiat Frank fort-on-the-Main ; died there
473
Sept. 8, 1817. He succeeded his father in the rab-
binate of Frankfort in 1805. He was the author of
the following works: “ Mahaneh Lewi,” halakic
novelle, Offenbach, 1801; “ Lahme Todah,” supple-
menting and completing the preceding work, 2.
1816; novelle# on Talmudical treatisesin his father’s
“Ketubah,” 2. 1887. Carmoly claims to have seen
in manuscript two other works by Horwitz; “Homer
ha-Kodesh,” consisting of responsa; and acommen-
tary on various Biblical passages, entitled “ Birkat
ha-Torah.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Carmoly, in Revue Orientale, iii. 306; Stein-
schneider, Cat. Bodl. col, 2752; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books
Brit. Mus. p. 292.
D. I. Br.
HOSANNA (soypein = “Oh, save!”): The cry
which the people of Jerusalem were accustomed
to raise while marching in procession and waving
branches of palm, myrtle, and willow in the joy-
ous Sukkot festival, especially on the seventh day,
when the willow-branches of the “lulab ” procession
were piled up and beaten against the altar (Suk. iii.
9, iv. 5). The willow-branch thus received the
name “hosha‘na” (Suk. 30b, 3la, 34a, 87a, b, 46b);
and the seventh Sukkot day was called “ Day of
Hosha‘na” or “ Hosha‘na Rabbah.” It was a popu-
lar festival, of ancient, probably Canaanitish, origin,
connected with the prayer for the year’s rain (Zech.
xiv. 8-17); the multitudes accompanied the priests
each night of the Sukkot feast to the spring of
Shiloah, where the water for the libation (“nissuk
ha-mayim”) was drawn amidst great solemnity and
rejoicing (Suk. v. 1-4), while the last day formed
the climax of the festivities. “Anna Adonai hoshi-
‘ah-nna” (Ps cxviii, 25), the refrain of the psalms
recited by the assembly, was, probably owing to
constant repetition, abbreviated by the people into
“Hosha'na,” just as the old Canaanite cry “ Hoi
Dod ” (“ Wo Adonis ”) was turned into a common in-
terjection, “Hedad.” Thus * Hosha‘na” became a
popular cry used in solemn processions wherewith
was connected the carrying of the palm-branches
as described in I Macc. xiii. 51 and II Macc. x. %.
According to John xii. 138 (in the Sinaitic codex),
which has the story preserved in its original form,
the same cry was raised by the multitude on the oc-
casion of Jesus’ arrival at Jerusalem. They “took
branches of palmn-trees, and went forth to meet him,
and cried, Hosanna: Blessed is he that comethin the
name of the Lord ”—that is, the verse following
“Anna Adonai hoshi‘ah-nna” in the Halle! psalm—
and then called him “the King of Israel.” Luke
(xix. 38), writing for the Gentiles, omits the palm-
branches and the Hosanna cry, and changes the
Biblical verse into “ Blessed be the King that cometh
in the name of the Lord,” while adding the Mes-
sianic salutation of the angels in the birth story,
“Peace in heaven, and glory in the highest.” Mark
(xi. 8-10) combines the two versions, and changes the
words of Luke into “ Blessed be the kingdom of our
father David, that cometh. . . . Hosannain the high-
est,” the closing words of which no longer give any
sense The same is the case with the words: “ Ho-
sanna to theson of David” in Matt. xxi. 9, “ Hosanna
in the highest” being a corruption of the original
version. The Psalm verses recited have been inter-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Horticulture
Hosea
preted by the Rabbis also as referring to the advent
of the Messiah (see Midr. Teh. to Ps. exviii. 17, 21,
22; comp. Matt. xxi. 42).
Wiinsche (“Erliuterungen der Evangelien aus
Talmud und Midrasch,” p. 241) thinks that the Pass-
over and the Sukkot festivals have been confounded
by the Gospel narrator (see also Frestivatsy. It is
noteworthy that the Easter week in the Syrian
Church received the name “Shabbeta de-Osha‘na ”
(= “Hosanna week”; Bar Hebreus, “Chronicle,”
quoted by Geiger in “ Wiss. Zeit. Jid. Theol.” 1836,
p. 41%). K..
HOSEA, THE PROPHET: Hosea must have
been a cicizen of the Northern Kingdom of Israel,
and must have remained there permanently during
the period of his prophetic activity; for “the land”
(i. 2) means Israel, and “our king” (vii. 5) the king
of the Northern Kingdom. According to the super-
scription of the book, Hosea was the son of Beeri,
and, from what he says (i.-iii.) about his marriage,
he had a wife who was faithless to him. When she
fled from his house, he had to redeem her from the
person into whose hands she had given herself. It
has been assumed by some that this account has no
historical basis, being merely an allegory. It is not,
however, correct to maintain that the narrative isan
allegory merely because the names can be interpreted
allegorically, “Gomer the daughter of Diblaim” evi-
dently meaning “destruction in consequence of idol-
atry ” (D°939 = properly, “cakes of figs,” which ac-
cording to iii 1 [D:a5) ‘y*ws] were offered as an
oblation). There seems also to be intended an asso-
nance with “Shomron bat Efrayim.” The narra-
tive must be regarded as historical, and the faith-
lessness of the woman as a fact. Hosea, however,
knew nothing of her character at the time of his
malriage, on the contrary, it was made manifest to
him only afterward, as if through a special inter-
vention of God, in order to serve to the prophet as
a symbol of Israel’s unfaithfulness to the Lord.
Other views derived from the Book of Hosea—for
instance, that of Ewald, that the prophet was
obliged to retire to Judah on account of the increas-
ing hostility toward him, and that he there wrote
his book, or that he belonged to the caste of priests
—lack support, as do the stories concerning the
prophet found in the later Jewish and the Christian
traditions. For example, “ Yuhasin,” 12a identifies
“INS with ANNA (I Chron. v. 6), and assumes that
Hosea belonged to the tribe of Benjamin—an as-
sumption entirely impossible on historical grounds,
as the addition in I Chron. v. 5 shows. According
to the Christian tradition, Hosea was a native of
Beelmoth (Ephraem Syrus) or Belemoth (pseudo-
Epiphanius and Isidorus) or Belemon (pseudo-Doro-
theus), and belonged to the tribe of Issachar; while,
according to Jerome, the prophet was a native of
Beth-shemesh. The Jewish tradition says (“Shal-
shelet ha-Kabbalah,” p. 19) that he died at Baby-
jon, and that his body, having been carried by a
camel to Safed in upper Galilee, was buried there.
All these stories are, however, historically worthless.
E. G. uf V. Ry.
HOSEA, BOOK OF .—Biblical Data: Thecon-
tents of the book may be summarized as follows:
Hosea
Hoshaiah Rabbah
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
474
Part i., ch. i.-iii—Two symbolical actions: (a) At the
command of YHwH, Hosea takes to wife an adulterous woman,
as a symbol of the people of Israel, who have deserted their God
and must be punished for their desertion, but who will be ree
stored to YHWH’s favor after a time of probation. (b) At the
further command of YHWH, Hosea is once more married to his
former, unfaithful wife, as a symbol of the enduring love of
YHWH for His people in spite of their faithjessness.
Part ii., ch. iv.-xiv.— Hosea’s prophetic sermon on the sinful
and idolatrous people of Israel. Announcement of the ruin
that shall overtake Israel, now become morally and religiously
degraded through the fault of its priests (iv. 1-
Contents 14). To this is added a warning to Judah (iv.
and 15-18). Judgment is pronounced on the priests
Analysis. andthe rulers who have led the people into
sin, bringing upon them the inevitable punish-
ment (v. 1-7). Description of the ruin that shall come upon
Ephraim and Judah, which even the Assyrian king will not be
able to turn away: Hosea in a vision anticipates its coming (vy.
8-15). The exhortation to repentance (vi. 1-3); YHWH’S answer
eensuring the inconstaney of the people (vi. 4-7) 5 the moral
degradation of Israel, and especially of its priests (vi. 8-11); the
rulers are made responsible for the sins of the people, because
they rejoice therein instead of preventing them, and because,
despite the national distress, they continue in their spirit of
revelry and revolt (vii. 1-16). Renewed announcement of judg-
ment upon Israel for its impiety, its idolatry, and its leagues
with foreign nations; the punishment to be in the form of
exile, into which the Israelites shall be led in spite of their
fenced cities (viii. 1-14). In the distant land of exile they shall
eat the bread of mourners, instead of rejoicing like the heathen
over rich harvests and vintages (ix. 1-6), as a punishment for
disregarding the warnings of the Prophets, who were persecuted
even in the house of God (ix. 7-9). As they turned from YHWH
in the wilderness, so they must now go into exile because of
their idolatry, since YHWH will cast them away (ix. 10-17).
Their ingratitude for YHWH'Ss love, as shown in their idolatry,
must be punished by the destruction of the altars and images of
Samaria (x. 1-8). Israel’s sins in general, prevalent among the
people from olden times, deserve bitter pnnishment(x. 9-15). In
spite of YHWH’s loving care, they have ever been faithless to
Him (xi, 1-7): therefore punishment will not be delayed: it will
not, however, destroy, but purge them, leaving a remnant,
YHWH'’'S infinite pity overcoming His anger (xi. 8-11). An ex-
amination of Israel’s early history shows that Israel, as well as
Judah, has always been faithless to YHWH, its guilt being all
the heavier in view of YHWH’s loving care (xii. 1-15). Because
of Israel’s idolatry YiIwH must destroy Israel’s power and
glory (xiii. 1-11); the sins of the people demand pitiless pun-
ishment, Which, however, will not utterly destroy them (xiii.
12-xiv. 1). An appeal to Israel to return lo YHWH, and a prom-
ise of forgiveness to the repentant people (xiv. 2-10).
——Critical View: The nature of Hosea’s prophe-
cies shows that he appeared at a time when the
kingdom of Israel, which reached the zenith of its
power under Jeroboam II. (782-741
Time of B.c.), had begun to decline (¢. 750 B.c.).
Composi- The first part of the book, more partic-
tion. ularly (ch. 1.-iii.), dates from this time ;
for, according to i. 4, the crime of
Jeliu had not yet been atoned, it being avenged only
after the murder (748 8.c.) of Zachariah, son of Jero-
boam IT, Hosea, however, continued his prophetic
activity after the death of Jeroboam IIL., the period
that marked the decline of the Northern Kingdom.
This becomes evident especially from the passage
vil. 2, referring to the usurpers who were supplanted
by their successors at short intervals (comp. II
Kings xv. 10-14). But nothing in the book itself,
much less the statement in the superscription (part
of which certainly is spurious) to the effect that he
prophesied in the days of King Hezekiah, justifies
the assumption that he lived to see the expedition
of Tiglath-pileser of Assyria (745-728 B.c.) against
Pekah of Isracl (734 B.c.); for at that time a large
part of the inhabitants of northern Israel and of the
land east of the Jordan were led away captive by
the Assyrians (II Kings xv. 29 et seg.), while, ac-
cording to vi. 8 and xii. 12, Gilead stiil belonged to
the kingdom of Israel. Hence the second part of
the book (ch. iv.-xiv.) must have been written be-
tween 738 and 735 B.c., the “terminus a quo” of
this prophecy being the year 738, because in that
year King Menahem of Israel (741-787) was obliged
to pay tribute to Assyria (II Kings xv. 17 e@ seq.).
In agreement with this assumption it is evident that
Hosea borrowed from Amos, since the expression
“bet awen” (iv. 15; v. 8; x. 5, 8) could have been
derived only from Amos v. 5, and viii. 14 is proba-
bly derived from Amos i, 14 et seq.
The authenticity of Hosea’s prophecies is evi-
denced by their eminently individualistic and sub-
jective character, consistently main-
Authentic- tained throughout. Various additions,
ity and however, seem to have crept into the
Integrity originaltext. Theenumeration of the
of four kings of Judah—Uzziah, Jotham,
the Book. Ahaz, and Hezekiah—is certainly spu-
rious, Hosea being thereby made a
contemporary of Isaiah. In the text itself, also,
there appear various distinct interpolations. The
passage i. '7, indeed, seems to be a Judaic addition,
referring to the saving of Jerusalem from the hands
of the Assyrians by Hezekiah in 701 n.c. It has
been objected that Judah was really less guilty in
comparison with Israel, and could therefore be set
up as a contrast, implying not a delay of judgment,
but an intensification of it.
And, again, since Hosea’s descriptions of the future
contain no allusion toa Messianic king of David’s
line, speaking merely of YuwuH and Israel without
any intermediary, it has been assumed that any ref-
erences to the Messianic hopes were added by a later
Judaic hand, including the passages ii. 1-3 and iv.
15a, the words “and David their king ” in iii. 5, and
“without a king, and without a prince” in ifi. 4.
Although such interpolations are perfectly possible
a priori, there are certain difficulties in admitting
them. Thus, the passage ii. 1-3 could only have
been misplaced from its original position as a speech
of Hosea, and have become corrupted. In fact, the
assumption of Kuenen and others that the words
were originally added to ii. 25, smooths away the
greatest difficulty. And the further objections, that,
according to this assumption, ii. 25 and ii. 2b-3 do
not dovetail, and that ii. 3, compared with ii. 25,
could never have been the end of a longer speech,
are answered by the assumption that it was only after
this transposition that the text was changed in order
to make a better ending, such secondary emenda-
tions being often traceable.
The other alleged interpolations, also, are some-
what doubtful. Forinstance, the expression “ David,
their king ” (iii. 5a) finds its parallel in the repetition
of “YuwuH” in 5b (in place of the by which might
have been expected), although this also may be a
secondary emendation. Grave objections might also
be brought against the assertion that in iv. 15a, if
Hosea had been the author of this passage, Judah
ought to have been the one addressed. Finally, the
authenticity of vili. 14 has been doubted on account
of the resemblance to Amos ii. 4 et seq. ; but, as it may
be taken for granted that Hosea was acquainted with
475
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA REO gs ft acc
the prophecies of Amos (See above), there ig no reason
whatever to set aside viii. 14 as an interpolation.
Amos and Hosea elevated the religion of Israel to
the altitude of ethical monotheism, being the first to
emphasize again and again the moral
Importance sideof YHWH’snature. Israel’s faith-
for Israel’s lessness to YHWH, which resisted all
Religious warnings, compelled Him to punish
De- the people because of His own holi-
velopment. ness; and these two prophets, recog-
nizing that fact, were forced to the
conclusion that YHwuH would not only punish Israel
for the sake of His holiness, but would even allow
Israel to perish in order to maintain the supremacy
of His moral law. While Amos lays stress chiefly
on justice and righteousness as those elements of
the religious consciousness most acceptable to God,
Hosea considers infidelity as the chief sin, of which
Israel, the adulterous wife, has been guilty against
her loving husband, YuwuH; and over against this
he sets the unquenchable love of Yuwu, who, in
spite of this infidelity, does not cast Israel away
forever, but will take His people unto Himself again
after the judgment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Hitzig, Die Zwovif Kleinen Propheten
Erklirt (No.1 of Kurzgefasstes Exegetisches Handbuch
zum A. T.), 4th ed., by H. Steiner, Leipsic, 1881; C. F. Keil,
Biblischer Commentar tiber die Zwolf Kleinen Propheten
(in the Keil and Delitzsch series of Bible commentaries), ib.
1881; Orelli, Ezechiel und die Zwolf Kleinen Propheten (vol.
v. of Kurzgefasster Commentar zu den Schriften des A.
und N. T.), Nordlingen, 1888; Wellhausen, Die Kleinen Pro-
pheten, Uebersetzt mit Noten, in Skizzen und Vorarbeiten,
No. 5, Berlin, 1892; Nowack, in Nowack’s Handkommentar
zum <A. T. iii. 4, Gottingen, 1897; Simson, Der Prophet
Hosea, Uebersetzt und Erkldrt, Hamburg and Gotha, 1851;
A. Wiinsche, Der Prophet Hosea Uebersetzt und Hrklart
mit Benutzung der Targumim und der Jiidischen Ausleger
Raschi, Aben Lisra und David Kimchi, Leipsic, 1868; Tot-
termann, Die Weissagung Hoseas bis zur Ersten Assyri-
schen Denortation, i—vi. 3, Helsingfors, 1879; Nowack, Der
Prophet Hosea, Berlin, 1880; T. K. Cheyne, Hosea, with
Notes and Introduction, Cambridge, 1884 (reprinted 1889) ;
F, F. P. Valeton, Amos en Hosea, Nimeguen, 1894; De Visser,
Hosea, de Man des Geestes, Utrecht, 1886; Houtsma, in
Theologiseh Tijdschrift, 1875, p. 55; Oort, ib. 1890, pp. 345 et
seq., 480 et seg.; J. Bachmann, Alttestamentliche Unter-
suchungen, ch. i.-vii., Berlin, 1894; Billeb, Die Wichtigsten
Sdtze der Alttestamentlichen Kritik vom Standpunkt der
Propheten Hosea und Amos aus Betrachtet, Halle, 1893 ;
Patterson, The Septuaginta Text of Hosea Compared with
the Masoretic Text, in Hebraica, vii. 190 et seq.; P. Ruben,
Critical Remarks upon Some Passages of the Old T'esta-
ment, iv.-xi., London, 1896,
E. G. H. V. Ry.
HOSHATIAH (in the Babylonian Talmud gener-
ally Oshaya): Palestinian amora of the third and
fourth amoraic generations (died about 350 C.E.).
It ig supposed that his colleague Hanina was his
brother (Sanh. 14a; see Edels, “ Hiddushe Agadot,”
ad loc.), They were lineal descendants from Eli the
priest, which circumstance they assigned as reason
for Johanan’s failure to ordain them. For a living
they plied the shoemaker’s trade (see HANANIAH
[Hanina]). Hoshaiah and Haninaare mentioned in
connection with a certain bath-house, the ownership
of which was contested by two persons, one of whom
turned over the property as “hekdesh” (for sacred
use), causing Hoshaiah, Hanina, and other rabbis to
leave it (B. M. 6b). On the day Hoshaiah died, it is
claimed, the largest date-pulm in Tiberias was up-
rooted and fell (Yer. ‘Ab. Zarah iii. 42c).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Yuhasin, ed. Filipowski, p. 118, London,
1857; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 36, Warsaw, 1878; Frankel,
Meho, p. 75, Breslau, 1870; Jolles, Bel Wa‘ad, p. 20a, Cracow,
1884; Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 565,
S. J. D. E.
HOSHAIAH RABBAH, ROBA, BERABBI
or BERIBBI: Palestinian amora of the first amo-
raic generation (about 200 c.E.); compiler of baraitot
explaining the Mishnah-Tosefta. He was closcly as-
sociated with the successors of Rabbi, as was his fa-
ther with Rabbi himself. Hoshaiah’s father, Hama,
lived in Sepphoris, the residence of Rabbi and the
seat of the patriarchs (see Hama Bs. Brsa).
Hoshaiah’s yeshibah, also, was for many years
located at Sepphoris, where pupils crowded to hear
his lectures. Johanan, one of his greatest disciples.
declared that Hoshaiah in his generation was like
R. Meir in his: even his colleagues could not always
grasp the profundity of his arguments (‘Er. 58a).
And the esteem in which Hoshaiah was held by his
pupils may be gaged by the statement that, even
after Johanan had himself become a great scholar
and a famous teacher and no longer needed Hosha-
iah’s instruction, he continued visiting the master,
who in the meantime had grown old and had re-
moved his school to Cesarea (Yer. Sanh. xi. 30b).
Hoshaiah was called the “ father of the Mishnah,”
not so much because of his collection and edition of
the mishnayot, as because of the abil-
‘“‘Father ity with which he explained and in-
of the terpreted them (see Yer. Kid. i. 60a;
Mishnah.” Yer. B. K. iv. 4c). Hoshaiah’s most im-
portant halakic decision is directed
against the standard weights and measures, held
by Johanan to be traditional from the Sinaitic period.
Hoshaiah’s radical point of view can be traced to his
theory of the development of the Mishnah. He even
goes so far as to overrule both Bet Shammai and Bet
Hillel with reference to offerings brought on visiting
the Temple three times every year (Hag. i. 2). The
custom of greeting mourners on the Sabbath was
permitted in southern Galilee, including Cesarea,
and prohibited in other places. Hoshaiah happened
to be in a certain town on the Sabbath, and, meeting
mourners, greeted them, saying, “I donotknow your
custom, but J greet you according to our custom”
(Yer. M. K. iii. 82d).
Hoshaiah’s consideration for others is exemplified
in his gracious apology to the blind teacher whom
he had engaged for his son, and whom he did not
suffer to meet visitors at dinner for fear that he
might be embarrassed (Yer. Peah viii. 21b).
Hoshaiah’s authority must have been very power
ful in his later years, when he successfully resisted
the effortsof R. Gamaliel ha-Nasi, the son of Rabbi,
to introduce “demai” (the “suspicion,” on buying
wheat from an ‘am ha-arez, that he had not separated
the tithes) into Syria (Yer. Hal. iv. 60a) It is also
indicated by his remarkable interposition in regard
to the mishnah which declares that “a Gentile’s tes-
timony in the case of an ‘agunah is allowed only if
stated as a matter of factand without any intention
} io testify ” (Yer. Yeb. xvi. 5: Yeb. 121b).
The haggadic utterances of Hoshaiah are numer-
ous, scattered principally in Midrash Rabbah, which
some have erroneously attributed to
His him because of the opening words “ R.
Haggadah. Hoshaiah Rabbah.” In Genesis Rab-
bah, Hoshaiah’s text with reference to
the Creation is the verse “Then I was by him, as
one brought up [= }}OX] with him” (Prov. viii.
Hoshaiah Rabbah
Hosha‘na Rabbah
80). He transposes the letters to read yoiN~ (“an
architect ”), and explains that “ wisdom ” (the Torah)
was used as an instrument by God to create the uni-
verse. He illustrates this by the example of an
earthly king who, in building a palace, needs an ar-
chitect with plans and specifications. Freudeuthal
points out the analogy between Philo’s ideas and
those of Hoshaiab, aud Bacher expresses his opinion
that if Hoshaiah had not himself read the philoso-
pher’s works, he at least had heard of them from
Origen, the most important champion of Philo
(“J. Q. R.” iii. 857). In a dialogue with Hoshaiah
regarding circumcision, a “ philosopher” (identified
as Origen by Bacher) asked: “If the rite possesses
such virtue, why did not God create the first man
circumcised?” Hoshaiah replied that man, with all
things created on the first six days, needs improving
and perfecting, and that circumcision conduces to
perfection (Gen. R. xi. 6). Bacher quotes a pas-
age in which Hoshaiah refuted the incarnation dog-
ma: “When God created Adam the angels mis-
took him for a deity and wished to sing the hymn
‘Holy! Holy! Holy!’ But when God put Adam
to sleep they knew him to be mortal, as the prophet
said: ‘Cease ye from man, whose breath is in his
nostrils: for wherein is he to be accounted of ?’”
(Isa. ii. 22; Gen. R. viii. 10).
There are more examples in the Talmud to justify
the assertion that Hoshaiah as the representative of
Judaism was in constant touch with
Relations the early Christians at Cesarea, and
with particularly with Origen, who was
Origen. ordained presbyter at Ceesarea in 228,
and who in 281 opened a philosophical
and theological schoo} which was attended by persons
from all parts, anxious to hear his interpretation of
the Scriptures. Origen died in 254 at Tyre, so that
his last twenty-five years were spent in the region
in which most of the Amoraim lived. The “ phiioso-
pher” whom the latter mention as controverting
Hoshaiah’s Biblical interpretations was doubtless
Origen himself or one of his students. The influ-
ence brought to bear by Hoshaiah and others proba-
bly induced Origen to formulate the doctrine of the
different degrees of dignity in the Trinity, for which
Origen was accused as a heretic.
Hoshaiah was very strictin requiring from a prose-
lyte both circumcision and immersion (baptism) in
the presence of three rabbis (Yeb. 46b); this was
very likely directed against the free conversion of
the Gentiles by the Christian Jews. In a case of
partition by heirs or partners the Mishnab says:
“They can not divide the Scriptures between them,
even when all parties are satisfied.” Hoshaiah adds:
“even if they wish to divide by volumes, one to
take the Psalms and another the Chronicles” (Yer.
B. B. i. 18a). It is explained that such an ex-
change would be considered as unequal and as
giving the impression that one Biblical book is
holier than another. This is more easily under-
stood in view of the exaltation by the Judio-
Christians of the Psalms in comparison with the
other books of the Old Testament, especially with
the Chronicles, as against the contrary view of
Judaism, which recognizes no preference between
the various books.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
476
——
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Yuhasin, ed. Filipowski, p. Lis; Seder ha-
Dorot, ii. 36; Frankel, Melo, p. 743 Jolles, Bet Wa'ad, p.
20a; Bacher, Ay. Pal. Amor, i, 89-108; J. Q. #. iii. 357.
E. Cc. J. D. E.
HOSHAIAH OF TURYA. Sec Axspsa Ho-
SITAYA.
HOSHAIAH ZE‘ERA DE-MIN HAB-
RAYA: Palestinian amora of the third amoraic
period (died about 350 ¢.E.). In the Tosafot it is
claimed that “Habraya” was the name of lis birth-
place, but according to Rashi the word means a
“society of colleagues,” and the surname * Ze‘era”
(minor, junior) is used to distinguish him from Ifo-
shaiah the Elder (Mul. 12b). He belonged to the
rabbis “of the south” (southern Galilee), and may be
identitied with Lloshaiah, the brother of Hanina, who
was also a “haber.” Only one halakah is mentioned
in the name of Hoshaiah Ze‘era ( Niddah 26a).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 86; Aruch Com-
pletum, p. 316.
J. D. E.
E. C.
HOSHA‘NA RABBAH (“the great Hosha‘-
na”): The popular name for the seventh day of the
Feast of Booths (Sukkot); the day on which the
exclamation “Hosha‘na!” (save now!) is often re-
peated, while on the other days of the feast it is used
but sparingly. While the name arose comparatively
late, the character of the day as distinguished from
the rest of the feast dates back to the days of the
Temple, probably to the first Hasmoneans or cven
earlier. The Gospels mention the word as the cheer-
ful cry of men carrying palm-branches, but by a
mistake place the custom in the season shortly be-
fore the Passover, instead of in the Feast of Booths.
The Mishnah (Suk. iv. 5) mentions the processions
around the altar during the feast, once cach on six
days, but seven times on the seventh day. It ex-
plains the “commandment of willows” thus: At a
place below Jerusalem called Colonia willows were
gathered—big branches, about eleven cubits long;
these were set up at the sides of the altar with the
foliage overhanging it. The willow is furthermore
mentioned in Suk. iv. 1, 3. as being in use on six or
seven days—six times when Sabbath fell other than
on the seventh day of the feast, seven times when it
fell on the seventh day. From this it would scem
that the use of the willow on the seventh day was
deemed of sufficient importance in the Temple serv-
ice to justify its retention even on the Sabbath.
The joyousness of the Feast of Booths, as it gath-
ered around the “drawing of water” and developed
in music and torchlight processions (Suk. iv. 5),
attained its height on the seventh day. Many of
the exercises were in conflict with the Sabbath or
even With a feast-day (Suk. v. 1, “the flute-playing
lasts five or six days”); but although with the de-
struction of the Temple nearly all these exercises had
fallen into disuse, yet in framing the new CALENDAR,
about 361, the patriarch Hillel and his advisers
deemed THosha‘na Rabbah so important
and so much in conflict with the Sab-
bath that, to prevent Hosha‘na Rabbah
falling on a Sabbath, they would not
allow the New-Moon of Tishri to occur on a Sunday.
All the ceremonies or services of praise or prayer
which belonged to the other middle days of the feast
Cere-
monies.
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(After Picart, 1728.)
PROCESSION SHOWING THE CARRYING OF PALMS ON HOSHA'NA RABBAH.
Hosha‘na Rabbah
Hospital
while the Temple stood, or which belong to them
now, suchas Halleland the swinging of the “lulab,”
or the sitting in the booth, belong also to Hosha‘na
Rabbah. The bunch of five willow-twigs inno way
supersedes the two willow-twigs in the lulab.
Abudarham speaks of the custom, followed by
some of his contemporaries, of reading the Penta-
teuch on the night of Hosha‘na Rabbah, out of
which has grown the modern custom of meeting
socially on that night and reading Deuteronomy,
Psalms, and passages from the Zohar, of reciting
some cabalistic prayers, and of eating in the intervals
cakes, fruits, and other refreshments. Before the
regular morning service the Sephardim have now
(though they evidently did not have them in the
days of Abudarham) their “selihot,” in which
the “thirteen attributes” (Ex. xxxiv. 6, 7) play an
even greater part than on other occasions for se-
lihot. In Amsterdam and in a few places in
England, America, and elsewhere they also sound
the shofar in connection with the processions.
In both rituals, in the early part of the morning
service, the Sabbath psalms are inserted, and the
fuller “Kedushah” is recited in the “ Additional,”
just as on true festival days. After this prayer all
the scrolls are taken out of the Ark (on the six pre-
ceding days only one or two; none on the Sabbath);
the reader, in making the circuit round the platform,
is followed by men bearing scrolls; after them come
others carrying the lulab. On thisand the preceding
days they begin: “Hosha‘na! for Thy sake, our
God! Hogsha‘na! for Thy sake, our Creator!” ete.
Then come the seven processions. The compositions
chanted in these are quite different in the two rit-
uals, and much changed from those given in the
Mahzor Vitry (dated 4968 = 1208); the
Sephardim refer successively to Abra-
ham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Aaron,
Phinehas, and David. Later on the lulab is laid
aside, every worshiper takes up a small bunch of
willows, and all join in the hynin, “ Kol mebasser,
mebasser we-omer” (A voice brings news, brings
news and says), expressing thus their Messianic
hopes.
The compositions recited during or after the pro-
cessions generally consist of twenty-two versicles
each, alphabetically arranged, “Hosha‘na” being
repeated or implied after each, as, for instance,
“The land from evil—save now!” After the pro-
cessions the Germans sing a hymn of eleven distichs.
The Mishnah gives the invocation “I and He! [“ Ani
wahu”] Savenow!” addressed to God on the days of
the feast, and it is still recited once in each Hosha‘na
service (the Hebrew for “save now” is here “ Ho-
shi‘ah-na,” which has come into English through
Christian sources as “Hosanna”). It also records
that the verse from Ps. cxviii. 25, Hebr., “I pray, O
Lord, save now! I pray, O Lord, give success now,”
was sung during each procession round the altar.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mahzor of the several modern rituals; also
the Mahzor Vitry: Suk. 42a to 51b; Suk. iv. and v.; and
Yer. Suk. iv.,v.; also “ tikkun,” or arrangement, for Shabu‘ot
ane cada Rabbah, which gives the readings for the night-
A. L. N. D.
HOSH‘ANOT. See Haxxaror,
HOSHEA (ywin = “[God is] salvation”; in the
Prayers.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
478
Assyrian tablets, “Ausi(a)” [“ Zeitschrift fiir As-
syriologie,” ii. 261]).—Biblical Data: Last of the
nineteen kings of Israel; son of Elah (II Kings xv.
30). Hoshea secured the throne through a con-
spiracy in which he was the leader, and which
resulted in the assassination of Pekah, “in the
twelfth year of Ahaz king of Judah” (II Kings
xvii. 1). He reigned nine years (7b.), and did that
which was evil in the eyes of Yuwu, though not
to the extent to which his predecessors had gone (II
Kings xvii. 2). Coming into conflict with Shal-
maneser, King of Assyria, Hoshea was reduced to
vassalage, and was forced to pay an annual tribute
to his Assyrian conqueror (II Kings xvii. 8). After
a time, however, having negotiated an alliance with
the Egyptian ruler So, he discontinued the tribute.
This was taken asa sign of rebellion by the Assyrian
monarch, and Hoshea was seized and imprisoned (II
Kings xvii. 4). Samaria was besieged by the As-
syrian forces, which, after three years, “in the ninth
year of Hoshea,” captured the city and carried its
population into exile (II Kings xvii. 6).
——Critical View (1): The motives of Hoshea’s
policy are made intelligible by reference to the
Assyrian documents and to the political conditions
in western Asia reflected by them. Under Anaz,
Judah had rendered allegiance to Tiglath-pileser
III. of Assyria, while the Northern Kingdom un-
der PEKAH, in league with REzIN or Damascus,
had attempted to coerce the Judean king into joint
action against Assyria (II Kings xvi. 5; Isa. vii.
1-6). Tiglath-pileser, however, went to the aid of
his ally (comp, II Kings xvi. 9). At this juncture
Hoshea placed himself at the head of the Assyrian
party in Samaria and removed Pekah by assassina-
tion; Tiglath-pileser rewarded Hoshea by making
him king over Israel, or, rather, over EPHRAIM,
then reduced to very small dimensions.
So long as Tiglath-pileser was on the throne
Hoshea remained loyal; but when Shalmaneser IV.
succeeded, he made an effort to regain his independ-
ence. In Egypt the Ethiopian dynasty had begun
to reign, and Hoshea entered into negotiations with
So (iD, probably more correctly vocalized as
NID), an underling of King Shabako (see Winck-
ler, “ Untersuchungen zur Altorientalischen Gesch.”
pp. 92-94; ¢dem, in “ Mittheilungen der Vorderasi-
atischen Gesellschaft,” i. 5; Rogers, “ Hist. of Baby-
lonia and Assyria,” ii. 144; comp. Meyer, “ Gesch.
des Alten Egyptens,” pp. 348-346). Hoshea, proba-
bly misled by favorable promises on the part of the
Ethiopian ruler of Egypt, discontinued paying trib-
ute. Shalmaneser IY. soon interpreted this symp-
tom, and directed his armies against Samaria. The
details of the campaign are not known. It is likely
that Hoshea, disappointed by the “broken reed”
(=“Egypt”; see Isa. xx., xxx. 1-5, xxxi. 1~3), en-
deavored to avert the calamity by resuming the pay-
ment of tribute, but that, distrusted, he was forced
to fight, and was taken prisoner in battle (Hommel,
“Gesch. Babyloniens und Assyriens,” p. 675; Rogers,
l.c.). The capital, though deprived of the ruler,
made an effective defense, and Shalmaneser died
before it was captured (comp. Winckler, in Schrader,
“K. A, T.” 3d ed., p. 268).
The chronology of Hoshea’s reign is involved in
479
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
erat Rabbah
difficulties. The Biblical statement in II Kings xv. 30,
giving the twentieth year of Jotham as the begin-
ning of the reign, is to be dismissed either as due
to a scribal error or as dating from the beginning of
Jotham’s reign. The “nine years” given Hoshea ex-
tend from 733, the year of Pekah’s assassination, to
724, the year of Hoshea’s capture and three years
before the fall of Samaria. These dates, however,
are not accepted by all modern scholars (see Hom-
mel, Zc, pp. 964 et seg.; ¢dem, “ Assyria,” in Has-
tings, “ Dict. Bible” ; Tiele, “ Babylonisch-Assyrische
Gesch.” i, 282; Winckler, “Gesch. Babyloniens und
Assyriens,” p. 280). References to the events of Ho-
shea’s reign are found in Hosea xi.~xiv. and Isa.
XXvili.
E. G. H. I, M. P.
——Critical View (2): This last king of Israel ap-
pears on the Assyrian monuments as “ Ausi(a).” The
statement of II Kings xvii. 1 that he ascended the
throne in the twelfth year of Ahaz must be dismissed
as unhistorical. Hoshea became king in 788 (or in
734); for when Assyria came to the rescue of Ahaz
against Rezin of Damascus and Pckah of Israel, the
last-named was assassinated and Hoshea appointed or
confirmed as king by Tiglath-pileser III. (Schrader,
“K. A. T.” 2d ed., p. 475; idem, “K. B.” ii. 82).
From IT Kings xv. 29, 80 and xvii. 3-6 it would ap-
pear that Hoshea had rebelled twice against Assyria.
This at first glance is highly improbable. He had
been the leader of the pro-Assyrian party and owed
his throne to Tiglath-pileser III. It is reasonable to
infer that the death of this monarch brought about
the change in Hoshea’s relations to the Assyrian
suzerain, and induced him to look for foreign allies
to enable him to throw off the burden of the annual
tribute, which must have been a terrible drain on the
people (comp. Hosea v. 11-18).
Winckler first attempted to separate the Biblical
passages quoted above into two parallel accounts of
one event, in order to eliminate the assumption of
two uprisings with refusal of tribute under Shal-
maneser. Kittel (“Die Bticher der Kénige” on II
Kings xvii. 8) meets the difficulty by omitting Shal-
maneser asa later gloss, Under Tiglath-pileser, Ho-
shea paid the annual tribute; after that ruler’s death,
he regarded, contrary to Hosea’s warning, the po-
litical conditions as favorable for declaring himself
independent.
According to IT Kings xvii. 4, So, King of Egypt,
was the monarch from whom Hoshea expected effect-
ive assistance. Generally this So (or Sewe = As-
syrian “Sib’e”) is identified with Shabako, the
Ethiopian, who at the time controlled the destinies
of Egypt. Winckler makes him a prince or vassal
prince or even a general of the North-Arabian em-
pire of Musri (“ Mitt. der Vorderas. Ges.” 1898, p.
5), and contends that in this anti-Assyrian move-
ment, in which also Tyre had a share, the last effort
was made on the part of the Arabic commercial
states to gain control of Palestine, and thus to shut
out Assyria from the Arabo-Indian commerce, for
which possession of the Mediterranean ports was
of vital importance (Schrader, “K. A. T.” 3d ed.,
pp. 268 ef seq.).
Hoshea’s attempt, whoever were his supporters,
failed. In 725 3.c. Shalmaneser invaded Israel.
Hospita
Hoshea must have surrendered tohimatonce. This
would give nine years to his reign. He was
blinded (read yAMp instead of the tautological
wasp’ in Il Kings xvii. 4), and was led away a
prisoner. The three years’ siege of Samaria is not
to be counted as part of his reign.
The assumption that Hoshea’s wickedness was
less than his predecessors’ (II Kings xvii. 2) is prob-
ably an afterthought (if it is not due toa corruption
of the original text; see Lucian’s recension of LXX.).
Possibly his earlier fidelity to Assyria, which was
regarded by the prophetic party as God’s predestined
instrument, may underly the conception of his (by
comparison) less censurable impiety (see ISATAn).
E. G. H.
HOSHKE, REUBEN (called also Reuben ben
Hoshke Sofer and sometimes Abraham Reu-
ben): Cabalist; rabbiof Prague; died April 3, 1673.
“ Hoshke,” his father's name, is a Polish diminutive
for “ Joshua,” mistaken by De Rossi (“ Dizionario,”
3.v. “Oski, Ruben”) and Zunz (“Z. G.” p. 402) for his
family name. He wrote: “ Yalkut Re’ubeni,” a
cabalistic work (an imitation of the “ Yalkut Ha-
dash ”) containing a collectic.of sayings taken from
other cabalistic works and arranged in alphabetical
order (Prague, 1660); “ Yalkut Re’ubeni ha-Gadol,”
a cabalistic midrash on the Pentateuch arranged ac-
cording to the order of the parashiyyot (Wilmers-
dorf, 1681); “ Dabar Shebi-Kedushah,” a manual of
asceticism and repentance (Sulzbach, 1684); “‘ Oneg
Shabbat,” cabalistic reflections on the Sabbath laws,
followed by an appendix entitled “ Derek Kabbalat
Shabbat” (7b. 1684).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lieben, Gal ‘Hid, German part, p. 41; Hebrew
: part, p. He ; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2138; First, Bibl.
ud. L
K, M. SEL.
HOSPITAL: House set apart for the treatment
of the sick. In early times such institutions were
required only for strangers, the idea of sanitary iso-
lation being quite modern, except in case of LrEP-
Rosy, when a “house of separation” (“bet ha-
hofshit ”) was used (II Kings xv.5; II Chron, xxvi.
21), Visitation of the sick in their own houses was
the ancient substitute. It has been claimed that in
its origin the hospital is a specifically Christian in-
stitution, but the very passage, from Jerome, which
is quoted to substantiate this claim (“Epistola,” 77)
shows that the Roman lady Fabiola, whom Jerome
praises for founding one was, in his opinion, only
imitating Jewish custom in “transplanting the tere-
binth of Abraham to Ausonian shores.” As far as
evidence goes, the early equivalents of hospitals
were only portions of homes for strangers reserved
for those who might fall sick. Such homes were
usual among Jews in Talmudical times (see Hosrt-
TALITY), and became especially frequent in Jewish
communities after the Crusades.
Thespecific Jewish name for hospital (“ hekdesh ”)
was first used at Cologne in the eleventh century
(Brisch, “Gesch. der Juden in K6lIn,” i, 19 e¢ seq.).
Berliner (“ Aus dem JInneren Leben,” p. 100) shows
that a similar institution existed at Munich early in
the fourteenth century. But with the continual
migration of the Jews it was difficult to keep a
|} special house for the sick, who were mainly cared
Hospitality
Host
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
480
for by the hebra kaddisha. Doubtless in the Jews’
inns of Spain, as in the “ Auberge Juive” of Paris,
strangers who fell sick were attended to. The
wealthy Sephardim appear to have been the first to
found special hospitals for the Jewish sick. The
Beth Holim of London, whichis an asylum for the
aged as well, dates from 1747; the Krankenhaus of
Berlin from 1753; in Metz a special Jewish hospital
was founded at the end of the eighteenth century,
toward the foundation of which the municipality
contributed. ‘The Jews of Paris were content with
a medical attendant attached to the hebra kaddisha,
who visited the sick in their homes till 1886, when
the first Jewish hospital was founded (L. Kahn, “ In-
stitutions des Juifs & Paris,” p. 36).
In modern times Jews very often utilize the gen-
eral hospitals of the cities in which they dwell, after
making the arrangements rendered necessary by the
requirements of the dietary laws. This is done in
London and most other English cities. In other
places special Jewish hospitals have been erected, as
the Mount Sinai, Beth Israel, and Lebanon hospitals
of New York, which. however, receive patients
of other creeds. The Jews’ Hospital of London
(founded 1795) is not a hospital in the strict sense of
the word, but a home for the aged. The Jewish
Hospital of Philadelphia combines the characteris-
tics of both (see CHARITY; COLORADO; HEKDESH).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: K. Kohler, in Berliner Festschrift, pp. 201-
203; D. Cassel, Offener Brief an Herrn Professor Dr. Vir-
chow, pp. 6-12, Berlin, 1869. j
HOSPITALITY.—Biblical Data: The “ ger,”
the sojourner who lived with a Hebrew family or
clan, was assured by the Biblical law not only of
protection against oppression (Ex. xxiii. 9) and de-
ceit (Lev. xix. 83), but also of love from the natives
(Deut. xvi. 14), who were to love him even as them-
selves (Lev. xix. 34). He was to be invited to par-
ticipate in the family and tribal festivals (Deut. Z.c.),
the Passover excepted; and even in the latter he
could take part if he submitted to circumcision. He
received a share in the tithes distributed among the
poor (2). xiv. 19); and “one law and one statute”
applied equally to the native and to him (Ex. xii,
49). God Himself loves the stranger (Deut. x 18)
and keeps him under His special protection (Ps.
cxlvi, 9).
While these laws, scattered throughout the Bible
(see GENTILE; PROSELYTES), point to a deep-seated
feeling of kindness toward strangers among the
ancient Hebrews, the intensity of the feeling of hos-
pitality among them can best be learned from the
casual references to it in the narrative portions of
the Bible. Thus Abraham, the archetype of the
Hebrew race, entertained three strangers at his
house and showed them many kindnesses (Gen.
xviii 1-8). Wis kinsman Lot was ready to risk his
life and the honor of his daughters rather than
transgress the laws of hospitality (7d,
Biblical
Examples. Jacob and to Eliezer (7d. xxix. 18,
xxvi. 31) when they came to him as
strangers. Jethro rebuked his daughters because
they did not invite Moses, who was a stranger in
Midian, to the house (Ex. ii. 20); and Rahab was
greatly rewarded because she had _ entertained
xix. 1-8). Laban showed kindness to |
Joshua’s spies (Josh. li.). Manoah would not allow
the angel to depart before he had partaken of his
hospitality (Judges xiii. 15); Gideon punished the
elders of Succoth and of Penuel for their breach of
hospitality (¢b. vili. 5, 8); and David demanded hos-
pitable treatment from Nabal (I Sam. xxv. 8). Bar-
zillai was invited to the royal table because he had
been kind to David when the latter fled from Absa-
lom (II Sam. xvii. 27, xix. 32). The Shunammite
woman had a room furnished with a bed, a table, a
chair, and a lamp for Elisha the prophet (II Kings
iv. 8-11).
The abuse of hospitality once caused a civil war
in Israel] which might have resulted in the extinc-
tion of the whole tribe of Benjamites (Judges xix.,
xx.). In one instance, the case of Jae! and Sisera,
a breach of hospitality is lauded by the Biblical
writer (2b. iv. 18-21, v. 24-27). This was probably
due to the bitter enmity entertained by the oppressed
Jews toward their Canaanitish neighbors. Other-
wise such a transgression could never have been
tolerated in primitive Jewish society (see Cheyne
and Black, “Encyc. Bibl.” s.2.).
From these scattered references an idea can be
formed of the manner in which a guest was received
in an ancient Jewish household and of the relations
that existed between guest and host. The latter
would go out to meet the stranger on his way, and
would ask no questions asto his name and condition
until his first needs had been satisfied (Gen. xxiv.
33). On entering the house he was given water to
wash his feet, and a meal was then put before him,
his animals being meanwhile attended to (73. xviii
4; xix, 2; xxiv. 25, 32). During his
Behavior stay the host felt himself personally
to Guests. responsible for any injury that might
befall his guest (¢d. xix. 8). On leav-
ing, another repast was served (2). xxvi. 80; Judges
xix. 3), when a covenant was sometimes entered into
oy the guest and his host (Gen. xxvi. 81), and the
latter again accompanied the stranger some distance
on his way (2). xviii. 16). On his part, the guest
blessed the host before taking leave (zd, 10), and
asked him whether he stood in need of anything (II
Kings iv. 18). If the guest wished to remain in the
clan or in the locality, he was permitted to select a
dweilling-place (Gen. xx. 15).
The practise of hospitality did not decline with
the changes in social conditions. Even in later
times, when the Jews were settled in cities, this
virtue was held in highest esteem. Isaiah (Isa.
lviii. 7) preferred charity and hospitality to fasting.
Job, in complaining of his misfortunes in spite of
the fact that he had led a virtuous life, mentions
among other things that he had always opened his
door to the stranger (Job xxxi. 32); while Eliphaz
accounts for the misery which had befallen Job on the
ground that he had not been hospitable (23. xxii. 7).
Ben Sira lays down rules for table manners for
the guest (Ecclus. [Sirach] xxxi. 12-26), and con-
demns in the strongest terms the habits of the para-
site who takes advantage of the custom of hospital-
ity (¢b, xxix. 28-28; xl. 28, 30).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hastings, Dict. Bible: Cheyne and Black,
Eneye. Bibl.: Nowack, Hebrdische Archiowgie, part i., 8
31, end, Leipsic, 1894; Hamburger, R. B. 2
J. H. G.
E. G, H.
481
——In Rabbinical Literature: Among the cth-
ical teachings of the Rabbis, the duties of hospitality
occupy a@ very prominent position. Some regard
hospitality more highly than the reception given to
the Shekinah (Divine Presence); others make it su-
perior to visiting the house of study; others, again,
consider it as one of the six meritorious deeds whose
reward is like a tree, the fruit of which man enjoys
in this world, while the trunk remains for his en-
joyment in the world to come (Shab. 12%a). Special
emphasis was laid upon the hospitality due to a
scholar, so that it was said that one who shows hos-
pitality to a student of the Law is regarded as if he
had offered the daily sacrifice (Ber. 10b, 68b, Kid.
76b; Gen. R. lviii. 12).
Abraham and Job were regarded by the Rabbis as
the models of Jewish hospitality. Numerous legends
cluster about these names in the haggadic literature,
illustrative of their generosity and hospitality (see
ABRAHAM; JOB). The doors of their houses were
open at each of the four corners, so that strangers
coming from any side might find ready access (Gen.
R. xlviii. 7; Yalk., Job, 917; comp. Sotah 10a). Of
Job it is related that he had forty tables spread at
all times for strangers and twelve tables for widows
(compare Testament of Job, ed. Kohler, in Kohut
Memorial Volume, Berlin, 1897, Introduction.
“Let thy house be open wide; let the poor be
the members of thy household,” is the precept
expounded by one of the earliest Jewish teachers
(Ab. i. 5). Rab Huna observed the custom of opening
the door of his house when he was about to take his
meal, and saying, “Any one who is hungry may
come in and eat” (Ta‘an. 20b). This custom has
survived in modern times on Passover eve, when
the above-cited passage is read in the Haggadah
Thecustom of opening the door during the “Seder,”
while variously explained. probably has the same
origin. Some rabbis suggested that every house
should have doors on all four sides, so that the poor
might find easy access from all parts (Ab R. N,
viii.). To sit long at the table. so as to give an op-
portunity to the belated poor to enter and partake
of the meal, was regarded as a highly meritorious
act, for which one’s days on earth would be pro.
longed (Ber. 54b) In Jerusalem the custom pre-
vailed of displaying a flag in front of the door, there-
by indicating that the meal was ready, and that
guests might come in and partake thereof. The
removal of the flag was a sign that the meal was
finished, and that guests should cease entering (B.
B. 98b; Lam. R. iv. 4; see Custom).
It is the duty of the host to be cheerful during
meals, and thus make his guests feel at home and
comfortable at the table (Derek Erez Zutaix.). It
is commendable that the host himself
serve at the table, thereby showing his
willingness to satisfy his guest (Kid.
32b). The host is warned against watch-
ing his guest too attentively at the table, for thereby
the visitor may be led to abstain from eating as
much as he would like (“Sefer Hasidim,” ed. Wis-
tinetzky, § 105). Women were regarded as being
better able than men to recognize the character of
a stranger (Ber. 10b, from II Kings iv. 9), but less
liberal in supplying the wants of a guest (B. M.
VI.—31
Duty
of Host.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hospitality
Host
8va; comp. Derek Erez Rabbah vi.). The Jew
is commanded to teach his children to be kind and
courteous to strangers. If one knocks at the door
inquiring after the master of the house, the son or
the daughter answering the knock should not reply
gruffly, but should take the stranger into the house
and prepare some food for him (Ab. R. N. ed.
Schechter, p. 17a, b, Vienna, 1887). It was the cus-
tom with some in Jerusalem to place all) the dishes
on the table at once, so that the fastidious guest was
not compelled to eat something he did not desire, but
might choose anything he wished (Lam. R. iv. 4).
The guest was enjoined to show his gratitude to
the host in various ways. The grateful and un-
grateful guests are well contrasted by the Rabbis
(Ber. 58a). While the host was to break bread first,
the guest was expected to pronounce
Duty grace after the meal, in which he in-
of Guest. cluded a special blessing for the host:
“May it be the will of God that the
master of this house shall not be ashamed in this
world, nor abashed in the world to come; that he
shall be successful in all his undertakings; and that
his property (and our property) shall prosper and
be near the city; and that Satan shall have no do-
minion over his handiwork (and over our handi-
work); and that no sinful act or iniquitous thought
shall occur to him (and to us) from now even to all
eternity ” (Ber. 46a; Maimonides, “ Yad,” Berakot,
vii. 2; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 201, 1). The
guest was expected to leave some of the food on his
dish, to show that he had more than enough. If,
however, the host asked him to finish his portion, it
was not necessary for him to leave any (“Sefer
Hasidim,” $$ 870-878, 888). It was the duty of the
guest to comply with all the requests of the host
(Pes. 86b; Orah Hayyim, 170,5; comp. “Magen
Abraham ” ad loc.). He might not give of his meal
to the son or to the daughter or to theservant of the
host without the host’s permission (Hul. 94a; Derek
EreZ Rabbahix.; “ Yad,” @.c. vii.10; Orah Hayyim,
170, 19). The habitual parasite, who took every
opportunity to partake of meals at the house of an-
other, was very strongly denounced by the Rabbis,
especially if the parasite happened to be a scholar
(Pes. 49a).
In the Middle Ages, especially after the period of
the Crusades, hospitality became a necessity among
the Jews. The poor mendicants or itinerant students
were distributed among the households of the town,
and a system of “Pletten”—7.e¢., “Billetten,” bills
for which the poor traveler received meals and lodg-
ing at a household —was introduced. This system
still survives in many Jewish communities, especially
where meals for the Sabbath-day are provided for
the poor guests. Most of the Jewish communities
have their “haknasat orehim,” institutions where
travelers may obtain lodging during their stay in
town. For further details concerning these organi-
zations see BAHUR and CHARITY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Suwalski, Hayye ha- Yehudi, li.-lii., Warsaw,
1898; Hamburger, R. B. T. s.v. Gast; Abrahams, Jewish Life
in the Middle Ages, pp. 141 et seq., Philadelphia, 1896.
8. S. J. H. G.
HOST, DESECRATION OF: Defiling the host
or sacred wafer of the mass. In the Middle Ages the
Host, Desecration otf
Host of Heaven
Jews were frequently accused of desecrating the
host, an accusation equal in gravity to that of dese-
crating relics and images of Jesus and the saints.
This accusation has brought thousands of Jews to
the stake. The Jews were alleged to steal the host
or to acquire it by purchase or bribery, to break it
or seethe it, and to stick needles into it or transfix it,
whereupon it began to bleed. Even when such an
accusation was supported only by the testimony ofa
thief, a disreputable woman, arecent convert, or some
one having a grudge against the accused Jews, theal-
leged perpetrators were put on trial, and, on evi-
dence that was often preposterous, or after a con-
fession exacted by torture, were condemned and
burned, sometimes with all the other Jews of the
place. The question, Why did not the Jews destroy
the pierced host, the corpus delicti? the chronicles
answer by the following statement: The Jews,
frightened on seeing the blcod, endeavored to hide
[A \| 0 | GY
ae Me TNG
the host, but while do-
ing so miracles happened
which aroused the atten-
tion of the Christian popu-
lation and led to the dis-
covery of the crime. The
story is told, for instance,
that once when the Jews
were burying pieces of a
pierced host in a meadow,
these pieces were changed
into butterflies, which be-
gan to heal cripples and
blind persons. Another
time, when some Jews
were burning such pieces
in a stove, angels and
doves flew out. Again, the
pieces fluttered out of a
swamp, and a herd of gra-
zing oxen, on seeing them,
bowed down before them.
The blood from the host
was said to have splashed
the foreheads of the Jews,
leaving an indelible mark
that betrayed them. It-was also said that the pierced
host had once whimpered and cried like an infant;
this story is perhaps the earliest. As a rule, the
later the chronicles the more stories of this nature
they contain, |
The accusation of the desecration of the host arose
after Pope Innocent III. had recognized (1215) the
doctrine of transubstantiation, which resulted in
the public and general worship of the
First Ac- consecrated host. Hence the first au-
cusations. thentic accusation does not occur be-
fore the middle of the thirteenth cen-
tury. This was made in 1243 at Belitz, near Berlin,
and in consequence of it all the Jews of Belitz were
burned on the spot subsequently called “ Judenberg.”
Similar accusations, resulting in more or less exten-
sive persecutions of the Jews, were brought for-
ward in 1290, at Paris; 1294, at Laa, in Austria;
1298, at Réttimgen, near Wirzburg, and at Korneu-
burg, near Vienna; 1299, at Ratisbon; 1306, at Saint-
Pdlten; 1825, at Cracow; 1330, at Giistrow; 1837,
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
ya _& = i
1~ =
Ss si
XS =a
1 | : Va
Jews of Sternberg Represented as Transfiixing Hosts.
(From a woodcut issued by M,. Brandis, Libeck, 1492,)
482
at Deggendorf; 1838, at Pulka; 1870, at Enghien
(see BRUSSELS); 1388, at Prague; 1899, at Posen;
1401, at Glogan; 1410, at Segovia; 1420, at Enns;
1458, at Breslau; 1478, at Passau; 1492, at Stern-
berg, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin; 1510, at Berlin;
1514, at Mittelberg, in Alsace; 1559, at Sochaczew,
in Poland. The last Jew burned for stealing a
host died in 1631, according to Basnage, quoting
from Manasseh b. Israel. Casimir IV. of Poland
(1447), Martin Luther (1523), and Sigismund August
of Poland (1558) were among those who repudi-
ated the accusation, the repetition of which gradu-
ally ceased after the Reformation. The accusation
of desecration of the host was based on the hy-
pothesis that the Jews, like the Christians, identify
the host with the true body of Jesus; that by cruci-
fying the host they imagine they are crucifying
Jesus anew; and that they use the blood supposed
to have flowed from the host in order to get rid of
the “foetor Judaicus,” or
to color their cheeks to
give them a fresh and rosy
appearance. In a lecture
delivered before the Roy-
al Prussian Academy of
Sciences in 1848 Ehrenberg
explained the phenom-
enon of the bloody host,
which had caused such
excitement in the Middle
Ages. Heshowed that red
microscopical infusoria,
exactly resembling blood,
and which he called “ pur-
purmonade” (Monas pro-
digiosa, later termed M-
crococcus prodigiosus by
Cohn), settle on bread and
other food, especially on
wafers, kept in the dark
for any length of time.
He furthermore showed
that this growth had been
observed in former times,
and a superstitious inter-
See Micrococcus Propier-
Sonuie
Yl
pretation given to it.
OSUB.
“ Host-tragedies,” or miracle-plays, were occasion-
ally given in memory of these desecrations. The
story of the desecration at Deggendorf in 13837 was
represented as late as 1800 at Regen. A host-trag-
edy was produced at Constance in 1384. Centenaries
or jubilees were held in commemoration of such
events, as, for instance, the quadricen-
Host- = tennial jubileein 1799 in commemora-
Tragedies tion of the desecration of the host in
and Posen. As lateas1820a great jubilee
Jubilees. wascelebrated at Brabant in commem-
oration of the desecration of the host at
Enghien in 1370. This festival lasted eight days,
during which sixteen hosts studded with diamonds
were borne in solemn procession through the streets.
Fifty years later (1870), while a committee and the
clergy of Brussels were making preparations for this
ancient festival, an article appeared in the “Revue
Belgique,” entitled “ Le Jubilé d’un Faux Miracle,”
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483
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Host, Desecration of
Host of Heaven
ete., which proved by the originat sources that, al-
though three Jews had been burned in 1870 on the
charge of having stolen a host, “pro sacraimentis
punice ct furtive captis,” the original document had
been changed sixty-five years later to read “pro
sacramento puncto et furtive accepto,” in order to
fabricate an accusation of desecration of the host,
Other falsifications being discovered in the docu-
ment, Pope Pius LX. felt obliged to stop the festival.
In the Church of Sainte-Gudule, Brussels, are sev-
eral Gobelin tapestries containing representations of
the supposed desecration of the host in 1370. See
BRUSSELS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, ix., ch. 13; xxv.
397 et seq.; Depping, Les Juifs dans le Moyen Age, p. 125;
Zunz, Literaturgesch. pp. 19, 38, 47,49; Aretin, Gesch. der
Juden in Baiern, pp. 38 et seg.; Monatsschrift, viii. 49 et
seq.; Ehrenberg, Verhandlungen der Koniglichen Preus-
sischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1848, p.
349; 1849, p. 101; Stobbe, Die Juden in Deutschland, pp.
187, 292; Gritz, Gesch. vii. 231, 326; vili. 50, 95, 182, 197, 201,
228, 272; ix. 94, 445: Chwolson, Die Blutanklage, pp. 268 et
seq.; Aronius, Regesten, p. 232; Scherer, Die Rechtsver-
hdltnisse der Juden in den Deutsch-Oesterreichischen
Liindern, pp. 348 et seq., Leipsic, 1901.
Je M. Sc.
The following appear to be the chief cases in
which this particular accusation was brought against
the Jews. Forabbreviations see BLooD AccUSsATION,
1260. Flanders (Usque, ‘* Consolac&o,” p. 15; Loeb, ‘‘ Joseph
ha-Kohen,”’ p. 40).
126. Santarem (Kayserling, ‘* Portugal,” p. 5, note).
1292. Laa, Austria; several slain, the remainder fled (Pertz,
‘*Mon. Germ.” ix. 658; Sch. p. 350).
1297. Meissen (CsI. p. 80).
1298. ROttingen (Sch. p. 349); 100,000 Jews said to have been
killed (Seb. p. 351).
1302. Austria (Csl. p. 80). [?Korneuburg, 1298-1305; happened
in 1298, tried in 1805; Sch. pp. 349, 351-352. ]
1306. St.-Pdlten (Sch. p. 349).
13810. Styria (St. p. 283).
1312. Fiirstenfeld, Styria (Sch. p. 467); riots in Gritz and Ju-
denburg; expulsion from Styria and Carinthia (Jost,
**Gesch. der Israeliten,” x. 322; Csl. p. 80; Wertheimer,
* Jahrbuch,” 1859, p. 4).
1330. Giistrow, Mecklenburg-Schwerin (Zunz, “‘S. P.”’ p, 38);
Wildenkatze (CsI. p. 80).
1331. Ueberlingen (Zunz, “‘S. P.”’ p. 38).
cording to Csl. p. 79.]
1334. Constance (Lowenstein, ‘* Bodensee,” p. 25).
1337 (Sept. 30). Deggendorf, Straubing, and other Bavarian
and Austrian towns (Aretin, **‘Juden in Baiern,”’ pp. 21
et seq.: ZZ. p. 88; Sch. p. 368).
1338. Pulka (CsI. p. 80); Linzand and Wernatodorf (Sch. p. 349);
Retz, Znaim, Horn, Eggenburg, Neuburg, Zwettl, etc.
(Sch. p. 364); Wolfsburg (Pertz, l.c. ix. 688; Jost, i.c. x.
322).
1361. Coimbra, Portugal (A. R. ii. 276-277, note).
1388. Prague (CsI. p. 80).
1401. Glogau (Zunz, “*8. P.” p. 47; Csi. p. 80; St. p. 289;
Worbs, “‘Schles. Prov. Blatter,” exvii. 377).
1404 (July 10). Mihlen; all Jews of Salzburg and Hallein
burned (Wolf, in °* Monatssehrift,” 1876, p. 284; Sch.
p. 554).
1420. Enns (Jost, l.e. x. 222: Sch. p. 411); Jews expelled from Aus-
tria, Franconia, Saxony, Westphalia, the Rhine prov-
inces (Zunz, “8. P.”’ p. 48 [MaHaRiL’s fast, 3 days]).
1422. Mayence (Csl. p. 80).
1432. Segovia (Gritz, ‘“*Gesch.” viii. 95, note; Loeb, ‘* Joseph
ha-Kohen*’),
1474. Bavaria (Cs). p. 80).
1478. Passau (Aretin, U.c. p. 38; Csi. p. 80).
1484. Passau (Pertz, l.c. xi, 521; St. p. 292).
1510. Berlin; 26 burned, 2 beheaded (CsI. p. 80: Zunz, “*S. P.”’
p. 54; St. p. 292).
1559. Sochaczew (Zunz, **S. P.*’ p. 336).
1836. Bislad, Rumania (Loeb, ** Israelites,” p. 148).
[Blood accusation ac-
HOST OF HEAVEN (n° own nay): Term
occurring several times in the Bible, but not always
with a definite meaning. The word “zaba” usually
designates an army, and thus connotes a vast body
of organized and ofliccred men; it conveys, how-
ever, also the meaning of a numerous throng actually
engaged in warfare. The singular “zaba” has a
different meaning from the plural as used in the ex-
pression “ Yuw of hosts,” a frequent though com-
paratively late name for the God of Israel. In this
expression it is most likely that the reference is to
the armies of Israel, at whose head Yuwu is march-
ing to battle. All the more probable is it that the
phrase “host of heaven” originally covered the idea
of stars arrayed in battle-line (comp. Judges v. 20),
with a mythological background, perhaps going
back to remote Assyro-Babylonian conceptions (see
Zimmern in Schrader, “K. A. T.” 8d ed., p. 421).
The “host of heaven ” is mentioned as the recipient
of idolatrous veneration (Deut. iv. 19, xvii. 8; II
Kings xvii. 16, xxi. 8, 5; xxi. 4; Jer. viii. 2, xix.
13; Zeph.i.5). The express mention of sun, moon,
and stars as forming the “host of heaven” in this
connection leaves no doubt that astral bodies and
their cult are referred to. Sidereal worship was
practised among the Canaanites, as r any old names
of cities (e.g., Jericho = “moon city ”) indicate, and
the astral character of the Assyro-Babylonian relig-
ion is well authenticated. The cult of the “host of
heaven” was in favor among the Hebrews, but
whether in imitation of the customs of their neigh-
bors or as expressing their own original polytheistic
religion (as suggested by Hommel) remains a matter
for conjecture. Certain kings are mentioned as es-
pecially devoted to this form of idolatry (e.g., Ma-
nasseh and Ahaz; IJ Kings xxiii. 3, 5,12). Itis an
open question whether DDwA naby (Jer. vii. 18,
xliv. 17-19, 25) should be read “queen of heaven”
or “kingdom of heaven.” If the latter reading be
accepted, “host of heaven” issynonymous; and even
if the pointing indicating “queen of heaven” is
preferred, the phrase throws light on the connota-
tions of the other phrase (Stade’s “ Zeitschrift,” vi.
123 et seg., 289 et seg.; Schrader, “Sitzungsberichte
der Berliner Akademie,” 1886, pp. 477-491; “ Zeit.
fiir Assyr.” iii. 858-364, iv. 74-76).
Connected with this meaning as the gathering or
muster of the stars, to which, singly or collectively,
divine honors are paid, is the implication of the
phrase in other passages, in which it has been held
to designate “angels” (I Kings xxii. 19; II Chron.
xviii. 18). The great stars (= gods; e.g., Ishtar)
“muster” their retinue of smaller stars, who attend
them. This passes over naturally into the phrase-
ology of the purerand later Yuwu religion. YHws
is attended by his “host,” and the originally poly-
theistic term is retained in poetic expression (Ps.
clii. 21, cxlviii. 2). The original star-deities having
been looked uponas warriors marshaling their forces
forthe fray (even YHwH is a“man of war”), the
implications of an orderly army under command of
a chief are naturally involved in the phrase “ host. of
heaven” (comp. Josh. v. 14; Dan. viii. 10). In Isa.
xxiv. 21 (Hebr.) “host of the height” is used, the
term conveying the same idea as “host of heaven”;
the context shows that this variant, too, is rooted in
some mythological conception, perhaps apocaly ptic-
ally employed, as is the case also in Isa. xxxiv. 4.
Hosts
House
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
484
The “host of the stars” (gods) is in the later relig-
ion conceived of as the assembly of angels.
BIBLIOGRAPIFY: Smend, Alttest. Religionsgesch. Index ; Ewald,
Die Lehre von Gott, Index ; Stade, Gesch. des Volkes Israel,
li. 236-238: Montefiore, Hihhert Leetures, p. 425, London,
1892; Baudissin, Studien, Leipsic, 1876.
E. G. H.
HOSTS, LORD OF. See Names oF Gop.
HOTTINGER, JOHANN HEINRICH:
Swiss Christian Hebraist; born at Zurich March 10,
1620; drowned in the Limmat, in Switzerland, June
5, 1667. Having studied Oriental languages and
theology at Geneva, Groningen, and Leyden, Hot-
tinger was in 1642 appointed professor of Church
history at the University of Zurich. Six years later
he was called to the chair of Oriental languages; in
16538, to that of rhetoric and logic. In 1655 he went
to Heidelberg as professor of Old Testament exege-
sis and Oriental languages; in 1661 he returned to
Zurich, and the next year was appointed rector
of Zurich University. Hottinger published many
works on theology and philology, of which the most
important to the Hebrew student are: “ Exercita-
tiones anti-Moriniane de Pentateucho Samaritano, ”
Zurich, 1644: “Rabbi J. Abarbanel Commentarium
Super Danielem Prophetam,” 7). 1647; “ Erotema-
tum Lingue Sancte Libri Duo,” 2. 1647; “ Thesau-
rus Philologicus seu Clavis Scripture,” 2d. 1649; “De
Heptaplis Parisicnsis ex Pentateucho Instituta,” 2d.
1649; “Promptuarium sive Bibliotheca Orientalis,”
Heidelberg, 1658; “ Grammatica Quatuor Linguarum
[Hebrew, Chaldean, Syriac, and Arabic] Harmoni-
ca,” 2b. 1658; “Compendium Theologie Judaice,”
in his “Enneas Dissertationum,” 7. 1662; “ Lexi-
con Harmonicum Heptaglotton,” Frankfort-on-the-
Main, 1661; “Grammatica Linguse Sancte,” Zurich,
1666; “Libri Jobi post Textum Hebreeum et Versi-
onem Verbalem Latinam Analysis,” etc., 7b. 1689.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nouvelle Biographie Générale; Meyers
Konversations-Lexikon; First, Bibl. Jud. i. 414, 415; Stein-
schneider, in Zeit. fir Hebr. Bidt. iii. 49.
T. M. SEL.
HOUBIGANT, CHARLES FRANQOIS:
Freuch Christian Hebraist; born in Paris in 1686;
died there Oct. 31, 1783. In 1704 Houbigant en-
tered the order of the Congregation of the Ora-
tory. The pupil of Maclef, he was imbued with his
teacher’s anti- Masoretic prejudices. After lecturing
at Jeuilly, Marseilles, and Soissons, he went to Paris
in 1722, and lectured at St. Magloire until, at an
advanced age, total deafness compelled him to retire.
His “Racines de la Langue Hébraique” is of the
nature of a Hebrew dictionary (Paris, 1732), in the
preface to which, defending Maclef’s system, he
endeavors to show the uselessness of vowel-points
in Hebrew. In his “Prolegomena in Scripturam
Sacram ” (2b, 1746) he maintains that the original text
of the Old Testament has undergone many altera-
tions in consequence of the carelessness of the copy-
ists, and gives rules by which these faults may be
discovered and corrected.
Houbigant also wrote: “Psalmi Hebraici” (Ley-
den, 1748), the Psalms corrected in accordance with
the principles of his “ Prolegomena”; “Biblia He-
braica cum Notis Criticis et Versione Latina” (Paris,
1758). This latter is his most important work, and
shows his entire disregard of the Masorah. The
text is printed without vowel-points, and his cor-
- rections, in which he takes no account of the “keri”
and “ketib,” are made mostly from the Samaritan
Pentateuch, to which Houbigant, like Morin, at-
tached great importance. These corrections, as well
as his “Prolegomena,” arrayed against him such
well-known scholarsas Rave, Kalle, Stridsberg, and
Michaelis, who accused Houbigant of ignorance of
Hebrew and of arbitrary alterations. The critical
notes of the “Biblia Hebraica,” and the “ Prolego-
mena” have been published separately under the
title “ Nota Criticee in Universos Veteris Testamenti
Libros” (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1777).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. i. 4153; McClintock and
Strong, Cyc.
J. M. SEL.
HOURWICH, ISAAC AARONOVICH:
American statistician; born at Wilna, Russia, April
27, 1860; educated at the gymnasium of Minsk and
the University of St. Petersburg. As a student,
he became interested in the nihilistic propaganda.
Arrested in 1879 on the charges of hostility to the
government and of aiding to establish a secret press,
he was expelled, without trial, from St. Petersburg;
after the assassination of Alexander IT. (1881) he was
banished, again without trial, to Siberia, as a “dan-
gerous character.” Released after four years of
exile, he entered the Demidov lyceum of jurispru-
dence at Yaroslav, graduated in 1887, and began the
practise of law. To escape a second term of exile
in Siberia he left Russia in 1890, and settled in the
United States. He became a student at Columbia
University, New York city, and graduated in 1893
(Ph.D.), when he became a lecturer on statistics
at the University of Chicago. Returning to New
York city, he practised law until 1900, when he
entered the service of the United States govern-
ment as statistician.
In addition to various essays contributed to Yid-
dish and other publications, Hourwich has written:
“The Persecutions of the Jews,” in “The Forum,”
Aug., 1901; “Russian Dissenters,” in “The Arena,”
May, 1908; “ Religious Sects in Russia,” in “The In-
ternational Quarterly,” Oct., 1908.
H.R. F. T. H.
HOURWITZ, ZALKEKIND: Polish scholar;
born at Lublin, Poland, about 1740; died at Paris
in 1812. Endowed with great ability and thirsting
for learning, he left his native country when a
youth, lived for a time in Berlin (where he associ-
ated with Moses Mendelssohn), Nancy, Metz, and
Strasburg, and finally settled in Paris. He did not
know French, and his only means of obtaining a
livelihood was by peddling old clothes. In time,
however, his condition improved, and when (1789)
the post of secretary and interpreter of Oriental lan-
guages in the Bibliothéque Royale fell vacant he
applied for it. With his application he forwarded
his “ Apologie des Juifs,” which had been crowned
in the previous year by the Academy of Metz. This
work so pleased the minister that, notwithstanding
the distinction of some of the numerous candidates,
Hourwitz received the appointment. In the same
year the “Apologie des Juifs” was published and
attracted much attention. Mirabeau quoted it in
485
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hosts
House
his writings, and Clermont-Tonnerre, the advocate
of Jewish emancipation, said of it: “Le Juif Polo-
nais seul avait parlé en philosophe.” Hourwitz en-
thusiastically embraced the cause of the Revolution,
and became one of the most zealous contributors to
the revolutionary papers. With force and wit he at-
tacked all forms of oppression, but was especially
active in advocating the emancipation of the French
Jews.
Toward the end of the cighteenth century Hour-
witz, no longer secretary and interpreter at the Bib-
liothéque, earned his livelihood by teaching foreign
languages, and at the close of his life he was in very
straitened circumstances. This, with his careless-
ness in regard to his personal appearance, kept
Hourwitz from taking a seat in the Sanhedrin. He
was, however, frequently consulted by the commis-
sion which prepared the decisions of that assembly.
Besides the work mentioned above, Hourwitz wrote:
“Projet d’une Nouvelle Carte de Paris,” published
by the “Journal de Paris” (1799); “Polygraphie
sur ]’Art de Correspondre 4 l’ Aide d’un Dictionnaire
dans Toutes les Langues, Méme dans Celles Dont on
ne Posséde pas Seulement les Lettres Alphabétiques ”
(Paris, 1801); “Origine des Langues” (cb. 1808);
“Lacographie ou Entretiens Laconiques Aussi Vite
que |’On Peut Parler” (¢. 1811).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Larousse, Dict. s.v. Zalkind; Arch. Tar.
1895-96 ; Léon Kahn, Les Juifs de Paris Pendant la Révo-
whale pp. 1380 et seq.; Gritz, Gesch. xi. 179; Jedcdidja, v. 19,
s I. Br.
HOUSE: In the warm countries of the East the
house is not soimportant a factor as it is in Western
civilization, the climate permitting the Palestinian
to live almost entirely in the open air. Artisans do
not ply their trades in the house, but directly in the
street, or in an open shop looking onto the street.
The Palestinian, therefore, requires few domestic
conveniences beyond a sheltered place for sleeping
anda quiet place for eating. The style of the house
is influenced by the material. Since historic times
Palestine has had no large forests, and hence no
timber for building. Solomon had to import the
beams for his edifices (I Kings v. 20 [A. V. 6]), and
builders usually had to be very economical with
wood. In the plains they generally used bricks of
clay, baked in the sun (comp. “bet homer,” Job iv.
19, xiii. 12, et al.). In the mountains limestone
furnished a good material, being easily quarried and
worked.
As these conditions have always obtained, it may
be assumed that the house of the ancient Israelite
did not differ materially from that of
Caves the present inhabitant of the country;
as indeed, it could hardly have been much
Houses. more primitive. The present village
of Siloam illustrates the way in which
the Palestinian houses were modeled on, and devel-
oped from, the cave. First, the natural cave was
enlarged; then a cave was hewn in the rock; and
finally a wall was built in front, converting the cave
into asheltered dwelling. Houses of all these kinds
are found in Siloam; some are merely enlarged
caves; others have at leasta firmly built front wall;
and others again are merely built against the rock.
The ancient houses, with the exception of the
palaces of the great, consisted of only one apart-
ment. In the plains four simple brick walls consti-
tuted a house. The walls were often
Clay smeared with clay (Lev. xiv. 41 ef
Houses. seqg.). The Webrews began to use lime
also at an early date (Amos ii. 1; Isa.
xxxiii. 12), and the walls of the better class of houses
were plastered (Ezek. xili. 10 e¢ seq.; Deut. xxvii. 4).
The roof was constructed of a few untrimmed logs,
branches, and brushwood; a layer of earth was
pounded into this framework, and the whole covered
with a coating of clay and straw. A roof of this
kind keeps off the rain, provided it is repaired and
rolled before the rainy season begins. But a house
of clay frequently gets so soaked with rain that it
falls in, and it is not surprising that villages so
built should disappear entirely soon after being
abandoned.
The stone houses in the mountains are more solid
structures. Thesmaller houses are built of unhewn
stones, the more pretentious ones of
Stone correspondingly larger stones, with
Houses. vaulted roofs. It isan open question
how the Hvubrews of ancient times suc-
ceeded in building vaulted domes over square edi-
fices. Ancient ruins indicate that they knew how
to meet the difficulty without resort to the dome
proper: if the space was too large to be covered by
slabs of stone extending from wall to wall, stone
beams were laid across the corners, and the proc-
ess then repeated over the corners formed by each
successive series of beams, until the space was nar-
rowed to the desired extent. These vaulted roofs
were covered with clay on the outside; only enough
space for walking was left round the dome. Fre.
quently, however, the entire space around the
dome was filled in so as to convert the whole roof
into a flat surface.
The level roof was a favorite resort in the cool of
the evening (If Sam. xi. 2), and was much used as a
sleeping-place in the summer (1 Sam. ix. 25), as it is
to-day; small huts of branches were built on the
roof as a protection against the sun (II Sam. xvi.
22; Neh. viii. 16). A person on the roof could see
what was going on in the street or in the neighbor-
hood without being seen himself (I Sam. ix. 25);
and a flight of steps led cirectly to the roof from the
street or the court. Ancient law required the roof
to be surrounded with a battlement (Deut. xxii. 8);
yet a person could easily step from one roof to the
next, and walk the length of whole streets in that
way (comp. Mark xiii. 15; Josephus, “ Ant.” xiii.
140, ed. Niese). Among the peasants the single
apartment of the house served for both man and
beast, the clay flooring of the part reserved for the
former being slightly raised. There being no chim-
ney, the smoke escaped through the windows (Hosea
xili. 8, A. V. “chimney ”), which were covered with
wooden lattices (Judges v. 28; I Kings vi. 4; Prov.
vii. 6). The opening for the door was very low
(Prov. xvii. 19). The Furxiture of the ordinary
house was as simple as it is to-day. Jt included a
few mats, spread upon the floor at night for sleep-
ing, and rolled up during the day, ora kind of divan
set against the wall; there werea table and chairs; a
large jug for grain stood in the corner, and others
Housebreaking
Hugh of Lincoln
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
486
for water, wine, oil, etc.; a niche in the wall held
the lamp.
This ordinary house, however, frequently had an
upper apartment (“‘aliyyah”) on the roof, either
the hut of branches referred to above
Upper (Judges iii. 20), or a more substantial
Apart- room, where guests of honor were
ment. lodged for the night (I Kings xvii. 19;
II Kings iv. 10). The “palace” of
the rich differed from this only in having a larger
number of rooms, arranged in a suite on the ground
floor rather than in stories. Special rooms for the
summer and the winter are mentioned (Amos iii. 15;
Jer. xxxvi. 22). The increasing luxury in the time
of the later kings is exemplified in the building of
palatial houses with many rooms (Jer. xxii. 14), and
especially in the richness of the materials. Hewn
stone was used instead of brick (Amos v. 11); in
post-exilic times marble also (I Chron. xxix. 2;
Cant. v. 15; Josephus, “Ant.” xv. 392, ed. Niese;
“B. J.” v. 4, § 4). The walls were painted or pan-
eled (Jer. xxii. 14); olive- or cedar-wood was used
for doors and windows (7d.); the floor was paved, or
covered with wood (I Kings vi. 15; II Kings xvi.
17); the woodwork of the walls and the jambs of
doors and windows were inlaid with ivory (Amos
iii, 15; I Kings xxii. 89), covered with beaten gold
(I Kings vi. 20), or ornamented with carving (I
Kings vi. 18). But the style of building remained,
and still remains, unchanged. The Greco-Roman
style, with which the Jews became acquainted in
the Hellenic period, did not exert any great or last-
ing influence on the domestic architecture of Pales-
tine, being confined to the larger edifices—palaces,
baths, and theaters.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benzinger, Arch.; Nowack, Lehrbuch der
Hebrdischen Archiiologie.
E. G. WW. I. BE.
HOUSEBREAKING. Sec BurGuary.
HOUSEMAN, JULIUS: American financier;
born at Zeckendorf, Bavaria, Dec. 8, 1832; died at
Grand Rapids, Mich., Feb. 8, 1892. He attended
school up to the age of fifteen, and after two years’
commercial study he sailed for America. After
working as a mercantile clerk in Cincinnati, Ohio,
and in other cities, he went (1852) to Grand Rapids,
where he became proprietor of a clothing estab-
lishment, subsequently opening branch houses in
other cities of America. He afterward turned his
attention to the lumber trade, and soon owned a
large portion of the city. He became connected
with several companies, was vice-president of the
City National Bank, and a stockholder in many
other concerns. He was elected mayor of Grand
Rapids in 1872 and reelected in 1874, and from 1871 to
1872 he sat in the state legislature. He was member
of the Forty-eighth Congress, representing the Fifth
Michigan District. Houseman was interested in all
matters relating to the local Jewish community.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: History of Grand Rapids, 1891; American
Jewish Year Book, 5661, p. 518. ie
HOUSTON: Capital of Harris county, Texas;
situated on the banks of Buffalo Bayou. It hada
population in 1897 of 45,000, of whom about 1,200
were Jews. It has the oldest Jewish congregation in
the state, the Congregation Beth Israel having been
organized in 1854, while the cemetery is ten years
older. Attracted doubtless by its commercial pos-
sibilities, Jews were among its earliest settlers, Eu-
gene Joseph Chimene went there from New York
as early as 1835, just before the city was chosen
as the capital of the state. He fought at San Ja-
cinto, while Henry Wiener, another early settler,
fought at Buena Vista. In 1847 Jacob de Cordova
represented Harris county in the state house of
representatives. The first settlers were mostly of
German or Alsatian origin, but during the last years
of the nineteenth century many Russian and Polish
emigrants settled in Houston. In 1887 these seceded
from the Beth Israel (Reform) congregation and
founded the Orthodox congregation Adath Yeshu-
run. The existing synagogue of the Reform congre-
gation was dedicated in 1870, and by 1903 had be-
come inadequate to accommodate its membership.
There are three Jewish benevolent societies—the
Ladies’ Hebrew Benevolent Society, founded in 1875;
the Bikor Cholim Society, organized by the Ortho-
dox Jewsin 1895; and the Beth Israel Benevolent So-
ciety, organized in 1908. There are alsoa Ladies’ Re-
lief Society and two B’nai B'rith lodges (Lone Star
Lodge No. 210, and Houston Lodge No. 434), while
the order B’rith Abraham is represented by Anshel
Hirsch Lodge No. 200. The social and literary life
of the community is represented by the Concordia
Club, the Young Men’s Hebrew Society, and the
Beth Israel Literary Society. The following rabbis
of Houston may be mentioned: Samuel Raphael, Z.
Emmich, E. Steiner, Kaiser, Meyer, Jacob Voorsan-
ger, W. Wilner, Max Heller, S. Rosenstein, G. Lo-
wenstein, A. Lazarus, and H. Barnstein (the present
[1903] incumbent),
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Cohen, The Jews of Texas.
A. H. Bar.
HRADISCH, UNGARISCH. A Moravian
town on the river March, with a population of
5,200. See Moravia.
HUBSCH, ADOLPH: American preacher;
born at Lipt6é-Szent-Mikl6s, Hungary, Sept.
18, 1880; died in New York city Oct. 10, 1884.
Hiibsch was descended from the Jaffe family. At
the age of ten he was sent to Budapest, where he
attended the evangelical gymnasium, studying He-
brew at the same time. In 1845, before he bad
graduated, he accepted a position at the Jewish
school of Alt-Ofen. He was concerned in the Hun-
garian Revolution of 1848, in which he fought as a
“Honvéd” officer; at the defeat at Viligos he
barely escaped with his life. After the collapse of
the revolution he attended the Talmudic school of
R. Julius Ungar at Paks, where he studied until
1854; his rabbinical diploma was signed by Ungar
and R. Léw Schwab of Pest. Soon after gradua-
tion he was called to the Orthodox community of
Miawa. In 1857 he went to the University of
Prague, and, after receiving the degree of Ph.D. in
1861, accepted the rabbinate of the Neu-Synagoge
of Prague.
In 1866 he went to America, and became rabbi and
preacher of the Congregation Ahawath Chesed, New
York city, then composed almost entirely of Bohe-
mian Jews; under him it became one of the lead
487
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Housebreaking
Hugh of Lincoln
ing Jewish congregations of New York. He intro-
duced a moderate Reform ritual, and the prayer-book
which he compiled for his own congregation was
adopted by many others. In connection with the
synagogue he established a religious school, at-
tended by more than 400 boys and girls, anda Young
Men’s Union for the study of Jewish literature.
Htibsch was specially noted as a preacher. While
at Prague he issued his chief work, “Die Funf
Megilloth Nebst dem Syrischen Targum... in
Hebriischer Quadratschrift, mit einem Kommentare
zum Texte aus einem Handschriftlichen Pentateuch
Codex der K. K. Universitits Bibliothek zu Prag
und einem Kommentare zum Thargum,” ete.
(Prague, 1866), and contributed numerous philolog-
ical and critical articles to Leopold Léw’s “Ben
Chananja ” and to the “ Monatsschrift.” After going
to America his literary activity was confined chiefly
to a number of discourses published in various
periodicals. His “Gems from the Orient” is a col-
lection of Arabic aphorisms or sayings (1885). A
memorial volume, published by his widow, contains
translations, extracts from his sermons, and many
of his poems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Biographical sketch by Isaac M. Wise, in Rev.
Dr. Adolph Hiibsch: A Memorial, New York, 1885; B.
Bernstein, A Zsidék a Szabadsdgharczan, Budapest, 1901 ;
Schwab, Répertoire, p. 176.
A. M. W.
HUESCA (anciently Osca and Wescah; hence
the Hebrew ApwiN): City in Aragon. ‘Toward the
end of the thirteenth century it contained a spe-
cially privileged Jewish community of 160; it also
had a rabbinical college of its own (Solomon ben
Adret, Responsa, Nos, 300, 1179). The congrega-
tion, which had imposed a special tax upon bread,
meat, and wine consumed by its members, was
obliged, by the indigence of the people, to remit part
of such tax in 1257. During the wars of King Al-
fonso III. of Aragon with Sicily and France it raised
such considerable subsidies that in 1288 the king
remitted part of the taxes. The Shepherd persecu-
tions threatened the Huesca congregation; in 1391
it was attacked, and many members were baptized.
By 1487 the congregation had declined to such an
extent that it paid only 800 sueldos in taxes,
The congregation had a regulated communal sys-
tem; its statutes were enacted and its administrators
and syndics (12) appointed with the approval of the
king. Atthe disputation in Tortosait was represent-
ed by Don Todros Alconstantini. Huesca was a seat
of Jewish scholarship; here lived, in the thirteenth
century, Jacob b. Moses Abbasi and Joseph b. Isaac
Alfual, translators of portions of Maimonides’ com-
mentary, and contemporaries of Isaac b. Sheshet,
Hayyim Galipapa, Joseph b. Hayyim b. Ardot,
Abrabam and Hayyim b. Solomon ibn Baka, Joseph
Cohen, Baruch and Isaac Alitensi, Abraham Bibago,
etc. Petrus Alfonsi was baptized at Huesca July 29,
1106. The Usque family, which lived in Italy, prob-
ably came from Huesca, which was also the birth-
place of the Almosnino family ; Abraham Almosnino
of Huesca was burned at the stake on Dec. 10, 1489.
The Jews of Huesca were engaged in weaving;
one of the most important woolen factories at the
time of the expulsion was Don Solomon Abena-
qua’s. The total population in 1887 was 13,041.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Shebet Yehudah, p. 68; Rios, Hist. ii. 149,
155; Jacobs, Sources, Nos. 118, 613, 928, 1193; Isaac b. She-
shet, Responsa, Nos. 217, 400 et seq., 425 et seq., 484 et seq.
G. M. K.
HUETE (formerly GUETE): Spanish city, in
the bishopric of Cuenca. A considerable Jewish
community lived there in the thirteenth century.
The city is especially known because of the “ Padron
de Huete,” the apportioning, in 1290, of the taxes
which the Jews of Castile were required to pay to
the king, or to the prelates, magnates, cathedral
chapters, grand masters, etc. In 1391 many of the
Jews of Huete were killed or forced to accept bap-
tism. Joseph ha-Kohen says that his grandparents,
who were expelled from Cuenca in 1414, found pro-
tection and shelter at Huete, his birthplace. The
aljama of this city paid taxes to the amount of 5,700
maravedis as late as 1474.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Shebet Yehudah, p. 88; ‘Emek ha-Bakah,
pp. 1, 71, 86; Gratz, Gesch. vil. 167 et seqg.; Jacobs, Sources,
pp. 141 et seg.
re} M. K.
HUGH OF LINCOLN: Alleged victim of ritual
murder by the Jews of Lincoln in 1255. He appears
to have been the illegitimate son of a woman named
“ Beatrice,” and was born in 1247. He disappeared
July 31,1255, and his body was discovered on Aug. 29
following in a well belonging to the house of a Jew
named “Jopin” or “Joscefin.” On promise of hav-
ing his life spared, Jopin
was induced by John of
Lexington, a priest who
was present at the time of
the discovery, to confess
that the child had been
crucified by a number of
the most prominent Jews
of England, who had gone
to Lincoln on the pretext
of a wedding. The re-
mains of the lad were taken
to the cathedral and were
buried there in great pomp.
Henry III., on arriving at
Lincoln about a month aft-
erward, revoked the par-
don of Jopin, and caused
him to be dragged around
the city tied to the tail of
a wild horse, and then
hanged. The remaining
Jews of Lincoln, including
some who were there as
visitors—probably to at-
tend the marriage of Bel-
laset, daughter of BERE- - —
CHIAH DE NicoLtE—were Tomb of St. Hugh in Lincoln
‘ Cathedral.
carried, to the number (From Tovey, ‘Anglia Judaica,’ 1738.)
of ninety-two, to London,
where eighteen of them were executed for refusing
to plead. Berechiah was released, and the remain-
der lingered in prison until Richard, Earl of Corn-
wall, who was in possession of the Jewry at the time,
made terms for them,
The accusation, as usual, rested upon no particle
of evidence; all that was known was that the lad
had been found dead; and even if it was a murder,
Hukkok
Humanists
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
488
it could not have been connected with any ritual ob-
servance on the part of any Jew. But the prepos-
sessions of the time, and the “confession” forced
from Jopin caused the case to be prejudged, and
enabled Henry III. to confiscate the property of the
executed Jews, and to obtain, probably, a ransom for
those afterward released from captivity. The case
made a great impression on the popular mind, and
forms the theme of various French, Scottish, and
English ballads, still existing; Chaucer refers to it
at the beginning of his “ Prioress’ Tale.” A shrine
was erected over Hugh’stombin Lincoln Cathedral;
it was known as the shrine of “ Little St. Hugh” to
distinguish it from the shrine of Great St. Hugh
of Lincoln, the twelfth-century bishop whose death
was mourned equally by Jew and Christian. See
BLoop ACCUSATION.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Matthew Paris, Historia Major, ed. Luard, Vv.
516-518, 522, 548; Annales Monastici, ed. Luard, {. 340, ff.
346; J. Jacobs, in Transactions Jew. Hist. Soc. Eng. 1, 89-
135 (with an extensive bibliography on pp. 183-135); idem,
Jewish Ideals, pp. 192-224; Francisque Michel, Hugues de
Lincoln, Paris, 1834; A. Hume, St. Hugh of Linealn, Lon-
don, 1849 j
HUEKOK (ppn = “engraved”): Place on the
borders of Naphtali, near Aznot Tabor (Josh. xix.
34). As the frontier line coincided with the western
limit of Asher (.c.), it is probable that this place is
identical with the Hukok that fell to the lot of Asher
(I Chron. vi. 60), though the latter is written ppin.
Estori Farhi (“ Kaftor wa-Ferah,” xviii.), followed
by such scholars ag Schwarz and Robinson, identi-
fies Hukkok with the modern Yakuk, a village 6
miies southwest of Safed and 12 miles north of
Mount Tabor, where tradition places the grave of
Habakkuk. Estori saw at Yakuk a Jewish syna-
gogue; he says that the place must not be con-
founded with the Hukok of Asher.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Zunz, Notes to Benjamin of Tudela, ed. Asher,
ii. 421"; Sehwarz, Das Heilige Land, p. 144; Robinson, Re-
searches, 2d ed., p. 81.
E. G. H. M. SE,
HULDAH (n55n).—Biblical Data: Proph-
etess; wife of Shalium, the keeper of the wardrobe
in the time of King Josiah. She dwelt in the sec-
ond quarter of Jerusalem. It seems that Huldah
enjoyed great consideration as a prophetess, for
when HrLK1aH found the scroll of the Law he, with
his four companions, took ittoher. On that occasion
she prophesied that God would bring evil upon
Jerusalem and upon its inhabitants. Theking, how-
ever, was told that he would die in peace before the
evil days came (II Kings xxii. 14-20; II Chron.
XXxiv. 22-28).
E, G. H. M. Sau.
——In Rabbinical Literature: Huldah and Deb-
orah were the only professed prophetesses, although
other pious women had occasional prophetic revela-
tions. Both had unattractive names, “ Huldah” sig-
nifying “ weasel,” and “ Deborah ” signifying “ bee”
or “wasp.” Huldah said to the messengers of
King Josiah, “Tell the man that sent you to me,”
etc. (II Kings xxii. 15), indicating by her unceremo-
nious language that for her Josiah was like any
other man. The king addressed her, and not Jere-
miah, because he thought that women are more
easily stirred to pity than men, and that therefore
the prophetess would be more likely than Jeremiah
to intercede with God in his behalf (Meg. 14a, b;
comp. Seder ‘Olam R. xxi.). Huldah was a relative
of Jeremiah, both being descendants of Rahab by
her marriage with Joshua (Sifre, Num. 78; Meg.
14a, b). While Jeremiah admonished and preached
repentance to the men, she did the same to the
women (Pesik. R. 26 [ed. Friedmann, p. 129]). Hul-
dah was not only a prophetess, but taught publicly
in the school (Targ. to II Kings xxii. 14), according
to some teaching especially the oral doctrine. It
is doubtful whether “the Gate of Huldah” in the
Second Temple (Mid. i. 8) has any connection with
the prophetess Huldah; it may have meant “Cat’s
Gate”; some scholars, however, associate the gate
with Huldah’s schoolhouse (Rashi to Kings /.c.).
E. ¢. L. G.
HULL: Seaport of Yorkshire, England. It has
a population (1901) of over 241,758, including about
2,500 Jews. The earliest trace of Jews there occurs
toward the end of the eighteenth century, when
they acquired for a synagogue a Catholic chapel
in Posterngate which had been wrecked in 1780
during the Gordon riots. Dissensions in the congre-
gation led to another house of prayer being secured
near the present Prince’s Dock, but the two congre-
gations reunited in a Synagogue in Robinson row,
built in 1826; this remained the chief Jewish house
of worship until Sept., 19038, when the congrega-
tion removed to a new synagogue situated in Os-
borne street. When the Russian immigration set in,
one of the frequent routes was from the Continent
to Hull and across to Liverpool, and a certain num-
ber of the refugees settled in Hull, necessitating the
building of a second synagogue (1886) in Waltham
street. This soon proving insufficient for the grow-
ing community, another synagogue, known as the
“ Western Synagogue,” was built in Linneus street,
in May, 1908. The community has the usual char-
itable organizations, including a Ladies’ Hebrew
Benevolent Society, founded as far back as 1861, and
a girls’ school, founded in 1868.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jewish Year Book, 1903, p. 151.
HULLIN (HOLIN, p5yn, plural of Sym = “pro-
fane,” applied to things for ordinary use): Treatise
of the Babylonian Talmud, including Mishnah, To-
sefta, and Gemara; it is not found in the Jerusalem
Talmud. While it is included in the Seder Koda-
shim, it treats mainly of non-consecrated things and
of things used as the ordinary food of man, particu-
larly meats; it is therefore sometimes called “She-
hitat Hullin” (Slaughtering for Ordinary Use). Its
place in the order varies in the several compilations.
Its contents may be summed up as follows:
I. As to when, and by whom, an animal must be killed to be
ritually fit for food ; the instrument with which the killing must
be done; the space within which the incision must be made, and
the exceeding of which renders the animal ‘‘terefah.”? Inciden-
tally, it discusses the differences between ** shehitah ’’ and ** me-
likah”’ (pinching off the heads of birds brought as sacrifices ;
see Lev. i. 12, v. 8), and the various degrees in which different
vessels are susceptible to uncleanness.
II. Concerning the organs that must be severed: in quadru-
peds, the trachea and the guilet, or the greater part of each,
must be cut through ; in fowls, cutting through
one of these organs, or the greater part of one,
suffices. In both cases the jugular vein must
be severed. Rules as to the character of the incision follow.
Then comes a series of rules regarding animals killed in honor
Contents.
489
of foreign deities or of deified natural objects; regarding the
localities where the formal killing of an animal might create a
suspicion of idolatry ; regarding the prohibition against using
as ordinary food the flesh of animals killed for sacred purposes
(see SHEHITAH).
III. On organically diseased animals and animals injured by
accident or by beasts or birds of prey. The Mishnah here enu-
merates eighteen diseases and injuries that would render an
animal terefah, including perforations of the lungs or of the
small intestines, and fractures of the spine or of the ribs. It also
cites diseases and injuries that do not render the animal terefah,
and concludes with an enumeration of the marks by which
clean birds and fishes are distinguished from the unclean (see
DIETARY Laws).
IV. On embryos, living or dead, found in a slaughtered female
animal; on the Cwsarian section.
V. Cn the prohibition against killing a female animal and her
offspring on the same day (see Lev. xxii. 28). If both animals
have been consecrated and killed within the sacred precincts,
the animal first killed may be used, but not the second; the
killer of the second is subject to * karet” (cutting off, excision).
If neither animal has been consecrated and both have been
killed beyond the sacred precincts, the flesh of both may be used
for food; but the killer of the second is subject to flagellation.
To prevent an unwitting violation of this prohibition the cattle-
dealer is required to notify the purchaser of the sale of the
mother or the offspring for the meat-market. This notice must
be given whenever meat is in greater demand than usual, as on
the eve of a festival.
VI. On the duty of covering the blood of ritually killed ani-
mals of the chase, and of birds (see Lev. xvii. 13), and on the
material with which it should be covered. This applies only to
the blood cf animals which, after being slaughtered, are found
to be kasher, and only when the killing has been done on legiti-
mate ground (see § Y.).
VII. On the prohibition against eating the sinews of animals
(Gen. xxxii. 32), which is always and everywhere in force, and
which extends to consecrated and unconsecrated animals, and
to the live young found in a slaughtered mother (see § IV.).
VIII. On the prohibition against cooking meat and milk to-
gether (see Ex. xxiii. 19); by ‘meat’? is meant any animal
flesh except fish and locust. While this is admittedly merely a
rabbinical provision, nevertheless meat and milk should not be
placed near each other on the dining-table.
IX. On carcasses and reptiles that communicate Levitical un-
cleanness by contact; particles from different parts of a ** nebe-
lah’’ (piece of carrion) are considered as one piece, and if they
are collectively of sufficient bulk they render Levitically unclean
any food with which they come in contact. For example, a
particle of skin and a particle of bone or sinew, if together
equaling an olive in size, render food otherwise clean unclean.
X. On the parts of every ritually killed animal whieh the lay-
man is required to reserve for the priest (Deut. xviii. 3), and
on the rules concerning injured animals that should be pre-
sented to the priest or should be redeemed.
XI. On the duty of surrendering to the priest the first-fruit of
the sheep-shearing (Deut. xviii. 4); on the differences between
this duty and that treated in the preceding chapter; on the
number of sheep one must possess before this regulation comes
into force, and on the circumstances under which one is ex-
empt.
XII. On the duty of setting free the mother of a nest of birds
(Deut. xxii. 6-7). This duty devolves only when the mother is
actually in the nest with her young, and when the birds are
nesting in the open, where they can easily escape. Unclean
birds and ** Herodian”’ birds (= doves produced by mating dif-
ferent species, said to have been practised by Herod) are not
included in this provision.
The Tosefta and the Mishnah correspond in the
first seven chapters. Ch. viii. Tosefta corresponds
to ch. vili. and ix. Mishnah; ch. ix. Tosefta to ch. x,
Mishnah; ch. x. Tosefta to ch. xi. and xii, Mishnah.
On the other hand, the Tosefta is more prolix than
its older sister compilation, and sometimes cites epi-
sodes from the livesof great men in connection with
the subject-matter. Thus, speaking of the forbid-
ding of meat prepared for idolatrous purposes, it
quotes the reports of Eleazar b. Dama’s last illness
and alleged apostasy (see BEN Dama; ELIEZER BEN
Hyrcants). :
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hukkok
Humanists
The Mishnah of Hullin is but rarely cited in the
Jerusalem Gemara; in fact, only 15 of the 75 mish-
nayot from the treatise are quoted in
the entire Jerusalem Talmud. This is
not so in the Babylonian Gemara,
which discusses and explains every
section of the Mishnah and also much of the Tosefta.
It affords a clear insight into the main object of the
provisions of this treatise—the prevention of cruclty
and pain, and the draining of every drop of blood
from the body in order to render the flesh whole-
some. A single illustration will suffice to prove the
humanitarian motive of this treatise. Samuel Yar-
hinai, a rabbi of the third century, great both asa
physician and as an exponent of the Law, established
thisrule: “ When the ‘tabbah’ [butcher] is not famil-
iar with the regulations concerning shehitah, one
must not eat anything slaughtered by him”; all the
regulations concerning shehitah, on which Yarhinai
lays much stress, he sums up in the following five
mishnaic words: “shehiyyah” (delaying), “dera-
sah” (chopping), “haladah” (sticking the knife in
under the veins), “hagramah” (cutting in another
than the proper part of the animal), and “ ‘ikkur”
(tearing; Hul. i. 2; ii. 3, 4), against all of which
one must guard himself (Hul. 9a; see SHEHI-
TAH; comp. Rabbinowicz, “ Médecine du Talmud,”
Introduction).
As in other treatises, grave halakic discussions are
interspersed with instructive and entertaining hagga-
dot. Inastatement of the marks by which clean are
distinguished from unclean animals, a
Hagegadot. unicorn is mentioned, and is said to be
the gazel of Be-Ilai. The mention of
the latter suggests the “lion of Be-Hai,” and there-
upon the compiler proceeds to tell an elaborate story
of Cesar (the emperor) and Joshua ben Hananiah
(59b ef seq.).
E. C. 8S. M.
The
Gemara.
HULSNER. See Potna AFFAIR.
HULTHA or HILTHA (ynbin,) xnon=
“sandy ”): One of the seven seas which, according
to the Talmudists, surround Palestine (B. B. 74b;
Yer. Ket. xii. 8; Kil. ix. 5; Midr. Teh. to Ps. xxiv.).
In the enumeration of the seven seas in the Yalkut
to Ps. xxiv., the “Sea of Acre” is substituted for
“ Wultha,” thus identifying the latter with the Bay
of Acre. It is identified by Lightfoot with Lac
Sirbonis, south of Palestine; by Bochart, who
reads nbn instead of xnbin, with the Red Sea; by
Schwarz, with Lake Phiala.
BIB HOGRSY AY: Reland, Palestina, i, 237; Neubauer, G. 7. p.
8. 8. M. SEL.
HUMAN SACRIFICE. See SAcRIFICE.
HUMANISTS: Scholars who revived the cul-
ture of antiquity and the study of classical litera-
ture. The Renaissance, which heightened enthusi-
asm for the classics, began in Italy in the fifteenth
century. From Italy humanism advanced to France,
Holland, and other European countries. In the fif-
teenth and sixteenth centuries it gained great influ-
ence in Germany and cleared the way for the Refor-
mation. The most prominent German humanists
were Hutten and Reuchlin, both contemporaries of
Humility
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
490
Luther. Reuchlin called attention to the impor-
tance of the study of Hebrew, and gained for ita
place in the curricula of the German universities.
As a strong defender of Hebrew literature against
the attacks of Pfefferkorn and his accomplices, he
also vindicated the cause of the Jews and pleaded
for the freedom of science and for humanity. Al-
though not all humanists were free from anti-Jewish
prejudices, humanism, and through it the Reforma-
tion, brought relief to the Jews and mitigated the
severity of the exceptional laws under which they
had suffered in the Middle Ages.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ludwig Geiger, Renaissance und Humanis-
mus, Berlin, 1882.
D. S. Man.
HUMILITY: The quality of being humble.
—Biblical Data: Judaism, in its conception of
humility as in its conception of many other things,
stands between the two extremes of self-deification
and self-effacement. Jeremiah, in urging the qual-
ity of humility and in denouncing boastfulness,
qualifies his statement by saying, “ Let not the wise
man glorify himself in his wisdom, neither let the
strong man glorify himself in his might, let not the
rich glorify himself in his riches: but let him that
glorifieth himself glorify in this, that he under-
standeth and knoweth me, that I am God who exer-
cises love, justice, and righteousness” (Jer. ix.
22-23).
The prophet does not consider it sinful for man to
rejoice in his achievements so long as he recognizes
that all blessings flow from God, that they are all
gifts of God. Riches, strength, and wisdom are
nothing without God. “The silver is mine, and the
gold is mine, saith the Lord” (Hag. ii. 9). God hath
no pleasure “in the strength of the horse,” nor in
“the legs of a man” (Ps. cxlvii. 11 [A. V. 10}).
“There is no wisdom nor understanding nor counsel
against the Lord ” (Prov, xxi. 80). Micah reduced the
duties of man to three: justice, love, and humility.
Abraham was humble: he spoke of himself as “but
dust and ashes” (Gen. xviii. 27). Moses’ greatest
virtue was humility (Num. xii. 3). That this quality
of the greatest prophet is particularly mentioned is
sufficient proof of its importance in Jewish theology.
But the humility of Moses shows best what this
term means. While Moses at first does not wish to
accept his great mission to redeem his enslaved
people, because he mistrusts his ability to do so,
after he has accepted it he is full of courage, en-
ergy, and decision. Yet he listens to the advice of
Jethro, his father-in-law, and acts on it. When
Joshua asked Moses to prohibit Eldad and Medad
from prophesying in the camp, Moses answered:
“Wouid God that all the Lord’s people were proph-
ets” (7b, xi. 29).
Heathendom, with its belief in fate which ordains
man’s destiny irrespective of merit, did not encour-
age humility and meekness, but gave rise to man’s
overbearing and arrogance. Not so Judaism.
‘*Except the Lord build the house, they labor in vain that
build it’’ (Ps. exxvii. 1). “Beware that thou forget not the
Lord thy God. . .. And when thy herds and thy flocks multiply,
and thy silver and thy gold is multiplied, and all that thou hast
is multiplied, then thine heart be lifted up and thou forget the
Lord thy God, which brought thee forth out of the land of Egypt,
from the house of bondage. ... And thou say in thine heart,
My power and the might of mine hand have gotten me this
Wealth. But thou shalt remember the Lord thy God: for it is
he that giveth thee power to get wealth” (Deut. viii. 10-18).
Isaiah says:
“Shall the ax boast itself against him that heweth therewith ?
shall the saw magnify itself against him that shaketh it? asifa
rod should shake them that lift it up, or as if a staff should lift
up him that is not wood”? (Isa. x. 13-15, R. V.).
The same prophet pours out the vials of his right-
eous indignation against the proud in Israel:
‘*‘Their land also is full of silver and gold, neither is there
any end of their treasures. . . . Their land also is full of idols;
they worship the work of their own hands. ... And the mean
man is bowed down, and the great man is brought low... .
Enter into the rock, and hide thee in the dust... . The lofty
looks of man shall be brought low, and the haughtiness of men
shall be bowed down, and the Lord alone shall be exalted in
that day. For there shall be a day of the Lord of hosts upon all
that is proud and haughty and upon all that is lifted up; and it
shall be brought low ” (ib. ii. 7-12, R. V.).
In the touching penitential psalm ascribed to
David after his terrible arraignment by the prophet
Nathan on account of his crime against Uriah and
his wife Bath-sheba, humility is pointed out as the
only true sacrifice acceptable to God: “For thou
desirest not sacrifice; else would I give it: thou de-
lightest not in burnt offering. Thesacrifices of God
are a broken spirit: a broken and a contrite heart,
O God, thou wilt not despise” (Ps. li. 18-19). The
second Isaiah lays more stress on humility than
on grand temples, churches, and mosques. “The
heaven is my throne, and the earth is my footstool:
Where is the house you can build me? Where is
the place for my rest? For all these things has my
hand made. But upon such a one will I look, upon
the humble and him whois of a contrite spirit ” (Isa.
Ixvi. 1-2).
It may thus be seen that the Jewish conception of
humility is based on a proper estimate of the world
and of the worth of man. Abraham, Moses, Gideon
(who refused a crown), Saul, and David are set up
as types of humility and meekness.
-———_In Rabbinical Literature: The Talmud has
even a higher view of humility than the Bible, and
the teachers of Jewish ethics urge upon man not to
rely too much on his own merits, as this might lead
to self-conceit or self-deification. Our greatest mer-
its are the result of God’s aid. This is expressed in
the daily morning prayer:
“Lord of all worlds, we can not plead the merit of our deeds
before Thee. What are we? What is our virtue, what is our
righteousness, our power, our strength? Truly, our mighty
men are as naught before Thee, and the men of fame as though
they had never been: the learned appear void of knowledge,
and the wise like men without understanding.”
But Judaism is likewise remote from the seltf-efface-
ment of Buddhism and from the contempt of life
preached by Christianity. It does not look upon
earth as upon @ “valley of tears” nor upon man
as upon a worm creeping in the dust.
God is the highest type of humility. Among the
ten degrees of moral perfection humility stands high-
est (‘Ab. Zarah 20b; ‘Ar. 16b). It is the expression of
the highest reverence (Sanh, 48b), and the distin-
guishing feature of the “disciples of Abraham”
(Ab. iii.). The prophet, in order to attain inspira-
tion, must possess humility (Ned. 38a). It belongs
next to mercy and charity among the ornaments of
the true Jew (Lev. R. ix.). “Even poverty is blessed
because it leads to humility” (Cant. R.i.). “He
who humbles himself, him will God elevate; he who
491
elevates himself, him will God humiliate. He who
runs after greatness, from him greatness will flee;
he who flees from greatness, him will greatness fol-
low” (‘Er. 13a). “ Be not like the upper threshold,
which can not be reached by everybody, but be like
the undermost, which is accessible to everybody.
Even though the building may fall, the lowest thresh-
old remains unharmed” (Ab. R. N. xxvi.; Derek
Erez Zuta iii.). Hillel said: “ Remove from thy place
two or three rows of seats and wait until they call thee
back” (Lev. R.i.). Do not underrate the bad opin-
ion which the common people may entertain regard-
ing you (B. K. 93a; Pes. 118b; Sanh. 37). The small
should not say to the great, “ Wait” (Shab. 127; Pes.
6b; Yoma 387; Suk. 29; ‘Er. 55). “Happy is the
generation in which the great listen to the small, for
then the more anxiously will the small listen to the
great” (R. H. 25b; Ta‘an. 15a, 18b; Meg. 11a, 13b,
14b, 18b).
The reason why the high priest was not allowed
to officiate in his golden garments on the Day of
Atonement was to remind him of humility (Yoma
vii. 4; Yer. Yoma xii.; Ex. R. xli.; Lev. R. i.).
Pride humiliates man (Yalk., Sam. 3), The “miz-
nefet ” (miter) atones for the sin of haughtiness (Zeb.
88b; Hul. 5b).
The prayer of man will be effective only when he
regards himself as dust (Sotah v. 48b, 71a, 82a; B.
K, 81b; B. B. 10, 18b, 98a; Sanh. xi. 19b, 81a, 98b).
“Jeroboam, the generation of the Flood, and the
Sodomites were haughty” (Sanh. 106a, 108a, 109a).
“Through humility calumny will cease” (‘Ar. 15a).
“T am God’s creature, so is our fellow man: my
sphere of usefulness is in the city; his, in the coun-
try. Ihave no more right to be over-
Examples bearing on account of my work than
of he on account of his”—this was the
Humility. motto of the sages of Jabneh (Ber.
17a). He who walks about haughtily
insults the Shekinah (Ber. 43b). Humilityis a qual-
ity especially appropriate for Israel (Hag. 9b; Ned.
20a; Mek., Yitro, xx. 17; Ber. 7a). Plagues come
‘on account of haughtiness (‘Ar. 17). The Messiah
will not come until haughtiness shall have ccased
in Israel (Sanh. 98). The haughty man, even if he
be wise, will lose his power of prophecy (Pes. 6b).
The haughty pollutes the land and curses God
(Mek., Yitro, ix.; Sotah 4b; Kallah 7). Humility is
just as important as wisdom and the fear of God
(Derek Erez Rabbah viii., xi). The habit of the
sage is to be humble, modest, and to bear insult
(Shab. 88; Derek Erez Zutai.). Do not forget that
the fly was created before man (Sanh. 38; Tan.,
Shemini, 9). “Be not proud on account of thy de-
cisions” (Derek Erez Zuta 6; Ab. iv. 7; Sanh. 7;
Midr. Teh. cxix.; Sotah 21; Pes. 50). R. Jonathan
ben Amram during a famine insisted on receiving
no more consideration in the distribution of bread
than any other creature (B. B. 8b). Rabbi Tarphon
felt sorry all his lifetime because he once saved
his life by saying that he was a scholar (Ned. 62a).
The ornament of the Torah is wisdom; and the
ornament of wisdom is humility (Derek Erez Zuta
Iv.).
God said to Moses, “Because of thy self-denial,
the Torah shall be called by thy name” (Shab. 89a).
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Huniility
Five men were highly endowed by divine grace, but
pride was their downfall; Samson suffered through
his strength; Saul, through his stature; Absalom,
through his hair; Asa, through his feet; and Zede-
kiah, through his eyes (Sotah 10a). Wherever God’s
omnipotence is found, one finds also his humility—
in the Torah, in the Prophets, in the Hagiographa
(Meg. 29). Learn humility from Moses (Ab. R. N.
ix., Xxlii.). The spirit of God rests on the humble,
as is seen in Moses (Ned. 35a; Mek., Yitro, ix.).
David said: “My heart was not haughty when I
was anointed king by Samuel, and when I conquered
Goliath ” (Yer. Sanh. 11; Hul. 88a). Johanan ben
Zakkai said: “If thou hast acquired much knowl-
edge of the Torah, do not pride thyself therein” (Ab.
ii. 8; Sanh, 93; Ber. 9; Meg. 26). Why were the
decisions of the Hillelites accepted? Because they
were humble, quiet, and meek (‘Er. 13). Saul and
Judah acquired the kingdom through their humility
(Tosef., Ber. iii.; Sanh. 92b). Be humble toward
all people, but particularly toward thy own house-
hold (Tanna debe Eliyahu iv.), While God despises
what is broken among the animals, he Joves in man
a broken lieart. Man is ashamed to use a broken
vessel; but God is near to men whose heart is
broken (Lev. R. vii.). “If you minimize your merits,
people will minimize your faults” (R. H. 17a).
Among three who are participants of special divine
love is he who does not insist on the recognition of
his virtues (Pes. 118b; Ab. i. 19).
“Be pliant and flexible like the reed, because schol-
arship is only with the humble” (Derek Erez Zuta
viii. 1; Ta‘an. 7; ‘Ab. Zarah 6). He who humbles
himself on account of the Torah will ultimately be
elevated through it (Derek Erez Zuta v.). Just as
water in its course seeks the low lands and not the
high ground, so the words of the Torah will be real-
ized only among those who are endowed with a
humble spirit (Ta‘an. 7, with reference to Isa. lv. 1).
The Shekinah will rest upon him that is of a meek
spirit (Mek., Yitro). Hillel said: “My humility is
my greatness, and my greatness is my
Maxims of humility” (Lev. R.1.).. Pharaoh said
Humility. boldly: “Who is God?” (Ex. v. 2);
Nebuchadnezzar, “I shallascend to the
heights of the clouds” (Isa. xiv. 14); and Hiram,
“Like a god I dwell in the midst of the ocean”
(Ezek. xxviii. 2). But Abraham said, “Tam but dust
and ashes” (Gen. i. 18, 27); Moses and Aaron, “Who
are we to goto Pharaoh?” (Ex. xvi. 16); and David,
“Tama worm and no man” (Ps. xxi. 7); therefore
God gave to them honor and greatness, and said,
“When I made you great and exalted, you made
yourselves lowly and humble” (Hul, 9). When man
sacrifices a burnt offering he receives a reward for his
offering ; but whosoever offers his humility has merit
as if he had offered all the sacrifices of the earth; for
“not sacrifices of animals demandest thou, neither
hast thou pleasure in burnt offerings. The sacrifices
of God are a broken heart” (Ps. li. 18-19; Sotah 8;
Sanh. 68b; Ber. 32b). R. Levitas said: “Be of a
humble spirit; for the end of manisthe worm ” (Ab.
iv. 3). Even the eighth part of an eighth portion
of haughtiness is an abomination in God’s eyes
(Sotah 5). God intentionally selected for the purifi-
cation of the leprous not only the proud cedar, but
Huna
also the humble hyssop (Lev. xiv. 4, 6). God
ignored the high mountains and selected the small-
est, Mount Sinai, for the revelation of the Ten Com-
mandmenis (Sotah 8). The humble stand higher
than the pious (‘Ab. Zarah 2). The spirit of God
will not rest on the haughty (Suk. iii. 1; Hag. 14b;
Shab. 92a; Ned. 38). He only will share in the
blessings of future salvation who is humble and con-
tinually enriches his store of knowledge without the
least self-conceit (Sanh. 88b).
But, while Judaism highly praises humility and
meekness, it wisely limits and restricts this virtue,
which, carried to the extreme, would be cowardice.
Humility must not be practised at the expense of
manhood. “The disciple of the wise,” the Rabbis
say, “should have sufficient pride to stand in de-
fense of the Law he represents” (Sotah da).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Schreiber, Die Prinzipien des Juden-
thums, Leipsic, 1877.
K. E. Scr.
HUNA (called also Huna the Babylonian) :
Babylonian amora of the second generation and head
of the Academy of Sura; born about 216 (212 accord:
ing to Griitz); died in 296-297 (608 of the Seleucidan
era; Sherira Gaon, in Neubauer, “M. J. C.” i, 30)
or in 290 according to Abraham ibn Daud (“Sefer
ha-Kabbalah,” in Neubauer, é.c. p. 58). He lived
in a town called n7pin7 (Ta‘an. 21b), identified by
Wiesener (“Scholicn zum Babylonischen Talmud,”
ii. 198) with Tekrit, but read by Gratz map
(= “Diokart”). He was the principal pupil of Rab
(Abba Arika), under whom he acquired so much
learning that one of Raba’s three wishes was to pos-
sess Huna’s wisdom (M. K. 28a). He was also
styled “one of the Babylonian hasidim,” on account
of his great piety (Ta‘an. 23b); and the esteem in
which he was held was so great that, though not of
a priestly family, he read from the Torah on Sab-
baths and holy days the first passage, which is usually
read by a priest. Ammi and Assi, honored Pales-
tinjan priests, considered Huna as their superior
(Meg. 22a; Git. 59b). Although Huna was related
to the family of the exilarch (Sherira Gaon, Jc.) he
was so poor at the beginning of )his career that in or-
der to buy wine to consecrate the Sabbath he had to
pawn his girdle (Meg. 27b). But Rab blessed him
with riches, and Huna displayed great wealth at the
wedding of his son Rabbah (2#.). He owned numer-
ous flocks of sheep, which were under the special care
of his wife, Hobah (B. K. 80a), and he traveled in a
gilded litter (Ta‘an. 20b). Huna was
His very generous. When the houses of
Liberality. the poor people were thrown down by
storms he rebuilt them; at meal-times
the doors of his house would be left open, while his
servants cried, “He who is hungry, let him come
and eat” (20.).
After Rab's death Huna lectured in his stead in
the Academy of Sura, but he was not appointed
head till after the death of Rab’s companion, Samuel
(c. 256). It was under Huna that the Academy of
Sura, till then called “sidra,” acquired the designa-
tion of “metibta” (Hebr. “yeshibah”), Huna being
the first “resh metibta” (Hebr. “rosh yeshibah ”;
comp. Zacuto “ Yuhasin,” p. 118b, Kénigsberg, 1857;
and see ACADEMIES IN BABYLONIA). Under Huna the
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
492
academy increased considerably in importance, and
students flocked to it from all directions; during his
presidency their number reached 800, all supported
by himself (Ket. 106a). Thirteen assistant lecturers
(“amora’e ”) were occupied in teaching them. When
his pupils, after the lesson, shook their garments
they raised so great a cloud of dust that when the
Palestinian sky was overcast it was said, “IIuna’s
pupils in Babylon have risen from their lesson ” (28.).
Under Huna, Palestine lost its ascendency over
Babylonia; and on certain occasions he declared the
schools of the two countries to be equal (Git. 6a; B.
K. 80a). In Babylonia, during his lifetime, the Sura
academy held the supremacy. He presided over it
for forty years, when he died suddenly, more than
eighty years of age (M. K. 28a). His remains were
brought to Palestine and buried by the side of Hiyya
Rabbah (2. 25a).
Huna’s principal pupil was Rab Hisda, who had
previously been his fellow pupil under Rab. Other
pupils of his whose names are given were: Abba b.
Zabda, Rab Giddel, R. Helbo, R. Sheshet, and Huna’s
own son, Rabbah (Yeb. 64b).
He transmitted many of Rab’s halakot, sometimes
without mentioning Rab’s name (Shab. 24a ¢ at.).
His own halakot are numerous in the Babylonian
Talmud, and although some of his decisions were
contrary to Rab’s (Shab. 21a, b, 128a), he declared
Rab to be the supreme authority in religious law
(Niddah 24b), Huna’s deductions were sometimes
casuistical; he interpreted the text verbatim even
where the context seems to prohibit
Method of such an interpretation (Shab. 20a;
Deduction. Men. 36a; eé al.). According to Huna,
the halakah transmitted in the Mish-
nah and Baraita is not always to be taken as decisive
(Ber. 24b, 59b). He had some knowledge of medi-
cine and natural history, and used his knowledge in
many of his halakic decisions (Shab. 20a, 54b; Yeb.
5b). He also interpreted many of the difficult
words met with in the Mishnah and Baraita (Shab.
53b, 54b, e¢ al.).
Huna was equally distinguished as a haggadist,
and his haggadot were known in Palestine, whither
they were carried by some of his pupils, Ze‘ira
among them. His interpretation of Prov. xiv. 23,
transmitted by Ze‘ira, is styled “the pearl” (Pesik.
ii, 18b; comp. Yer. Shab. vii. 2, where also many
halakot of his are preserved, transmitted by Ze‘ira).
Many of his haggadot, showing his skill in Biblical
exegesis, are found in the Babylonian Talmud, some
in the name of Rab, some in his own. He took
special pains to reconcile apparently conflicting pas-
sages, as, for instance, II Sam. vii. 10 and I Chron.
xvii. 10 (Ber. 7b). He endeavored to solve the
problem presented by the sufferings of the right-
eous, inferring from Isa. liii. 10 that God chasteneth
those whom He loves (Ber. 5a). The following of
Huna’s utterances may be given: “He who occu-
pies himself with the study of the Law alone is as
one who has no God” (inferred from II Chron. xv.
3; ‘Ab. Zarab 17b). “ When leaving the synagogue,
one must not take long steps” (Ber. 6b). “He who
recites his prayer behind the synagogue is called ‘ im-
pious’ ” = “rasha‘” (inferred from Ps. xii. 9 [A. V.
8]; 7b.). “He who is accustomed to honor the Sab-
493
bath with light will have children whoare scholars;
he who observes the injunction as to the mezuzal
willhave a beautiful house; he who observes the
ruleas to the zizit will have fine clothes; he who
consecrates the Sabbath and the holy days as com-
manded will have many skins filled with wine”
(Shab. 23b). Huna was very tolerant, and on sev-
eral occasions he recommended mild treatment of
Gentiles (B. K. 118a; B. M. 70a). He was also
very modest; he was not ashamed, before he was
rich, to cultivate his field himself, nor to return
home in the evening with his spade on his shoulder
(Meg. 288). When two contending parties requested
him to judge between them, he said to them: “Give
me a man to cultivate my field and I will be your
judge” (Ket. 105a). He patiently bore Rab’s hard
words, because the latter was his teacher (‘Er. lia;
Yer. ‘Er. i. 3), but he showed on several occasions
that a scholar must not humiliate himself in pres-
ence of an inferior (Ket. 69a; B. M. 38a).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Bab. Amor. pp. 52-60; Gratz,
Gesch, 3d ed., iv. 291 et seq.; Halévy, Dor ot ha-Rishonim,
ii. 411 et seq.; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.. Lichtmann, in
as Yisrael, iii. 297-303 ; Weiss, Dor, iti. 182 et seq.
M. SEL.
HUNA, ABBA HA-KOHEN. Sce Huna Bar
ABBIN.
HUNA BAR ABBIN HA-KOHEN (called
also Nehunya, Huna, and Hunya): Palestinian
amora of the first half of the fourth century; pupil
of R. Jeremiah, in whose name he reports some hala-
kic and haggadic sayings (Yer. Dem. 21d; Pes. 36d;
and frequently). That the name “ Nehunya,” from
which are derived “Huna” and “Hunya,” desig-
nates Huna is shown by the fact that a saying
which is quoted in the Pesikta (xviii 174) in the
name of Huna is given by his pupil Tanhuma in the
Midrash Tehillim (to Ps. xiv. 6) in the name of Ne-
hunya. Huna occupied a prominent position in the
school of Tiberias, directed by Jose, with whom he
had halakic controversies (Yer. Shek. 48b). Huna
sojourned some time in Babylonia (Yer. R. H. ii. 2)
and was well acquainted with the halakot of the
Babylonian amoraim, often quoted by him in the
Yerushalmi. It was probably during his residence
there that he made the acquaintance of Raba, head
of the school of Mahoza, to whom he made an impor-
tant communication concerning intercalary months
(Yer. R.H. 21a). With regard to certain calendary
calculations, Huna relates that in consequence of the
Roman persecutions (under Gallus) the rabbis of
Tiberias, who had sought refuge in a grotto, delib-
erated on the advisability of intercalating an addi-
tional month. In the grotto they distinguished
day from night by lamps, which were dim in the
daytime and bright at night (Gen. R. xxxi.). Huna
scems to have had some medical knowledge; he
speaks of the effects of Rubia tinctorum (madder =
NID) and asafetida nnbn), in which latter article he
traded (Yer. Shab. 8b, 1%). Although of a priestly
family Huna refused to take tithes (Yer. Ma‘as. Sh.
ii. 2).
Huna was an able haggadist, and his sayings are
frequently quoted in midrashic literature. His hag-
gadot bear the stamp of ardent patriotism. He ap-
pears as a bitter enemy of the Romans, to whom, ac-
cording to him, the Psalmist applied the epithet b35
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Huna
(Ps. xiv. 1), because they filled Palestine with Jew-
ish corpses (Midr. Teh. to Ps. ad dve.). “In three
things,” he declared, “the Greeks are superior to the
Romans in legislation, in painting, and in litera-
ture” (Gen. R. xvi. 4). Huna held the study of the
Law in such high estimation that he declared it could
atone for a deadly sin (Lev. R. xxv.). Huna con-
sidered envy the greatest sin. Israel was exiled
only because it transgressed the tenth commandment
(Pes. R. 24).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 125; Z. Frankel,
Mebo, p. 83d; Bacher, 4g. Pal. Amor. iii. 272 et seq.
S. I. Br.
HUNA B. HANINA (HINENA): Babylo-
nian amora of the fifth generation (4th cent.). His
principal teachers were Abaye (in whose school R.
Safra and Abba b. Huna were his fellow pupils; B.
B. 167b) and Raba; KR. Papa, his senior, was a fel-
low pupil under Raba (Sanh. 87a). On one occa-
sion Huna and Huna b. Nahman contested Raba’s
decision ((‘Ab. Zarah 57b). Hluna has transmitted a
halakah in the name of Hiyya b. Rab (Ber. 80a).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.
S. M. SEt.
HUNA B. JOSHUA: Babylonian amora of the
fifth generation; dicd in 410 (Samson of Chinon,
“Sefer Keritut,” p. 26a, Cremona, 1558). He was
the pupil of Raba (Kid. 32b), who seeins to have
been his principal teacher, and who sometimes
praised him (ILor. 10b), but occasionally blamed him
(Ket. 85a; Git. 78a). He appears to have been the
pupil of Abaye also (R. H. 24b). His principal com-
panion was Rt. Papa, from whom he was insepa-
rable, both in and out of school (‘Er. 12a; Ber. 58b;
etal.). When R. Papa became head of the school
of Naresh (v3), Huna was appointed president of
the general assembly (“resh kallah”) in the same
school (Ber. 57a). As senior pupils, Huna and R.
Papa took part in the halakic deliberations of their
teachers. Their halakot are often mentioned in the
Babylonian Talmud, and, according to Moses of
Coucy (“Sefer Mizwot Gadol,” i., No. 67), Isaac
Alfasi decided with them against R. Huna I., head
of the Academy of Sura.
Huna was wealthy (Hor. 10b); he never walked
more than four cubits bareheaded (Shab. 118b); he
ate very slowly, so that R. Papa consumed in the
same time four times as much and Rabina eight
times as much (Pes. 89b). Huna lived to a great
age, outliving Raba by fifty-seven years. Once in
the lifetime of R. Papa, Huna fell desperately ill,
but his life was spared to him because he was for-
bearing (R. H. 1%a).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Halévy, Dorot ha-Rishonim, ii. 505 et seq.;
Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.; Weiss, Dor, iii. ee
S. . SEL,
HUNA, MAR. Sce EXILARCH.
HUNA B. NATHAN: Babylonian scholar of
the fourth and fifth centuries. Hewas the pupil of
Amemar IJ. and a senior and companion of Asn,
to whom he repeated several of Amemar’s sayings
and halakot (Git. 19); B. B. 55a, 74b). He was
wealthy; but though “in him learning and dignity
met,” he was nevertheless subject to Ashi (Git. 59a).
He had access to the royal court of Persia, and the
esteem in which he was held by King Yezdegerd is
Hungary
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
494
instanced by the fact that on one occasion at court
(as told by Huna to Ashi) the king himself adjusted
Huna’s belt (Zeb. 19a; see AMEMARIT.). According
to Sherira (Neubauer, “M. J. C.” i. 82), Huna was
exilarch in the time of Ashi. Another Huna b.
Nathan was a companion of Raba (Ned. 12a) and,
apparently, a pupil of Nahman (Ket. 7a).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Halévy, Dorot ha-Rishonim, ii. 517; Heilprin,
Seder ha-Dorot, ii.; Lazarus, in Briill’s Jahrb. x. 110, 111.
Ss M. SEL.
HUNGARY (in Hebrew literature, “ann ma$p
[see HaGaR] ; PINIIN; WAT PINs NINA): King-
dom in central Europe, forming part of the Austro-
Hungarian monarchy. It is not definitely known
when Jews first settled in Hungary. According to
legend, King Decebalus of Dacia permitted the Jews
who aided him in his war against Rome to settle in
his territory. A Latin inscription, the epitaph of
Septima Maria, discovered within the territory of the
ancient province of Pannonia, clearly refers to Jew-
ish matters. But, although it may be unhesitatingly
assumed that Jews came to Hungary while the
Roman emperors held sway in that country, there
is nothing to indicate that at that time they had set-
tled there permanently. In the Hungarian lan-
guage the Jew is called “Zsid6,” a term which the
Hungarians adopted from the Slavs.
The first historical document relating to the Jews
of Hungary is the letter written about 960 to King
Joseph of the Chazars by Hasdai ibn
Earliest Shaprut, the Jewish statesman of Cor-
References. dova, in which he says that the Slavic
ambassadors promised to deliver the
message to the King of Slavonia, who would hand
the same to Jews living in “the country of Hun-
garin,” who, in turn, would transmit it farther (see
Jew. Encyc. iv. 3, 8.0. CHAzars). About the same
time Ibrahim ibn Jacob says that Jews went from
Hungary to Prague for business purposes. (See
CoMMERCE.) Dr. Samuel Kohn suggests that Jew-
ish Chazars may have been among the Hungarian
troops that under Arpad conquered the country in
the second half of the ninth century. Nothing is
. Known concerning the Jews during the period of
the Vajdas, except that they lived in the country and
engaged in commerce there. Two hundred years
later, in the reign of St. Ladislaus (1077-95), the
Synod of Szabolcs decreed (May 20, 1092) that Jews
should not be permitted to have Christian wives or
to keep Christian slaves. This decree had been pro-
mulgated in the Christian countries of Europe since
the fifth century, and St. Ladislaus merely intro-
duced it into Hungary.
The Jews of Hungary formed at first small settle-
ments, and had no learned rabbis; but they were
strictly observant of all the Jewish religious laws
and customs. Jews from Ratisbon once came into
Hungary with merchandise from Russia, and the
wheel of their wagon broke on a Friday, near
Ofen (Buda) or Gran (Esztergom). By the time
they had repaired it and had entered the town, the
Jews were just leaving the synagogue; and the
unintentional Sabbath-breakers were heavily fined.
The ritual of the Hungarian Jews faithfully re-
flected their German origin.
King Coloman (1095-1114), the successor of St.
Ladislaus, renewed the Szaboles decree of 1092, add-
ing further prohibitions against the employment of
Christian slaves and domestics. He
also restricted the Jews to cities
with episcopal sees—probably to
have them under the continuous su-
pervision of the Church. Soon after the promulga-
tion of this decree Crusaders came to Hungary; but
the Hungarians did not sympathize with them, and
Coloman even opposed them. The infuriated Cru-
saders attacked some cities, and if Gedaliah ibn
Yahya is to be believed, the Jews suffered a fate
similar to that of their coreligionists in France, Ger-
many, and Bohemia.
The cruelties inflicted upon the Jews of Bohe-
mia induced many of them to seek refuge with their
treasures in Hungary. It was probably the immi- —
gration of the rich Bohemian Jews that induced
Coloman soon afterward to regulate commercial and
banking transactions between Jews and Christians,
He decreed, among other regulations, that if a
Christian borrowed from a Jew, or a Jew from a
Christian, both Christian and Jewish witnesses
must be present at the transaction.
During the reign of King Andrew II. (1205-35)
there were Jewish chamberlains and mint-, salt-, and
tax-officials. The nobles of the coun-
try, however, induced the king, in his
Golden Bull (1222), to deprive the Jews
of these high offices. When Andrew
needed money in 1226, he farmed the royal revenues
to Jews, which gave ground for much complaint.
The pope thereupon excommunicated him, until, in
1233, he promised the papal ambassadors on oath
that he would enforce the decrees of the Golden
Bull directed against the Jews and the Saracens;
would cause both peoples to be distinguished from
Christians by means of badges; and would forbid both
Jews and Saracens to buy or to keep Christian slaves.
The year 1240 was the closing one of the fifth
millennium of the Jewish era. At that time the
Jews were expecting the advent of their Messiah.
The irruption of the Tatars (1241) seemed to conform
to expectation, as Jewish imagination expected the
happy Messianic period to be ushered in by the war
of Gog and Magog. The wild Tatars treated the
Jews with great cruelty, although it had been re-
ported that they (the Tatars) were in reality Jews
who had been secretly furnished with arms by their
European brethren. Béla IV. (1235-70) appointed
a Jew, Henul by name, court chamberlain (the Jew
Teka had filled this office under Andrew IT.); and
Wolfel and his sons Altmann and Nickel held the
castle at Komarom with its domains inpawn. Béla
also entrusted the Jews with the mint; and Hebrew
coins of this period are still found in Hungary. In
1251 a “ privilegium ” was granted by
Thirteenth Béla to his Jewish subjects which was
Century. essentially the same as that granted by
Duke Frederick TI. the Belligerent to
the Austrian Jews in 1244, but which Béla modified
to suit the conditions of Hungary (Léw, in Busch’s
“Jahrbuch,” v. 63). This “ privilegium ” remained
in force down to the battle of Mohacs (1526).
At the Synod of Ofen (1279), held in the reign of
King Ladislaus TY. (1272-90), it was decreed, in the
Eleventh
Century.
Golden
Bull.
495
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hungary
presence of the papal ambassador, that every Jew
appearing in public should wear on the left side of
his upper garment a piece of red cloth; that any
Christian transacting business with a Jew not so
marked, or living in a house or on land together
with any Jew, should be refused admittance to the
Church services; and that a Christian entrusting any
office to a Jew should be excommunicated. Andrew
IIT. (1291-1301), the last king of the house of Arpad,
declared, in the “ privilegium ” granted by him to the
community of Presburg (Pozsony), that the Jews in
that city should enjoy all the liberties of citizens.
Under the foreign kings who occupied the throne
of Hungary on the extinction of the house of Arpad,
the Hungarian Jews suffered many persecutions;
and at the time of the Black Death (1349) they were
expelled from the country (see “R. E. J.” xxii. 236).
Although the Jews were immediately readmitted,
they were again persecuted, and were
Expulsion once more expelled in 1360 by King
and Recall. Louis the Great of Anjou (1842-82) on
the failure of his attempt to convert
them to Catholicism. They were graciously received
by Alexander the Good of Moldavia and Dano I. of
Wallachia, the latter affording them special com-
mercial privileges.
When, some years later, Hungary was in financial
distress, the Jews were recalled. They found that
during their absence the king had introduced the
custom of “ Tédtbriefe,” 2.¢., canceling by a stroke of
his pen, on the request of a subject or a city, the
notes and mortgage-deeds of the Jews, An impor-
tant office created by Louis was that of “judge of
all the Jews living in Hungary,” this official being
chosen from among the dignitaries of the country,
the palatines, and treasurers, and having a deputy
to aid him. It was his duty to collect the taxes of
the Jews, to protect their privileges, and to listen to
their complaints, which last-named had become more
frequent since the reign of Sigismund (1387-1487).
The successors of Sigismund—Albert (1437-39),
Ladislaus Posthumus (1458-57), and Matthias Cor-
vinus (1458-90)—likewise confirmed the “ privilegi-
um” of Béla IV. Matthias created the office of Jew-
ish prefectin Hungary. The period following upon
the death of Matthias was a sad one for the Hungarian
Jews. He was hardly buried when the people fell
upon them, confiscated their property, refused to
pay debts owing to them, and persecuted them gen-
erally. The pretender John Corvinus, Matthias’
illegitimate son, expelled them from Tata (Totis), and
King Ladislaus IT. (1490-1516), always in need of
money, laid heavy taxes upon them. During his
reign Jews were for the first time burned at the
stake, many being executed at Tyrnau (Nagy-Szom-
bat) in 1494, on suspicion of ritual murder.
The Hungarian Jews finally applied to the Ger-
man emperor Maximilian for protection. On the
occasion of the marriage of Louis II. and the arch-
duchess Maria (1512), the emperor, with the consent
of Ladislaus, took the prefect, Jacob
Sixteenth Mendel, together with his family and
Century. all the other Hungarian Jews, under
his protection, according to them all
the rights enjoyed by his other subjects. Under
Ladislaus’ successor, Louis II. (1516-26), persecu-
tion of the Jews was a common occurrence. The
bitter feeling against them was in part augmented
by the fact that the baptized Emerich Szerencsés,
the deputy treasurer, embezzled the public funds,
folowing the example of the nobles who despoiled
the treasury under the weak Louis.
The Turks vanquished the Hungarians at the bat-
tle of Mohacs (Aug. 29, 1526), on which occasion
Louis IL. was slain. When the news
Under the of hisdeath reached the capital, Ofen,
Turks. the court and the nobles fled together
With some rich Jews, among them the -
prefect. When the grand vizier, Ibrahim Pasha,
preceding Sultan Sulaiman, arrived with his army
at Ofen, the representatives of the Jews who had re-
mained in the city appeared garbed in mourning be-
fore him, and, begging for grace, handed him the
keys of the deserted and unprotected castle in token
of submission. The sultan himself entered Ofen on
Sept. 11; and on Sept. 22 he decreed that all the
Jews seized at Ofen, Gran, and elsewhere, more than
2,000 in number, should be distributed among the
cities of the Turkish empire.
While some of the Jcws of Hungary were thus
deported to Turkey, others, who had fled at the ap-
proach of the sultan, sought refuge beyond the
fronticr or in the royal free towns of western Hun-
gary. The widow of Louis IT., the queen regent
Maria, favored the enemies of the Jews. The citizens
of Oedenburg (Sopron) began hostilities by expelling
the Jews of that city, confiscating their property, and
pillaging the vacated houses and the synagogue.
The city of Presburg also received permission from
the queen (Oct. 9, 1526) to expel the Jews living
within its territory, because they had expressed
their intention of fleeing before the Turks. The
Jews left Presburg on Nov. 9. On the same day
the Diet at Stuhlweissenburg (Székesfchérvar) was
opened, at which John Zapolya (1526-40) was
elected and crowned king in opposition to Ferdi-
nand. During this session it was decreed that the
Jews should immediately be expelled from every
part of the country. John Zapolya, however, did
not ratify these Jaws; and the Diet held at Pres-
burg Dec., 1526, at which Ferdinand of Habsburg
was chosen king (1526-64), annulled all the decrees
of that of Stuhlweissenburg, including Zapolya’s
election as king.
As the lord of Bésing (Bazin) was in debt to
the Jews, a blood accusation was brought against
these inconvenient creditors in 1529.
Blood Although Mendel, the prefect, and the
Accusation Jews throughout Hungary protested,
at Bésing. the accused were burned at the stake.
For centuries afterward Jews were
forbidden to live at Bésing. The Jews of Tyrnau
soon shared a similar fate, being first punished for
alleged ritual murder and then expelled from the
city (Feb. 19, 1539).
In 1541, on the anniversary of the battle of Mo-
hacs, Sultan Sulaiman again took Ofen by a ruse.
This event marks the beginning of Turkish rule in
many parts of Hungary, which lasted down to 1686.
The Jews living in these parts were treated far
better than those living underthe Hapsburgs. Dur-
ing this period, beginning with the second half of
Hungary
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
496
the sixteenth century, the community of Ofen was
more flourishing than at any time before or after.
While the Turks held sway in Hungary, the Jews
of Transylvania (at that time an independent princi-
pality) also fared well. At the instance of Abra-
ham Sassa, a Jewish physician of Constantinople,
Prince Gabriel Bethlen of Transylvania granted a
letter of privileges (June 18, 1623) to the Spanish
Jews from Turkey.
On Nov. 26, 1572, King Maximilian (1564-77) in-
tended to expel the Jews of Presburg, stating that
his edict would be recalled only in case
they accepted Christianity. The Jews,
from however, remained in the city, with-
Presburg. out abandoning their religion. They
were in constant conflict with the cit-
izens. In 1582 (June 1) the municipal council
decreed that no one should harbor Jews, or even
transact business with them. The feeling against
the Jews in that part of the country not under Turk-
ish rule is shown by the decree of the Diet of 1578,
to the effect that Jews were to be taxed double the
amount which was imposed upon other citizens. By
article xv. of the law promulgated by the Diet of
1630, Jews were forbidden to take charge of the
customs; and this decree was confirmed by the
Diet of 1646 on the ground that the Jews were ex-
cluded from the privileges of the country, that they
were unbelievers, and had no conscience (“veluti
jurium regni incapaces, infideles, et nulla conscien-
tia preediti”). The Jews had to pay a special war-
tax when the imperial troopsset out toward the end
of the sixteenth century to recapture Ofen from the
Turks. The Ofen community suffered much dur-
ing this siege, as did also that of Stuhlweissenburg
when the imperial troops took that city in Sept.,
1601; many of its members were either slain or
taken prisoners and sold into slavery, their redemp-
tion being subsequently effected by the German.
Italian, and Turkish Jews. After the conclusion of
peace, which the Jews helped to bring about, the
communities were in part reconstructed; but further
development in the territory of the Hapsburgs was
arrested when Leopold I. (1657-1705) expelled the
Jews (April 24, 1671). He, however, revoked his
decree a few months later (Aug. 20). During the
siege of Vienna, in 1683, the Jews that had returned
to that city were again maltreated. The Turks
plundered some communities in western Hungary,
and deported the members as slaves.
The imperial troops recaptured Ofen on Sept. 2,
1686; and the whole of Hungary now came under
the rule of the houseof Hapsburg. After the troops
of Leopold had driven out the Turks, the king would
not suffer any but Catholics in the reconquered coun-
ties; and Protestants, Jews, and Mohammedans re-
nounced their faiths. As the devas-
Expelled
Seven- tated country had to be repopulated,
teenth Bishop Count Leopold Kollonitsch,
Century. subsequently Archbishop of Gran and
rimate of Hungary; advised the king
to give the preference to the German Catholics in
order that the country might in time become Ger-
man and Catholic. He held that the Jews could
not be exterminated at once, but they must be
weeded out by degrees, as bad coin is gradually
withdrawn from circulation. The decree passed by
the Diet of Presburg, imposing double taxation
upon the Jews, must be enforced. Jews must
not be permitted to engage in agriculture, nor to
own any real estate, nor to keep Christian serv-
ants,
This advice soon bore fruit and was in part acted
upon. In Aug., 1690, the government at Vienna
ordered Oedenburg to expel its Jews, who had im-
migrated from the Austrian provinces. The gov-
ernment, desiring to enforce the edict of the last
Diet, decreed soon afterward that Jews should be
removed from the office of collector. The order
proved ineffective, however; and the employment
of Jewish customs officials was continued. Even
the treasurer of the realm set the example in trans-
gressing the law by appointing (1692) Simon Hirsch
as farmer of customs at Leopoldstadt; and at
Hirsch’s death he transferred the office to Hirsch’s
son-in-law.
The revolt of the Kuruczes, under Francis Ra-
kéczy, caused much suffering to the Hungarian
Jews. The Kuruczes imprisoned and
Revolt of slew the Jews, who had incurred their
the anger by siding with the king’s party.
Kuruczes. The Jews of Eisenstadt (Kis-Marton),
accompanied by those of the com-
munity of Mattersdorf (Nagy- Marton), sought
refuge at Vienna, Wiener-Neustadt, and Forchten-
stein (Frakné), those of Holics and Schlossberg
(Sasvar) dispersed to Géding; while others, who
could not leave their business in this time of dis-
tress, sent their families to safe places, and them-
selves braved the danger. While not many Jews
lost their lives during this revolt, it made great
havoc in their wealth, especially in the county of
Oedenburg, where a number of rich Jews were
living. The king granted letters of protection to
those that had been ruined by the revolt, and de-
manded satisfaction for those that had been injured;
but in return for these favors he commanded the
Jews to furnish the sums necessary for suppressing
the revolt.
After the restoration of peace the Jews were ex-
pelied from many cities that feared their competi-
tion; thus Gran expelled them in 1712, on the
ground that the city which had given birth to St.
Stephen must not be desecrated by them. But the
Jews living in the country, on the estates of their
landlords, were generally left in quiet.
The lot of the Jews was not improved under the
reign of Leopold’s son, Charles III, (1711-40). He
informed the government (June 28, 1723) that he
intended to decrease the number of Jews in his do-
mains, and the government thereupon
Eighteenth directed the counties to furnish statis-
Century. tics of the Hebrew inhabitants. In
1726 the king decreed that in the Aus-
trian provinces, from the day of publication of the
decree, only one male member in each Jewish family
be allowed to marry. This decree, restricting the
natural increase of the Jews, materially affected the
Jewish communities of Hungary. All the Jews in
the Austrian provinces who could not marry there
went to Hungary to found families; thus the over.
flow of Austrian Jews peopled Hungary. These
497
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hungary
immigrauts settled chiefly in the northwestern coun-
ties, in Neutra (Nyitra), Presburg, and Trencsén.
The Moravian Jews continued to live in Hungary
as Moravian subjects; even those that went there
for the purpose of marrying and scttling promised
on oath before leaving that they would pay the
same taxes as those living in Moravia. In 1734 the
Jews of Trencsén bound themselves by a secret oath
that in all their communal affairs they would sub-
mit to the Jewish court at Ungarisch-Brod only. In
course of time the immigrants refused to pay taxes
to the Austrian provinces. The Moravian Jews,
who had suffered by the heavy emigration, then
brought complaint; and Maria Theresa ordered that
all Jewish and Christian subjects that had emi-
grated after 1740 should be extradited, while those
who had emigrated before that date were to be re-
leased from their Moravian allegiance.
The government could not, however, check the
large immigration; for although strict laws were
drafted (1727), they could not be enforced owing to
the good-will of the magnates toward the Jews.
The counties either did not answer at all, or sent
reports bespeaking mercy rather than persecution.
Meanwhile the king endeavored to free the mining-
towns from the Jews—a work which Leopold I. had
already begun in 1698. The Jews,
Expelled however, continued to scttle near
from these towns; they displayed their
Mining- wares at the fairs; and, with the per-
Towns. mission of the court, they even erected
a foundry at Sig. When King Charles
ordered them to leave (March, 1727), the royal man-
date was in some places ignored; in others the Jews
obeyed so slowly that he had to repeat his edict
three months later.
In 1785 another census of the Jews of the country
was taken with the view of reducing their numbers.
There were at that time 11,621 Jews living in Hun-
gary, of which number 2,474 were male heads of
families, and 57 were female heads.
Statistics Of these heads of families 35.31 per
in 1735. cent declared themselves to be Hun-
garians; therest hadimmigrated. Of
the immigrants 38.35 per cent came from Moravia,
11.05 per cent from Poland, and 3.07 per cent from
Bohemia. The largest Jewish community, number-
ing 770 persons, was that of Presburg.
Most of the Jews were engaged in commerce or
industries; only a few pursued agriculture. Of the
2,531 heads of families 883 were engaged in trade;
146 were tailors supplying garments to their core-
ligionists. There were also a number of furriers
and glaziers and 59 butchers. There were 203
brandy-distillers and 150 innkeepers. The heavy
taxation imposed upon the Jews is evidenced by
the fact that 23 families in the county of Abauj
had to pay 88 gulden, 45 denars a year to their
foreign landlords and 879 gulden to their Hungarian
landlords. In several places the landlords accepted
provisions instead of money in payment of the yearly
tax.
During the reign of Charles III. the religious af-
fairs of the Jews of Hungary were directed by a
chief rabbi; Samson Wertheimer, the famous factor
of the court of Vienna, being chosen by his core-
VI—82
ligionists to fill the office in gratitude for the interest
he had shown in their welfare. His election was
confirmed May 6, 1716, by the king, who also granted
him permission, when he was unable to personally
decide cases submitted to him, to employ refresenta-
tives. Wertheimer’s representatives in the Hunga-
rian communities between 1708 and 1717 were Meir
b. Isaac, rabbi of Eisenstadt and author of “ Panim
Me’irot”; Alexander b. Menahem; Phinehas Auer-
bach; Jacob Eliezer Braunschweig ; Hirsch Semnitz ;
and (after 1717) Simon Jolles.
Wertheimer and his representatives judged espe-
cially those cases that arose in consequence of the
Kurucz revolt. The Jews had fled before Rakéczy’s
troops as before their enemies, and Jewish communal
life was for a time disorganized; but when peace
was restored and the work of reorganizing the com-
munities was begun, many difficulties arose that had
to be solved by Wertheimer.
Wertheimer died Aug. 6, 1724; and his death was
scarcely an assured fact when his son-in-law, Bern-
hard Eskeles, took steps to obtain the chief rabbin-
ate. Nineteen days later he was appointed to the
office by Count Georg Erdédy, and the king con-
firmed the appointment Sept. 10, 1724. On the
death of Eskeles (March 2, 1753) the office of chief
rabbi of Hungary was abolished.
Transylvania, at the present time belonging to
Hungary, had in the eighteenth and nineteenth cen-
turies a chief rabbi of its own, who was generally
the rabbi of Gyula-Fehérvar (Karlsburg). The fol-
lowing rabbis of this interesting community officiated
as chief rabbis of Transylvania: Joseph Reis Auer-
bach (d. 1750); Shalom Selig b. Saul Cohen (offici-
ated 1754-57); Johanan b. Isaac (1758-60); Benja-
min Ze’eb Wolf of Cracow (1764-77); Moses b.
Samuel Levi Margaliot (1778-1817); Menahem b.
Joshua Mendel (1818-23); Ezekiel Paneth (1823-
1848); Abraham Friedmann, the last chief rabbi of
Transylvania (d. 1879).
During the reign of Queen Maria Theresa (1740-
1780), daughter of Charles IIL, the Jews were ex-
peiled trom Ofen (1746), and the “toleration-tax”
was imposed upon the Hungarian Jews. On Sept.
1, 1749, the delegates of the Hungarian Jews, ex-
cept those from the county of Szath-
mar, assembled at Presburg and met
a royal commission, which informed
them that they would be expelled from
the country if they did not pay this
tax. The frightened Jews at once agreed to do so;
and the commission then demanded a yearly tax of
50,000 gulden. This sum being excessive, the dele-
gates protested; and although the queen had fixed
380,000 gulden as the minimum tax, they were finally
able to compromise on the payment of 20,000 gulden
a year for a period of eight years. The delegates
were to apportion this amount among the districts;
the districts, their respective sums among the com-
munities; and the communities, theirs among the
individual members.
The queen confirmed this agreement of the com-
mission, except the eight-year clause, changing the
period to three years, which she subsequently made
five. The agreement, thus ratified by the queen,
was brought Nov. 26 before the courts, which were
Under
Maria
Theresa.
Hungary
powerless to relieve the Jews from the payment
of this “Malkegeld” (queen’s money), as they
called it.
The Jews, thus burdened by new taxes, thought
the time ripe for taking steps to remove their op-
pressive disabilities. While still at Presburg the
delegates had brought their grievances before the
mixed commission that was called “delegata in
puncto tolerantialis tax et gravaminum Jude-
orum commissio mixta.” These complaints pic-
tured the distress of the Jews of that time. They
were not allowed to live in Croatia and Sla-
vonia, in the counties of Baranya and Heves, or in
several free towns and localities; nor might they
visit the markets there. At Stuhlweissenburg they
had to pay a poll-tax of 1 guiden, 30 kreuzer if
they entered the city during the day, if only for an
hour. In many places they might not even stay over-
night. They therefore begged permission to settle,
or at least to visit the fairs, in Croatia and Slavonia
and in those places from which they had been driven
in consequence of the jealousy of the Greeks and
the merchants. They had also to pay heavier bridge-
and ferry-tolls than the Christians; at Tyrnau they
had to pay three times the ordinary sum, namely,
for the driver, for the vehicle, and for the animal
drawing the same; and in three villages belonging
to the same district they had to pay toll, although
there was no toll-gate. Jews living on the estates
of the nobles had to give their wives and children as
pledges for arrears of taxes. In Upper Hungary
they asked for the revocation of the toleration-tax
imposed by the chamber of Zips (Szepes), on the
ground that otherwise the Jews living there would
have to pay two such taxes; and they asked also to
be relieved from a similar tax paid to the Diet.
Finally, they requested that Jewish artisans might
be allowed to follow their trades in their homes un-
disturbed.
The commission laid these complaints before the
queen, indicating the manner in which the evils
could be relieved; and their suggestions were dic-
tated in a rare spirit of good-will.
The queen relieved the Jews from the tax of toler-
ation in Upper Hungary only. In regard to the
other complaints she ordered that the Jews should
specify them in detail, and that the government
should remedy them in so far as they came under
its jurisdiction.
The toleration-tax had hardly been instituted when
Michael Hirsch petitioned the government to be ap-
pointed primate of the Hungarian Jews in order to
be able to settle difficulties that might arise among
them, and to collect the tax. The government
did not recommend Hirsch, but decided that in case
the Jews should refuse to pay, it might be advisable
to appoint a primate to adjust the matter.
Before the end of the period of five years the
delegates of the Jews again met the commission at
Presburg and offered to increase the amount of their
tax to 25,000 guiden a year if the queen would
promise that it should remain at that sum for the
next ten years. The queen refused; and not only
did she turn a deaf ear to the renewed gravamina of
the Jews, but caused still heavier burdens to be im-
posed upon them, Their tax of 20,000 gulden was
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
498
increased to 30,000 gulden in 1760; to 50,000 in
1772; to 80,000 in 1778; and to 160,000 in 1813.
Joseph II. (1780-90), son and successor of Maria
Theresa, showed immediately on his accession that
he intended to alleviate the condition of the Jews,
communicating this intention to the
Under Hungarian chancellor, Count Franz
Joseph II. Esterhaizy, as early as May 13, 1781.
In consequence the Hungarian govern-
ment issued (March 31, 1783) a decree known as the
“systematicagentis Judaice regulatio,” which wiped
out at one stroke the decrees that had oppressed the
Jews for centuries. The royal free towns, except
the mining-towns, were opened to the Jews, who
were allowed to settle at pleasure throughout the
country. The “regulatio ” decreed that the legal doc-
uments of the Jewsshould no longer be composed in
Hebrew, or in the corrupt Judso-German, but in
Latin, German, and Hungarian, the languages cur-
rently used in the country, and which the young Jews
were required to learn within two years, Documents
written in Hebrew or in Judxo-German were not le-
gal; Hebrew books were to be used at worship only ;
the Jews were to organize elementary schools; the
commands of the emperor, issued in the interests of
the Jews, were to be announced in the synagogues;
and the rabbis were to explain to the people the
salutary effects of these decrees, Thesubjects to be
taught in the Jewish schools were to be the same as
those taught in the national schools; the same text-
books were to be used in all the elementary schools;
and everything that might offend the religious sen-
timent of non-conformists was to be omitted. Dur-
ing the early years Christian teachers
Tolerance were to be employed in the Jewish
Edict. schools, but they were to have nothing
to do with the religious affairs of such
institutions. After the lapse of ten years a Jew
might establish a business, or engage in trade, only
if he could prove that he had attended a school.
The usual school-inspectors were to supervise the
Jewish schools and to report to the government.
The Jews were to create a fund for organizing and
maintaining their schools. Jewish youth might en-
ter the academies, and might study any subject at
the universities except theology. Jews might rent
farms only if they could cultivate the same without
the aid of Christians. They were allowed to peddle
and to engage in various industrial occupations, and
to be admitted into the gilds. They were also per-
mitted to engrave seals, and to sell gunpowder and
saltpeter; but their exclusion from the mining-towns
remained in force. Christian masters were allowed
to have Jewish apprentices. All distinctive marks
hitherto worn by the Jews were to be abolished,
and they might even carry swords. On the other
hand, they were required to discard the distinctive
marks prescribed by their religionand to shave their
beards. Emperor Joseph regarded this decree so
seriously that he allowed no one to violate it. The
Jews, in a petition dated April 22, 1783, expressed
their gratitude to the emperor for his favors, and, re-
minding him of his principle that religion should not
be interfered with, asked permission to wear beards.
The emperor granted the prayer of the petitioners,
but reaffirmed the other parts of the decree (April
499
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hungary
24, 1783). The Jews organized schools in various
places, at Presburg, Alt-Ofen (O-Buda), Waag-
Neustadt] (Vag-Ujhely), and Grosswardein (Nagy-
Varad). A decree was issued by the emperor (July
23, 1787) to the effect that every Jew should choose
a German surname; and a further edict (1789) or-
dered, to the consternation of the Jews, that they
should henceforth perform military service.
After the death of Joseph II. the royal free cities
showed a very hostile attitude toward the Jews.
The citizens of Pesth petitioned the municipal council
that after May 1, 1790, the Jews should no longer be
allowed to live in the city. The government inter-
fered; and the Jews were merely forbidden to en-
gage in peddling inthecity. Seven days previously
a decree of expulsion had been issued at Tyrnau,
ity with the royal decision, was read by Judge
Stephen Atzel in the session of Feb. 5:
“In order that the condition of the Jews may be regulated
pending such time as may elapse until their affairs and the privi-
leges of various royal free towns relating to them shall have
been determined bya commission tov report to the next ensuing
Diet, when his Majesty and the estates will decide on the
condition of the Jews, the estates have determined, with the ap-
proval of his Majesty, that the Jews within the boundaries of
Hungary and the countries belonging to it shall, in all the royal
free cities and in other localities (except the royal mining-
towns), remain under the same conditions in which they were
on Jan. 1, 1/90; and in case they have been expelled anywhere,
they shall be recalled.”
Thus came into force the famous law entitled “De
Judeis,” which forms the thirty-eighth article of the
laws of the Diet of 1790-91.
MEDAL OF JOSEPH II. COMMEMORATING GRANT OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY tO PROTESTANTS AND JEWS OF HUNGARY, 1786,
(From F, Szecheny, Catalogue of Hungarian Coins in the National Institute at Szegedin, 1207-10.)
May 1 being fixed as the date of the Jews’ depar-
ture. The Jews appealed to the government; and
in the following December the city authorities of
Tyrnau were informed that the Diet had confirmed
the former rights of the Jews, and that the latter
could not be expelled.
The Jews of Hungary handed a petition, in which
they boldly presented their claims to equality with
other citizens, to King Leopold IT. (1790-92) at
Vienna Nov. 29, 1790. He sent it the
Reception following day to the chancelleries of
ofthe Hungary and Moravia for their opin-
Petition. ions. The question was brought before
the estates of the country Dec. 2, and
the Diet drafted a bill showing that it intended
to protect the Jews. This decision created conster-
nation among the enemies of the latter. Tyrnau
addressed a further memorandum to the estates (Dec.
4) in which it demanded that the Diet should pro-
tect the city’s privileges. The Diet decided in
favor of the Jews, and its decision was laid before
the king.
The Jews, confidently anticipating the king’s de-
cision in their favor, organized a splendid celebra-
tion on Nov. 15, 1790, the day of his coronation; on
Jan. 10, 1791, the king approved the bill of the
Diet; and the following law, drafted iv conform-
The “ De Judzis” law was gratefully received by
the Jews; for it not only afforded them protection,
but also gave them the assurance that
Law ‘‘De_ their affairs would soon be regulated.
Judeis.” Still, although the Diet appointed on
Feb. 7, 1791, a commission to study
the question, the amelioration of the condition of the
Hungarian Jews was not effected till half a century
later, under Ferdinand V. (1835-48), during the ses-
sion of the Diet of 1839-40.
In consequence of the petition of the Jews of
Pesth, the mover of which was Dr. Philip Jacobo-
vics, superintendent of the Jewish hospital, the gen-
eral assembly of the county of Pesth drafted instruc-
tions for the delegates June 10, 1839, to the effect
that if the Jews would be willing to adopt the Mag-
yar language they should be given equal rights
with other Hungarian citizens.
Simon Dubraviczky, the delegate of the county of
Pesth, in the district session of March 9, 1840, ex-
pressed the wish of his constituents that the Jews
should enjoy all the rights of tax-paying citizens.
The delegates received the words of Dubraviczky
enthusiastically. A bill to this effect was passed
and laid before the magnates, who agreed with the
lower chamber, differing merely as to the way in
which the bill should be carried out. They advised
Hungary
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
500
deliberate procedure, deeming it to be sufficient if the
toleration-tax should be recalled, and the following
privileges be granted to the Jews:
Eman- namely, permission to rent the estates
cipation ofthe nobles, tosettleinany part of the
Debates. country, to be admitted into the gilds
and commercial associations, and to be
entitled to purchase not merely property hitherto
held in socage, but even the estates of citizens in
the royal free and privileged towns. The lower
chamber accepted this recommendation, and altered
its bill accordingly. But a royal decree, issued
May 10 in the interests of the royal free towns, not
only did not support the legislation of the estates in
favor of the Jews, but in some respects even made
the condition of the latter worse. The estates were
not satisfied with the decree, and again petitioned
the king to ratify their bill; but the towns inter-
fered. Thus the twenty-ninth article of the Law
of the Diet was drafted, which Kossuth rightly
called “the small result of big words.” This law
granted freedom of residence—except in the mining-
towns—to all native or naturalized Jews of good
repute; it permitted Jews to engage in manufactures
and to study for the professions; but it restricted
their right to own real estate to the cities, where
they already possessed this right.
Although this law did not satisfy the hopes of
the Jews, the favorable attitude of the Diet led
them to Magyarize themselves. From
now onward much attention was paid
to the teaching of Hungarian in the
schools; Moritz Bloch (Ballagt) trans-
lated the Pentateuch into Hungarian,
and Moritz Rosenthal! the Psalms and the Pirke Abot.
Various communities founded Hungarian reading-
circles; and the Hungarian dress and language were
more and more adopted. Many communities began
to use Hungarian on their seals and in their docu-
ments, and some liberal rabbis even began to preach
in that language.
The Dict of 1889-40 unanimously condemned
the toleration-tax, or the “ Kammertaxe,” as it had
been called since the time of Joseph Il. The king,
influenced by the Dict, was willing to remit the
tax if the Jews would pay the arrears that had ac-
cumulated for a number of years and amounted to
2,504,298 guiden. The Jews finally induced the
king to accept 1,200,000 gulden as a compromise.
In answer to a call issued by the community of
Pesth the Jewish represcntatives of Hungary assem-
bled in that city March 4-14, 1846,
Abolition Jonas Kunewalder presiding, and of-
of Tolera- fered to pay 1,200,000 gulden into the
tion-Tax. treasury within five years, to secure
the abrogation of the toleration-tax.
The offer was accepted; and. King Ferdinand V.
abrogated the “Kammertaxe” forever (June 24,
1846).
The unfavorable attitude of the Diet of 1843-
1844 toward emancipation induced the community
of Pesth and the commission for the apportionment
of the toleration-tax to petition the king for the ap-
pointment of a commission which should investigate
the oppressed condition of the Jews. The king re-
ferred the petition to the government, and the latter,
Magyari-
zation of
the Jews.
in turn, referred it to a commission, under Baron
Nikolaus Vay
At the sessions of the Diet subsequent to that
of 1889-40, as well as in various cities, a decided
antipathy —at times active and at
Appeal times merely passive —toward the
of Baron Jews became manifest. In sharp con-
E6étvés. trast to this attitude was that of Baron
Joseph Eétvés, who published in 1840
in the “Budapesti Szemle,” the most prominent
Hungarian review, a strong appeal for the eman-
cipation of the Jews. This cause also founda friend
in Count Charles Zay, the chief ecclesiastical in-
spector of the Hungarian Lutherans, who warmly
advocated Jewish interests in 1846.
Although the session of the Diet convened Nov.
7, 1847, was unfavorable to the Jews, the lat-
ter not only continued to cultivate the Hungarian
language, but were also willing to sacrifice their
lives and property in the hour of danger. During
the Revolution of 1848-49 they displayed their patri-
otism, even though attacked by the populace in sev-
eral places at the beginning of the uprising. On
March 19 the populace of Presburg, encouraged by
the antipathies of the citizens—who were aroused
by the fact that the Jews, leaving their ghetto
around the castle of Presburg, were settling in the
city itself—began hostilities that were continued
after some days, and were renewed more fiercely in
April. At this time the expulsion of the Jews from
Oedenburg, Fiinfkirchen (Pécs), Stuhlweissenburg,
and Steinamanger (Szombathely) was demanded;
in the last two cities they were attacked. At Stei-
hamanger the mob advanced upon the synagogue,
cut up the Torah scrolls, and threw them into a
well. Nor did the Jews of Pesth escape, while
those at Waag-Neustadtl especially suffered from
the brutality of the mob. Bitter words against the
Jews were also heard in the Diet. Some Jews ad-
vised emigration to America as a means of escape;
and a society was founded at Pesth, with a branch
at Presburg, for that purpose. A few left Hungary,
seeking a new home across the sea, but the majority
remained.
Jews entered the national guard as early as March,
1848; although they were excluded from certain
cities, they reentered as soon as the danger to the
country seemed greater than the hatred of the citi-
zens. At Pesth the Jewish national
Jews inthe guard formed a separate division.
Hungarian When the national guards of Papa
Army, . were mobilized against the Croatians,
1848. Leopold Léw, rabbiof Papa, joined the
Hungarian ranks, inspiring his com-
panions by his words of encouragement, Jews were
also to be found in the volunteer corps, and among
the honved and landsturm ; and they constituted one-
third of the volunteer division of Pesth that marched
along the Drave against the Croatians, being blessed
by Rabbi Schwab June 22, 1848. Many Jews
throughout the country joined the army to fight for
their fatherland; among them, Adolf Hiibsch, sub-
sequently rabbi at New York; Schiller-Szinessy,
afterward lecturer at the University of Cambridge;
and Ignatz Einhorn, who, under the name of “ Edu-
ard Horn,” subsequently became state secretary of
501
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hungary
the Hungarian Ministry of Commerce. The rebel-
lious Servians slew the Jews at Zenta who sympa-
thized with Hungary; among them, Rabbi Israel
. Ullmann and Jacob Miinz, son of Moses Miinz of
Alt-Ofen. The conduct of the Jewish soldiers in
the Hungarian army was highly commended by
Generals Klapka and Goérgey, Ignatz Einhorn es-
timated the number of Jewish soldiers who took
part in the Hungarian Revolution to be 20,000; but
this is most likely exaggerated, as Béla Bernstein
enumerates only 750 Combatants by name in his
work, “Az 1848-49-iki Magyar Szabadsdgharcz ¢s
a Zsidék ” (Budapest, 1898),
The Hungarian Jews served their country not only
with the sword, but also with funds. Communities
and individuals, hebra kaddishas and other Jewish
societics, freely contributed silver and gold, armor
and provisions, clothed and fed the soldiers, and
furnished lint and other medical supplies to the
Hungarian camps. Meanwhile they did not forget
to take steps to obtain their rightsas citizens. When
the Dict of 1847-48—in which, according to ancient
law, only the nobles and those having the rights of
nobles might take part—was dissol ved (April 11), and
the new Parliament—at which under the new laws
the delegates clected by the commons also appeared
—was convened at Pesth (July 2, 1848), the Jews
hopefully looked forward to the deliberations of the
new body.
Many Jews thought to pave the way for emanci-
pation by a radical reform of their religious life,
in agreement with opinions uttered in the Diets
and in the press, that the Jews should not receive
equal civic rights until they had re-
Reform and formed their religion. This reform
Eman- had been first demanded in the session
cipation. of 1839-40. From this session onward
the necessity of a reform of the Jewish
cult was generally advocated in the press and in
general assemblies, mostly in a spirit of friendliness.
Several counties instructed their representatives not
to vote for the emancipation of the Jews until they
desisted from practising the externals of their re-
ligion.
Louis Kossuth voiced the wish of nearly the whole
nation when he declared in the “Pesti Hirlap” in
1844 that it was necessary to convene a Jewish San-
hedrin for the purpose of instituting reforms among
the Jews. But the ideas of Reform found little
response among the Hungarian Jews at this time,
the community of Pesth being the most eager to
adopt it. Among its advocates in that city were
students at the university, teachers, physicians, and
some merchants, who organized a Reform society
similar to that which had been founded by rabbi Sam-
uel Holdheim at Berlin May 8, 1845. The organ of
the Pesth society was the German weekly “Der
Ungarische Israelit,” founded by I. Einhorn April
15, 1848, and which included in its program not only
the emancipation of the Jews and the reform of
Jewish worship, but also the encouragement of Hun-
garian sympathies and Hungarian culture among
the Jews. The founders, desiring to extend the in-
fluence of the Reform society, organized it as a cen-
tral society for the propagation of Reform ideas and
the direction of branch societies in the provinces.
But the appeals addressed to the communities out-
side of Pesth met with few responses, except at
Arad, Fiinfkirchen, Grosswardein, and Nagy-Becs-
kerek. The rabbi of the Reform society at Gross-
wardein was Dr, Leopold Rockenstein, who soon
exchanged the Bible for the sword, and rose to the
rank of lieutenant during the Revolution. Moses
Breck, of Nagy-Becskerek, the enthusiastic advo-
cate of Reform, also took part in the Revolution as
officer.
For the purpose of urging emancipation all the
Jews of Hungary sent delegates to a conference at
Pesth on July 5, 1848; there a commission consisting
of ten members was chosen, to which was entrusted
the task of agitating in behalf of emancipation; but
the commission was instructed to make no conces-
sions in regard to the Jewish faith, even if the Par-
liament should stipulate such as the condition on
which civic equality to the Jews would be granted.
The commission soon after addressed a petition to
the Parliament, but it proved ineffective.
The great indifference displayed by the Jews of
the provinces did not discourage the reformers at
Pesth. Aided by the counsel and en-
Reform couragement of Holdheim and the
Society Hungarian press, they called a general
Founded. assembly, July 8, 1848, at which the
founding of the Ungarischer Israe-
litischer Central-Reformverein was definitely deter-
mined upon. On Saturday, Sept. 238, the Reform
society informed the Pesth congregation that it
had chosen Ignatz EINHORN as its rabbi. Einhorn
was sent to Berlin inorder to investigate the institu-
tions and customs of the Reform society there; and
he entered upon his pastoral duties with the begin-
ning of the great festivals.
The object for which the society was fighting, the
emancipation of the Jews, was granted by the na-
tional assembly at Szeged on Saturday, the eve of
the Ninth of Ab (July 28, 1849). The bill, which
was quickly debated and immediately became a law,
realized all the hopes of the Reform party. The
Jews obtained full citizenship; and the Ministry of
the Interior was ordered to call a convention of
Jewish ministers and laymen for the purpose of
drafting a confession of faith, and of inducing the
Jews to organize their religious life in conformity
with the demands of the time, The bill also in-
cluded the clause referring to marriages between
Jews and Christians, which clause both Kossuth and
the Reform party advocated.
The Jews enjoyed their civic liberty just two
weeks. When the Hungarian army surrendered at
Vilagos to the Russian troops that had
Reaction. come to aid the Austrians in suppress-
ing the Hungarian struggle for liberty,
the Jews were severely punished for having taken
part in the uprising. Haynau, the new governor of
Hungary, imposed heavy war-taxes upon them, es-
pecially upon the communities of Pesth and Alt-
Ofen, which had already been heavily mulcted by
Prince Alfred Windischgritz, commander-in-chief
of the Austrian army, on his triumphant entry into
the Hungarian capital at the beginning of 1849.
The communities of Kecskemét, Nagy-K®8rés, Cze-
gléd, Irsa, Szeged, and Szabadka (Maria-Theresiopel)
Hungary
were punished with equal severity by Haynau, who
even laid hands upon the Jews individually, execu-
ting and imprisoning several; others sought refuge
in emigration. The several communities petitioned
to be relieved of the tax imposed upon them, The
ministry of war, however, decided that the commu-
nities of Pesth, Alt-Ofen, Kecskemét, Czegléd,
Nagy-Korés, and Irsa should pay this tax not in
kind, but in currency to the amount of 2,800,000
gulden. As the communities were unable to collect
this sum, they petitioned the government to remit
it, but the result was that not only the communities
in question but the communities of the entire coun-
try were ordered to share in raising the sum, on
the ground that most of the Jews of Hungary had
supported the Revolution. Only the communities of
Temesvar and Presburg were exempted from this
order, they having remained loyal to the existing
government. The military commission subsequently
added a clause to the effect that individuals or com-
munities might be exempted from the punishment,
if they could prove by documents or witnesses, be-
fore a commission to be appointed, that they had not
taken part in the Revolution, either by word or deed,
morally or materially. The Jews refused this means
of clearing themselves, and finally declared that
they were willing to redeem the tax by collecting a
certain sum for a national school-fund. Emperor
Francis Joseph therefore remitted the war-tax (Sept.
20, 1850), but ordered that the Jews of Hungary
without distinction should contribute toward a Jew-
ish school-fund of 1,000,000 gulden; and this sum
was raised by them within a few years.
On the restoration of peace the Austrian govern-
ment undertook to destroy all the marks of the Revo-
lution, in consequence of which the Reform society
of Pesth was dissolved (1852). Ignatz Einhorn emi-
grated; and his successor, David EINHORN, went to
America.
The emancipation of the Jews remained in abey-
ance while the house of Hapsburg held absolute
sway in Hungary; but it was again
Emancipa- taken in hand when the Austrian
tion troops were defeated in Italy in 1859.
Movement In that year the cabinet, with Emperor
Revived. Francis Joseph in the chair, decreed
that the status of the Jews should be
regulated in agreement with the times, but with due
regard for the conditions obtaining in the several lo-
calities and provinces. The question of emancipa-
tion was again loudly agitated when the emperor
convened the Diet April 2, 1861; but the early dis-
solution of that body prevented it from taking
action in the matter. .
The decade of absolutism in Hungary (1849-59)
was beneficial to the Jews in so far as it forced them
to establish schools, most of which were in charge of
trained teachers. The government organized with
the Jewish school-fund model schools at Satoralja-
Ujhely, Temesvar, Fiinfkirchen, and Pesth. In the
last-named city it founded in 1859 the Israelitish
State Teachers’ Seminary, the principals of which
have included Abraham Lederer, Heinrich DrutscH,
and Joseph BAn6éczi (1908). The graduates of this
institution have rendered valuable services in the
cause of patriotism and religious education.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
502
When the Parliament dissolved in 1861, the eman-
cipation of the Jews was deferred to the corona-
tion of Francis Joseph. On Dec. 22,
Emancipa- 1867, the question came before the
tion. lower house, and on the favorable
report of Coloman Tiszaand Sigmund
Bernath a bill in favor of emancipation was adopted,
which was passed by the upper house on the fol-
lowing day. This bill (article xvii. of the Laws of
the Parliament session of 1867) was received with
universal satisfaction not only by the Jews, butalso
by the whole country.
Even before the passage of the bill, Minister of
Public Worship Baron Joseph Eétvés, who, asstated
above, had written in 1840 an appeal for the eman-
cipation of the Jews, asked the community of Buda-
pest for information in regard to the wishes of the
Hungarian Jews. In reply they asked him to con-
sider the evils that had crept into the Jewish com-
munities, and advised the convening of a general
assembly of Jews to regulate these affairs, Eétvés
thereupon called an assembly of Jewish delegates at
Budapest (Feb., 1868), which drafted decrees relating
to the organization of the communities and schools.
These were subsequently discussed at the General
Jewish Congress convened by the king at Budapest
(Dec. 14, 1868-Feb. 23, 1869). The president of this
congress, which later sat in the county house of
Pesth, was the physician Ignatz Hirschler, president
of the congregation of Pesth in 1861, who was
highly esteemed for his activity, scholarship, and
courage; and the vice-presidents were Leopold Pop-
per and Moritz Wahrmann, the latter being the first
Jewish delegate in the Hungarian Parliament.
The discussions of the congress did not bear fruit
as was expected, but resulted in bitter dissensions
and a split in the Hungarian Jewry.
The rules and regulations drawn up
by the congress and approved by the
king were to be enforced by communal district com-
missioners; but these failed in their efforts in conse-
quence of the bitter opposition of many of the pro-
vincial communities. The Orthodox Shomere ha-Dat
society encouraged many communities to petition
the lower house to suspend these regulations, on the
ground that they were hostile to the ancient spirit
of Judaism. The Parliament decreed March 18,
1870, that in view of the principle of religious lib-
erty, the petitioners were not obliged to submit to
regulations of the congress which were contrary to
their convictions. In consequence of this decree the
Orthodox Jewish delegates drafted another set of
regulations, and appointed a commission to lay
them before the king, who immediately approved
them.
The secession of the Orthodox Jews was not the
only schism in Hungarian Judaism; there were com-
munities which would accept neither the decrees of
the congress nor those of the Orthodox party, but
adopted a neutral stand, clinging to their ancient
communal! statutes, and called themselves the “Sta-
tus Quo Ante” party. There were, furthermore,
communities of Hasidic tendencies, which in sty-
ling themselves Jewish Sephardic communities
either emphasized their Sephardic ritual or merely
wished to be distinguished from the Orthodox,
Divisions.
5038
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hungary
with whom they were otherwise identical. Of these
four factions of Hungarian Judaism, all of which,
however, retained the same fundamental religious
principles, two organized a central office at Pesth:
those that adopted the regulations of the congress
instituted a “central bureau”; while the Orthodox
party established an “executive commission.”
In the midst of these dissensions, which weakened
Judaism and impaired its prestige, the Theological
Seminary at Budapest (as the incorporated towns
of Buda and Pesth were now called) was opened
Oct. 4, 1877, in spite of the bitter opposition of the
Orthodox party. Its body of professors, some of
whom are among the foremost Jewish scholars, as
po
the Laws of the Parliament of 1895) reads: “The
Jewish religion is hereby declared to be a legally
recognized religion.”
Since their emancipation the Jews have taken an
active part in the political, industrial, scientific, and
artistic life of Hungary. In all these fields they
have achieved prominence. They havealso founded
great religious institutions. Their progress has not
been arrested even by anti-Semitism, which first de-
veloped in 1888 at the time of the Tisza-Eszlar accu-
sation of ritual murder.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Leopold Low, Die Schieksale und Bestre-
bungen der Juden in Ungarn, in Busch’s Jahrb. iv, 57-76,
v. 53-105; idem, Der Jilidische Kongress in Ungarn, Buda-
a x ) Pil
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MAP OF HUNGARY SHOWING CHIEP CENTERS OF JEWISH POPULATION, 1901.
well as the students who have received their train-
ing there, have justified the expectations of its
founders,
After the Hungarian Jews were finally emanci-
pated they endeavored to have their faith duly rec-
ognized as one of the legally acknowledged religions
of the country. Their demand, which had already
been voiced by the congress, and as early as 1848 by
Leopold Low, was frequently brought up by the
Jewish central bureau and continued to form a
standing subject of discussion in the Jewish press
and by public men. Qn April 26, 1898, Minister of
Public Worship Count Albin Csiky sent a bill ac-
ceding to the demand to the lower house, which in
the following year passed it almost unanimously.
The upper house, after twice rejecting it, finally
passed it May 16, 1896. The law (article xi. of
pest, 1871; idem, Ben Chananja, i-x.; M. Zipser, Die Juden
in Ungarn,in Orient, Lit. vii—-viii.; Ignaz Reich, Beth-Et
Ehrentempel Verdienter Ungarischer Israeliten, 2d ed.,
vols. i.-iii., tb. 1868; Josef Bergl, A Magyarorszagi Zsidok
Térténete, Kaposvar, 1879; Samuel Kohn, Héber Kutforrd-
sok és Adatok Magyarorszdg Toérténetéhez, ib. 1881; idem,
A Zsidék Torténete Maqyarorszdgon, vol. i., ib. 1884; idem,
A Szombatosok, ib. 1889; D. Kaufmann, Die Letzte Ver-
treibung der Juden aus Wien und Niederdsterreich, ib.
1889; idem, Samson Wertheimer, Vienna, 1888; idem, Die
Ersttirmung Ofens und Thre Vorgesch. Treves, 1895; Alex-
ander Biichler, Zsidé Letelepedések Eurdpdban a XVI. és
XVIT. Szazadban Fotekintettel Magyarorszagra, Buda-
pest, 1893; idem, A Zsidék Térténete Budapesten, ib. 1901 ;
Magyar Zsidé Szemle, i.-xx.; Julius Pauler, A Magyar
Nemzet Torténete az Arpdadhdzi Kirdlyok Alatt, vols. i-
ii., tb. 1893; Max Pollak, 4 Zsidék Térténete Sopronban,
ib. 1896; Béla Bernstein, Az 1848-49-iki Magyar Szabadsag-
harez ésa Zsidok, ib. 1898; Alexander Bichler, Ignatz Acsadi,
Max Pollak, Bernhard Mandl, Samuel Krausz, Béla Bernstein,
and Matthias Eisler, in Evkdnyv Kiadja az Izr. Magyar
Trodalmi Tarsulat, 1896, pp. 271-286; 1897, pp. 168-188 ; 1898,
pp. 117-124; 1900, pp. 145-166, 286-304; 1901, pp. 166-220, 221-
244; 1902, pp. 7-20, 184-207, 298-304. _
D, A. Bw.
Hunting
Huppah
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
504
HUNTING: Pursuit of wild game; the common
means of obtaining food before the pastoral or agri-
cultural stage of development. The Hebrews of the
Biblical age, however, secm to have passed this
stage, as the heroes of Biblical story (Abraham, Jacob,
Joseph, David) are invariably regarded as shepherds.
Hunting was at that time regarded as something
foreign. Nimrod was “a mighty hunter before the
Lord” (Gen. x. 9), and Esau, as a cunning hunter,
is contrasted with Jacob (Gen. xxxv.). Yet the
pursuit of wild game was frequent even after the
Israelites had settled in Canaan (comp. Lev. xvii. 18).
Provision was made for the undisturbed use of the
timber-lands by the beasts of the field in Sabbatical
years (Ex. xxiii. 11; Lev. xxv. 7). Many wild ani-
mats, like the hart, roebuck, chamois, and antclope,
were used for food and regarded as clean. A few
dangerous beasts of prey, like the bear and the lion,
had their habitats in Palestine, and means were taken
to destroy them, as shown in the well-known in-
stances of Samson and David. Pitfalls as well
as nets were employed to entrap the lion (Ezek. xix.
4, 8); bows and arrows (Gen. xxvii. 3) as well as
the snare (Ps. xci. 3) were used against game.
Nets were employed also to capture the gaze] (Isa.
xxxi. 1). Other traps were also utilized (Ps. xcili.
8; IT Sam. xxiii. 15). It is doubtful whether Prov.
xli. 27 refers to hunting as a sport or as a means of
livelihood, though the term “zedo” seems to imply
that part of the food of the Hebrews was derived
from the chase.
Hunting is not often mentioned after Bible times,
and Herod’s proficiency in this direction (Jose-
phus, “B. J.” i. 20, § 18) may have been a result of
his Hellenistic tendencies. Horses were used regu-
larly for the chase (¢dem, “ Ant.” xv. 7,§ 7; xvi. 10,8
3). Few references to hunting occur in the Talmud
(B. B. 75a; Hul. 60b; ‘Ab. Zarah 18b). Objection to
hunting seems to have arisen on the ground that it
was cruel, and therefore un-Jewish. “He who hunts
game with dogs as Gentiles do will not enjoy the
life to come,” said Meir of Rothenberg (Responsa,
No. 27). Instances occur of Jews enjoying the chase
in medieval times (comp. Zunz, “Z. G.” p. 178). In
Provence they were even skilled in falconry, and
followed the game on horseback (Berliner, “ Aus dem
Innern Leben,” p.1%7). An instance is on record in
which the Jews of Colchester, in 1267, joined some
Gentile neighbors in the pursuit of a doe (Jacobs,
“ Jewish Ideals,” p. 226). One objection to hunting
on the part of Jews was due to the fact that, owing
to the requirements of the dietary laws, they could
rarely enjoy the results of the hunt (8. Morpurgo,
Responsa, 66b).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages,
pp. 375-376.
J.
HUPFELD, HERMANN: German Christian
Biblical scholar; born at Marburg March 31, 1796;
died at Halle April 24, 1866. He was professor of
Old Testament exegesis at Marburg from 1825 to
1848, when he succeeded Gesenius at Halle (1843-
1866). In his “ Die Quellen der Genesis und die Art
Ihrer Zusammensetzung von Neuem Untersucht ”
(1853), Hupfeld, reviving a suggestion of Ilgen
(1798), with fresh proofs demonstrated the distinc-
tion between E and P, and the independence of J,
and showed that the combination of J, E, and P was
the work of aredactor. He thus refuted the then
current supplementary hypothesis, established the
documentary hypothesis, and permanently directed
Pentateuch analysis into its present channels. His
commentary on the Psalms (“ Die Psalmen Ueber-
setzt und Ausgelegt,” 1855-62; later eds., 1867-71
and 1888) is highly esteemed for its grammatical an-
alysis. He wrotealso “ De Rei Grammatice apud Ju-
dos Initiis Antiquissimisque Scriptoribus ” (Halle,
1846), on Jewish grammatical writers, and “Commen-
tatio de Primitiva et Vera Festorum apud Hebrivos
Ratione ” (Halle, 1851-64), on the Jewish festivals.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Riehm, D. Hermann Hupfeld, Lehens- und
Charakterbild eines Deutschen Professors, Halle, 1867; All-
gemeine Deutsche Biographie, xiii. 423-426.
T, K. H. C.
HUPPAH: A Hebrew word signifying a canopy
(Isa. iv. 5; Lev. R. xxv.; Eccl. R. vii. 11), espe-
cially the bridal canopy. Subsequently it became
also the term for a wedding. Originally the hup-
pah was the chamber in which the bride awaited the
groom for the marital union; hence the Biblical
statement that the sun comes out of his tabernacle
in the morning “as a bridegroom cometh out of his
chamber [huppah]” (Ps. xix. 6 [A. V. 5]; comp.
Joel ii. 16). The bridal procession—a festal af-
fair in which the whole town participated —cul-
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eg,
at, Sh nn
H 8 .Weasns
Huppah, or Wedding-Baldachin, Among Dutch Jews,
Seventeenth Century.
(From Leusden, ‘* Philologus Hebrao-Mixtus,” Etrecht, 1657.)
minated in the ushering into the huppah of the
bride and bridegroom, this act signifying the actual
surrender of the daughter by her father to the man
who was henceforth to be her lord as well as her
husband (Tobit viii. 4; Kid. 5a; Yer. Ket. iv. 7,
28d; Maimonides, “Yad,” Ishut, x. 1-2). Before
entering the huppah the bridegroom had to recite
the seven nuptial benedictions (Tobit viii. 5; Ket.
ing
uppah
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THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
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seven days of her” or “of the huppah” (Pesik.
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. XX11,
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(From Bedenschatz, “ Kirchliche Verfassung,’”’ 1748.)
Tan., Korah, ed. Buber, p.
°
?
HUPPAL, OR WEDDING-BALDACHIN, AMONG GERMAN JEWS, EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
happily consummated with reference to Deut
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th the performance of other
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dance
Huppah
Hurwitz
religious obligations, such as sitting in the sukkah
(Yer. Suk. ii. 53a). To it belonged, besides the
groomsmen (“sushbinim ”), the respective fathers of
the brideand bridegroom. The bridegroom’s father
was required to build and adorn the bridal canopy
for his son and to lead him into it (Sanh. 108a; Ber.
25b; Lev. R. xx.). At times the mother built the
huppah for her son (Sotah 12b). When a young
man reached his eighteenth year the father was
obliged to lead him into the huppah (Ab. v. 21). At
the circumcision ceremony the people blessed the
father, wishing him to be privileged also to lead his
son to the huppah (Yer. Ber. ix. 14a).
The huppah was a baldachin made of precious
purple cloth adorned with golden jewels of a moon-
like shape (Sotah 49b; Yer, Sotah ix. 24c); later it
was in the form of a bower, made of roses and myr-
tles (“ Tanya,” 90). For Adam’s wedding with Eve
God built, one above the other, ten (Kol Bo lv.
reads “seven ”) baldachins of precious stones (Pirke
R. El. xii.), the angels keeping watch outside and
dancing (comp. Gen. R. xviii.).
When in the course of time the character of the wed-
ding ceremony changed, the huppah changed with
it, and was transformed
Rornpeysy ww dip A into a portable canopy
\. 792 dyyp BE pradp/ resting on four poles
carried by four youths.
Underit the bridal couple
stood during the per-
formance of the wedding
ceremony by the rabbi
(Shulhan ‘Aruk, J.c.), the
real idea of the marital
union being expressed
symbolically by the
spreading of the tallit over them (Ibn Yarhi, “Ha-
Manhig,” pp. 109-110; Kol Bo lxxv.; Shulhan
‘Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer, lv. 1).
Even this essential custom, ex-
pressing the symbolic union,
has been discarded by many
Orthodox Jews, while the
Reform rabbis have given up
the huppah, regarding it as
an empty form void of mean-
ing. The portable canopy
came into use owing to the
fact that formerly weddings
took place in front of the
synagogue, as it was consid-
ered to be especially auspi-
cious to be married under the canopy of heaven
(Jacob Molin, “ Minhage Maharil,” ch. “ Minhag ha-
Nissu’im”; Mordecai Jafe, in “ Lebush,” Hilk. Kid-
dushin, p. 59). See MARRIAGE CEREMONIES.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Briick, Pharistiische Volkssitten und Ri-
tualien, pp. 28-39, Breslau, 1840; Liw, Lebevisalter, pp. 188-
190, Szegedin, 1875.
K.
HUR (1n).—1. Biblical Data: Man of Judah,
the grandfather of Bezaleel, the chief artificer of the
Tabernacle (Ex, xxxi. 2, xxxv. 80, xxxviii. 22). Ac-
cording to the fuller genealogy in I Chron. ii. 18-20,
he was the first-born son of Ephrath, the second wife
of Caleb ben Hezron. Besides Uri, Hur had three
other sons, founders of Kirjath-jearim, Beth-lehem,
Representation of a Huppah.
(From a sampler.)
Representation of a
Huppah.
(From a sampler.)
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
506
and Beth-gader (I Chron. ii. 50, 51). In I Chron.
iv. 4, however, Hur is called the father of Beth-
lehem. He is first mentioned with Moses and Aaron
on the occasion of the battle with Amalek at Rephi-—
dim, when he aided Aaron to uphold the hands of
Moses (Ex, xvii. 10, 12); he is again mentioned as
having, with Aaron, been left in charge of the peo-
ple while Moses ascended Mount Sinai (Ex. xxiv. 14).
According to Josephus (“ Ant.” iii, 2, § 4), Hur was
the husband of Miriam; in the Targum to I Chron.
ii. 19, iv. 4, Hur’s mother, Ephrath, is identified
with Miriam. There is a tendency among modern
critics to regard the Hur associated with Moses as
another than Hur, grandfather of Bezaleel.
E, G. H. M. SEL.
—In Rabbinical Literature: Hur was the son
of Caleb, and when Moses was about to be taken by
God, he appointed his nephew Hur, with Aaron, as
leader of the people. While Moses tarried on the
mountain, the people came to Aaron and Hur with
the request to make them a god in the place of
Moses (Ex. xxxii. 1). Then Hur, remembering his
lineage and high position, rose up and severely re-
proved the people for their godless intentions; but
they, aroused to anger, fell upon him and slew him.
The sight of his lifeless body induced Aaron to com-
ply with the wishes of the people, as he preferred to
commit a sin himself rather than see the people
burdened with the crime of a second murder (Pirke
Rt. EL xliii.; Ex. R. xli. 7; Lev. R. x. 3; Num. R.
Xv. 21; Tan., ed. Buber, ii. 118; Sanh. 7a; comp.
also Ephraem Syrus to Ex, xxxii. 1). Asa reward
for Hur’s martyrdom, his son, Bezaleel, was the
builder of the Tabernacle; and one of his descend-
ants was Solomon, who had the Temple built (Ex.
R. xlviii. 5; comp. Sotah 11b).
J. L. G.
2. The fourth of the five kings of Midian who
were slain with Balaam (Num, xxxi. 8), and who are
described in Josh. xiii. 21 as “princes of Midian”
and “dukes of Sihon.” $. Father of the Rephaiah
whoruled “thehalf part of Jerusalem,” and assisted
Nehemiah in the repair of the walls (Neh. iii. 9).
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HUREWITZ, ISRAEL (Z. LIBIN): Russian-
American playwright; born Dec., 1872, at Gorki,
government of Moghilef. Between 1885 and 1888 he
received some secular tuition from his brother, Hay-
yim Dob Hurwitz, the Hebrew economist and jour-
nalist. After working at atrade for some years, he
emigrated to London (1892), and nine months later
went to the United States. There he made his way,
step by step, to a well-earned reputation as a writer.
In 1902 his “ Yidishe Sketches” appeared, under the
pseudonym “Z. Libin,” depicting with accuracy and
vividness many phases of Russian-Jewish life in
New York. In 1898 he successfully essayed wri-
ting plays for the Judwo-German stage of New
York. Since then he has been writing regularly
and successfully for that stage. He has produced:
“Dovid und Zain Tochter ” (1899); “ Die Gebrochene
Schwue” (1900); “Die Idishe Medea” (1901); and
“Gebrochene Hertzer ” (1908).
H. R. M. Gar.
HURWITZ. See Horwitz.
507
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Auppah
Hurwitz
HURWITZ, ADOLF: German mathematician ;
born March 26, 1859, at Hildesheim; studied at
Munich, Berlin, and Leipsic. In 1882 he became
privat-docent at Gottingen; in 1884 he was ap-
pointed assistant professor at the University of
Konigsberg; in 1892, professor at the Polytechnicum
of Zurich. He hascontributed articles to the mathe-
matical periodicals, especially to the “ Mathematische
Annalen,” “Acta Mathematica,” and the “ Nach-
richten” of the Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Gottingen, of which society he was elected a corre-
sponding member in 1892. S.
HURWITZ, HAYYIM DOB: Russian econ-
omist and journalist; born about 1864 at Gorki,
government of Moghilef. His father, a teacher of
religion, destined him for a rabbinical career, but
the boy’s inclination led him to modern studies.
After attending the local public schools, Hurwitz
drifted, about 1880, to Berlin and Vienna, where
he studied languages and general philosophy. In
1898 he began to attract attention by his occasional
sketches of Jewish life in Russia, in various Hebrew
periodicals, especially in “ Ha-Shiloah” (1898-99).
In 1900 appeared his “Ha-Mamon” (Warsaw), in
two volumes, a profound exposition, in clear He-
brew, of the development and extension of the ex-
isting economic system. During the year 1902 he
was engaged as assistant editor of the “ Volksblatt,”
a Judzo-German journal published at Warsaw, and
at the beginning of 1903 became subeditor of “Der
Fraind,” a Yiddish daily published at St. Peters-
burg.
H. R. M. Gar.
HURWITZ, HAYYIM BEN JOSHUA
MOSES ABRAHAM HA-LEVI: Russian rabbi
in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. He was
the author of: “Sefer Mayim Hayyim,” explanations
of the Pentateuch and the five Megillot (Dyhern-
furth, 1690); “Sefer Mayim Hayyim Sheni,” supple-
ment to the above-mentioned work (26. 1708); “Sefer
Nahalat Hayyim,” novelle on several Talmudical
treatises, with an index (Wilmersdorf, 1718; 2d
ed., without index, 1722); “Sefer Nahalat Hayyim
Sheni,” commentaries on the Pentateuch (Wilmers-
dorf, 1714).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. i., iii., No. 612; Nepi-Ghi-
rondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 102; First, Bibl. Jud. i.
409; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 827; Benjacob, Ozar ha-
Sefarim, pp. 324, 396; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, i. 347.
H, R. M. Sc.
HURWITZ, HYMAN: Professor of Hebrew
and author; born 1770; died 1844, He was a native
of Poland, in which country he acquired great pro-
ficiency in Biblical and Talmudical lore. He then
went to England, and, making rapid progress with
the English language, was soon employed as teacher
in a Christian academy, where he studied science
and the classics. He gained many friends, who in
1799 assisted him in establishing a seminary for
Jewish youth, which was called “The Highgate
Academy.” In 1806 he produced an “ Introduction
to Hebrew Grammar,” in which his critical and in-
timate knowledge of Hebrew is shown to advan-
tage. This was followed by a Hebrew grammar in
two parts, a third edition of which appeared in 1841.
Later he published “Hebrew Tales,” a selection
from the writings of the ancient sages. This work
was translated into various languages; and a later
edition was produced at Edinburgh in 1863, nearly
twenty years after his death. In 1821 he published
“Vindicia Hebraica,” a work in which he blended
much erudition and elegance of style.
Hurwitz retired from active teaching in 1821. A
few years afterward he was elected to the chair of
Hebrew in University College, London.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Voice of Jacob, Aug. 2, 1844.
J. G. L.
HURWITZ, JUDAH BEN MORDECAI
HA-LEVI: Russian physician and author; born
at Wilna in the first half of the eighteenth century ;
died at Grodno Nov. 12, 179%. He graduated in
medicine from the University of Padua, traveled ex-_
tensively through Europe, and settled in Wilna,
where he was appointed physician to the Jewish
community. Later he practised medicine at Pone-
deli, Zhagory, and Mitau, and finally settled in
Grodno. In 1765 he traveled through Germany and
to Amsterdam.
He wrote: “Sefer ‘Ammude Bet Yehudah,” on
moral philosophy (Amsverdam, 1765: this work was
approved by Moses Mendelssohn and Hertz Wessely ;
appended to it is “Gan ‘Eden ha-Ma’amin,” on the
thirteen articles of belief by Maimonides); “ Zel ha-
Ma‘alot,” 360 ethical sentences (K6nigsberg, 1764;
2d ed., Dubno, 1796); “Sefer Kerem ‘En Gedi,” com-
mentary on“ Had Gadya” (KG6nigsberg, 1764; 2d ed.,
Dubno, 1796); “Sefer Mahberet Hayye ha-Nefesh,”
on the immortality of the soul (Poretchye, 1786);
“Sefer Megillat Sedarim,” on the differences bet ween
cabalists, Talmudists, and philosophers (Prague,
1798); “Hekal ‘Oneg,” moral sentences (Grodno,
1797). He also published a Hebrew poem on the
occasion of the opening of the government gymna-
sium in Mitau (1775). The library of this gymna-
sium preserves a number of manuscript Hebrew
poems of his, chiefly translations of Lichtwer’s
fables and of other German poems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Rosenthal, in Ha-Meliz, 1862, P: 207; Fuenn,
Keneset Yisrael, p. 894; Delitzsch, Zur Gesch. der Jildischen
Poesie, pp. 85, 114, Leipsic, 1836; Recke and Napierski, Allg.
Schriftsteler-Lexikon, ete., iii. 538, Mitau, 1831. IL R
HURWITZ, LAZAR LIPMAN: Russian
scholar; born 1815; died at Wilna Oct. 21, 1882.
He acted for many years as private instructor at
Wilna, and then became teacher in a public school
at Riga. Later he was appointed by the govern-
ment head master in the rabbinical school of Wilna.
With 8. J. Fuenn, Hurwitz issued a periodical
entitled “ Pirhe Zafon,” devoted to Jewish history,
literature, and exegesis; the first number appeared
in 1841, the second in 1844. He was the author of
the following works: “ Hakirot ‘al Sefer L[yyob,”
studies on Job, published in Jost’s “Ziyyon,” ii.
(1842); “Korot Toledot Meleket ha-Shir weha-Meli-
zah,” history of ancient Jewish poetry, published in
“Pirhe Zafon.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 151.
H. R. I. Br.
HURWITZ, MOSES B. ISAAC HA-LEVI:
Russian preacher; native of Krozh, government of
Kovno, Russia; died in Wilna Oct. 25, 1820. He
was on intimate terms with Elijah of Wilna, and
Hurwitz
Husband
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
508
was the teacher of his sons. He became “ maggid,”
or preacher, of Wilna, and occupied that position
for many years, until he lost his voice. He was
succeeded by R, Ezekiel Feiwel of Dretchin (about
1811). His son Hayyim was the father of Lazar
Lipman Hurwitz. The work entitled “ Mo‘ade ha-
Shem” (Wilna, 1802), on the Jewish calendar, is
supposed to be by Hurwitz, but the evidence for the
supposition is very slight.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Kiryah Ne’emanah, pp. 247, 288,
H.R, P. Wt.
HURWITZ, PHINEHAS ELIJAH: He-
brew writer; born in Wilna; died in Cracow in
1812. While a youth he went to Buchach, a ham-
let in Galicia, where he began his “Sefer ha-Berit,”
which afterward became widely known. Nachman
Reiss, a wealthy philanthropist in Lemberg, enabled
him to complete his work, which he published in
Briinn, Moravia, in 1797. Although it appeared
anonymously, its success was remarkable; it found
its way to the remotest parts of Europe, and met a
ready sale even in Egypt, Algeria, and Morocco.
A Christian publisher, tempted by its popularity,
took advantage of its anonymity to issue an unau-
thorized and garbled edition of the work in Prague
(1799). This prompted Hurwitz to issue a new edi-
tion at Zolkiev (1807), with supplementary notes
and textual alterations, which was republished with-
out change in 1811 by the publishing firm of Romm
in Wilna, and about sixty years later in Warsaw.
Its popularity is due to the fact that it represents
a singular combination of material, appealing to
readers of varying characters and opinions. It is
an encyclopedic work in two parts: the first part.
contains a series of tracts on natural science and
philosophy, chemistry, anatomy, physics, cosmogra-
phy, and metaphysics; the second part, entitled
“Dibre Emet,” is a conglomeration of mysticism,
theology, and ethics, and discusses obscure cabalistic
problems and the mysteries of divine revelation, etc.
Hurwitz left other works in manuscript.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Voskhod, Oct., 1888.
M. R.
HUSAIN, IMMANUEL BEN MENAHEM
SEFARDI IBN (jpn ‘}): Talmudist of the six-
teenth century ; author of “ Kelale ha-Gemara,” rules
of the Gemara, published in the collection of Abra-
ham ibn ‘Akra (“ Sefer me-Harare Nemerim,” Venice,
1599). This small work is divided into four chapters:
the first two are on the acquisition of the right meth-
od of Talmudical study and on halakic phraseology
and technical terms; the last two chapters deal with
the study of the Talmudical commentaries, especially
that of Rashi. The author advises the pupil not
to consult the commentaries on any Talmudic pas-
sage until he thoroughly understands the passage in
question. He quotes the “Sefer Keritut ” of Simson
of Chinon and the “ Halikot ‘Olam” of Joshua ha-
Levi of Toledo (15th cent.). As regards the spell-
ing of the name fpn see Steinschneider in “J. Q.
R.” x. 539.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 282 :
Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 665, 1058 ; Benjacob, Ozar ha-
Sefarim.
s, M. Sc.
HUSBAND AND WIFE.—Legal Relations:
Asa punishment for her initiative in the first sin, the
wife is to be subjected to her husband, and he is to
rule over her (Gen. iil. 16). The husband is her
owner (“ba‘al”); and she is regarded as his posses-
sion (comp. Ex. xx. 17). This was probably the
case in early times, although women were frequently
consulted in matters of importance, and occasionally
exerted an influence in national affairs (see WOMAN).
Here, as elsewhere, popular sentiment and practise
soon took precedence over legal prescriptions; and
in later codes the position of the Jewish wife be-
came well defined, and was often superior to that of
the women of many other nations.
Nowhere in the Bible are the duties of the hus-
band to the wife explicitly stated. Incidentally,
three obligations that the husband owes to his wife
are mentioned in Ex. xxi. 10 as being self-under-
stood; namely, the provision of food and of raiment,
and cohabitation. Upon this casual reference the
Rabbis base an elaborate system of duties and of
rights which accrue to the husband in relation to
his wife. Besides the three obligations mentioned
above, the rabbinic law imposes on the husband
four, and also restricts his privilegestofour. These
duties are incumbent upon him, whether they are
stipulated at the time of marriage or not.
The additional duties are: (1) To deliver a “ ketu-
bah ” (marriage contract) providing for the settlement
upon the wife, in the case of his death or of divorce,
of 200 zuz, if she is a virgin at marriage, or of 100, if
she is not. Thisdocument includes three conditions
(ADINS SIN) which provide for the sustenance of
the wife and the children after the husband’s death.
These are: (a) that the wife shall obtain her support
from her deceased husband’s estate as long as she
remains in his house; (6) that their daughters shall
be supported from the estate until they reach the age
of maturity or until they become betrothed; (c) that
the sons shall inherit their mother’s ketubah over
and above their portion in the estate with the chil-
dren of other wives. (2) To provide medical attend-
ance and care for her during sickness. (3) To pay her
ransom if she be taken captive. (4) To provide suit-
able burial for her (Ket. 46b ez seg.; Maimonides,
“Yad,” Ishut, xii. 2; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Eben ha-
‘Ezer, 69).
The husband must allow for the support of his
wife as much as comports with his dignity and so-
cial standing. “She ascends with
Support of him, but does not descend,” is the Tal-
Wife. mudic principle; that is to say, she is
entitled to all the advantages of his
station in life without losing any of those which she
enjoyed before marriage (Ket. 48a, 61a). The poor-
est man must furnish his wife with bread for at least
two meals a day; with sufficient oil for eating and
for lighting purposes, and wood for cooking; with
fruit, vegetables, and wine where it is customary for
women to drink it. On the Sabbath-day he must
furnish her with three meals consisting of fish and
meat; and he must give her a silver coin (“ma‘ah ”)
every week for pocKket-money. If hecan not afford
to give hereven that much, heis, according to some,
compelled to grant hera bill of divorce (see “ Hatam
Sofer” on Eben ha-‘Ezer, 131, 132). Others think
509
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hurwitz
Husband
that he should hire himself out as a day-laborer to
provide for his wife. If he refuses to support her,
the court compels him to do so (Ket. 77a).
The wife is to receive her board at her husband’s
table; and in the opinion of most authorities he
can not send her away from his table against her
will, even if he gives her sufficient money for all her
requirements. She can, however, leave his house,
either if he lives in a disreputable neighborhood or
if he maltreats her; and in such cases he is obliged
to support her wherever she takes up herabode. If
the husband leaves her for some time, the court al-
lows her support from his property; and even if she
sells his property for her support without consult-
ing the authorities, the sale is valid. If she borrows
money for her actual support during his absence,
the husband has to pay the debt on his return; but
if some one of his own free will gives her money for
her support, he “puts his money on the horns of a
deer,” z.e., he can not collect it from the husband.
The same law applies if the husband becomes insane
(“ Yad,” Zc. xii. 10-22; Eben ha-‘Ezer, 70).
The husband’s duty to furnish raiment to his
wife is also regulated by his station and by local
custom. He is obliged to provide
Clothing a home, which must be suitably fur-
and nished in accordance with his position
Lodging. and with custom. Besides furnishing
her with the proper garments suited
to the seasons of the year, and with new shoes for
each holy day, he must also provide her with bed-
ding and with kitchen utensils. She must also be
supplied with ornaments and perfumes, if such is
the custom. If he is unable to provide his wife
with a suitable outfit, he is compelled to divorce her
(Ket. 64b; “ Yad,” Le. xiii. 1~11; Eben ha-‘Ezer, 78).
On the duty of the wife to follow her husband when
he wishes to change his abode see DomIcIL,
The duty of cohabitation is regulated by the
Rabbis in accordance with the occupation in which
the husband is engaged (Ket. 61b). Continued re-
fusal of cohabitation constitutes a cause for divorce
(“ Yad,” J.c. xiv. 1-16; Eben ha-‘Ezer, 76, 77; see
KETUBAH),
The husband must defray all medical expenses in
case of his wife’s illness. If she suffers from a
disease which may be prolonged for many years,
although legally he may pay her the amount fixed
in her ketubah and give her a bill of divorce, such
action is regarded as inhuman, and he is urged to
provide all that is necessary for her cure (Ket. 51a;
“Yad,” Uc. xiv. 17; “Maggid Mishneh,” ad loc.;
Eben ha-‘Ezer, 79; “Be’er Heteb,” § 5; comp.
“Pithe Teshubah ” to 78, 1, concerning a case where
sickness follows a fault of her own).
The husband is obliged to ransom his wife from
captivity, even when the expense is far above the
amount promised her in the marriage
settlement. Ordinarily, it is the law
not to pay for captives more than their
market value as slaves, so as not to encourage pirates
and officials in their nefarious practise (Git. 45a);
but according to some, in the case of the capture of
his wife the husband must, if necessary, expend all
his belongings for her ransom. The priest whose
wife has been taken captive, although he can not
Ransom.
afterward live with her (see Priest), is still obliged
to pay her ransom, to restore her to her father’s
house, and to pay her the amount of her ketubah.
If they were both taken captive, the court may sell
part of his property and ransom her first, even
though he protests (Ket. 51a; “Yad,” d.c. xiv. 18-
22; Eben ha-‘Ezer, 78; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh
De‘ah, 252, 10).
If she die before him, he must provide for her
burial according to the custom of the Jand and ac-
cording to his position. He must hire mourners, if
such be the custom, erect a tombstone, and make
such other provisions as custom may demand. If
he refuse to do so, or if he be absent, the court
may sell part of his property to defray the burial ex-
penses (Ket, 46a; “ Yad,” U.c. xiv. 28, 24; Eben ha-
‘Ezer, 89).
The rights of the husband are as follows: He is en-
titled (1) to all the wife’s earnings, (2) to all her chance
gains, and (3) to the usufruct of her property, and
(4) he becomes her sole heir at her death (this last
principle, however, was modified in the Middle Ages
in various ways).
The husband’s right to his wife’s earnings is in
consideration of his duty to support her; hence if
she wishes to support herself, she need not deliver
her earnings to him. Yct he can not compel her to
live on her earnings. The wife has to do all the
housework, such as baking, cooking,
Married and washing, as well as nurse her chil-
Women’s dren. If she has twins, the husband
Duties. has to provide a nurse for one, while
she nurses the other (Ket. 59b). If she
brought him a large dowry, she need not do any
work in the house, except such as tends to the ease
and comfort of her husband and as is of an affection-
ate nature, viz., prepare his bed, serve at the
table, and so forth. At all times, however, she
must do something; for “idleness leads to immoral-
ity.” Raising animals or playing games is not re-
garded as an occupation (Ket. 52b, 61b; “Yad,” de.
xxi.; Eben ha-‘Ezer, 80).
For the husband’s right in the usufruct of his
wife’s property and for his right of inheritance see
Dowry and INHERITANCE.
Besides these positive legal enactments, Talmudic
literature abounds with maxims and precepts re-
garding the attitude of the husband toward his
wife. He shall love heras himself and honor her
more than himself (Sanh. 76b; Yeb. 62b). “If thy
wife is small, bend down and whisper into her ear,”
was @ cominon saying among the Rabbis; meaning
that one should take counsel with his wife in all
worldly matters (B. M. 59b; comp. Midr. Lekah
Tob to Num. xvi.). He shall not afflict her; for
God counts her tears. One who honors his wife
will be rewarded with wealth (B. M. 59b). The
husband shall not be imperious in his household
(Git. 6b). God’s presence dwells in a pure and lov-
ing home (Sotah17%a). The altarsheds tears for him
who divorces his first wife; and he is hated before
God (Git. 90b). He who sees his wife die before
him has, as it were, seen the destruction of the Tem-
ple: his world is darkened; his step is slow; his
mind is heavy. The wife dies in the husband’s
death; he in hers (Sanh. 22a).
Husbandry
Hugpa
The rights of the wife are implied in the husband’s
duties, while her duties are mainly comprised in his
rights. She should not go out too much (Gen. R.
Ixv. 2), and should be modest even if alone with her
husband (Shab. 140b). The greatest praise that can
be said of a woman is that she fulfils the wishes of
her husband (Ned. 66b). See also MARRIAGE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hastings, Dict. Bible, s.v. Marriage; Mayer,
Die Rechte der Israeliten, Athener und Rimer, ii., $8 229,
230, Leipsic, 1866; Mielziner, The Jewish Law of Marriage
and Divorce, ch. xiii., Cincinnati, 1884; Buchholz, Die Fa-
mitie, pp. 116-131, Breslau, 1867; Duschak, Das Mosaisch-Tal-
mudische Eherecht, section fii., Vienna, 1864; Weill, La
Femme Juive, part ii. qh. vi.-ix., Paris, 1874; Suwalski,
Hayye ha-Yehudi, ch. liii.-lv., Warsaw, 1893.
EK. C. J. H. G.
HUSBANDRY. See AGrartan Laws; LAnp-
LORD AND TENANT; SABBATICAL YEAR.
HUSHATLI (yn): Companion of David, gener-
ally called the ARrcHITE. When David was pur-
sued by Absalom he sent Hushai to frustrate Absa-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
510
of president of the bet ha-midrash (Neubauer, “ M.
J.C.” i. 67 et seg.)—probably after the death of Jacob
ben Nissim. But an autograph letter frony Hushiel
(discovered and published by 8S. Schechter, “J. Q. R.”
xi. 643) addressed to Shemariah ben Elhanan, chief
rabbi of Cairo (supposed by Ibn Daud to have been
captured with Hushiel), tends to show that Hushiel
merely went to visit his friends in Mohammedan
countries, and was retained by the community of
Kairwan.
There is considerable difference of opinion in re-
gard to Hushiel’s nativity. Griitz, Harkavy, and
D. Kaufmann claim that he, with the other three
scholars, came from Babylonia; while Rapoport,
Weiss, and Isaac Halévy give Italy as his birth-
place. This latter opinion is now confirmed by the
wording of the above-mentioned letter, in which
Hushiel speaks of having come from the country
of the “‘arelim,” meaning “Christian” countries.
PORTION OF AUTOGRAPH LETTER OF HUSHIEL BEN ELHANAN,
(From the Cairo Genizah by courtesy of Prof. S. Schechter.)
lom’s plans. Hushai pretended adherence to the
cause of Absalom, and his advice, preferred to that
of Ahithophel, caused the ruin of Absalom (II Sam.
xv. 32-34, xvi. 16-18 et seg.). The Hushai whose
son was one of Solomon’s commissaries (I Kings iv.
16) is to be identified with David’s companion.
E. G. H. M. SEL.
HUSHIEL BEN ELHANAN: President of
the bet ha-midrash at Kairwan toward the end of
the tenth century. He was born probably in Italy.
According to Abraham ibn Daud, he was one of the
four scholars who were captured by Ibn Rumabis,
an Arab admiral, while voyaging from Bari to Se-
baste to collect money “for the dowries of poor
brides.” Hushiel was sold as a slave in North
Africa, and on being ransomed went to Kairwan,
an ancient seat of Talmudical scholarship (Harkavy,
“Teshubot ha-Ge’onim,” Nos. 199, 210). There his
Talmudical knowledge gained for him the position
According to another but unreliable source (Mena-
hem Meiri’s “Bet ha-Behirah”; see Neubauer in
“M. J. C.” ii. 225), he came from Spain. Two of
Hushiel’s pupils were his son Hanancel and Nissim
ben Jacob (see Weiss, “ Dor,” iv. 265, note 1). Ac-
cording to the genizah letter, Hushiel seems to have
had another son, named Elhanan, if “ Elhanan ” and
“Hanancel” are not identical.
It is not known whether Hushiel wrote any book;
but a few of his sayings have been transmitted by
his pupils. Thus Nissim ben Jacob reports in his
“Mafteah” (p. 18) that the story which the Talmud,
without giving any particulars, mentions as having
been related by R. Papa (Ber. 8b), was transmitted
to him (Nissim) in full by Hushiel. Hushiel’s son ~
Hananeel quotes explanations in his father’s name
(see “‘Aruk,” 8,0. 93; Isaac ibn Ghayyat, “ Hilkot
Lulab,” ed. Bamberger, p. 113).
Hushiel was certainly one of the greatest, if not the
greatest, of the Talmudical teachers of the tenth cen-
§11
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Husbandry
Huzpa
tury; and Samuel ha-Nagid, recognizing his im-
portance and value, ordered that memorial services
in his honor should be celebrated in Granada, Lu-
cena, and Cordova. Samuel aiso wrote a letter of
condolence to Hushiel’s son Hananeel. This has been
published by Firkovich in “ Ha-Karmel,” viii. (“ Ha-
Sharon,” No. 31, p. 245), and in Berliner’s “ Maga-
zin,” v. 70 et seg. (“Ozar Tob,” p. 64), the German
translation being by David Kaufmann. The letter,
ending with a Hebrew poem in the “Hazaj ” meter,
and written ina very difficult style, praises Hushiel’s
knowledge and virtue, and compliments Hananeel.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Berliner, in Migdal Hananel, pp. v. et seq.,
xXvili. et seq., Leipsic, 1816; Gratz, Gesch. v. 288, 289, note 21;
Rabinowitz’s Hebrew translation of Gratz, vol. iti., Index;
Halberstam, in Berliner’s Magazin, iti. 171; Isaac Halévy,
Dorot ha-Rishonin, iii., ch. 35 et seg.; Neubauer, M. J. C. i.
0, 68, 733 ii. 225, 234; Rapoport, in Bikkure ha-Ittim, xii.
11 et seq.; Schechter, in J. Q. R. xi. 643 et seg.: Weiss, Dor,
iv. 265; Winter and Wiinsche, Die Jiidische Litteratur, ii.
357; Zunz, Ritus, p. 190.
8. 8. M. Sc.
HUTH, GEORG: German Orientalist and ex-
plorer; born Feb. 25, 1867, at Krotoschin, Prussia.
In 1885 he entered the University of Berlin, and he
graduated at the University of Leipsic (Ph.D.) in
1889. In 1891 he established himself at Berlin Univer-
sity as lecturer in Central Asiatic languages and in
Buddhism. In 1897 he undertook a journey to Siberia
for the purpose of studying Tungusic, receiving a
subvention from the Imperial Academy of Sciences
of St. Petersburg. He went to eastern Turkestan
with the Turfan expedition of the Koénigliches Mu-
seum fiir Vélkerkunde of Berlin, in 1902, and spent
the following year in western Turkestan studying
Turkish dialects and folk-lore. He has published,
among Others, the following works: “Die Zeit des
Kalidasa ” (Berlin, 1889); “The Chandoratnakara of
Ratnikaracanti” (Sanskrit text with Tibetan transl.),
a work on Sanskrit prosody (26. 1890); “Gesch. des
Buddhismus in der Mongolei: aus dem Tibetischen
des ’Jigs-med-nam-mkha ” (vol. i., Tibetan text; vol.
ii., German transl., Strasburg, 1892-96); “Die In-
schriften von Tsaghan Baising,” Tibet-Mongolian
text with linguistic and historical notes, printed at
the expense of the Deutsche Morgenlindische Ge-
sellschaft (Leipsic, 1894); “ Die Tungusische Volks-
litteratur und Ihre Ethnologische Ausbeute,” in
the Bulletin of the St. Petersburg Academy of
Sciences (1901). S.
HUTTEN, ULRICH VON: Poct and satirist;
born in the castle of Steckelberg, near Fulda, April 21,
1488 ; died on the Isle of Ufnau, Lake Zurich, Aug. 29,
1523. As a humanist and one of the strongest cham-
pions of the Reformation wielding a sharp and vig-
orous pen in defense of religious freedom, he sided
with Reuchlin in his literary feud with Pfefferkorn,
Hoogstraten, and the Dominicans of Cologne. When
Reuchlin’s adversaries, accusing him of heresy and
partiality toward the Jews, failed in their efforts to
have his “ Augenspiegel,” together with the Talmud
and other Jewish books, burned by decree of the
theological faculty of Mayence, Hutten hailed Reuch-
lin’s victory in a satirical poem. This struggle of
Reuchlin against obscurantism and intolerance in-
spired Hutten to undertake the task of freeing Ger-
many from the yoke of ecclesiastical tyranny and of
opening the way for freedom of faith and learning.
In a Latin satire he castigated the corruption and
venality at the court of Pope Leo X., before whom
Reuchlin and Hoogstraten were summoned to ap-
pear. When the accusation against Reuchlin was
pending before the council at Rome, and the long
delay of the decision had brought him to despair, Hut-
ten, Who then happened to be in Italy, sent him
words of encouragement and inspired him with the
hope of aspeedy success. In “Exclamatio in Scelera-
tissimum Joannem Pfefferkorn ” (a poem) he depicted
the misdeeds and crimes for which a baptized Jew
named “Pfaff Rapp” was executed at Halle. As
it was thought that “ Pfefferkorn ” was his real name,
Hutten took occasion to satirize this base persecutor
of his former brethren.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon ;
Gesch. ix. 147 et seq., 154, 157 et seq., 162, 176 et seg.
D S. Man.
HUYAYY IBN AKHTAB: Chief of the Baxu
AL-NADIR; executed at Medina March, 627. Hu-
yayy was a courageous warrior and the most invet-
erate enemy of Mohammed, so that Ibn Hisham,
Mohammed’s biographer, calls him “the enemy of
Allah.” He was also a ‘earned man, and on one oc-
casion had a discussion with Mohammed upon the
mystical letters beginning some of the suras in the
Koran. At first, when the Banu al-Nadir were lo-
cated at Medina, Huyayy’s hostility to Mohammed
was not pronounced, and when Abu Sufyan, the
Kuraizite leader and an enemy of Mohainmed, pre-
sented himself before Huyayy’s house. Huyayy,
fearing to compromise himself, refused to admit
him. But when the Jews, driven by Mohammed
from Medina, settled at Khaibar, Huyayy incited
them, with the Arab tribes of Kuraish and Gha-
tafan, into active revolt against Mohammed. When
Huyayy came to Ka‘b ibn As‘ad, the chief of the
Banu Kuraiza, the latter, having sworn allegiance
to Mohammed, hesitated to receive him; but Hu-
yayy convinced him of the danger which threatened
the Jews from Mohammed, and induced the Banu
Kuraiza to support him. Later, Mohammed took
Kamus, the fortress of the Kuraizites, carried to
Medina from seven to eight hundred Jews, among
them being Huyayy, and executed them in the
market-place. When Huyayy was brought before
Mohammed, he said to him: “I reproach not myself
for having carried on waragainst thee.” Huyayy’s
daughter Safiyyah was also captured by Moham-
med, and a few months afterward embraced Islam
and became a wife of the prophet.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ibn Hisham, Kitab Sirat Rasul Allah, ed.
Wiistenfeld, p. 351, passim; Caussin de Perceval, Essai sur
VHistoire des Arabes, iii. 83, passim; Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed.,
y. 100-102, 105.
G. M. SE.
HUZPA: Aramaic word meaning “impudence,”
used frequently in the Talmud, in late rabbinical
literature, and in common parlance. In Biblical
Aramaic only the verb 4¥n is found: it occurs twice
(Dan. ii. 15, iii. 22) in the sense of “to be strict”
(R. V. “urgent”). In Talmudic literature from the
earliest times both the verb (“hazaf”) and the noun
(“huzpa”)are used in many legal maxims and moral
sayings in the senses respectively of “to be brazen-
faced” and “impudence”: for instance, in the sen-
tence, “No man would be so impudent as to fell
Gratz,
Hyams
Hyneman
a tree which is not his or to pick fruit which is not
his” (B. B. 38b). If a man signs a document with his
father’s name only, ¢.g., “Ben Jacob” instead of
“Reuben ben Jacob,” the signature is invalid; and
the plea that he did so in order to protect his signa-
ture against forgery is not accepted, because no one
would beso “impudent” as to use his father’s name
as a ruse (Git. 87b). If a father enters into a mar-
riage contract for his son, the contract is invalid,
because a son would not be so “impudent” as to
make his father his agent (Kid. 44b).
The word “huzpa” is often used in the Talmud
in proverbial sayings also; for example: “ In the foot-
prints of the Messiah [before the arrival of the
Messiah] impudence will increase” (Sotah 49b);
“Impudence succeeds even with God” (Sanh. 105a).
Similarly: “The impudent will defeat the wicked,
and naturally then the best of the world” (Yer.
Ta‘an. 65b), the last’ phrase, according to Levy
(“ Neuhebr. Worterb.” s.v.), meaning God; “Impu-
dence is a kingdom [?.¢., power] without a crown”
(Sanh. ?.c.); “Impudence is a sign of wickedness”
(B. M. 83b). In modern literature the word is spelled
“chutzpah ” and “chuzpe.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Levy, Neuhebr. Worterb.; Kohut, Aruch
Completum ; Jastrow, Dict.; Lampronti, Pahad Yizhak.
HYAMS, ABRAHAM: Beni-Israel physician;
died March 20, 1897; son of Hacem Samuel, president
of the Beni-Israel School, Bombay. After taking his
degree of licentiate in medicine and surgery, Hyams
practised as a physician in Bombay, and in addition
to a flourishing private practise was from 1889 in
charge of the Bohara Sanatorium in that city. He
was engaged in the plague hospital, opened in the
sanatorium; and it is believed that he contracted
the fatal disease while employed in this service.
Hyams was a member of the managing committee
of the Beni-Israel School.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. April 16, 1897.
J. G. I.
HYAMS, HENRY MICHAEL: American
lawyer; born at Charleston, 8. C., March 4, 1806, of
English parents; died at New Orleans 1875; educated
in Charleston and in New Orleans, to which latter
city he went in 1828, together with Judah P. Bensa-
MIN, to whom he was related. Hyams studied law
at New Orleans, and was admitted to the Louisiana
bar in 1830. For some time he was cashier of the
Canal Bank at Donaldsonville, La. Later he re-
turned to New Orleans, where he practised law and
formed a partnership with B. F. Jonas. He was an
original secessionist, and in 1859 was elected lieu-
tenant-governor of Louisiana as a Democrat, serving
until 1864. Most of his fortune was swept away by
the Civil war, in which he took a very prominent
part.
A. I. G. D.
HYENA.—Biblical Data: The translation by
the Septuagint of “zabua‘” (Jer. xii. 9); the ren-
dering of the Vulgate being “avis tincta,” and that
of the English versions “speckled bird.” The ren-
dering of the LXX., which is adopted by most com-
mentators, is supported not only by the Arabic
“dabu‘,” but also by the parallel passage (2d. xii. 8),
which implies that by “zabua‘” some strong, fierce
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
512
animal, similar to the tion, is intended (comp. Ec-
clus. [Sirach] xiii. 18). The striped hyena (Hyena
streata) is common in every part of Palestine; and
its former frequency is perhaps indicated by the
place-name “Zeboim” (J Sam. xiii. 18; Neh. xi. 84;
comp. also the personal name “ Zibeon,” Gen, XxxXvi.
20),
In Rabbinical Literature: The Talmud has,
besides “zabua‘,” three other names for the hyene,
“bardales,” “napraza,” and “appa”; and this vari-
ety of names has its counterpart in a variety of
metamorphoses, each lasting seven years, through
which the male hyena passes, namely, of a bat, an
“‘arpad ” (¢.e., some other form of bat), a nettle, a
thistle, and lastly an evil spirit (“shed ”; B. K. 16a).
A similar popular fable, about the hyena changing its
sex every year, is found in Pliny, “ Historia Natu-
ralis,” vill. 80, 44; Aclianus,* De Animalium Natura,”
i. 25. As regards dangerousness, the hyena is
placed in the same category as the wolf, lion, bear,
leopard, and serpent (B. K. 15b; Yer. B. K. 2, 6).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tristram, Natural History of the Bible, p. 107;
Lewysohn, Zoologie des Talmuds, p. 76.
KE. G. H. I. M. C.
HYKSOS: Name of aline of Egyptian kings,
occurring in a passage of Manetho quoted by Jose-
phus (“Contra Ap.” § 14). It is said that they ruled
ford511 years. Mancthoexplains “hyk” as “kings”
(which Josephus disputes) and “sos” as “shep-
herds.” The latter is “shasu” on the monuments,
The Hyksos came as conquerors from Syria and
Arabia; and Josephus claims them as the close kin-
dred of his race. They were gradually expelled in
a native rebellion, which began at Thebes. They
form the fifteenth and sixteenth, perhaps also the
seventeenth, dynasties. During the eighteenth dy-
nasty Thothmes IIT. brought Egypt to its highest
power; the nineteenth embraces Rameses I., Sethos
(Setoy), Rameses IL., usually taken to be the Pha-
raoh of the oppression, and Me(r)neptah, the sup-
posed Pharaoh of the Exodus,
The words in Ex. i. 8, “ Now there arose up a new
king over Egypt, which knew not Joseph,” are
thought to fit the long rule of Semitic kings, one of
whom, Apopy, raised Joseph to high rank and set-
tled his brethrenin Goshen. If Adolf Erman, in his
“History of Egypt,” has rightly fixed the beginning
of the eighteenth dynasty at 1530 B.c., and if the
Biblical chronology (I Kings vi. 1), placing the Ex-
odus 480 years before the completion of Solomon’s
Temple (¢.¢., in 1478 B.c.), is correct, then the first
king of the eighteenth dynasty is clearly that “new
king ” who takes measures for keeping the Israelites
in check. Modern critics will not allow this; first,
because the Israelites were put to build the store-city
of Raamses, bearing the name of the later kings;
secondly, because the Kl-Amarna letters and other
monuments indicate that long after 1438 B.c., the
supposed year of Joshua’s invasion, Palestine was
still under Egyptian control.
If the “new king” is to be placed at the end of
the eighteenth dynasty rather than at its opening
(which hypothesis is not in conflict with that of
Joseph’s ministration under a Hyksos king), it may
be explained thus: Amenophis (Amen-hotep IV.),
of the eighteenth dynasty, and his two successors
513
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA .
Hyams
Hyneman
attempted to reform the religion of the country, set-
ting up a supreme god, Aten (= VIN 7%), in place of
the many divinities of Egypt; this movement came
to an end, and the worship of Amon, Ra, etc., was
resumed; hence a king, not indeed new in race, but
new in faith and in sympathies,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: See EGYPT.
BE. G. H, L. N. D.
HYMNOLOGY. See Porrry, Rexiaciots.
HYNEMAN: American family of remote Span-
ish and modern German origin, the record of whose
early history is fragmentary. The first authentic
record of any member of it in the United Statesis the
signature of Henry Hyneman to the oath of alle-
giance to the state of Pennsylvania in the year 1779.
Elias Hyneman: Born in Holland, whither
his progenitors had fled from Spain. He was a con-
temporary of Henry Hyneman. At an early age
Elias emigrated to America and settled as an inn-
keeper and general merchant in a Pennsylvania
country town, where he remained until! his marriage,
when he removed to Philadelphia and engaged in
commerce. He was the father of thirteen children.
Leon Hyneman: Prominent freemason; born in
Montgomery county, Pennsylvania, May 14, 1808;
died in New York March 4, 1879; eldestson of Elias
- Hyneman. Onattaining manhood he left home and
earned his living as tutor in country schools. Re-
turning to Philadelphia in 1834, he became interested
in freemasonry, and four years later he joined the
order as member of the Lafayette Lodge of Philadel-
phia, being elected master in 1840. At one time he
was also a member of the Grand Lodge of Pennsy]-
vania. Hyneman was the founder (1849) of the
Order of Druidesses, and the author of its ritual.
In 1852 he established “The Masonic Mirror and
American Keystone,” which he edited until 1860.
He was the author of “ The Fundamental] Principles
of Science” and of sevcral works on masonic sub-
jects, the chief among them being “The Origin of
Freemasonry ” and “Freemasonry in England from
1567 to 1813.” In 1845 Hyneman was one of the mem-
bers of the Jewish Publication Society of America.
Hyneman had eight children, among them being
Leona Hyneman, who marricd Jacob Lowen-
grund, and, under the stage name of “ Leona Moss,”
became a talented actress. Another daughter was
Alice Hyneman, authoress; born in Philadelphia
Jan. 81, 1840; contributor to “The North American
Review”; “The Forum”; “The Popular Science
Monthly ”; and the author of “ Woman in Industry,”
a treatise on the work of woman in America, and of
“Niagara,” a descriptive record of the great cataract
and its vicinity. She married twice; her first hus-
band being Henry Rhine of Philadelphia; her sec-
ond, Charles Sotheran of New York.
Benjamin Hyneman, the representative of an-
other branch of this family, who married Rebekah
Gumpert, left his home in the pursnit of his voca-
tion and was never seen afterward.
Rebekah Gumpert Hyneman: Authoress;
born in Philadelphia Sept. 8, 1812; died Sept.
10, 1875. A non-Hebrew by birth, she embraced
Judaism, and became devotedly attached to her new
faith. She wasa regular contributor to “The Ma-
VI.—33
sonic Mirror,” published a volume of “Tales for
Children,” and wrote essays descriptive of the -
women of the Bible and the Apocrypha. She also
published a number of poems under the titles “The
Leper and Other Poems,” “The Muses,” etc.
Elias Leon Hyneman: Born in 1887; died Jan.
7, 1865; son of Benjamin Hyneman. At the out-
break of the Civil war he enlisted as a volunteer
in Company C, Fifth Pennsylvania Cavalry, beiug
mustered in on July 26, 1861. Accompanying his
regiment to Virginia in 1862, he served with dis-
tinction there, and was promoted sergeant. He was
present at the battle of Gettysburg, and took part
in that of the Wilderness, but was subsequently
taken prisoner during a cavalry raid in the vicinity
of Petersburg, Va., June 29, 1864. He owed his
capture to acts of heroism—surrendering his horse
to a wounded comrade whose beast had been shot
under him, and giving his own shoes to a bare-
footed, wounded fellow soldier. Taken to Ander-
sonville, Ga., he was imprisoned in the stockade
there, and within six months died of disease accel-
erated by insufficient food and by exposure in un-
sanitary quarters. His remains were taken to Phil-
adelphia for burial.
Isaac Hyneman: The first member of the Ger-
man branch of the family concerning whom any
data have been preserved; born in Germany in 1804;
died Jan., 1886. He emigrated to the United States,
and there married Adeline Ezekiel of Richmond, Va.
Jacob Ezekiel Hyneman: Born in Richmond,
Va., Aug. 5, 1848, and accompanied his father, Isaac
Hyneman, to Philadelphia in 1850. He enlisted in
the army Aug. 14, 1862, and was wounded at the bat-
tleof Fredericksburg. Onrecovery he was assigned
to the United States Army Signal Corps—tem-
porarily in April, 1863, and permanently on Aug. 17
of the same year. Hyneman took part in the bat-
tles of Chancellorsville, Brandy Station (where he
was wounded), Gettysburg, Mine Run (where he
was again wounded), Wilderness, Spottsylvania
Court House, Cold Harbor, Five Forks, Petersburg,
and Appomattox Court House, and was present at
the surrender of Lee. He was mustered out of
service June 24, 1865.
A few years after the war Hyneman joined the
First Regiment of the Pennsylvania National Guard,
and took part in subduing the riots at Susquehanna
Station and Hazleton. When the Veteran Corps of
the First Regiment of the Pennsylvania National
Guard was formed, Hyneman joined it. He was
elected first lieutenant April 19, 1880, and quarter-
master, with the rank of captain, in 1883. He re-
signed April 17, 1891. During the railroad and
mining riots at Pittsburg, Scranton, and Wilkes-
barre during July and August, 1877, he raised two
companies of National Guards of Pennsylvania, and
commanded Company G, Twentieth Regiment. In
1889 he was appointed aide-de-camp, with rank of
colonel, on the staff of Gen. William Warren, com-
mander-in-chief of the Grand Army of the Republic.
Herman Naphtali Hyneman: Painter; born
in Philadelphia July 27, 1849. At an early age he
showed a taste for drawing. He studied art for
eight years in Germany and France (1874), and in
Paris became a pupil of Bonnat. Eyneman exhib
Hypocrisy
Hyrcanus
ited at the Salon of 1879 a painting entitled “ Desde-
mona,” which was subsequently shown at the Penn-
sylvania Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia.
Two years later another painting of his, entitled
“ Juliet,” was exhibited at the Salon, and afterward
in New York city at the National Academy of
Design. He won the silver medal at the American
Art Exhibition, Philadelphia, 1902. Hyneman’s
chief work was portrait-painting. Among his
imaginative works may be mentioned “It Might
Have Been,” representing a young girl in contem-
plation, and “ Marguerite in Prison,” a scene from
“Faust.” He died Dec. 23, 1907.
Samuel Morais Hyneman: Lawyer; born at
Philadelphia May 26, 1854; admitted to the bar of
that city June 2, 1877. He was a member of the
board of managers of Mikve Israel cougregation
1879-1901, and parnas 1887-90; member of the board
of trustees, Jewish Theological Seminary at New
York, 1886-1902, and of the board of trustees of
Gratz College, Philadelphia, 1894-1900; president
of the Young Men’s Hebrew Association, Philadel-
phia, 1880-82; and officer of The Hebrew Education
Society, Philadelphia, 1894-1900.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Morais, The Jews of Philadelphia; The
American Jews’ Annual, 5646 (1886).
A. F. H. V.
HYPOCRISY: A word derived from the Greek
iroxpiowe = “the playing a part on the stage.” It
denotes acting a false part in life; pretending to be
pious or righteous when one is not. It is only in
later Hebrew that “hanufah” and “hanef” refer
to this failing; hence it is incorrect for the Au-
thorized Version to use “hypocrisy ” as the transla-
tion of the Biblical “hanufah ” and “hanef,” which
really denote respectively “wickedness” or “im-
piety ” and “the wicked” or “the impious”; so Isa.
ix. 16 (A. V. 17), xxxii. 6, xxxiii. 14; Ps. xxxv.
16; Prov. xi. 9; Job viii. 13, xiii. 16, xv. 84, xvii.
8, xx. 5, xxvii. 8, xxxiv. 30. Hypocrisy is a vice
scarcely known in primitive times when men are
natural; it is practised only in a society that has
established rules of piety and rectitude, and.is de-
ceived by appearances. The hypocrite is rebuked
in Ecclus. (Sirach) xxxii. 15, xxxiii. 2: “Let God
destroy them that live in hypocrisy in the company
of the saints.” “Let the ravens peck out the eyes
of the men that work hypocrisy ” (Psalms of Solo-
mon, iv. 7, 22-25; hypocrites are called also “men-
pleasers ” in the heading of this psalm).
It is especially in the rabbinical literature that
hypocrites are singled out as dangerous. “One
should make known the hypocrites in order to avoid
the profanation of God’s name” (Tosef., Yoma, iv.
12; Yoma 89a; comp. Eccl. R. iv. 1). “Be not
afraid of the Pharisees nor of the Sadducees [liter-
ally “of those who are not Pharisees”], but of the
chameleon-like men [“ zebu‘im”] who simulate the
Pharisees, and while they do the deed of Zimri
[Num, xxv. 14] claim the reward of Phinehas” (7d.
xxv. 12), said the dying King Janneus to Queen
Alexandra (Sotah 22b, referring probably to the
same class of men as is characterized in Psalms of
Solomon, iv., quoted above). Such a class of Phari-
sees, who were mere pretenders and men-pleasers,
is alluded to in Sotah iii. 4, and characterized in
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
514
Sotah 22b; Yer. Ber. ix. 14b. The characterization
of all the Pharisees as “hypocrites,” as “whited
sepulchers, which indeed appear beautiful outward,
but are within full of . . . all uncleanness,” as “a
generation of vipers” (originally probably also
“zebu‘im” = “many-colored vipers”; Matt. xxiii.
18-83; comp. vi. 2, 5, 16; xv. 7; xvi. 3; xxii. 18;
Mark xii. 15; Luke xi. 44; xii. 1, 56), betrays a
spirit of rancor and partizan prejudice.
Nothing was more loathsome to the Rabbis than
hypocrisy. Gamaliel II. announced that no disci-
ple “ whose inside is not like his outside should enter
the schoolhouse” (Ber. 28a); “he must be like the
Ark of the Covenant, gold within as without”
(Yoma 72b, after Ex. xxv. 11).
“Hanufah” in the Talmud denotes also flattery,
which is another mode of simulation (so Sotah 41b);
wherefore it is difficult to say whether flattery or
hypocrisy is meant when it is said: “He in whom
there is hanufah brings wrath upon the world, nor
will his prayer be heard ” (after Job xxxvi. 18). “A
just hin... shall ye have” (Lev. xix. 36) is in-
terpreted to mean: “Thy yea [“hen”] shall be yea,
and thy nay nay: thou shalt not speak one thing
and mean another” (B. M. 49a). “I would rather
rule over the whole world than over two judges
wrapped up in their cloaks ”—that is, hy pocrites—
said David (Midr. Teh. xviii. 84; Ab. R. N. xxv.
[ed. Schechter, p. 82]). K.
HYPOTHECATION. See Morreacet orn Hy-
POTHEC.
HYPSISTARIANS: Semi-Jewish sect found
on the Bosporus in the first Christian century and in
Asia Minor down to the fourth century. They wor-
shiped God under the name of Ge6¢ “Yyore¢ Havto-
kpatwp (the Most High and Almighty One), observed
the Sabbath and some of the dietary laws, but not
circumcision, and cherished a certain pagan venera-
tion for fire and light, earth and sun, without ob-
serving, however, any idolatrous rite (see Gregory
Nazienzen, “Oratio,” xviii. 5; Gregory of Nyssa,
“Contra Kunomium,” p.2). They are probably re-
lated to, if not identical with, the Massalians (“ Me-
zallin”), or the Euchomenoi, or Euphemitai, “the
God-worshipers, who also worshiped the Almighty
God at the blaze of many lights” (Epiphanius,
“Panarion, Heeresis,” Ixxx. 1-3), and the so-called
Ceelicole (“worshipers of heaven”: “yire’e shama-
yim ”) mentioned in “Codex Theodosianus,” xvi. 5,
43; 8,19. They were undoubtedly a remnant of Jew-
ish proselytes who retained a few pagan notions,
but were regarded as hostile to Christian doctrines.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bernays, Gesammelte Schriften, i.: Schirer,
Gesch. 3d ed., iii. 18, 124; idem, Die Juden im Bospora-
nischen Reiche und die Genossenschaften der ZeBopnevor Geod
‘Yyuorov, in Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie, 1897,
pp. 200-225; Cumont, Hypsistos, Brussels, 1897; and the
literature in Herzog-Hauck, Real-Eneyc. s.vy. Hypsistarier,
Himmelanbeter, and Messatianer.
K.
HYRCANUS: Collector of the royal revenues
in Egypt; born in Jerusalem about 2208.c.; died in
175; youngest son of the tax-farmer Joseph ben
Tobiah by his second wife, the daughter of his
brother Solymius. Displaying from his childhood
the most extraordinary abilities and accomplish-
ments, he became the favorite of his father, which
predilection made his elder half-brother jealous, and
515
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hypocrisy
Hyrcanus
subsequently became a source of misery to the whole
nation. His father, being unable on account of his
infirmities. to be present at an Egyptian court so-
lemnity, sent Hyrcanus as his representative, the two
elder half-brothers refusing to attend for reasons of
theirown. The occasion of the solemnity is un-
known. It could not have been the birth of Ptolemy
V., Epiphanes (209 8.c.), as Hyrcanus was then
only eleven years old. His half-brothers wrote to
their friends at court to put Hyrcanus out of the
way.
Hyrcanus, promising his father to be very econom-
ical in all expenditures, obtained from the latter a let-
ter of credit to his steward at Alexandria. He soon
gained favor at court by his cleverness and by his
adroitness of speech. He pleased Ptolemy and his
courtiers by his wit and especially by his extrava-
gant presents; and when he left Alexandria he him-
self was loaded with gifts. He was probably awarded
also the office of tax-collector. His half-brothers, who
had now still greater reason for jealousy, lay in
wait to kill him; and even his father was incensed
against him on account of the enormous sums he
had spent. <A battle ensued in which Hyrcanus and
his companions killed two of his half-brothers. Fear-
ing for his safety, Hyrcanus left Jerusalem.
At the death of Joseph the quarrels of the brothers
were espoused by the people. The elder sons, out
of hatred to Hyrcanus, who probably succeeded his
father in office, sided with Antiochus against Egypt,
and raised a Seleucidan party, while Hyrcanus and
his adherents supported the Ptolemies. At the fina}
triumph of the Seleucids, Hyrcanus took up his
abode beyond the Jordan, in territory granted to
him by Ptolemy V., and was at war continually
with the Arabian and other tribes, which he obliged
to pay taxes.
Hyrcanus erected a strong castle of white marble
upon a rock near Heshban, and surrounded it with
a wide moat of great depth. This castle was called
“Tyrus.” For seven years Hyrcanus remained in
his retreat and accumulated immense wealth, a part
of which was deposited in the Temple at Jerusalem
(II Mace. iii. 11). At the accession of Antiochus
Epiphanes the Tobiads renewed their hostilities
against Hyrcanus and persuaded the new king to
capture him, Hyrcanus, dreading an ignominious
death, committed suicide.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Josephus, Ant. xii. 4, §$ 6-11; Gratz, Gesch. ii.
245 et seq.; Adolf Buchler, Die Tobiaden und die Oniaden,
passim ; Schtirer, Gesch. 1. 195 et seq. LB
G, : &R.
HYRCANUS, JOHN (JOHANAN) I.: High
priest; prince of the Hasmonean family ; born about
175; died 104 (Schiirer). He was a wise and just
ruler and a skilful warrior. As a young man he
distinguished himself asa general in the war against
the Syrian general Cendebeus, whom he defeated.
That John was given the surname “Hyrcanus” on
account of this victory, is a tradition to which
Gritz and others attribute historical significance.
When his father, Simon Maccabeus, was assassin-
ated at Jericho by his son-in-law Ptolemy, John suc-
ceeded in escaping from those sent by Ptolemy to
murder him also. From Gadara, where he at that
time lived, John hastened to Jerusalem, where the
people gladly received him as Simon’s successor
(185). He never assumed the title of king, being
content with that of high priest. The beginning of
his reign was not happy. He could not avenge the
murder of his father, for Ptolemy, whom he had
shut up in the fort Dagon, subjected Hyrcanus’
mother to cruel tortures on the walls of the fort
whenever her son attempted to attack it. Hyreanus,
therefore, raised the siege after several months, al-
though his mother bore the tortures with heroic de-
termination, and encouraged him to punish the mur-
COPPER COIN OF HYRCANUS.
Obverse: oven any San 779 ys—“ Johanan the Aigh
Priest and the ‘Senate’ of the Jews,” within a laurel wreath.
Reverse: two cornucopie ; in the middle a poppy-head.
(After Madden, ‘‘ History of Jewish Coinage.’’)
derer. Finally, however, she was put to death, as
was, presumably, an imprisoned brother also; while
Ptolemy himself fied to Rabbath Ammon (Philadel-
phia; 135 B.c.).
A still greater danger threatened Hyrcanus when
the Syrian king Antiochus Sidetes marched against
Jerusalem with a large army, and be-
Besieged sieged him. The besieged suffered
by from lack of provisions; the besiegers
Antiochus from lack of water. Hyrcanus found
Sidetes. himself forced into the apparent
cruelty of driving out of the city all
who could not carry arms. After Antiochus had
unsuccessfully besieged the city during an entire
summer, he was willing, in view of the danger
which menaced him from the east, to enter into peace
negotiations. Hyrcanus asked an armistice of seven
days, extending over the Feast of Tabernacles,
which was granted. Hard pressed, Hyrcanus will-
ingly agreed to the terms of peace. The Jews were
compelled to surrender their weapons and pay trib-
ute for Joppa and for some other towns which for-
merly were Syrian. In preference to having Jeru-
salem occupied by Syrian troops, Hyrcanus gave
hostages (among whom was his own brother), and
undertook to pay five hundred talents of silver, of
which three hundred were demanded at once. He
is said to have taken this sum from the treasure
in David’s sepulcher. In conformity with another
stipulation the battlements on the walls of Jerusa-
lem were destroyed.
In 130 Hyrcanus, as a vassal of the Syrian king,
marched against the Parthians, Antiochus Sidetes
fell in the ensuing battle, or (as Appian, “De Rebus
Syriacis,” ch. 68, states), in despair at his ignomini-
ous defeat (129), sought death. His brother, Deme-
trius II., ascended the throne for the second time,
but retained it for only a short period. THyrcanus
now seized the opportunity presented by the weak-
Hyrcanus
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
516
ness of the Syrian kingdom to extend the borders of
Judea to the line it had held in the days of its pros-
perity. To shake off the Syrian bond-
Alliance age and enlarge his domains, he en-
with the deavored to form an alliance with
Romans. the Romans. To this end he followed
the example set by his predecessor,
and sent an embassy to Rome. A great deal of con-
fusion, however, exists with regard to this embassy
and the senatorial enactments connected with it (see
Josephus, “Ant.” xiii. 9, § 2; xiv. 10, § 22; Gratz,
“Gesch.” iii. 500 ef seg.; Werner, “ Johann Hyrcan,”
pp. 33 et seg.).
Hyrcanus, who had been confirmed by the Ro-
raans in the possession of the important seaport of
to accept the Jewish religion and submit to cir-
cumcision. This is the first instance of forcible
conversion in Jewish history. In this Hyrcanus al-
lowed his zeal for the Jewish cause to lead him to
take a step which later wrought harm; for to the
Edomites belonged the family of the Herodians, who
were to bring about the ruin of the Hasmoneans.
The Samaritans, who still held their strongly forti-
fied metropolis of Samaria, with a part of Jezreel,
remained hostile toward the Jews. For this reason
Hyrcanus renewed his attacks upon them. He
marched against Samaria at the head of a great
army, but as his presence in Jerusalem was neces-
sary, he left the siege of the former city to his two
sons, Aristobulus and Antigonus.
RUINS OF THE PALACE OF HYRCANUS.
(After Vogilé, ‘ Syrie Centrale.’’)
Joppa, subjugated other Syrian towns, such as
Berea (Aleppo). He marched against the fort of
Madaba, on the banks of the Jordan, which had al-
ways been hostile to the Hasmoneans, and conquered
it after a six months’ siege; he also conquered the
town of Samaya (Samega), on the Sea of Galilee, of
special importance on account of its geographical
position. He then proceeded against the Samari-
tans, who had always sided with the enemies of the
Jews. He conquered Shechem, one of the most
important townsof Samaria, and destroyed the tem-
ple on Mount Gerizim (21st Kislew = December,
about 120). After victoriously ending
Forcibly the war in Samaria, he proceeded to
Converts subdue the Edomites, always a menace
the Edom- to the southern parts of his domains.
With funds which he is said to have
obtained from David’s sepulcher he
hired foreign troops, dismantled Adora and Marissa,
the strong places of Edom, and forced the Edomites
ites.
The war was unexpectedly prolonged by the in-
terference of the Syrian king, Antiochus IX.; and
after he had been defeated by Aristobulus, the
Egyptian prince Lathyrus, son of Ptolemy Phys-
con, was called to the Syrians’ assistance. Aristo-
bulus and Antigonus not only conquered the whole
of the Plain of Jezreel, especially the important town
of Bethsan (Scythopolis; June, 110 or 111), but also,
five months later (25th Heshwan = November), took
the fort of Samaria. The latter was completely de-
molished, and water-trenches were dug through the
town. Hyrcanus had refortified the walls of Jeru-
salem, had secured the independence of Judea, and
had raised it to a level with the neighboring states.
During his reign the different religious sects in the
country—Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes—be-
came firmly established. Hyrcanus, who was a
pupil of the Pharisees, remained long the faithful
adherent of the latter, although he had friends also
among the Sadducees. Several of his religious ordi-
517
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hyrcanus
nances showed his Pharisaic sympathies; thus, he
ordered Ps. xliv. stricken from the Temple liturgy
on the ground that its anthropomorphisms might
give rise to misunderstanding; and he ordered that
animals destined for the altar should not be wounded
before the time for slaughter,
But when Hyrcanus withdrew all religious au-
thority from the Sanhedrin, the love he had enjoyed
was changed to a hatred which was soon openly de-
clared. Ata great festival to which he invited the
leaders of the Pharisees and Sadducees, he asked
whether the Pharisees had any matter
Opposes which they desired to bring before
the him; whereupona certain Eleazar ben
Sanhedrin. Po‘era demanded that he should be
content With the temporal power, and
should lay aside the diadem of the high priest. Ac-
cording to another source, an old man named Judah
ben Gedidim is said to have declared that, Hyrcanus’
mother having been held captive in Modin by the
enemy, Hyrcanus, as the son of a captive, could not
legally be high priest (Josephus, “Ant.” xiii. 10,
85; Kid. 66a). Hyrcanus ordered an investigation,
and the statement concerning his mother was proved
to be untrue. He then requested the Sanhedrin to
punish his traducer, but the latter was sentenced to
flagellation only. Hyrcanus then joined the Sad-
ducees, without, however, as some assert, persecu-
ting the Pharisees. He suspended the Pharisaic
rules, and made the Sadducean statutes the standard
for the interpretation of the Law. It must be noted
that Hyrcanus, or Johanan, the high priest, is not
always referred to when that name is mentioned in
the Talmud.
John Hyrcanus, who, as Josephus says, was en-
dowed with three godly gifts—the temporal power,
the dignity of a high priest, and the gift of prophecy
—died after a reign of thirty years. His death
ended the power of the young Jewish kingdom.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Josephus, Ant. xiii.; C. Werner, Joh. Hyr-
can (with full bibliography), Wernigerode, 1877; Gritz,
Gesch. iii. 69 et seq.; Jost, Gesch. des Judenthums und
Seiner Sekten, i. 201-234 ef seq.; Schiirer, Gesch. i. 256 et
seq.: H. Holtzmann, Judenthum und Christenthum, pp. 121-
137 ét seq.
G. M. K. »
HYRCANUS II.: High priest from about 79
to 40 n.c.; eldest scn of Alexander Jannzus and
Alexandra. His mother, who had installed him in
the office of high priest, named him as her successor
to the throne. He had scarcely reigned three months
when his younger brother, Aristobulus, rose in rebel-
lion; whereupon Hyrcanus advanced against him
at the head of his mercenaries and his Sadducean
followers. Near Jericho the brothers met in battle:
many of the soldiers of Hyrcanus went over to
Aristobulus, and thereby gave the latter the victory.
Hyrcanus took refuge in the citadel of Jerusalem;
but the capture of the Temple by Aristobulus com-
pelled Hyrcanus to surrender. <A peace was then
concluded, according to the terms of which Hyr-
canus was to renounce the throne and the office of
high priest (comp. Schirer, “ Gesch.” 1. 291, note 2),
but was to enjoy the revenues of the latter office.
The struggle would have ended here but for
ANTIPATER. Thatastute Idumean saw clearly that
it would be easier to reach the object of his ambi-
tion, the control of Judea, under the government of
the weak Hyrcanus than under the warlike and en-
ergetic Aristobulus. He accordingly
Intrigues began to impress upon Hyrcanus’
of mind that Aristobulus was planning
Antipater. his death, finally persuading him to
take refuge with Aretas, king of the
Nabateans. Aretas, bribed by Antipater, who also
promised him the restitution of the Arabian towns
taken by the Hasmoneans, readily espoused the cause
of Hyrcanus and advanced toward Jerusalem with
anarmy of fifty thousand. During the siege, which
lasted several months, the adherents of Hyrcanus
were guilty of two acts which greatly incensed
the majority of the Jews: they stoned the pious
Onias (see ONIAS NA-ME‘AGGEL), and, instead of a
lamb which the besieged had bought of the besiegers
for the purpose of the paschal sacrifice, sent a pig.
Onias, ordered to curse the besieged, prayed: “ Lord
of the universe, as the besieged and the besiegers
both belong to Thy people, I beseech Thee not to
answer theevil prayers of either.” The pig incident
is derived from rabbinical sources. According to
Josephus, the besiegers l.:pt the enormous price of
one thousand drachmas they had asked for the
lamb.
While this civil war was going on the Roman
general Scaurus went to Syria to take possession, in
the name of Pompey, of the kingdom of the Seleu-
cids. He was appealed to by the
Inter- brothers, each endeavoring by gifts
vention and promises to win him over to his
ofthe side. At first Scaurus, moved by a
Romans. gift of four hundred talents, decided
in favor of Aristobulus. Aretas was
ordered to withdraw his army from Judea, and while
retreating suffered acrushing defeat at the hands of
Aristobulus. But when Pompey came to Syria (63)
a different situation arose. The conqueror of Asia,
who had decided to bring Judea under the rule of
the Romans, took the same view of Hyrcanus’ abil.
ity, and was actuated by much the same motives, as
Antipater: asa ward of Rome Hyrcanus would be
more acceptable than Aristobulus. When, there-
fore, the brothers, and delegates of the people’s
party, which, weary of Hasmonean quarrels, desired
the extinction of the dynasty, presented themselves
before Pompey, he delayed the decision, in spite of
Aristobulus’ gift of a golden vine valued at five
hundred talents. The latter, however, fathomed
the designs of Pompey, and entrenched himself in
the fortress of Alexandrium; but, soon realizing the
uselessness of resistance, surrendered at the first
summons of the Romans, and undertook to deliver
Jerusalem over to them. The patriots, however,
were not willing to open their gates to the Romans,
and a siege ensued which ended with the capture of
the city.
Thus, between the weakness of Hyrcanus and the
ambition of Aristobulus, Judea lost its independ-
ence. Aristobulus was taken to Rome a prisoner,
and Hyrcanus was reappointed high priest, but
without political authority. This, however, was
restored to him by Julius Cesar, who made him
ethnarch (47); but Hyrcanus left all authority in
the hands of Antipater, who used it for the promo-
Hyssop
Ibn Barun
tion of the interests of his own house. Indeed,
Hyrcanus’ incapacity and weakness were so mani-
fest that, while he was defending Herod (whom he
had previously saved from the hands of the San-
hedrin) before Mark Antony, the latter stripped him
of his nominal political authority and of his title of
ethnarch, and bestowed them upon the accused.
The crisis which arose in Palestine in the year 40
put an end to the career of Hyrcanus. By the help
of the Parthians, Antigonus was proclaimed king
and high priest, and Hyrcanus was
Carried seized and carried to Babylonia, after
Prisoner to being made permanently ineligible for
Babylon. the oflice of high priest by the loss of
his ears. For four years, until 36, he
lived amid the Babylonian Jews, who paid him every
mark of respect. In that year Herod, who feared
that Hyrcanus might induce the Parthians to help
him regain the throne, invited him to return to
Jerusalem. In vain did the Babylonian Jews warn
him. Herod received him with every mark of re-
spect, assigning to him the first place at his table
and the presidency of the state council. But he only
waited an opportunity to get rid of him. In the
year 30, charged with plotting with the King of
Arabia, Hyrcanus was condemned and executed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Josephus, Ant. xiv. 5-13; idem, B. J. i. 8-13;
Ewald, Gesch. iv. 524 et seq.; Gratz, Gesch. iii. 167 et seq.; Hit-
zig, Gesch. des Volkes Israel, ii. 500 et seq.; Schtirer, Gesch.
i. 388 et seg.
G I. Br.
HYSSOP (Hebr. 33t&; so rendered after the
Septuagint and the Vulgate; comp. also Josephus,
“B, J.” vi. 3, § 4): There is great uncertainty as
to what specific plant is intended either by the
Hebrew “ezob” or by the Greek tocwrcc, nor is it
clear that the words are identical. The Greek io-
owroc was credited with purifying qualities (comp.
Dioscorides, i. 105, iii. 830; Pliny, “ Hist. Naturalis,”
XXVi. 15 et seg.; Porphyry, “ De Abstin.” iv. 6), and is
commonly identified with the Origanum Smyrneum
or O. Syriacum, belonging to the order Labdiate.
I. See Yon.
IBIS. See HERON.
IBN: Arabic word (in Hebrew {3§) meaning
“son,” and having the shortened form “ben” or
“bin” (7a) when standing between the proper name
of the father and that of the son, provided both
names form part either of the subject or of the
predicate of the sentence; plural, “banu” (nomina-
tive) and “bani” (accusative and genitive). It was
common among the Semites and other peoples to
designate a person as the son of so-and-so, the
father’s name being more usual than the mother’s.
In medieval Hebrew the Arabic word “ibn” was
pronounced “aben” (comp. Geiger, “Moses ben
Maimon,” in “ Nachgelassene Schriften,” iii. 74), the
change in the pronunciation of the first letter being
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
518
The Hebrew “ezob” is described as a small plant
found on or near walls (I Kings iv. 33), apparently
of aromatic odor, so that it was burned with the
Red Heifer (Num. xix. 6). It was also used in the
purification of lepers and leprous houses (Lev. xiv.
4, 6, 49, 51; comp. Num. xix. 18; Ps. li. 9), and
in the sprinkling of the blood of the paschal lamb
on the door-posts (Ex. xii. 22).
The “ezob” is evidently not common hyssop (Hys-
sopus officinalis), which is not a native of Palestine.
The Talmud (see below) also distinguishes the ezob of
the Pentateuch from the Greek and Roman hyssop.
Maimonides (on Neg. xiv. 6) interprets “ezob” by
the Arabic “sa‘tar,” denoting some species of Satu-
reta, which is cognate to the Origanum and of which
the 8. Thymbra is found in Palestine; so also the
other old Jewish exegetes, as Saadia in his Arabic
translation of the Pentateuch ; Kimhi in his “ Ozar ha-
Shorashim,” s.v.; Abu al-Walid, etc. Some mod-
ern authorities would identify the ezob with the
caper-plant (Capparis spinosa), which abounds in
Egypt, in the Sinaitic peninsula, and in Palestine,
and the cleansing properties of which seem to have
been traditional in the Orient. This view finds sup-
port in the similarity of “ezob” to “asaf,” the
Arabic name for the caper.
In Neg. xiv. 6and parallels are enumerated, be-
sides the ezob of the Pentateuch, five other kinds,
namely, the Greek, the colored, the wild, the Roman,
and that “ with some [other] epithet.” For the regu-
lations of the ritual use of the ezob, see Parah xi.,
xii.; in Parah xi. 8 the ezob is considered as a wood;
while in Suk. 18a it is counted among the reeds and
branches with which the booth may be covered.
With allusion to I Kings iv. 33 the ezob is meta-
phorically applied to the humble and lowly (M. K.
25b).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Forbes Royle, On the Hyssop of Scrip.
ture, in Jour. Royal Asiatic Soe. viii. 193-212; Tristram,
Nat. Hist. p. 455.
I. M. C.
E. G. H.
due to the different value of & as a vowel-letter
in the two languages. The abbreviation for jax
is '}, noteworthy as being the only instance of a
word in Hebrew shortened at the beginning instead
of at the end. This form, “son of so-and-so,” came
to be used in Arabic (as it was used also in the Bible)
asa simple surname or family name (compare the
names “Mendelssohn,” “Johnson” = respectively
“son of Mendel,” “son of John”).
In Hebrew writings the Jews rarely used “ibn”
or “aben” before the proper name of
Family the father, placing it more usually be-
Names Com- fore the name of the supposed founder
pounded of ofthefamily. Nahmanides (138th cent.)
‘‘Ton.” says that all the Arabs called them-
selves by the names of their respective
ancestors, and all the Israelites who dwelt in Egypt
519
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hyssop
Ibn Barun
by those of their families. Such family names, orig-
inally composed with jx, are, for example: Ibn
‘Abbas ‘Arama Danan Hayyun
‘Abbasi ‘Attar Ezra Kimhi
Abun Ayyub Fakhkhar Latif
Adoniya Berakyah Fandari Migas
‘Aknin Burgil Hasdai Sason
*Akra Dabi Hason Verga
The Arabic “ibn” (38) as a designation for the
“son” or “descendant” of some one became so nat-
uralized in Hebrew that Josephibn Caspi (14th cent.)
in his Hebrew lexicon really considered it to be a
Hebrew word (jaN=“stone”), meaning the sub-
stance of a person or a thing.
In Spanish and Portuguese as well as in Latin
translations of the Middle Ages (and hence in the
rest of the European languages) “Ibn” is found in
the forms “Iben” and “Iven,” as in Hebrew, and
in composition with other words formed such names
as “ Abenzabarre” (“Ibn Zabarra”), “ Abendanan,”
“ Abenshaprut,” “ Avengayet ” (“Ibn Ghayyat”; see
Jacobs in “J. Q. R.” vi, 614), “Avencebrol,” and
finally “Avicebron” (“Ibn Gabirol”), “ Averroes”
(“Ibn Roshd”), “ Avicenna” (“Ibn Sina”), ete.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, An Introduction to the Ara-
bie Literature of the Jews, in J. Q. R. ix. 228, 614; x. 120
et seg.: idem, Die Arabische Literatur der Juden, Intro-
duction, pp. XV., XXXix.
T. M. Sc.
IBN ABUN, SAMUEL BEN YAHYA. See
SAMUEL IBN ABUN BEN YAHYA.
IBN ALFANGE: Spanish author; flourished
in the eleventh century. Nothing is known of his
life except that he embraced Christianity in 1094
and filled the position of “ official” under the famous
hero Cid Campeador (Rodrigo, or Ruy Diaz de
Vivar), who died at Valencia in 1099. Ibn Alfange
wrote in Arabic a biography of his master, Spanish
translations of which were made by the Spanish his-
torian Pero Anton Beuter and by the Spanish poets.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr.i., No. 34; Delitzsch, Zur
Gesch. der Jiidischen Poesie, p. 65; Steinschneider, Die
Arabische Literatur der Juden, §90b
G. I. Br.
IBN BAL‘AM, ABU ZAKARYA YAHYA
(R. JUDAH): Hebrew grammarian of Toledo,
Spain, about 1070-90. In the introduction to his
“Moznayim” Abraham ibn Ezra mentions Ibn Bal‘am
among the early masters of Hebrew grammar, and
Moses ibn Ezra, in his “ Kitab al-Muhadarah,” gives
the following data:
‘*tbn Bal‘am came from a respected family in Toledo, and
settled later in Seville. In his old age he devoted himself to the
study of law [that is, to theology]. He possessed a quick com-
prehension and an excellent memory. His style was direct
and terse, so that he could present comprehensive subjects in 4
few words. His literary work extended especially to compen-
dious treatises, in Which he availed himself of the thorough and
comprehensive studies of his predecessors, but from which he
extracted with care only their most essential and valuable con-
tents. ... Against his otherwise noble character and sedate
nature his irritable temperament stood in marked contrast.
Nobody escaped his criticism, which consisted not merely in the
pointing out of faulty passages, but in a trenchant and ruthless
analysis of their errors.”’
This characterization is fully borne out by Ibn
Bal‘am’s writings.
Ibn Bal‘am wrote altogether in Arabic. Some of
his works are known only from quotations or refer-
ences, by himself or by others. Those of his writings
which have been preserved are partly in Arabic,
partly in Hebrew translations. The following works
are known to be his: (1) “Ta’lif fi al-Mutabik wal-
Mujanis” (in Hebrew, “Sefer ha-Tagnis”), on He-
brew homonyms, still unpublished. Only a fragment
of the original Arabic has been preserved (see Poz-
nanski in “R, E. J.” xxxvi. 298). (2) “Huruf al-
Ma‘ani” (in Hebrew, “Otiyyot ha- ‘Inyanim”), on
Hebrew particles. Its publication was commenced
by 8S. Fuchs in “ Ha-Hoker” (i. 1138 et seg.), but was
not finished. Fragments of the original Arabic are
to be found in the notes to Ibn Janah’s “ Kitab al-
Usul,” published by Neubauer. (8) “Al-Af‘al al-
Mushtakkah min al-Asma’” (in Hebrew, “ Ha-Pe‘a-
lim Shehem mi-Gizrat ha-Shemot”), on verbs;
published by G. Polak in “Ha-Karmel ” (iii. 821 e¢
seg.), and republished by B. Goldberg and Adelman
in “Hayye ‘Olam” (Paris, 1879). <A third edition
was begun in “Ha-Misderonah” (i. 21 e¢ seg.), but
remained unfinished. (4) “Al-Irshad,” a lost gram-
matical treatise mentioned by Ibn Barun (“ Kitab al-
Muwazanah,” p. 21). (5)“ Ta‘did Mu‘jizat al-Taurat
wal-Nubuwwat,” an enumeration of the miracles in
the Pentateuch and in the Prophets. It is mentioned
by Moses ibn Ezra, but is otherwise unknown. (6)
“Kitab al-Tarjih,” a commentary to the Pentateuch ;
unpublished; only Numbers and Deuteronomy are
extant. (7) “Nukat al-Mikra,” a short Biblical com-
mentary. The greater part of this work is still in
existence. The commentary on the Book of Isaiah
has been published by Derenbourg (“R. E. J.” xvii.
172 et seq.). (8) Two liturgical hymns; Hebrew
translations (see Landshuth, “‘Ammude_ ha-‘Abo-
dah,” i. 66).
In addition to the above, a work on Masoretic
rules and accents, “ Hidayat al-Kari” (in Hebrew,
“ Horayat ha-Kore”), an extract from which, under
the title “Ta‘ame ha-Mikra,” was published by
Mercier (Paris, 1565), who also published the second
part, containing the accentuation of the books of
Psalms, Proverbs, and Job (23. 1556), has usually
been attributed to Ibn Bal‘am. Wickes, however,
who published the Arabic original on the poetic ac-
cents, has questioned this authorship.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. $ 548; Zeit. fur
Hebr. Bibl. i. 96, iv. 17; S. Fuchs, Studien tiber Abu Zaka-
rija Jahja (R. Jehudah) Ibn Bal‘am, i., Berlin, 1893.
C,
G.
IBN BARUN, ABU IBRAHIM ISHAK:
Spanish grammarian; lived in the eleventh and
twelfth centuries, probably at Barcelona. He was
a pupil of the grammarian Levi ibn Tabban of Sara-
gossa (author of the “ Mafteah ”), and a contemporary
of Judah ha-Levi and Moses ibn Ezra, who dedi-
cated to him several of their poems; the latter also
wrote an elegy on his death (comp. “ Kokebe Yizhak,”
1858, p. 28; Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.”
No. 1972; Brody, in “Monatsschrift,” xi. 33). Ibn
Barun was well versed in Arabic literature, and was
the first to realize the close connection existing be-
tween Hebrew grammatical and lexicographical
forms and those of the Arabic. This connection was
pointed out by him in a work entitled “Kitab al-
Muwazanah,” divided into two parts, the first treat-
ing of Hebrew grammar in comparison with Arabic,
Ibn Bilia
Ibn Ezra
the second of lexicography. Fragments of this
work, which until recently was known only from
quotations, were discovered in the Imperial Library
of St. Petersburg, and published, with introduction,
translation, and notes in Russian, by Paul v. Ko-
kowzow (St. Petersburg, 1894).
Ibn Barun frequently quotes the Koran, the
“Mu‘allakat,” the “Kitab al-‘Ain” of Khalil, and
many other standard works of Arabic literature,
with which he was thoroughly acquainted. His
Hebrew sources were Saadia Gaon, Hai Gaon,
Dunash ibn Tamim, Hayyuj (whose theories he fre-
quently criticized), Ibn Janah, Samuel ha-Nagid,
Solomon ibn Gabirol, Ibn Jashush, Ibn Bal‘am, and
Moses Gikatilla. Moses ibn Ezra says that Ibn
Barun also compared Hebrew with Latin and Berber,
and that his dictionary is superior to that of Dunash
ibn Tamim. Nevertheless, Ibn Barun’s work passed
almost unnoticed by the Hebrew philologists of the
Middle Ages. He is mentioned by name only by
Moses ibn Ezra in his treatise on Hebrew poetry and
rhetoric. Several of his comparisons are cited with-
out acknowledgment by Joseph Kimhi, by Abra-
ham ben Solomon of Yemen in his work on the
Prophets, and by an anonymous fifteenth-century
commentator to the “Moreh Nebukim.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cot. 1060; idem, in
Kobak’s Jeschurun, ix. 66-67; idem, Die Arabische Litte-
ratur der Juden, 8 97; J. Derenbourg, in R. BH. J. xxx. 156;
Bacher, in Stade’s Zeitschrift, xiv. 223 et seq.; Neubauer, in
J. Q. R. vi. 567; Eppenstein, in R. £. J. xli. 233; idem, in
Ha-Eshkol, ii. 198; David von Ginzburg, in Ha-Meliz, 1895,
Nos. 152, 176, 225, 226.
T, I. Br.
IBN BILIA, DAVID BEN YOM-TOB: Por-
tuguese philosopher; lived in the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries. Steinschneider believes him
to have been the father of the astronomer Jacob
Poel. Ibn Bilia was the author of many works, the
greater part of which, no longer in existence, are
known only by quotations. Among them were:
“Me’or ‘Enayim,” acommentary on the Pentateuch,
quoted by Caspi, Levi ben Gershon, and chiefly by
the author’s countryman Samuel Zarza, who often
criticized Ibn Bilia’s interpretations as being too
mystical; “Yesodot ha-Maskil,” published, with a
French translation by S. Klein, in the collection
“Dibre Hakamim,” Metz, 1849. In the “ Yesodot”
Ibn Bilia propounded thirteen articles of belief in
addition to those of Maimonides. These are: (1)
The existence of incorporeal intellects; (2) The crea-
tion of the world; (3) The existence of a future life;
(4) Emanation of the soul from God; (5) The soul’s
existence through its own substance and its self-
consciousness; (6) Its existence independent of the
body it subsequently occupies; (7) Retribution of the
soul; (8) Perdition of the souls of the wicked; (9)
Superiority of the Mosaic law over philosophy;
(10) The presence of an esoteric as well as an exo-
teric meaning in Holy Scripture; (11) Inadmissibil-
ity of emendations of the Torah; (12) The reward of
the fulfilment of the divine precepts implied in the
precepts themselves; (13) The inadequacy of cere-
monial laws alone for the realization of human per-
fection. These, together with the thirteen articles of
Maimonides, make twenty-six, the numerical value
of the Tetragrammaton.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
520
Ibn Bilia also wrote “ Ziyyurim,” an ethical work;
“Kilale ha-Higgayon,” a work on logic, of which
only a fragment has been preserved (Neubauer, “Cat.
Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No, 2168); “ Ma’amar bi-Segullot
‘Or ha-Nahash,” a treatise on the medicinal virtues of
the skin of the serpent, translated from Johannes
Paulinus’ Latin translation “Salus Vite ” (Munich,
No. 228); a treatise on astrology and its connection
with medicine.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Additamenta zu Delitzsch’s Katalog
der Leipziger Bibliothek, p. 326; Dukes, in Literaturblatt
des Orients, viii. 116, 456; idem, Nahal Kedumim, p. 48;
Senior Sachs, Ha-Palit. pp. 31-33; Steinschneider, Cat. Boal.
col. 857: Kayserling, Gesch. der Juden in Portugal, p. 683
Steinschneider. Hebr. UCebers. pp. 499, 806,
K. I. Br.
IBN DANAN, SAADIA BEN MAIMUN
BEN MOSES: Lexicographer, philosopher, and
poet; flourished at Granada in the second half of
the fifteenth century. He exercised the function of
dayyan at Granada and enjoyed a great reputation
as Talmudist. When the Jews were banished from |
Spain, Saadia and his father, Maimun, settled at
Oran, where they remained until their deaths (com-
pare Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 1492).
Ibn Danan was the author of the folowing works:
(1) “Al-Daruri fi al-Lughah al-‘Ibranivyah ” (The
Necessary [Rule] of the Hebrew Language), a Hebrew
grammar with a chapter on Hebrew prosody (this
chapter, translated by the author into Hebrew at the
request of his pupils not acquainted with Arabic, was
published by A. Neubauer in his “ Meleket ha-Shir,”
Frankfort, 1865) ; (2) a Hebrew dictionary in Arabic;
(3) commentary on ch. lili. of Isaiah, published by
Neubauer in “The Fifty-third Chapter of Isaiah Ac-
cording to the Jewish Interpreters,” Oxford, 1877; (4)
a philosophical treatise on the shape of the letters
of the alphabet, still extant ina manuscript in the
Bodleian Library which contains many other small
treatises by Danan on various subjects; (5) “Sefer he-
‘Aruk,” a Talmudical lexicon, still extant in manu-
script (compare Neubauer, “Cat. Bod]. Hebr. MSS.”
No. 1492); (6) responsa, printed at the end of the
collection of responsa entitled “Pe'er ha-Dor,” by
Maimonides (§§ 225-230) ; (7) “ Ma’amar ‘al Seder ha-
Dorot” (Treatise on the Order of the Generations),
giving the chronology of the Jewish kings, pub-
lished by Edelmann in “Hemdah Genuzah,” K6-
nigsberg, 1856; (8) “Kasidah,” a poem in honor of
Maimonides’ “ Moreh Nebukim,” inserted in the col-
lection “Dibre Hakamim” published by Eliezer
Ashkenazi of Tunis (Metz, 1849).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Dukes, Nahal Kedumim, p. 1. note; Neu-
bauer, in Journal Asiatique, 1862, ii. 256 et seq.: iden, Cat.
Bodl. Hebr. MSS. Nos. 1492, 2061 (3), 2238; Carmoly, inthe
Life of Azulai, at the beginning of the Shem ha-Gedolim;
idem, Itinéraires, p. 380; Steinschneider. Cat. Borll. col,
21356 ; Blumgrund, Life and Works of Saadiaibn Panan (in
Hungarian), Presburg, 1900; Bacher, Rev. Et. Juives, xii. 268
et seq. ; Steinschneider, Die Arabische Litteratur der Ju-
den, p. 142.
G. I. Br.
IBN DAUD HA-LEVI. See ABRAHAM IBN
DAUD.
IBN EZRA, ABRAHAM BEN MEIR
(ABEN EZRA): Scholar and writer; born 1092-
1093; died Jan. 28 (according to Rosin, Reime und
Gedichte, p. 82, n. 6, 1167 (see his application of Gen.
521
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ibn Bilia
Ibn Ezra
xii. 4tohimself). His father’s name was Meir and his
family was probably a branch of the Ibn Ezra family
to which’ Moses ibn Ezra belonged. Moses in his
poems mentions Abraham by his Arabic name,
Abu Ishak (Ibrahim) ibn al-Majid ibn Ezra (Stein-
schneider, “Cat. Bodl.” col. 1801), together with Ju-
dah ha-Levi. Both were, according to Moses, from
Toledo, and afterward settled in Cordova. Ibn Ezra
himself once—in an acrostic—names Toledo as his
native place (“ Monatsschrift,” xlii. 19) and at an-
other time Cordova (beginning of the Hayyuj
translation). According to Albrecht (“Studien zu
den Dichtungen Abraham ben Ezra,” in “Z. D. M.
G.” lec. p. 422), it is certain that he was born in
Toledo. Through his emigration from Spain his
life was divided into two periods. In the first and
longer of these, which extended almost to the year
1140, he won for himself in his native land a name
as a poet and thinker. Moses ibn Ezra, who was
an intimate friend of his, extols him as a religious
philosopher (“ mutakallim ”) and as a man of great
eloquence; and a younger contempo-
First rary, Abraham ibn Daud, at the end
Period: to of his history (“Sefer ha-Kabbalah,”
1140. ed. Neubauer, p. 81), calls him the
last of the great men who formed the
pride of Spanish Judaism and who “strengthened
the hands of Israel with songs and with words of
comfort.” In this first period of his life Ibn Ezra’s
creative activity was chiefly occupied with poetry;
and the greater number of his religious and other
poems were probably produced during that time.
He likes to call himself “the poet” (“ha-shar,” in-
troduction to Pentateuch commentary) or “ father
of poems” (end of the versified calendar regulations) ;
and in a Jong poem of lamentation (Rosin, “ Reime
und Gedichte des Abraham ibn Ezra,” p. 88) he
says: “Once in my youth I used to compose songs
with which I decorated the Hebrew scholars as with
a necklace.” The fact, however, that Ibn Ezra had
pursued serious studies in all branches of knowl-
edge during his life in Spain, is shown by the wri-
tings of the second period of his life. The wealth
and variety of their contents can be explained only
by the compass and many-sidedness of his earlier
studies.
The most prominent scholars among the Jews of
Spain were Ibn Ezra’s personal friends: in Cordova
itself, which was his permanent resi-
dence, Joseph ibn Zaddik and espe-
cially Judah ha-Levi. The latter was
only a few years older than Ibn Ezra;
and on one occasion addressed a very witty saying
to Ibn Ezra’s father-in-law (see Geiger, “ Nachge-
lassene Schriften,” iv. 332). In his Bible commen-
tary Ibn Ezra afterward reported many text inter-
pretations from his talks with Judah ha-Levi (see
Bacher, “ Die Bibelexegese der Jiidischen Religions-
philosophen,” etc., pp. 182 et seq.). That he asso-
ciated and debated with the representatives of
Karaism, which was so widely spread in Spain in
his time, and that he was well acquainted with their
literature, is shown by many passages in his com-
mentary on the Bible.
Ibn Ezra nowhere says anything about his family
connections; but from a remark in a long comment
His
Friends.
e
on Ex. ii. 2 it may be concluded that his marriage
had been blessed with fivechildren. They probably
died early, however, except his son
Isaac, who left Spain at the same time
as his father, and who in 1143 com-
posed in Bagdad songs in honor of
the Arab Hibat Allah (Nathanael). According to
Albrecht, however, Abraham left Spain after Isaac,
perhaps because of the conversion of the last-named
to Islam, and with the purpose of bringing him
back to Judaism. Isaac’s conversion was a severe
blow to his father; and the latter ex pressed his grief
in two moving poems (“ Diwan,” Nos. 203 and 205;
Rosin, f.c. pp. 84 et seg.), Albrecht says Ibn Ezra
left Spain in 1187. Unable to bring his son back to
Judaism, he went to Rome (1140), where after many
troubles he found a period of rest.
In the second half of his life one must imagine Ibn
Ezra a lonely man, who, bound by no family ties, led
the unsettled life of a wanderer. Nevertheless he re-
sided for periods of several years in
His Son
Isaac.
Second variousplaces each. The year 1140 is
Period: given as the definite date with which
After this secona period begins. In that year
he composed several works in Rome.
1140.
This date, as well as those following,
is furnished by Ibn Ezra in some of his works. He
says of himself in the introductory poem to his
Kohelet commentary: “ He departed from his native
place, which is in Spain, and came to Rome.” But
this proves nothing against the supposition that
some at least. of his journeys in northern Africa
and Egypt, concerning which there is definite in-
formation, were made between his departure from
Spain and his arrival at Rome. Ibn Ezra was per-
haps in Africa at the same time with Judah ha-Levi.
A statement of Solomon ibn Parhon’s (“ Mahberet
he-‘Aruk,” 4b) seems to speak of their joint stay
there, although his remark may have another mean-
ing. Butitis possible that Ton Ezra’s travelsin the
East, which, as many suppose, took him to Pales-
tine and even to Bagdad (tradition states that he
went even as far as India), interrupted his stay in
Italy, or occurred between that time and his sojourn
in Provence.
A whole series of works on Bible exegesis and
grammar was the fruit of his stay in Italy. He is
known to have been in the following cities: Rome
(1140), Lucca (1145), Mantua (1145-46), Verona (1146-
1147). In Rome he had for a pupil Benjamin b.
Joab, for whose benefit he composed his commen:
tary on Job. Ibn Ezra went to Provence before
1155, stopping in the town of Béziers, where he
wrote a book on the names of God, dedicated to his
patrons Abraham b. Hayyim and Isaac
In b. Judah. A native of that city, Je-
Provence. daiah Bedersi, speaks enthusiastically,
more than a hundred and fifty years
afterward, of You Ezra’s stay in Provence (Solomon
ibn Adret, Responsa, No. 418). Judah ibn Tibbon of
Lunel, a contemporary of Ibn Ezra, speaks of the
epoch-making importance of the latter’s stay in
southern France (preface to “Rikmah”). Ibn Ezra
was in Narbonne in, or shortly before, 1139, and an-
swered certain questions for David b. Joseph. He
made a stay of several years in northern France, in the
Ibn Ezra
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
522
town of Dreux (department of Eure). On account
of a corruption (DIT?) of the Hebrew name of this
town (pi), it was for a long time thought that Ibn
Ezra wrote his works on the Island of Rhodes, and
later (since Gritz) that he wrote them in the town
of Rodez (Rhodez) in southern France (“R. E. J.”
xvii. 801; “ Monatssehrift,” xJii. 22).
In In Dreux Ibn Ezra completed several
Northern of his exegetical works, and, after re-
France. covering from an illness, began a new
commentary on the Pentateuch (“ Mo-
natsschrift,” xlii. 28). In 1158 Ibn Ezra was in Lon-
don, where he wrote his religio-philosophic work
“Yesod Mora” for his pupil Joseph b. Jacob, also
his letter on the Sabbath. Jn northern France Jbn
Ezra came into personal contact with the cele-
brated grandson of Rashi, R. Jacob Tam, and a
poem in praise of his brother R. Samuel b. Meir
written there by Ibn Ezra has been preserved
(Rosin, d.c. p. 225).
In 1160 he was again in Provence, and at Nar-
bonne he translated an astronomical work from the
Arabic. If the dates given ina poem concluding
his commentary on the Pentateuch are correct
(comp. Rosin, f.c. p. 81), Ton Ezra’s life ended at
the place where the second period of his activity
began, namely, Rome, where he put the finishing
touches to his commentary and probably also began
his last grammatical work (“Safah Berurah”), In
the introductory verse of this uncompleted work,
which he wrote for his pupil Solomon, Ibn Ezra ex-
presses the hope that “it will be a legacy of Abra-
ham the son of Meir, and will preserve his memory
from generation to generation.” These are the fare-
well words of a writer who at the same time feels
his end approaching and reckons on lasting fame.
If Abraham Zacuto’s statement (“ Yuhasin,” ed.
London, p. 218)—which, however, is not substanti-
ated—be accepted, that Ibn Ezra died in Calahorra
(in northern Spain on the boundary between Navarre
and Old Castile), it must be supposed that a longing
to see his old Spanish home made him leave Rome
and that he died on the way on Spanish soil.
In one of his best-known poems (“ Nedod Hesir
Oni”) Ibn Ezra has characterized the second period
of his life in the words: “I resided in that place as
a stranger, wrote books, and revealed the secrets of
knowledge.” Heis the only example of a wandering
scholar who developed an unusually rich literary
activity in his roaming existence under the stress of
circumstances, and who wrote works of lasting im-
portance. Ibn Ezra himself regarded
A Roving his life as that of an exile. He al-
Scholar. ways called himself a Spaniard (“Se-
fardi”), and gives a touching expres-
sion of his love for his fatherland in an elegy on the
persecution by the Almohades which began in 1142,
In this poem (“ Diwan,” No. 169) he enumerates the
Spanish and the North-African towns in which the
communities fell victims to the persecution. His
remark on the commandment concerning the festal
bunch of greens (Lev. xxiii. 40) gives a glimpse
into his longing for his beautiful native land: “ Who-
ever is exiled from Arabian lands to the lands of
Edom [Christian Eusope] will understand, if he has
eyes, the deep meaning of this commandment.”
The wandering life of an exile, such as Ibn Ezra
led for nearly three decades, gave him the oppor-
tunity to carry out a mission which was to an em-
inent degree historical. He became a propagator
among the Jews of Christian Europe,
who were unacquainted with Arabic,
of the science of Judaism, a science
which had been founded long be-
fore with that language as its literary medium.
He was fitted for this mission, as no one else, through
the versatility of his learning and through his clear
and charming Hebrew style. The great compass of
his literary activity will be seen from the following
résumé of his works:
Biblical Exegesis: Ibn Ezra’simportance in this fleld has
already been mentioned (see JEW. ENCYC. iii. 169, 8.v. BIBLE
EXEGESIS). His chief work is the commentary on the Penta-
teuch, which, like that of Rashi, has called forth a host of super-
commentaries, and which has done more than any other work
to establish his reputation. It is extant both in numerous manu-
scripts and in printed editions (1st ed., Naples, 1488). The com-
mentary on Exodus published in the printed editions 1s a work
by itself, which he finished in 1153 in southern France. A
shorter commentary on Exodus, more like the commentaries on
the remaining books of the Pentateuch, was first published in
1810 at Prague (ed. I. Reggio). A combination of these two
commentaries is found in an old and important
Cambridge MS. (Bacher, °* Varianten zu Abra-
ham ibn Ezra’s Pentateuchcommentar, aus dem
Cod. in Cambridge No, 46,” Strasburg, 1894).
M. Friedlander has published the beginning of a second com-
mentary on Genesis (‘* Essays,"’ 1877). The complete commen-
tary on the Pentateuch, which, as has already been mentioned,
was finished by Ibn Ezra shortly before his death, was called
‘Sefer ha-Yashar.”’ In the rabbinical editions of the Bible the
following commentaries of Ibn Ezra on Biblical books are like-
wise printed: Isaiah (1874; separate ed. with English translation
by M. Friedlander): the Twelve Minor Prophets; Psalms; Job;
the Megillot; Daniel. The commentaries on Proverbs and
Ezra (with Nehemiah) which bear Ibn Ezra’s name are by
Moses Kimhi. Another commentary on Proverbs, published
in 1881 by Driver and in 1884 by Horowitz, is also erroneously
ascribed to Ibn Ezra. Additional commentaries by Ibn Ezra
to the following buoks are extant: Song of Solomon (ed.
Mathews, 1874); Esther (ed. Zedner, 1850): Daniel (ed. Mathews,
1877). He also probably wrote commentaries to a part of the
remaining books, as may be concluded from his own references
(see Ludwig Levy, *” Reconstruction des Commentars Ibn Ezra’s
zu den Ersten Propheten,’’ Berlin, 1908).
Hebrew Grammar: (1) ‘*Moznayim” (1140), chiefly an
explanation of the terms used in Hebrew grammar; as early as
1148 it was incorporated by Judah Hadassi in his ** Eshkol ha-
Kofer,’’ with no mention of Ibn Ezra (see **‘ Monatsschrift,”’ xl.
74), firsted. in 1546. (2) Translation of the work of Hayyujinto
Hebrew (ed. Onken, 1844). (8) ‘*Sefer ha-Yesod,”’? or ‘** Yesod
Dikduk,”’ still unedited (see Bacher, ‘* Abraham ibn Ezra als
Grammatiker,” pp. 8-17). (4) ‘‘Zahot’’ (1145), on linguistic
correctness, his best grammatical work, which also contains a
brief outline of modern Hebrew meter; first ed. 1546. (5)
“Safah Berurah ” (see above), first ed. 1830. (6) A short out-
line of grammar at the beginning of the unfinished commentary
on Genesis. The importance of Ibn Ezra’s grammatical wri-
tings has already been treated in GRAMMAR, HEBREW.
Smaller Works, Partly Grammatical, Partly
Exegetical: (1) **Sefat Yeter,’’ in defense of Saadia Gaon
against Dunash ben Labrat, whose criticism of Saadia, Ibn Ezra
had brought with him from Egypt; published by Bislichs 1838
and Lippmann 1848. (2) ‘* Sefer ha-Shem,”’ ed. Lippmann, 1834.
(3) “‘ Yesod Mispar,’”? a small monograph on numerals, ed.
Pinsker, 1863, at the end of his book on the Babylonian-Hebrew
system of punctuation. (4) “* Iggeret Shabbat,’ a responsum
on the Sabbath, dated 1158, ed. Luzzatto, in ** Kerem Hemed,”
iv. 138 et seq.
Religious Philosophy : ‘‘ Yesod Mora” (1158), on the
division of and reasons for the Biblical commandments; Ist ed.
1529. For Ibn Ezra’s religious philosophy, in which Neoplatonic
ideas predominate, see Rosin in ‘** Monatsschrift,” xlii., xliii.
Rosin has not noticed the metaphysical works ‘‘* Aruggat ha-
Hokmah ’’ and “ Pardes ha-Mezimmah ” (see ‘* Kerem Hemed,”
iv. 1-5), written in rimed prose, the authenticity of which is
His
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Commen.
taries.
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PAGE FROM THE F1IksT EDITION OF ABRAHAM IBN EZRA’S COMMENTARY TO THE PENTATEUCH, NAPLES, 1488,
(In the Columbia University Library, New York.)
Ibn Ezra
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
524
maintained by Schreiner (“Der Kalam in der Jiidischen Lit-
teratur,.”’ p. 35).
Mathematics, Astronomy, Astrology: (1) ‘Sefer
ha-Ehad,” on the peculiarities of the numbers 1-9 (ed. Pinsker
and Goldhardt, Odessa, 1867). (2) “Sefer ha-Mispar” or ‘* Ye-
sod Mispar,”’ arithmetic. Steinschneider, on the basis of twenty
manuscripts, describes its contents in ** Abraham ibn Ezra,”
pp. 103-118. (3) ‘* Luhot,”’ astronomical tables. (4) °* Sefer ha-
‘Ibbur,”? on the calendar (ed. Halberstam, 1874). (5) ** Keli
ha-Nehoshet,”? on the astrolabe (ed. Edelmann, 1845). (6)
‘*Shalosh She’elot,” answer to three chronological questions of
David Narboni (ed. Steinschneider. 1847). (7) Translation of
two works by the astrologer Mashallah: ‘*She’elot’’ and ‘* Kad-
rut’ (Steinschneider, *‘ Hebr. Uebers.”’ pp. 600-603). The sec-
ond work was edited by M. Grossberg in an appendix to Dunash
b. Tataim’s “* Yezirah’? commentary, London, 1902. Various
astrological writings in two versions (written in 1146 and 1198;
see Steinschneider, ‘‘Abraham ibn Ezra,”’ pp. 126 et seq.; idem,
** Cat. Bodl.”’ col. 687).
Pseudepigraphic: The two commentaries on Biblical
books which are falsely ascribed to Ibn Ezra mentioned above.
In addition: (1) ‘* Sefer ha-‘Azamim ” (Steinschneider, ‘* Hebr.
Uebers.”’ p. 448). (2) ‘“*Sha‘ar ha-Shamayim,” the introduction
to which has been published by Luzzatto in ‘ Betulat Bat
Yehudah,” pp. v.-xi. See, further, Steinschneider, ** Abraham
ibn Ezra,” pp. 71-75; idem, ‘‘Die Arabische Litteratur der
Judenu,”’ p. 156.
Some of Ibn Ezra’s poems are contained in the “* Diwan” (260
numbers), which was edited by I. Egers from the only manu-
script in existence. This also contains the re-
ligio-philosophical poem ‘Hai b. Mekiz,” in
rimed prose, the contents of which are based
on an Arabic prose work of Avicenna (Ibn Sina). Besides those
contained in the “ Diwan,” there are a great many other poems
by Ibn Ezra, some of them religious (the editor of the ** Diwan”
in an appended list mentions nearly 200 numbers) and some
secular. Rosin has critically edited and translated a consider-
able number of these in several yearly reports of the Breslau
Seminary (1885 to 1894). They have also been edited, together
with an introduction and notes, by David Kahana, 2 vols., War-
saw, 1894,
Al-Harizi (“ Tahkemoni,” iv.) says of Ibn Ezra’s
poetry: “The poems of Ibn Ezra provide help in
time of need, and cause refreshing rain in time of
drought. All of his poetry is lofty and admirable
in its contents.” Zunz (“Literaturgesch.” p. 207)
says: “Through him the gap between piyyut [syna-
gogal poetry] and classic style came clearly to be
recognized. Yet poetry was not his special line of
activity. Number and measure lurk in his verses,
and flashes of thought spring from his words—but
not pictures of the imagination.”
It should also be noticed that no work by Ibn
Ezra in Arabic has been preserved, although he was
perfectly familiar with that language.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. vi., especially note 8; Stein-
schneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 680-689; idem, Abraham ibn
Ezra, in Zeitschrift fir Mathematik und Phystk, xxv.,
Supplement, pp. 25, 59; D. Rosin, Reime und Gedichte des
Abraham ibn Ezra, Breslau, 1885-94; idem, in Monats-
schrift, Xlii. 18-26; M. Friedlander, Essays on the Writings
of Ibn Ezra, London, 1877; W. Bacher, Abraham ihn Ezras
Binleitung zu Seinem Pentateuchcommentar, Vienna,
1876; idem, Abraham ibn Ezra als Grammatiker, Stras-
burg, 1882; idem, in Winter and Wtinsche, Die Jtidische
Litteratur, ii. 185-190, 289-3806; Albrecht, Studien zu den
Lee Abrahams ben Ezra, in Z. D. M. G. lvii. 421
et seq.
G. W. B.
IBN EZRA, ISAAC (ABU SA‘D): Spanish
poet of the twelfth century ; son of Abraham ibn Ezra.
He won fame as a poct at an early age, probably
while still in his Spanish home. A1)-Harizi (“ Tah-
kemoni,” iii.) says of him: “Like his father, Isaac
also drew from the springs of poetry; and some of
the father’s brilliancy flashes in the songs of the
son.” He probably left Spain with his father, before
1140. In 1148 Isaac was in Bagdad as a protégé of
As Poet.
the Arab Abu al-Barakat Hibat Allah (Nathanael).
The poem in which he extols his patron and his
commentary on Ecclesiastes has been preserved
(ed. by Dukes in “Kokebe Yizhak,” xxiv.; comp.
Steinschneider, “Hebr. Bibl.” i. 91). When -Hibat
Allah became converted to Islam, Isaac ibn Ezra fol-
lowed his example. Al-Harizi says (2.): “But
when he came into Eastern lands the glory of God
no longer shone over him; he threw away the costly
garments of Judaism, and put on strange ones,”
Abraham ibn Ezra mourned in two elegies over the
apostasy of his son. One of these poems was com-
posed three years after Isaac’s abandonment of Juda-
ism, as appears from the second strophe, Abraham
ibn Ezra, therefore, could not have heard of the
sad event until a long time afterward. Regarding
the possible identity of Isaac ibn Ezra and an
Isaac b. Abraham ha-Sefaradi, for whom a copy
of the Hebrew translation of Hayyuj’s works and
of the Mustalhik was made by Abu al-Walid, see
“R, BJ.” xx. 140.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Gesech. 3d ed., vi. 255: Steinschneider,
Abraham ibn Ezra, p. 68; idem, Die Arabische Literatur
der Juden, p. 184; Brody, Hebr. Bibl. iii. 124-126,
G. W. B.
IBN EZRA, JOSEPH BEN ISAAC: Orien-
tal rabbi of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries;
descendant of the Ibn Ezra family of Spain.
Brought up in Salonica, he studied under the direc-
tion of Samuel di Modena, and became head of the
Talmudic school there; among his pupils were
Aaron Hazzan, Meir Melammed, and Shabbethai
Jonah. Late in life Ibn Ezra was compelled to seek
refuge in Constantinople, whence he was called to
the rabbinate of Sofia, in which city he died. Ibn
Ezra was a learned Talmudist, and his works were
highly esteemed. He wrote: “Rosh Yosef,” a com-
mentary on the Turim, of which the part treating
of communal taxes and contributions was published
at Salonica (1601), under the title “ Massa’ Melek”;
““Azamot Yosef,” commentary on Kiddushin (7d,
1601; Berlin, 1699; Firth, 1767). In the preface to
the latter the author states that the object of the
commentary is to give, in addition to the ordinary
exposition of the text (“peshat”), a clear insight
into the methodology of the Talmud. He states
further that the responsa of Joseph ibn Leb (1576),
which reached him after he had finished his commen-
tary, compelled him to make some changes therein.
Appended to the work are the halakic decisions of
the treatise in question with explanations of some
difficult passa ges in various other treatises. Ibn Ezra
also wrote: a commentary on Baba Mezi‘a, men-
tioned in the “‘Azamot Yosef”; rules for the inter-
pretation of the Talmud; responsa, some of which
are found in the “‘Azamot Yosef,” the responsa of
Salomon ha-Kohen, Samuel di Modena’s “Beno
Shemuel,” and the “Shai la-Mora” of Shabbethai
Jonah.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Introduction to the ‘Azamot Yosef ; Con-
forte, Kore ha-Dorot, p. 48b; Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i.
77, ii, 108; Cassel, in Ersch and Gruber, Einecyc. section il.,
part 31, p. 74; Steinschneider, Cat. Boal. col. 1460.
S. I. Br.
IBN EZRA, JUDAH: Son of Joseph ibn Ezra
of Granada; Spanish state official of the twelfth
century. He was raised by Alfonso VII. of Cas-
525
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ibn Ezra
tile to the position of commander of the frontier
fort of Calatrava, to the dignity of “nasi” (prince),
and, a few years later, to the post of majordomo of
the royal household. Judah used his position and
wealth to benefit his coreligionists, who were perse-
cuted by the victorious Almohades. With the per-
mission of Alfonso, Judah also vigorously combated
Karaism, which was gaining ground in Castile, and
wrote in refutation of its arguments.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ibn Daud, Sefer ha-Kabbaiah, in Neubauer,
M. J.C. pp. 80 et seq.; Gratz, Gesch. vii. 187 et seq.
G,. M. K
IBN EZRA, MOSES BEN JACOB HA-SAL-
LAH (ABU HARUN MUSA): Spanish philoso-
pher, linguist, and poet; born at Granada about
1070; died after 1138; relative of Abraham ibn Ezra
and pupil of Isaacibn Ghayyat. The surname “ha-
Sallah ” is generally believed to have been given him
on account of the numerous “selihot” written by
him. Ibn Ezra belonged to one of the most promi-
nent families of Spain. According to Isaac Israeli
(“ Yesod ‘Olam,” part iv., ch. xviii., end), he had
three brothers, Isaac, Joseph, and Zerahiah, all of
whom were distinguished scholars. -From his corre-
spondence with his junior and friend Judah ha-
Levi, who dedicated tohim many poems, it is known
that Ibn Ezra suffered a great disappointment in the
rejection of his addresses by a niece, who died
shortly after her marriage to one of his brothers.
To this affair of the heart, doubtless the cause of his
leaving his native city, is probably due the note of
melancholy and resignation which distinguishes his
poetry.
Ibn Ezra’s activity was extensive and many-sided.
He was a distinguished philosopher, an able lin-
guist, and, above all, a powerful poet, of whom
Judah al-Harizisaid: “Moses ibn Ezra draws pearls
from the well of thought” (“Tahkemoni,” ch. iii.).
To the domain of philosophy belongs Ibn Ezra’s
“Al-Hadikah fi Ma‘ani al-Mujaz wal-Hakikah,”
anonymously translated into Hebrew under the title
“*Arugat ha-Bosem.” The Arabic original and a
fragment of the translation are still
Many- extant in manuscript, the former in
Sided the Imperial Library of St. Petersburg,
Activity. the latter in the libraries of Hamburg
and Oxford (Steinschneider, “ Ham-
burg Cat.” No. 256; Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr,
MSS.” No. 1180, 20). The “‘Arugat ha-Bosem ” is
divided into seven chapters: (i.) general remarks on
God, man, and philosophy; (ii.) the unity of God;
(iii.) the inadmissibility of applying attributes to
God; (iv.) the impropriety of giving names to
God; (v.) motion; (vi.) nature; (vii.) the intel-
lect. The authorities quoted in this work are
Hermes (identified by Ibn Ezra with Enoch), Py-
thagoras, Socrates, Aristotle, Plato, (pseudo-) Em-
pedocles, Alfarabi, Saadia Gaon, and Solomon ibn
Gabirol. However, the brilliancy of Ibn Ezra’s
achievements in other directions was prejudicial
to his philosophical reputation, -and although his
“*Arugat ha-Bosem” betrays profound knowledge
of the Greco-Arabic philosophy, it was somewhat
neglected; the only known instance of its quotation
is in a letter of Jedaiah Bedersi to Solomon ben
Adret. |
Far more successful was the “ Kitab al-Muhadarah
wal-Mudhakarah,” a treatise on rhetoric and poetry,
which was composed on the lines of the “ Adab” wri-
tings of the Arabs, and is the only work of its kind
in Hebrew literature. It was written at the request
of a friend who had addressed to him eight questions
on Hebrew poctry, and is divided into a correspond-
ing number of chapters. In the first four the author
treats generally of prose and prose-writers, of poetry
and poets, and of the natural poetic gift of the
Arabs, which he attributes to the climate of Arabia.
He concludes the fourth chapter with the statement
that, with very rare exceptions, the
poctical parts of the Bible have neither
meter norrime. The fifth chapter is
the most important. It begins with
the history of the settlement of the Jews in Spain,
which, according to the author, began during the
Exile, the word “Sepharad” used by the prophet
Obadiah (verse 20) meaning “Spain.” Then comes
a full description of the literary activity of the
Spanish Jews, giving the most important authors
and their works. In the sixth chapter the author
quotes various maxims and describes the general
intellectual condition of his time, which seems not
to have been very brilliant. He deplores the indif-
ference shown by the public to scholars. This in-
difference, he declares, does not affect him person-
ally; for he can not count himself among those
who have been ill-treated by fate; he has experienced
both good and bad fortune. Moreover, he possesses
a virtue which permits him to renounce any preten-
sion to public recognition—the virtue of content-
ment and moderation. In the seventh chapter the
author discusses the question whether it is possible
to compose poetry in dreams, as some trustworthy
writers claim to have done. The eighth chapter is
divided into two parts, the first dealing with poetry
and poems, and the second (in twenty paragraphs)
with tropes, figures, and other poetic forms.
The “ Kitab al-Muhadarah ” is still extant in man-
uscript in the libraries of Berlin, Oxford, and St.
Petersburg. <A part of the work, including the first
four chapters, was published by Paul Kokowzow,
St. Petersburg, 1895; the second chapter was pub-
lished by H. Hirschfeld in his Judzo-Arabic
chrestomathy. An estimate and analysis of the
work have been given by Schreiner (“R. E. J.” xxi,
xxii.); an index of the authors and works referred
to therein was made by Steinschnueider (“ Berlin Cat.”
ii, 80 e¢ seqg.). A fragment of a Hebrew translation
(entitled “Eshkol ha-Kofer”) of the “Kitab al-
Muhadarah ” is cited by Zacuto (“ Yuhasin,” p. 220,
ed. London). In this work Ibn Ezra mentions an-
other work of his, “Fi Fada’il Ahl al-Adab,” which
is no Jonger in existence.
Ibn Ezra was an unrivaled master of the Hebrew
language, His poetical productions, both sacred
and secular, are distinguished by their
His Poetry. beauty of form and style, and were,
according to Al-Harizi (“Tahke-
moni,” iii.), preferred by poets even to those of
Judah ha-Levi and Abraham ibn Ezra. Ibn Ezra’s
secular poems are contained in two works: in the
“Tarshish ” (so called on account of the 1,210 lines
it comprised), or “‘Anak” (Arabic title “Zahr al-
His
Rhetoric.
Ibn Ezra
Ibn Gabirol
Riyad ”), and in the first part of his “Diwan.” The
“'Tarshish” is divided into ten chapters, each of
which contains in order the twenty-two letters of
the alphabet. It is written in the Arabic style of
poetry termed “tajnis,” which consists in the repe-
tition of words in every stanza, but with a different
meaning in each repetition. The first chapter is
dedicated to a certain Abraham (certainly not Abra-
ham ibn Ezra), whose merits he exalts in Oriental
fashion. In the nine remaining chapters are dis-
cussed: (ch. ii.) wine, love, and song; (iii.) the beauty
of country life; (iv., v.) love-sickness and the sepa-
ration of lovers; (vi.) unfaithful friends; (vii.) old
age; (Vili.) vicissitudes of fortune, and death; (ix.)
confidence in God; (x.) the glory of poetry.
Ibn Ezra’s earnestness is reflected even in the
most frivolous parts of the “Tarshish.” It would
seem that even when he sings of love and wine and
of kindred subjects his mind is still oceupied with
the grave problems of life. He isa great lover of
nature, and interprets it in vivid language. Es-
pecially striking is the seventh chapter, in which
he bewails the loss of youth. His gray hair ren-
ders him sad and morose; “O that the night [black-
ness] still crowned my hair instead of the day!” he
exclaims. His only consolation is that old age will
free him from passions and enable him to lead a
decorous life. The “Tarshish” was published by
David Gtiuzburg, Berlin, 1886. In the manuscript
copies found in various European libraries (Munich,
Oxford, Paris, etc.) the “ Tarshish” is accompanied
by a commentary explaining the signification of the
homonyms used. It is possible that the elements of
this commentary come from the author himself.
The “Diwan,” still extant in manuscript (Neu-
bauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 1792), contains
three hundred secular poems, consisting in part of
praises of friends and elegies on the death of scholars.
The greater part of Ibn Ezra’s 220 sacred com-
positions, which are scattered in nearly all the Mah-
zorim (that of the Ashkenazim excepted) and in the
“Diwan,” are penitential poems (“selihot ”) for the
New-Year and the Day of Atonement. Their aim
is to invite man to look within himself; they depict
the emptiness of life, the vanity of
worldly glory,.the bitter disillusion
which must be experienced at last by
the pleasure-seeker, and the inevitable-
ness of divine judgment. A skilfully elaborated
piece of work is the “‘Abodah,” the introduction to
which is a part of the Portuguese Mahzor. Unlike
his predecessors, Ibn Ezra begins his review of Bib-
lical history not with Adam, but with the giving of
the Law. The piyyutim which follow the mishnaic
text of the Temple service, especially the piyyut
“Happy is theeye that beheld it,” are of remarkable
beauty.
Sacred
Poems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Luzzatto, in Kerem Hemed, iv. 85 et seq.;
Dukes, in Ziyyon, ii. 117; idem, Moses ibn Ezra aus Gra-
nada, Hamburg, 1889; Edelmann and Dukes, Treasures of
Oxford, pp. 63 et seq., London, 1851; Sachs, Die Religidse
Poesie, pp. 276 et seg.. Zunz, Literaturgesch. p. 202, and In-
dex; Landshuth, ‘Ammude ha-‘Abadah, pp. 239 et seq.:
Steinschneider. Cat. Bodl. col. 1801; idem, Verzeichniss der
Koniglichen Bibliothek zu Berlin, ii. 30, 128; idem, Die
Arabische Literatur der Juden, p. 101; Gratz, Gesch. vi.
292; Schreiner, in AR. BH. J. xxi., xxii.; Brody, in Monats-
schrift, x).
J. I. Br.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
526
IBN EZRA, SOLOMON BEN MOSES:
Rabbiof Venice; flourished in the second half of the
seventeenth century. He was a disciple of Joseph
Escapa and wrote a preface to, and edited the sec-
ond part of, the latter’s “Rosh Yosef” (Smyrna,
1659). He also edited: Solomon Algazi’s “ Me‘ul-
lefet Sappirim,” to which he wrote a preface (2d,
1665); R. Jacob Berab’s responsa (Venice, 1663,
with many of his own); and “ Mekor Baruk,” the re-
sponsa of Baruch Kalai (Smyrna, 1660).
BIRLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. i., No. 10793 ii., No. 1064;
First, Bibl. Jud. i. 288; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit.
Mus. pp. 807, 727.
D. M. SEL.
IBN GABIROL, SOLOMON BEN JUDAH
(ABU AYYUB SULAIMAN IBN YAHYA
IBN JABIRUL), known also as Avicebron:
Spanish poet, philosopher, and moralist; born in
Malaga about 1021; died about 1058 in Valencia.
He is called by Gritz “the Jewish Plato,” and by
Steinschneider “the most origina] philosophical wri-
ter among the Jewsand Arabs.” The name “ Avice-
bron” isa corruption of “ Ibn Gabirol” (“ Ibugebirol,”
“ Avengebirol,” “ Avengebrol,” “ Avencebrol,” “ Avi-
cebrol,” “ Avicebron”). Little isknown of Gabirol’s
life. His parents died while he was a child. At
seventeen years of age he became the friend and pro-
tégé of Jekuthiel Hassan. Upon the assassination
of the Jatter as the result of a political conspiracy,
Gabirol composed an elegy of more than 200 verses.
The death of Hai Gaon also called forth a similar
poem When barely twenty Gabirol wrote “ ‘ Anak,”
a versified Hebrew grammar, alphabetical and acros-
tic, consisting of 400 verses divided into ten parts.
Of this grammar, which Ibn Ezra characterizes as of
incalculable value, ninety-five lines have been pre-
served by Solomon Parhon. In these Gabirol re-
proaches his townsmen with their neglect of the
holy tongue.
Gabirol’s residence in Saragossa, in which city he
passed his early days, was embittered by strife.
Envy and ill-will pursued him, which accounts for
the pessimistic strain underlying his work. Life
finally became unbearable in Saragossa, and he fled.
He thought of leaving Spain, but remained and
wandered about. He gained another friend and
patron in the person of Samuel ibn Nagdela, whose
praises he sang. Later an estrangement arose be-
tween them, and Nagdela became for a time the butt
of Gabirol’s bitterest irony. All testimonies agree
that Gabirol was comparatively young at the time
of his death, which followed years of wandering.
The year of his death was probably 1058 or 1059,
the former date being accepted by Steinschneider
(“Hebr. Uebers.” p. 879, note 76) and Neubauer
(“ Monatsschrift,” xxxvi. 498 e¢ seg.). The erroneous
supposition that Gabirol died before reaching his
thirtieth year is due to a misunderstanding of some
words of Sa‘id by Moses ibn Ezra and by Al-Harizi
(comp. Kaufmann, “Studien,” pp. 79-80, note 2;
Kampf, “ Beitriige,” p. 189; Wise, “Improvement
of Moral Qualities,” p. 6, note 8, New York, 1901).
The incorrect date (1070) of Gabirol’s death given
in the “ Yuhasin” was accepted by many medieval
and modern writers, among the latter being Munk,
Dukes, Gritz, and Guttmann.
527
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ibn Ezra
Ibn Gabirol
A strange legend concerning the manner of Gabi-
rol’s death is related by Ibn Yahya in “Shalshelet
ha-Kabbalah.” A Mohammedan, jealous of Gabi-
rol’s poetic gifts, slew him, and buried him beneath
the roots of a fig-tree. The tree bore fruit abun-
dantly ; and the fruit was of extraordinary swect-
ness. This strange circumstance excited attention ;
a search was instituted, the remains of the mur-
dered Gabirol were brought to light, and the mur-
derer expiated his crime with his life.
Gabirol was the first teacher of Neoplatonism in
Europe. Heessayed again the part played by Philo.
Philo had served as the intermediary between Hel-
lenic, especially Platonic, philosophy and the Orien-
tal world. He had Orientalized European philoso-
phy and prepared the way for its
Restorer Christianization. A thousand years
of Neo- later Gabiro! Occidentalized Greco-
platonism. Arabic philosophy and restored it to
Europe. Strangely enough, the philo-
sophical teachings of Philo and Gabirol were alike
ignored by their fellow Jews; and the parallel may
be extended by adding that Philo and Gabirol alike
exercised @ very considerable influence in extra-
Jewish circles: Philo upon primitive Christianity,
and Gabirol upon the scholasticism of medieval
Christianity. Gabirol’s service, in common with
that of other Arabic and Jewish philosophers, in
bringing the philosophy of Greece under the shelter
of the Christian Church, was but a return for the
service of the earlier Christian scholars, who had
translated the chief works of Greek philosophy into
Syriac and Arabic.
Seyerlen (“ Beziehungen,” pp. 24-25) adduces a
further parallel between Gabirol and Spinoza, who
respectively introduced medieval and modern phi-
losophy, and holds that each kept his philosophical
speculation free from theological bias.
“Fons Vite” (.e., DYN Wpy; Ps. xxxvi. 10) isa
philosophical dialogue between master and disciple.
The book derives its name from the fact that it con-
siders matter and form as the basis of existence and
the source of life in every created thing (Kaufmann,
“Gesch. der Attributenlehre aus der Jiidischen Re-
ligionsphilosophie des Mittelalters,” p. 95, note 1),
It was translated from the Arabic—the original title
having probably been “ Yanbu‘ al-Hayat ”—into
Latin in the year 1150 under the patronage of Arch-
bishop Raymond of Toledo, who had founded a
veritable bureau of translation (LOwenthal, “ Pseudo-
Aristoteles,” p. 5, note 2) consisting of the Arch-
deacon of Segovia, Dominicus Gundisalvi or Gundi-
sallimus, assisted by a Jewish physician who had
been converted to Christianity, John Hispanus or
Hispalensis, better known as “ Ibn Daud ” (corrupted
into “Avendehut,” or “Avendeath”). Jourdain
called attention in {848 to the important place of
Avicebron in the history of philosophy. MHaureau,
in his “History of Scholastic Philosophy ” (1850),
dwelt on the philosophy of Avicebron as known
through the citations in the “De Substantiis Sepa-
ratis” of Aquinas. He was followed by Seyerlen,
who, having discovered in 1855 a manuscript copy
of the “Fons Vite ” in the Mazarine Library in Paris,
gave a synopsis of Gabirolean philosophy in Baur and
Zeller’s “Theologische Jahrbiicher,” xv.-xvi.
In 1846 Solomon Munk discovered among the
Hebrew manuscripts in the Bibliotheque Nationale,
Paris, a work by Shem-Tob Palquera, which, upon
comparison with a Latin manuscript of the “Fons
Vitw ” of Avicebron (likewise found by Munk in the
Bibliothéque Nationale), proved to be
Identity a collection of excerpts from an Ara-
with bic original of which the “ Fons Vite ”
Avicebron. was evidently a translation. Munk
concluded that Avicebron or Avence-
brol, who had for centuries been believed to bea
Christian scholastic philosopher, was identical with
the Jew Ibn Gabirol (“ Orient, Lit.” 1846, No. 46).
In 1859 Munk published his “ Mélanges,” containing
the Hebrew text of Palquera’s “ Likkutim min Sefer
Mekor Hayyim” with a French translation, an anal-
ysis of the contents, and some chapters on the life
and writings of Gabirol, his sources, and the fate of
his doctrine. In recent years the “Fons Vite” has
received ampleand scholarly treatment in the works
of Seyerlen, Guttmann, Wittmann, Kaufmann, and
Baumker.
The ** Fons Vitze’* consists of five tractates, treating respect-
ively of (1) matter and form in general and their relation in
physical substances (“‘substanvize corporese? sive composit#’’):
(2) the substance which underlies the corporeality of the world
(‘de substantia que sustinet corporeitatem mundi’); (3)
proofs of the existence of **substantiz simplices,’’ of intermedi-
aries between God and the physical world ; (4) proofs that these
‘*substantise simplices,” or “‘intelligibiles,’? are likewise con-
stituted of matter and form; (5) universal matter and uni-
versal form.
The chief doctrines of the ** Fons Vitze”” may be summarized
as follows: (1) All created beings are constituted of form and
matter. (2) This holds true of the physical world, of the ** sub-
stantiis corporeis sive compositis,” and is not less true of the
spiritual world, of the “‘substantiis spiritualibus sive simplici-
bus,”? which latter are the connecting-link between the first
substance, ‘“‘essentia prima,’ that is, the Godhead, and the
‘substantia que sustinet novem predicamenta,” that is, the
substance divided into nine categories—in other words, the phys-
ical world. (3) Matter and form are always and everywhere in
the relation of “‘sustinens’’ and “ sustentatum,” ** propriatum ”
and “ proprietas,’’ substratum and property or attribute.
Gabirol in the ‘“‘ Fons Vitw” aims to outline but one part of
his philosophical system, the doctrine of matter and form; hence
the ** Fons Vitz"’ also bore the title ‘De Materia et Forma.”
The manuscript in the Mazarine Library is entitled ‘‘ De Ma-
teria Universali.”” The main thesis of the ‘ Fons Vitz”’ is that
all that exists is constituted of matter and form; one and the
same matter runs through the whole universe from the highest
limits of the spiritual down to the lowest limits of the physical,
excepting that matter the farther it is removed from its first
source becomes less and less spiritual. Gabirol insists ever and
over again that the “*‘materia universalis** is the substratum of
all that exists. Wittmann (‘*Thomas von Aquin,”’ p. 13) con-
siders Gabirol’s many arguments in proof of the universality of
matter as among his most original contributions to philosophy.
Stated differently, Gabirol’s position is that everything that
exists may be reduced to three categories: the first substance,
God; matter and form, the world; the will as intermediary.
Gabirol derives matter and form from absolute
The ‘‘ Fons being. In the Godhead he seems to differen-
Vite.” tiate *‘essentia,’? being, from ‘‘proprietas,”
attribute, designating by ‘‘proprietas’’ the
will, wisdom, creative word (‘* voluntas, sapientia, verbum
agens’’). Inreality he thinks of the Godhead as being, and as
will or wisdom, regarding the will as identical with the divine
nature. This position is implicit in the doctrine of Gabirol,
who teaches that God’s existence is knowable, but not His being
or constitution, no attribute being predicable of God save that
of existence.
Kaufmann holds that Gabirol was an opponent of the doctrine
of divine attributes. While there are passages in the ‘‘ Fons
Vite,” in the ‘Ethics,’ and even in the “Keter Malkut”
(whence Sachs deduces Gabirol’s acceptance of the theory of the
doctrine of divine attributes) which seem to support this as-
sumption, a minute examination of the questions bearing on
Ibn Gabirol
this, such as has been made by Kaufmann (in ** Gesch. der At-
tributenlehre’’), proves very clearly that will and wisdom are
spoken of not as attributes of the divine, but with reference to
an aspect of the divine, the creative aspect; so that the will is
not to be looked upon as intermediary between God and sub-
stance and form. Matter or substance proceeds from the being
of God, and form from God as will, matter corresponding to the
first substance and form to the will; but there is no thought in
the mind of Gabiro] of substance and will as separate entities,
or of Will as an attribute of substance. Willis neither attribute
nor substance, Gabirol being so pure a monotheist that he can
not brook the thought of any attribute of God lest it mar the
purity of monotheism, In this Gabiro] follows strictly in the
line of Hebrew tradition.
Joé] and Guttmann hold that the “Fons Vite ” is
merely a text-book of Neoplatonism; but Kaufmann
objects that it contains not only certain teachings
not to be found in Plotinus, but others irreconcilable
with Neoplatonism. Plotinus speaks
Relations of atwofold matter; Gabirol, of asin-
to Plotinus. gle or universal matter. According
to Plotinus the whole question is one
of minor importance; it is the corner-stone of Gabi-
rol’s system. Despite some differences, Gabirol is,
however, in many of his essential teachings depend-
ent upon Plotinus; not directly, since the “ Enneads ”
were not translated into Arabic, but rather through
secondary sources. This is notably the case, in the
so-called Theology of Aristotle, with the commentary
of Porphyry, which VY. Rose has shown to be a para-
phrase of the last three “ Enneads ” of Plotinus, pos-
sibly in part the work of Porphyry.
Another source was the pseudo-Empedoclean
writings. In connection with pseudo-Empedocles,
it must not be overlooked that the book of Gabirol
which might have given clearer evidence of this is
lost—“ Origo Largitatis et Causa Essendi” (Kauf-
mann, “Studien,” pp. 56-57)—if it was ever writ-
ten. In the introduction to the “ Likkutim” Pal-
quera suggests such dependence of Gabirol upon the
“Five Substances ” of pseudo-Empedocles. Whereas
the influence of Empedocles on the Cahala is a fan-
tastic supposition, the work of pseudo-Empedocles
exercised a real influence on the Jewish religious
philosophy and the Cabala of the Middle Ages.
Kaufmann gives three versions of the excerpts from
the “Five Substances.” These fragments do not
adequately show the debt of Gabirol to pseudo-
Empedocles, except that they aim to prove that all
spiritual substances are constituted of a spiritual
matter. Moreover, the place of matter in the sys-
tem of Gabirol reminds one of the “Five Sub-
stances,” the teaching of Gabirol concerning the in-
termediaries that bind together all degrees of creation
being illustrated by pseudo-Empedocles’ picture of
the air between the seer and the seen, partaking of
the properties of both.
That Gabirol was influenced by “The Encyclo-
pedia of the Brethren of Sincerity ” has been clearly
demonstrated by Haneberg. Saadiais the only Jew-
ish author whose influence upon Gabirol is distinctly
perceptible; and Sa‘id, the Mohammedan, is the only
Arabic writer cited in the “Fons Vite.”
It has been argued with some show of plausibility
that Gabirol deliberately set out to reconcile Neo-
platonism with the monotheistic conception of Juda-
ism. Geiger finds complete harmony between Ga-
birol’s conception of the Deity and the historical
Jewish conception; and Guttmann and Hisler hold
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
528
that in Gabirol’s doctrine of the will there is a de-
parture from the pantheistic emanation doctrine of
Neoplatonism and an attempted approach to the
Biblical doctrine of creation. It is undeniable that
a suggestion of Judaic monotheism is to be found in
Gabirol’s doctrine of the oneness of the “ materia
universalis.” Moreover, the Neoplatonic doctrine
that the Godhead is unknowable naturally appealed
to a Jewish rationalist, who, while positing the exist-
ence of God, studiously refrained from ascribing
definite qualities or positive attributes
Independ- to Him. But this theory is contra-
ent dicted by the fact that Gabirol, unlike
Position. other medieval Jewish philosophers
whoregarded philosophy as the “ hand-
maid of theology,” pursued his philosophical studies
regardless of the claims of religion, keeping “his
philosophical speculation free from every theolog-
ical admixture.”
In this respect Gabirol is unique. The “Fons
Vite ” shows a total and absolute independence of
Jewish religious dogma; not a verse of the Bible
nor a line from the Rabbis is cited. For this reason
Gabirol exercised comparatively little influence upon
his Jewish successors—though this may be accounted
for on the ground of the predominance of Aristo-
telianism from the twelfth century—and was ac-
cepted by the scholastics as a non-Jew, as an Arab or
a Christian. The odor of heresy which clung to him
prevented Gabirol from exercising a great influence
upon Jewish thought: his theory of emanation was
irreconcilable with the Jewish doctrine of creation;
and the tide of Aristotelianism turned back the
slight current of Gabirol’s Neoplatonism.
Moses ibn Ezra is the first to mention Gabirol as
a philosopher. Hespeaksof Gabirol’s character and
attainments in terrns of highest praise, and in his
“‘Aruggat ha-Bosem” quotes several passages from
the “Fons Vite.” Abraham ibn Ezra, who gives
several specimens of Gabirol’s philosophico-allegor-
ical Bible interpretation, borrows from the “ Fons
Vite ” both in his prose and in his poetry without
giving due credit. Joseph ibn Zaddik, in his “ Mi-
krokosmos,” borrows very largely from the “ Fons
Vite ” at every point of his system.
Abraham ibn Daud of Toledo, in the twelfth cen-
tury, was the first to take exception to Gabirol’s
teachings. Inthe “Sefer ha-Kabbalah” he refers to
Gabirol as a poet in complimentary
Treatment phrase. But in order to counteract
by the influence of Gabirol the philoso-
Successors. pher, he wrote an Arabic book, trans-
lated into Hebrew under thie title
“Emunah Ramah,” in which he reproaches Gabirol
with having philosophized without any regard to
the requirements of the Jewish religious position,
and bitterly accuses him of mistaking a number of
poor reasons for one good one. Guttmann suspects
that Ibn Daud may have entered the lists against
Gabirol because he detected in Gabirol’s theory of
the will and its identification with the word of
God an approach to the Christian Logos-doctrine,
Schmiedel (“ Monatsschrift,” 1860, p. 311) holds,
curiously enough, that the “Fons Vit#” fell into
disrepute because there are suggestions in it of
belief in the Trinity; but Hisler (“ Vorlesungen,”
529
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ibn Gabirol
p. 80, note 2) correctly says that such allusions are also
to be found in the “Sefer Yezirah,” and that they
did not suffice to bring that book into disrepute.
Ou the other hand, it is possible that, instead of ban-
ishing Gabirol from the remembrance of the Jews,
this criticism only made him more widely known.
Two hundred years after the writing of the “Fons
Vite” and one hundred years after the appearance
of “Emunah Ramah,” Palquera made a compilation
of extracts from the former work,
After Maimonides the inconsiderable influence of
Gabirol was further lessencd, though occasional
traces of it are to be detected in the cabalistic litera-
ture of the thirteenth century and, especially after
Palquera had compiled the extracts from the “ Fons
Vite,” in the works of some post-Maimonidean au-
thors, suchas Aaron b. Joseph, Isaac ibn Latif, Abra-
ham ibn Hisdai, Samuel ibn Zarza, Moses Solomon
of Salerno. Later references to Gabirol, such as
those of Eli Habillo, Isaac Abarbanel, Judah Abar-
banel, Moses Almosnino, and Joseph Solomon Del-
medigo, are based upon an acquaintance with the
scholastic philosophy, especially the works of Aqui-
nas. Habillo, as late as 1472, in a translation of
the “Questio de Anima” of Aquinas, recognized
in Avicebron “Ben Gabriol, the author of ‘Fons
Vite ’”; and Abravanel the Younger refers to Gabi-
rol as “il nostro Albenzubron.”
Though Gabirol the philosopher was forgotten in
Israel, Gabirol the poet kept alive the remembrance
of the ideas of the philosopher; for his best-known
poem, “Keter Malkut,” is a religio-philosophical
treatise in poetical form, the “double” of the “Fons
Vite.” Thus the eighty-third line of the poem
points very clearly to one of the teachings of the
“Fons Vite”; viz., that all the attributes predica-
ted of God exist apart in thought alone and not in
reality.
If Gabirol the philosopher was forgotten by the
Jews, or deliberately ignored, abundant compensa-
tion awaited him in the treatment accorded him by
the Christian world. Jourdain held, without exag-
geration, that a knowledge of the phi-
Influence losophy of the thirteenth century was
on Scholas- impossible without an understanding
ticism. of the “Fons Vitx” and its influence.
Regarded as the work of a Christian
philosopher, it became a bone of contention between
the Platonist Franciscans led by Duns Scotus, who
supported Gabirol, and the Aristotelian Dominicans
led by Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, the
latter holding in special horror the possible influence
of Arabic-Jewish philosophy on Christian doctrine.
The first sure sign of a direct influence exercised
by Gabirol is to be found in the works of Dominicus
Gundisallimus, who not merely translated the “ Fons
Vitex ” into Latin, but incorporated the ideas of Gabi-
rol into hisown teaching. William of Auvergne re-
fers to the work of Gabirol under the title “Fons
Sapientie.” He speaks of Gabirol as a Christian,
and praises him as “unicus omnium philosophan-
tium nobilissimus.” Alexander of Hales and his
disciple Bonaventura accept the teaching of Gabirol
that spiritual substances consist of matter and form.
William of Lamarre is likewise a defender of Gabi-
rolean doctrine.
V1.—84
The most zealous of the champions of Gabirol’s
theory of the universality of matter is Duns Scotus,
through whose influence the basal thought of the
“Fons Vite,” the materiality of spiritual substances,
was perpetuated in Christian philosophy, influencing
later philosophers even down to Giordano Bruno,
who refers to “the Moor, Avicebron.” The main
points at issue between Gabirol and Aquinas were
three; (1) the universality of matter, Aquinas holding
that spiritual substances are immaterial ; (2) the plu-
rality of forms in a physical entity, which Aquinas
denied; and (3) the power of activity of physical be-
ings, which Gabirol affirmed. Aquinas held that Ga-
birol made the mistake of transferring to real exist-
ence the theoretical combination of genus and species,
and that he thus came to the erroneous conclusior
that in reality all things are constituted of matter
and form as genus and species respectively.
Munk and Léwenthal have supposed that the
“Liber de Anima” of Gundisallimus is a work of
Gabirol or of his school, because of certain resem-
blances to the doctrines of Gabirol. They ignore the
many contraaictions of Neoplatonic teachings scat-
tered throughout the book as well as Gabirol’s fail-
ure to refer to any such work on the soul in the in-
troduction to the “Fons Vite,” in the course of
which he refers to other books of his which have
not been preserved. Léwenthal holds that Gabirol
probably wrote an Arabic book on the soul in ten
chapters, which was translated into Hebrew and cited
by Gershon b. Solomon about 1250, and into Latin
about 1130 by Hispalensis, and used ina compilation
by Gundisallimus; that this included a large part
of Gabirol’s hypothetical work, extracts froma psy-
chological work of Avicenna; and that the transla-
tor dropped the name of Gabirol and attached to the
book the charmed name of Aristotle.
“The Improvement of the Moral Qualities” is an
ethical treatise which has been called by Munk “a
popular manual of morals.” It was composed by
Gabirol at Saragossa in 1045, at the request of some
friends who wished to possess a book treating of the
qualities of man and the methods of effecting their
improvement. In two respects the “Ethics” (by
which abbreviation the work may be
cited) is highly original. In the first
place, as compared with Saadia, his
predecessor, and Bahya and Maimoni-
des, his successors, Gabirol took a new stand, in so
far as he set out to systematize the principles of
ethics independently of religious belief or dogma.
Further, his treatise is original in its emphasis on the
physio-psychological aspect of ethics, Gabirol’s fun-
damental thesis being the correlation and interde-
pendence of the physical and the psychical in respect
of ethical conduct. Gabirol’s theses may be summed
up as follows:
The qualities of the sou] are made manifest through the
senses; and these senses in turn are constituted of the four hu-
mors. Even as the humors may be modified one by the other,
so can the senses be controlled and the qualities of the soul be
trained unto good or evil. Though Gabirol attributes the vir-
tues to the senses, he would have it distinctly understood that
he treats only of the five physical senses, not of the “con-
cealed”’ senses, such as perception and understanding, which
partake of the nature of the soul. In order to cultivate his soul,
man must necessarily know its peculiarities, study bimself as
he is, closely examine his character and inclination, habituate
Ethical
Treatise.
Ibn Gabirol
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
530
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himself to the abandonment of whatever is mean, t.e., whatso-
ever draws him into close contact with the physical and tem-
poral, and aim at the spiritual and the abiding. This effort in
itself is blessedness. A man’s ability to make such an effort is
proof of divine benevolence.
Next follows the most original feature of Gabirol’s ethical
system, the arrangement of the virtues and vices in relation to
the senses; every sense becoming the instrument, not the
agent, of two virtues and two corresponding vices. To illustrate
the branching forth of the twenty qualities from the five senses,
Gabirol gives the following tabular diagram :
SIGHT. HEARING.
Pride. Love.
Meekness. Hate.
Pudency. Mercy.
Impudence. Hard-heartedness (cruelty).
SMELL. TASTE.
Wrath. Joy (cheerfulness).
Good-will (suavity). Grief (apprehensiveness).
Jealousy. Tranquillity.
Wide-awakeness. Penitence (remorse).
TOUCH.
Liberality.
Niggardliness.
Valor.
Cowardice.
While the underlying thought is both original and
ingenious, Gabirol finds it necessary to resort to far-
fetched and fanciful arguments in the working out
of his plan. Thus he says, “ Meekness is caused by
a clear perception of the insignificance of the indi-
vidual man as compared with the greatness and
grandeur of the world.” Pride is related to the
sense of sight; for the proud man raises his eye-
brows haughtily, superciliously. Gabirol’s far-
fetched attribution of love to the sense of hear-
ing is in the highest degree absurd: “Hear, O
Israel” (Deut. vi. 4) is followed by the command,
“Thou shalt love the Lord thy God.” The qualities
attributed to the sense of smell, such as good-will
and wrath, are revealed or expressed
Quaintness in the act of breathing. Other quali-
of ties, such as joy and tranquillity, are
Analogy. attributed to the sense of taste because
they imply enjoyment and gratifica-
tion, or the reverse, privation and care. Qualities
such as liberality and niggardliness are attributed to
the sense of touch on the slenderest grounds: the
liberal man is called open-handed, and the niggardly
man is designated as close-fisted.
The chief aim of the author was to guide his read-
ers to the improvement of the moral qualities; and
this he expected to do by citing the simplest and
commonest facts of physical life. The organs of
perception are not alone the instruments, but also
the emblems, of the various manifestations of phys-
ical life. Having attributed to each of them a num-
ber of impulses, which are designated as virtues or
vices, he develops a general conception of life as
it is in this world (the animal life in man, as he dis-
tinctly wishes one to understand), which should and
must be guided and governed by reason. Man must
always see to it that his “animal soul” be in perfect
submission to his “rational soul,” ¢z.e., his intelli-
gence must control his natural impulses. The con-
sciousness of holding the animal impulses under
control is felicity. The very effort that a man puts
forth to make his animal soul subject to his rational
soul affords him happiness. The principal agent in
the exercise of this control is reason or intelligence.
This intelligence is the mediator between the divine
and the animal in man; and any human being who
makes his intelligence master over his natural in-
clinations may enjoy the bliss to which Gabirol
points. For an extended survey of the “ Ethics”
comp. “J. Q. R.” iii. 159-181; Guttmann, “'Thomas
von Aquino,” pp. 16-18; Horovitz, “ Die Psychologie
Ibn Gabirols,” pp. 188-142; and Wise, é.c. pp. 9-28.
Gabirol cites some Bible verses and some Tal-
mudic passages, and quotes Saadia, Galen, Socrates,
Diogenes, Aristotle, Ardashir, Buzurg-Mihbr, Alkuti,
etc. The Arabic text contains some verses left un-
translated by Ibn Tibbon. The “Ethics” is inter-
esting asa collection of terse and pregnant ethical
maxims, many of which seem to have been borrowed
from the Arabic original of the p»ppid*sn “Dv of
Hunain ibn Ishak (comp. Léwenthal, “Sinnspriiche
der Philosophen,” pp. 38-384).
The “Ethics” is cited less often than the “Choice
of Pearls,” and even less often than the “Fons
Vite ” Still it is mentioned by Hisdai, Bederst,
Berachiah ha-Nakdan, and others. Although defi-
nite proofs of the acquaintance of Maimonides with
the “Ethics” are not at hand, it is highly probable
that he was familiar with it, and that under its in-
fluence he stated the object of ethics to be “the im-
provement of the qualities,” ¢.¢., character. The
influence of Gabirol upon Bahya, as attested by the
many points of resemblance between the “ Ethics”
and the “ Hobot ha-Lebabot,” was very considerable.
This has been demonstrated by Brill (“Jahrb.” v.
71-79; comp. JEw. Encyc. ii. 447-448, and Wise, J.c.
p. 17, note 3).
A unique manuscript of the original Arabic text
is in the Bodleian Library at Oxford (Neubauer,
“Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 1422, 2), and has been
published together with an English translation by
5S. S. Wise (New York, 1901). The Hebrew trans-
lation is the work of Judah ibn Tibbon (1167) for
Asher b. Meshullam of Lunel. The following are
the printed editions: (a) Constantinople, 1550, to-
gether with Bahya’s “ Hobot ha-Lebabot ”; (6) Riva
di Trento, 1562, together with Hunain’s “ Musere
ha-Pilusufim” and “Sefer ha-Tapuah,” under the
general title “Goren Nakon”; (c) Lunéville, 1807
(same title and contents as the Riva di Trento edi-
tion); (d) Lyck, 1859 (same general title, “Goren
Nakon,” but containing only the “Ethics”); (©)
Warsaw, 1886; (f) Budapest, 1896. The Hebrew
poem in acrostic form, 7X, on the four elements,
which is to be found in some editions after the tab-
ular diagram of the virtues and vices, is not included
in the old manuscripts nor in the Constantinople
edition, and is probably unauthentic.
The “ Mibhar ha-Peninim ” (Choice of Pearls) is, as
its name implies, a collection, in sixty-four chapters,
of maxims, proverbs, and moral reflections, many of
them of Arabic origin. It has often been cited by
philosophers, exegetes, Talmudists, and moralists.
It is very similar to the “ Florilegium ”
‘¢ Choice of of Hunain and other Arabic and He-
Pearls.” brew collections of ethical sayings,
which were highly prized by the
proverb-loving Arabs and Jews. Many manuscript
copies of the text exist, as well as a large number of
BIS
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PAGE FROM THE FIRST EDITION OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL’S “* MIblAR WA-PENINIM,’? PRINTED BY SONCINO, 1484,
(In the collection of the Hon, Mayer Sulzberger.)
| EO no
Ibn Gabirol
Ibn Hayyim
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
532
printed editions, some of the latter together with
translation and commentary.
The cditio princeps was published, together with
a short commentary, in Soncino, Italy, in 1484.
Among the more important editions enumerated by
Steinschneider are those of the Hebrew text with
Judeo-German translation, 1739 and 1767, and that
with German translation, 1842. Drusius gave a
Latin version of 299 sentences in the third part of
his “Apothegmata” (1591, 1612). Jacob Ebertus
and his son Theodore published 750 maxims in
vocalized text with Latin translation, in Frank fort-
on-the-Main, 1680. Filipowski edited the Hebrew
text (London, 1851); and Asher collated five manu-
scripts in London and Oxford libraries, and pub-
lished 652 maxims together with an English trans-
lation, an introduction, and valuable notes. Stein-
schneider (“ Manna,” Berlin, 1847) gave a versified
German rendering of a number of maxims together
with notes,
The “Choice of Pearls” is not to be ascribed to
Gabirol unconditionally. No old manuscripts and
no editions published prior to the nineteenth century
refer to Gabirol as the author or compiler. Joseph
Kimhi versified the work under the title “Shekel
ha-Kodesh,” and only two of the five manuscripts
of this versification give Gabirol as the name of the
author of the original. Steinschncider finds it diffi-
cult to answer the question whether the versified
paraphrase of Kimhi is based upon a Hebrew trans-
lation or upon the Arabic original, but concludes
that Kimhi’s version does not represent his own
translation of the Arabic original, but rather a ver-
sified paraphrase of the translation of another. The
Hebrew translator of the “ Choice of Pearls” is men-
tioned in two manuscripts as Judah ibn Tibbon of
Seville; and Kimhi apparently made use of the
translation attributed to him.
The mention of the name of Gabirol as the author
by Kimhi seems to have remained unnoticed among
Jewish scholars. Ibn Tibbon mentions and cites
the work without any reference to author or trans-
Jator. Palquera refers to the book, but does not
mention the author. Some contradictions exist be-
tween the “ Ethics” and the “ Choice of Pearls”; and
the careless arrangement of the latter work is hardly
in keeping with the systematic method of Gabirol.
Steinschneider thinks it quite possible that the refer-
ence to [bn Tibbon as translator is an interpolation,
based upon his mention of the book and the circum-
stance that he was the translator of Arabic religious
and philosophical works (comp. “Hebr. Uebers.”
pp. 382-388).
Some specimens of Gabirol’s skill as an exegete
are preserved in the commentaries of Abraham ibn
Ezra (comp Bacher, “ Bibelexegese,” pp. 45-55;
idem, “Ibn Ezra als Grammatiker,” p. 188; and
Bardny, “Salamon ibn Gabirol mint Exegeta,” 1885,
pp. 10-17). It is not known whether Ibn Ezra cited
these exegetical passages from a Bib-
His lical commentary of Gabirol, to which
Exegesis. work there is no extant reference, or
from a special work devoted to Bib-
lical exegesis. Most striking among these selections
of Ibn Ezra is a carefully and curiously elaborated
interpretation of the story of paradise, “a classical
example of the introduction of philosophical ideas
into a Biblical text.”
Another specimen, which is a remarkably far.
fetched interpretation of Eccl. ix. 11, is to be found
in the “Ethics” (comp. Bacher, lc p. 52, and
Wise, J.c, p. 18, note 4), Solomon Parhon and David
Kimhi (both of the twelfth century) ikewise give
specimens of Gabirol’s exegesis. Two of the cita-
tions of Ibn Ezra prove Gabirol to have been a sup-
porter of the rationalistic Bible interpretation of
Saadia, as opposed to Samuel ibn Hofni; Gabirol
defending the Saadian interpretation, which ex-
plained away the miracles connected with the speech
of the serpent (Gen. iii. 1) and of the ass of Balaam
(Num. xxii, 28).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Adler, Ibn Gabirol and His Influence
upon Scholastic Philosophy, London, 1865; Ascher, A Choice
of Pearls, London, 1859; Bacher, Bibelexegese der Ji-
dischen Retigionsphilosophen des Mittelalters, pp. 45-55,
Budapest, 1892 ; Baumker, Avercebrolis Fons Vite, Minster,
1895; Beer, Philosophie und Philosophische Schriftstetter
der Juden, Leipsic, 1852; Bloch, Die Jtidische Retigionsphi-
losophie, in Winter and Wiinsche, Die Jiidische Litleratur,
ii. 699-793, 723-729; Dukes, Hhrensdulen und Denksteine,
pp. #25, Vienna, 1837; idem, Salomo ben Gabirol aus Ma-
laga und die Ethischen Werke Desselben, Hanover, 1860;
Eisler, Vorlesungen tiber die Jtidischen Philosophen des
Mittelalters, i. 57-81, Vienna, 1876; Geiger, Salomo Gahirol
und Seine Dichtungen, Leipsic, 1867; Graetz, History of the
Jews, ili. 9: Guttmann, Die Philosophie des Salomon ibn
Gabirol, Gottingen, 1889; Guttmann, Das Verhédiltniss des
Thomas von Aquino zum Judenthum und zur Stidischen
Litteratur, especially ii. 16-30, Géttingen, 1891; Horovitz,
Die Psychologie Ihn Gabirols, Breslau, 1900; Joél, Zan Ge-
birol’s Bedeutung fiir die Gesch. der Philosophie, Beitrdge
zur Geseh. der Philosophie, i., Breslau, 1876; Kampf, Nicht-
andatusische Poesie Andalusischer Dichter, pp. 167-191,
Prague, 1858; Karpeles, Gesch. der Jitdischen Litteratur, i.
465-483, Berlin, 1886; Kaufmann, Studien tiber Salomon tbn
Gabiral, Budapest, 1899; Kaufmann, Gesch. der Attributen-
lehre in der Jud. Religionsphilosophie des Mittelalters, pp.
95-115, Gotha, 1877; Lowenthal, Pseudo-Aristoteles tiber die
Seele, Berlin, 1891; Miiller, De Godsleer der Middeleewusche
Joden, pp. 90-107, Groningen, 1898: Munk, Mélanges de Phi-
losophie Juive et Arabe, Paris, 1859; Myer, Qabbalah, The
Philosophical Writings of ... Avicebron, Philadelphia,
1888; Rosin, in J. Q. AR. iii. 159-181; Sachs, Die Religiose Po-
esie der Juden in Spanien, pp. 2138-248, Berlin, 1845; Seyer-
len, Die Gegenseitigen Beziehungen Zwischen Abendlin-
discher und Morgentdnudischer Wissenschaft mit Beson-
derer Rticksicht auf Solomon ibn Gebirol und Seine Phi-
losaphische Bedeutung, Jena, 1899; Stissel, Salomo ben
Gabirol als Philosoph una lorderer der Kahbala, Leipsic,
1881; Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 379-388, Berlin,
1898; Wise, The Improvement of the Moral Qualities, New
York, 1901; Wittmann, Die Stellung des Heiligen Thomas
von Aquin zu Avencebrol, Minster, 1900,
G. 8. S. W.
Gabirol’s poetical productions are characterized
by Al-Harizi in the following terms: “ Rabbi Solo-
mon the Little [“ha-Katon”] spread
His Poetry. such a fragrance of song as was
never produced by any poet either be-
fore or after him. The poets who succeeded him
strove to learn from his poems, but were unable to
reach even the dust of his feet as regards the power
of his figures and the force of his words. If he had
lived longer he would surely have accomplished
wondrous things in poetry; but he was snatched
away when still young, . . . and his light was ex-
tinguished before he had completed his thirtieth
year” (“ Tahkemoni,” xviii.). Gabirol was the first
of the Hebrew poets to elaborate the use of the strict
Arabic meter introduced by Dunash ben Labrat
(comp. JEw. Encyc. v. 18); and he is therefore called
by Ibn Ezra (Commentary on Gen. iii. 1) “the writer
of metric songs.” In his grammar (“Sefer Zahot ”)
Ibn Ezra illustrates his description of the various
meters by examples quoted from Ibn Gabirol’s
533
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ibn Gabirol
Ibn Hayyim
poems. Gabirol’s diction is pure and his Hebrew is
Biblical, and on this account he became the model
for the Spanish school of Hebrew poets.
The poems of Ibn Gabirol are rimed; all the lines
of a poem, whether long or short, ending with the
same syllable, even the 400 lines of his “‘Anak.” In
this also he followed the Arabic poets. His poems,
including the non-liturgical ones, are permeated by
a strong religious feeling: they are lofty and eleva-
ting. The finest compositions are the poems which
he wrote in praise of wisdom; his panegyrics on
Rabbi Jekuthiel, a wealthy and influential man in
Saragossa and a supporter of learning and literature;
his lament (see above) on the death of this rabbi
(1040), which occurred when Ibn Gabirol was about
nineteen years old; his poem (see above) on the
death of Hai Gaon; and his verses in praise of Sam-
ucl ibn Nagrela (Brody and Kaufmann, in “ Monats-
schrift,” xliii. 804 et seg.). He frequently complains
that his lot has not fallen in pleasant places; he had
to listen to reproaches of friends who mocked at his
lofty thoughts, and advised him to turn his mind
to more profitable matters. His comfort was that
though his body was on earth his mind dwelt in
heaven. When his distinction as a poet wasattacked
either by opponents or by rival poets, he pointed to
the excellence of his poems and to their perfection
in form and contents. That he occasionally had
lighter moments is proved by his excellent satire
upon a man named Moses who had invited him to
dine, but had not been liberal with his wine (“Shir
ha-Mayim”). <A new and critical edition of his sec-
ular poems is in course of publication by H. Brody
(“Shir ha-Shirim,” Berlin, 1897 e¢ seq.).
Far nobler and loftier, however, are his liturgical
compositions. “The liturgic poetry of the Spanish-
Arabic Jews attained its perfection with Ibn Gabi-
rol,” says Zunz (“Literaturgesch.” p.
Liturgical 187). Gabirol has almost entirely lib-
Poems. erated Hebrew religious poetry from
the fetters of payyetanic form and
involved expression. In his “Keter Malkut” or
“Royal Crown,” a philosophical and ethical hymn
in rimed prose, he describes the universe as composed
of spheres one within the other. It is a detailed
panegyric of the glory of God both in the material
and in the spiritual world, permeated with the lofti-
est ethical and religious thoughts, and has in part
been imitated by subsequent writers, Judah ha-Levi,
Al-Harizi, and Samuel Zarza, In many liturgies it
occurs as part of the Day of Atonement service. A
German translation is given in Dukes, “ Ehrensau-
len,” pp. 58 et seg. ; inSachs, “ Festgebete der Israeli-
ten,” ili. ; dem, “ Die Religidse Poesie,” p. 3; and a
versified English translation of extracts, by Alice
Lucas, in “J. Q. R.” viii. 239 e¢ seg. He wrote also
more than 100 piyyutim and selihot for the Sabbath,
festivals, und fast-days, most of which have been
received into the Mahzor not only of the Spanish
rite, but also of the Rumanian, German, and even
Karaitic rites. German translations of some of his
poens will be found in Geiger’s and Sachs’ works
mentioned in the bibliography ; in Kiimpf’s “ Nicht-
andalusische Poesie,” pp. 167 e¢ seg. ; alsoin Karpeles’
“ Zionsharfe ” (Leipsic, 1889). For English specimens
see Mrs. Henry Lucas, “Songs of Zion,” London, 1894.
There are two lengthy poems of Gabirol'’s which,
on account of the subjects treated, do not give op-
portunity for a display of poetical beauty. These
are: (1) “ Azharot,” a rimed enumeration of the 613
precepts of the Torah, and (2) “‘Anak,” mentioned
above, and evidently based on Saadia’s “ Agron.”
Solomon Parhon prefixed to his “Mahberet” a frag-
ment of the “‘Anak ” containing 98 lines, reedited by
J. Egers in the “Zunz Jubelschrift,” Hebrew part,
p. 192 (comp, Kaufmann, in “ Gottingische Gelehrte
Anzeiger,” 1885, No. 11, p. 460).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Geiger, Salomo Gabirol und Seine Dich-
tungen, Leipsic, 1867; Senior Sachs. Cantiques de Salomon
ibn Gabirole, Paris, 1868; idem, in Ha-Tehiyyah, p. 185,
Berlin, 1850; Dakes, Schire Shelomo, Hanover, 1858; idem,
Ehrensatilen, Vienna, 1837; Edelmann and Dukes, Treasures
of Ozford, London, 1851; M. Sachs, Die Religidse Poesie der
Juden in Spanien, Berlin, 1845; Zunz, Literaturgeseh. pp.
187-194, 411, 588; Kampf, Michtancdalusische Poesie Anda-
lusischer Dichter, pp. 167 et seq.; Brody, Kuntras ha-Piju-
tim nach dem Machsor Vitry, Berlin, 1894, Index.
M. F.—G.
IBN GHAYYAT, ISAAC BEN JUDAH:
Spanish rabbi, Biblical commentator, philosopher,
and liturgical poet; born at Lucena in 1038 (Graetz
cites 1030); died at Cordova in 1089; buried at
Lucena. According to some authorities he was
the teacher of Isaac Alfasi; according to others, his
fellow pupil. The best known of his pupils were
his son Judah ibn Ghayyat, Joseph ibn Sahl, and
Moses ibn Ezra. He was held in great esteem by
Samuel ha-Nagid and his son Joseph, and after the
latter’s death (1066), Ibn Ghayyat was elected to
succeed him as rabbi of Lucena, where he officiated
until his death. He was the author of a compen-
dium of ritual laws concerning the festivals, pub-
lished by Bamberger under the title of “Sha‘are
Simhah” (Firth, 1862; the laws concerning the
Passover were republished by Zamber under the
title “ Hilkot Pesahim,” Berlin, 1864); and a philo-
sophical commentary on Ecclesiastes, known only
through quotations in the works of later authors
(Dukes, in “ Orient, Lit.” x. 667-668). The greatest
activity of Ibn Ghayyat was in liturgical poetry;
his hymns are found in the Mahzor of Tripoli under
the title of “Sifte Renanot.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Joseph Derenbourg, in Geiger’s Wiss. Zeit.
Jiiad. Theol. v. 396-412; Michael Sachs, Religiése Poesie, pp.
259-262: Gritz. Gesch. 3d ed., vi. 61, 77; Zunz, Literatur-
gesch. pp. 194-200; idem, in Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1839, p. 480;
L. Dukes, in Orient, Lit. ix. 586-40 ; x. 667, 668 ; Landshuth,
‘Ammude ha-‘Abodah, pp. 111-116; De Rossi, Dizionario,
pp. 173-174; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 1110-1111.
D. M. SEt.
IBN GHAYYAT, JUDAH BEN ISAAC:
‘Spanish Talmudist and Hebrew poet of the twelfth
century. He was the author of a Hebrew transla-
tion, from the Arabic, of a casuistic dissertation of
Isaac Alfasi on a passage of Shebu‘ot. Asa poet
Judah ibn Ghayyat was held in great esteem by
Judah ha-Levi, who composed four poems in his
honor (see L. Dukes in “ Kokbe Yizhak,” xxvi. 16-
19). Ibn Ghayyat is also mentioned as a poet
by Shem-Tob Palquera and by Al-Harizi (“ Tahke-
moni,” iti.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 412; Fuenn, Kene-
set Yisrael, p. 393.
D. M. SEu.
IBN HAYYIM, AARON.
AARON IBN.
See Hayy,
Ibn Hayyim
Ibn J ce
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
534
IBN HAYYIM, AARON B. ABRAHAM.
See AARON (BEN ABRAHAM BEN SAMUEL) IBN
HAyyIM.
IBN HUACAR. Sce IBN WAKAR.
IBN HUSAIN (ABU SULAIMAN) DAUD:
Karaite liturgical poet; flourished in the first half
of the tenth century. He compiled a prayer-book
for the Karaites, entitled “Tefillat Bene Mikra,” in
which he inserted many poems and prayers com-
posed by himself. The prayers were interwoven
with homilies, Biblical explanations, arguments in
favor of the Karaite dogmas, and polemics against
the Rabbinites. According to Jephet ben Ali (in
““Inyan Tefillah”) and his son Levi (in “Sefer ha-
Mizwot,” 97a), Ibn Husain, in his ritual, which is
no longer extant, criticized the Rabbinites for their
belief that the recitation in the morning and in the
evening of the Eighteen Benedictions is obligatory.
Ibn Husain was a bitter adversary of Saadia Gaon,
whom he severely attacked in various writings
which are no longer in existence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pinsker, Likkute Kadmoniyyot, p. 170, Ap-
pendix, note 10; First, Gesch. des Kardertums, ii. 110; Gott-
lober, Bikkoret le-Toledot ha-Karaim, p. 147.
K, I. Br.
IBN JANAH, ABU AL-WALID MERWAN
(also Known as R. Marinus; his Hebrew name
was Jonah [lit. “dove”]; hence “Ibn Janah” =
“the winged”): Greatest Hebrew philologist of the
Middle Ages; born at Cordova between 985 and
990; died at Saragossa in the first half of the elev-
enth century. He studied at Lucena, Isaac ibn Saul
and Isaac ibn Gikatilla being his principal teachers.
He studied poetry with the former and essayed
poetry himself as a youth, although he recognized
later that the gift of poetry had been denied him.
Isaac ibn Gikatilla, an accomplished Arabic scholar,
seems to have exercised a powerful influence over
Ibn Janah, who early attained an intimate acquaint-
ance with the Arabic language and literature, and
acquired an easy and graceful Arabic style. Ibn
Janah adopted the profession of medicine, and be-
came a skilful physician (“the physician” is often
added to his name).
Ibn Abi Usaibi‘a, the biographer of Arabic physi-
cians, says that Ibn Janah wrote a book on simple
remedies and their weights and measures (“ Kitab al-
Talkhis ”), which acquired some reputation. He
also studied logic with especial interest, but was an
opponent of metaphysical speculation. His princi-
pal pursuit, however, was the study of the Holy
Scriptures and the Hebrew language, in which he
was aided by other masters in Lucena besides the
two already mentioned. Judah Hayynj was rever-
enced by Ibn Janah as his chief master in the field
of Hebrew philology, although he can hardly have
been personally his teacher, for when Ibn Janah re-
turned to Cordova, Hayyuj was dead. In 1012 Ibn
Janah, with some of his fellow citizens, was obliged
to leave Cordova. After along period of wander-
ing he settled in Saragossa, where all his works were
written. In regard to his external circumstances it
is known only that at Saragossa he was the center
of a circle occupied with scientific questions, and
that he had young pupils, for whose benefit he wrote
some of his works. The Talmudic scholars of
Saragossa were hostile to him and opposed his
scientific studies. In the introduction to his chief
work Ibn Janah severely criticizes their
His ignorance, which, he says, they hid
Opponents. under a mantle of piety, and defends
his own efforts by appealing to the ex-
ample of the Geonim and of the teachers of the
Talmud. He knew and quoted the Vulgate.
In Saragossa Ibn Janah gradually drifted into
polemical relations with both Mohammedan and
Christian teachers. The great event of his life was
his dispute with Samuel ha-Levi ibn Nagdela, his
celebrated compatriot, who had left Cordova at the
same time as himself, and had acquired high repute
in southern Spain. The dispute arose from Ibn
Nagdela’s wish to defend his teacher Hayyuj against
the criticism to which Ibn Janah had subjected his
writings. The dispute was a very acrimonious one,
but only a few fragments have been preserved.
The “Epistles of the Companions” (“Rasa’il al-
Rifak ”), as Jon Nagdela calls the pamphlets which
he and his friends launched against Ibn Janah, as
well as Ibn Janah’s “The Book of Shaming,” or
“The Book of Confounding ” (“ Kitab al-Tashwir ” ;
Hebr. “Sefer ha-Haklamah ”), which appeared in
four consecutive parts, has been lost. But the sub-
stance of the lost pamphlets is to be found in Ibn
Janah’s “Kitab al-Tankih,” in which the author
often refers to these polemical writings, which he
valued highly.
The “ Kitab a]-Tankih ” (Book of Minute Research)
is Ibn Janah’s chief work, on which he was engaged
during his dispute with Ibn Nagdela.
It is devoted to the study of the Bible
and its language, and was the first
complete exposition of the Hebrew
vocabulary and grammar. The book is divided into
two parts, grammatical and lexicographical. Each
of these parts has a separate name and appears as a
separate book. The first part is called “ Kitab al-
Luma‘ ” (Book of Many-Colored Flower-Beds). It
is preceded by a very interesting grammatical intro-
duction to the entire work. The Arabic origina) of
the “Luma‘” was published by Joseph Derenbourg
in association with W. Bacher (Paris, 1886), The
Hebrew translation by Judah ibn Tibbon (who trans-
lated “Luma‘” by “Rikmah”) was edited in 1855
(Frankfort-on-the-Main) by B. Goldberg and R.
Kirchheim. The second, lexicographical part of
the work, “ Kitab al-Usul,” is provided with a spe-
cial introduction, The Arabic original was edited
by Neubauer (Oxford, 1875); the Hebrew translation
by Judah fbn Tibbon (“Sefer ha-Shorashim ”) was
edited by W. Bacher (Berlin, 1897). A French
translation of the “ Luma‘” was made by Metzger,
with the title “Le Livre des Parterres Fleuris”
(Paris, 1889).
Since Ibn Janah excludes, as the established results
of research, everything found in Hayyuj’s funda-
mental works and much found in his own earlier
writings, and since he does not discuss vowels and
accents, on the ground that their treatment be-
longs properly to Masoretic works, both the gram-
mar and the dictionary contain serious gaps, which,
however, are balanced by a mass of other material
outside the province of a purely grammatical and
His Chief
Work.
535
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ibn weyyue
Ibn Jau
lexicographical work. The “ Kitab al-Tankih ” is in-
deed a rich mine of information on Biblical syntax,
rhetoric, hermeneutics, and exegesis. Its historical
and scientific value is discussed under BrnLE EXEGE-
sis; DICTIONARIES, HesRew; Grammar, HEBREW.
The other writings of Ibn Janah are as follows:
Kitab al-Mustalhak (not “ Mustalhik”; see ‘‘R. E. J.’’ xxx.
299; Hebr. ** Hassagot,” or **Tosefot’’): this was Ibn Janmah’s
first work, and was begun in Cordova. Itis a
criticism of, and ‘‘supplement’’ to, the two
works of Hayyuj on the verbs with weak and
double consonants. Ibn Janah states that he
read the Scriptures eight times to collect material for this book.
Kitab a]-Tanbih (Book of Excitation [Hebrew, “ Ha‘arah ”’]),
a polemic against a pamphlet written by his enemies in Sara-
gossa. It is in the form of a letter to a friend at Cordova, and
discusses at length several questions of grammar.
Kitab al-Takrib wal-Tashil (Book of Bringing Near and Ma-
king Easy: “Sefer ha-Kerub weha-Yishshur’’), a commentary
on some passages in Hayyuj’s writings, with an independent
grammatical excursus.
Kitab al-Taswiyah (Book of Retribution: Hebr. ‘*‘ Hashwa’ab,”’
or ‘* Tokahat.’’), an account of a dispute which took place at Sara-
gossa in the house of a friend, Abu Sulaiman ibn ‘Taraka. In
this dispute a stranger from Granada, who belonged to Ibn
Nagdela’s circle, gave the first information of the attacks on Ibn
Janak in course of preparation. Ibn Janah enumerates the
criticisms advanced by the stranger against single points of the
** MustaJhak,”’ and then proceeds to refute them. This inaugu-
rated the great controversy. The four books enumerated here
have been published, with Arabic texts and French translations,
by Joseph and Hartwig Derenbourg (‘‘ Opuscules et Traités
d’Abofi 1-Walid Merwan ibn Djanéh de Cordoue,”’ Paris, 1880).
Although Ibn Janah is careful to exclude his per-
sonal affairs from his works, his personality can be
plainly seen. He regarded the study of the Scrip-
tures as his life-work, and considered as indispensa-
ble thereto an exhanstive and exact
knowledge of the Hebrew language.
The study of Hebrew philology was
in his eyes a religious duty. In the
introduction to his principal work (“ Luma‘,” p. 1;
“Rikmah ” iv.) he makes this statement: “Since the
revealed Scriptures can be understood only by the
aid of the science of language, the endeavor to
comprehend them from all sides becomes a more
imperative duty the higber the end aimed at and
the more our reason recognizes the greatness and
majesty of Him who has revealed these books.”
The consciousness of the value of the results of
his tireless research, and lis indignation at the petty
disparagements and injustices he had to endure,
made him at times refer with pride to the work he
had accomplished. Once he says (“ Kitab al-Usul,”
col. 552): “This explanation belongs to the sum of
what I have produced of unusual thoughts and
noteworthy opinions which no one else has expressed
or noticed. I was enabled to do so much through
God’s grace and goodness manifested toward me,
together with great endurance and a zeal for study
and research by day and by night; so that I have
expended twice as much on oil as another on wine.”
With this proud self-consciousness Ibn Janah united
respect for the achievements of others. He charac-
terizes the opinions of earlier authorities with great
precision, whereby his writings have become an ex-
cellent source of information concerning the literary
history of linguistic science and Biblical exegesis.
His relation to Hayyuj should especially be men-
tioned. Although he criticized him and corrected
his errors, he vigorously upheld his grammatical
Other
Works,
His
Motive.
system, even against the prejudices of the followers
of the old school. In his criticisms he never forgets
the respect and gratitude due the man to whom he
owes his knowledge of science. In the introduc-
tion to his first work Ibn Janah says: “If we can
criticize him, we owe our ability to do so to his
teaching and to the good we have received from his
writings.” Ibn Janah’s own estimate of himself
coincided with the estimate of him held by the
Spanish historian of Judaism, Abraham ibn Daud
(“Sefer ha-Kabbalah,” end): it fell to him to com-
plete that which Hayyuj had begun. Theannalsof
Hebrew philology and Bible exegesis bear witness
to the effects of Ibn Janah’s writings. They, in-
deed, fell into comparative oblivion after David
Kimhi; but they were brought again into notice
during the nineteenth century, and became once
more a source of inspiration and suggestion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 8. Munk, Notice sur Abowl Walid Merwan,
Paris, 1851; J. “Derenbourg, Opuxcules et Traités d’ Abod
LWalid Merwan ibn Djanadh de Cordoue, Introduction,
Paris, 1880; W. Bacher, Leben und Werke des Abulwatid
Merwdn ibn Ganah und die Quellen Seiner Schrifterktd-
rung, Leipsic, 1885; idem, dus der Schrifterkldérung des
Abulwalid Merwan ibn Gandh, ib. 1889; idem, Sefer ha-
Shorashim, ete., Introduction, Berlin, 1897 ; : idem, Die He-
brilisch-Arabische Sprachvergleichung des Abulwatid
Merwén ibn Gandh, Vienna, 1884; idem, Die Hebrdisch-
Neuhebrilische und Hebrdisch-Aramiische S prachver-
gleichung des Abulwalid, ib. 1885; Winter and Wiinsche,
Die Jtidische Litteratur, ii. 170-180, 259 et seq.
T W. B.
IBN JAU, JACOB: Silk-manufacturer at Cor-
dova, occupying a high position at the court of
the calif Hisham; died about 1000. Amador de
los Rios calls him “Ibn Gan.” Jacob and his
brother Joseph, finding in the court of the palace a
large sum of money which had been lost by some
Moors from the province during an assault upon
them, resolved to use the money for presents for the
calif and the “hajib” Al-Mansur ibn Abi Amir, to
gain favor thereby. They accordingly manufactured
precious silks for garments, and flags with artistic-
ally woven Arabic mottos and emblems, the like of
which had never been seen in Spain, and presented
them to the calif and the powerful hajib. Al-Man-
sur thereupon made Jacob prince and chief judge
of all the Jewish communities of the Andalusian
califate, investing him with the right of appointing
judges and rabbis, and of determining the taxes
which the Jews were to pay to the state.
Jacob was also invested with princely splendors;
eighteen pages in gold-brocaded garments formed
his guard of honor, and a state carriage was always
at his disposal. The community of Cordova unani-
mously recognized him as its chief and granted him
the right of entailing his dignities upon his descend-
ants. In the dispute regarding the rabbinate of
Cordova, Jacob and his family were on the side of ©
Joseph ibn Abitur. Jacob deposed R. Enoch, and
called in his place Ibn Abitur, who was then stay-
ing in Africa. Ibn Abitur, however, refused the
rabbinate out of respect for the learned and pious
Enoch. Jacob ibn Jau retained his position only
@ short time, for Al-Mansur, disappointed because
Jacob would not extort large sums of money from
his coreligionists as presents for him, cast Jacob
into prison. After languishing there for a year
Jacob was liberated through the intervention of the
calif himself, and reinstated, without, however, re-
Ton Killis
Ibn Migas
gaining his former prestige. Isaac ibn Saul, and
Isaac b. Gikatilla of Elisana (Lucena) praised him in
enthusiastic verses.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abraham ibn Daud, Sefer ha-Kabbalah (ed.
Neubauer), pp. 69 et seq.; Gratz, Gesch. v. 396 et seg.; Rios,
Hist. i. 160, 205 et seq.; Munk, Notice sur Abow'l Walid, p. 79.
G. M. K.
IBN KILLUIS, YA‘'KUB BEN YUSUF (ABU
AL-FARAJ): Vizier to the calif of Egypt, Al-
‘Aziz Nizar; born at Bagdad 980; died at Cairo
990-991. His parents were Jews; and he himself
professed the Jewish religion during the first half of
his life. His biographers relate that he claimed de-
scent from Aaron, or, according to another statement,
from the poet Samuel ibn Adiyah. Having been
instructed in writing and arithmetic, Ya‘kub was
sent by his father to Egypt. There he made the
acquaintance of an officer on whose recommendation
he was appointed by the calif of Egypt, Kafur al-
Ikshidi, to supervise the furnishing of his palace.
Having satisfactorily discharged this duty, Ya‘kub
was entrusted with more important public offices,
in which he displayed such ability and probity that
he soon became Kafur’s confidential minister (960),
and all the public expenditures were placed under
his control.
The difficulties surrounding this high position,
which must have excited much jealousy, probably
urged Ya‘kub to embrace Islam, which he did in
967. His power continued to increase till the death
of Kafur, when he was arrested by the vizier, Ibn
al-Furat, whose jealousy he had excited. The in-
tervention of his friends, and still more effectively
his bribes, soon set him at liberty. He then secretly
betook himself to Maghreb, where he entered into
the service of Al-Mu‘izz al-‘Ubaidi. Ya‘kub soon
won the confidence of his new master; and when the
latter conquered Egypt and established the Fatimite
dynasty, he appointed Ya‘kub director of the civil
administration (978). In 979, at the death of Al-
Mu‘izz, his son and successor, Al-‘Aziz Nizar, ap-
pointed Ya‘kub vizier, which position he continued
to hold throughout the remainder of his life.
The historians of that time represent Ya‘kub as
one of the most able and upright of Egyptian vi-
ziers. He was fond of learning; and his palace was
open to scholars, especially to poets. Ya'kub com-
posed a work on jurisprudence, “ Kitab fi al-Fikh,”
treating of the Shiitic doctrines which he had learned
from Al-Mu‘izz and Al-‘Aziz. At Ya‘kub’s death
‘Aziz himself attended the funeral, and kept no
table and received no guests for three days. For
eighteen days the government offices remained
closed, and no business was transacted; and for a
month Ya‘kub’s grave was a place of pilgrimage,
where poets recited the virtues of the departed at
the calif’s expense and a legion chanted the Koran
day and night.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Al-Makrizi, Al-Hitat, ii. 5; Ibn Sa‘id, Kitab
al-Mughrib, ed. Talquist, p. 76, Leyden, 1899; lbn Khallikan,
ed. Slane, iv. 359 et seq.; Abu al-Fida, Annales, ii. 540; Ham-
mer-Purgstall, Literaturgesch. iv. 125; F. Wiistenfeld, Gesch.
der Fatimiden-Chatifen, p. 104; De Goeje,in Z. D. AL. G.
Hi. 77; Stanley Lane-Poole, A History of Egypt in the Mid-
dle Ages, Index; Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl. viii. 118 et seq.;
idem, Die Arahbische Litteratur der Jucen, § 60. LB
G 5 R.
IBN LATIF, ISAAC B. ABRAHAM: Span-
ish physician and cabalist; probably born at Toledo;
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
536
died at Jerusalem, whither he had gone in indigent
circumstances, about 1290. Ile was the natural
philosopher among the cabalists of his period.
Cabalistic terms had not become fixed at that time,
and Ibn Latif attempted to give them a more scien-
tific character, and to base the doctrine of the Setirot
upon natural philosophy; in this, however, he was
not successful, although his works were otherwise
highly valued. He wrote the foilowing: (1) “Sha‘ar
ha-Shamayim,” his chief work, still in manuscript,
part of which has been published by Jellinek in
“Ha-Shahar”; said to have been written about 1244;
it is in four parts and follows the style of Maimoui-
des’ “Moreh”; the introduction contains a histor-
ical sketch of Jewish science up to the time of
Maimonides; (2) “*“Ginze ha-Melek,” published by
Jellinek in “Kokebe Yizhak,” 1847, p. 28; (38)
“Zeror ha-Mor,” dedicated to Todros Abulafia, the
Mecenas of the cabalists; printed in “Kerem
Hemed,” 1838, ix. 154; (4) “Iggeret ha-Teshubah,”
a letter from Jerusalem addressed to Abulafia in re-
gard to various scientific matters; it contains thirty-
nine questions and answers, twenty-six of which
have been published in the “'Tehiyyah” (1857, ii.
50) by Senior Sachs; (5) “Zurat ha-‘Olam,” printed
by 8S. Stern in “Kebuzat Hakamin,” 1860; (6)
“Rab Pe‘alim,” on metaphysics and natural philos-
ophy, edited by Schénblum in 1885; (7) Letter from
Jerusalem, still in manuscript (Parma, De Rossi,
MS. No. 402). He also wrote a commentary to Job,
not yet. edited, and a commentary to Ecclesiastes,
probably printed at Constantinople in the sixteenth
century. All the editions of his works are too im-
perfect to convey a clear impression of his cabalis-
tic ideas. Isaac b. Sheshet’s criticism of Ibn Latif
in his Responsa, No. 197, is noteworthy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jellinek, in Kerem Hemedad, ix.; idem, in Ko-
kebe Yizhak, xxv., XxXvii.-xxx.; Schénblum, Introduction to
Rab Pe’alim; Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl. 1874, xv. 88.
K. P. B.
IBN MALKAH, JUDAH BEN NISSIM:
Spanish philosopher; flourished either in Spain or
in Africa in the middle of the fourteenth century.
He was imbued with Neoplatonic ideas, and he
wrote from that standpoint au important philosoph-
ical work in Arabic in three parts. Of these the
first, entitled “Uns al-Gharib,” is an introduction to
the “Sefer Yezirah,” arranged in the form of dia-
logues between the author and his soul and between
a pupil and his master. Appended are ten chapters
on man’s acquirement of perfect bliss. The second
part, “Tafsir Yezirah,” is a philosophical commen-
tary on the same work; and the third part, “ Tafsir
Pirke R. Eli‘ezer,” is a commentary on the Pirke
R. Eli‘ezer, finished Feb. 8, 1865. He also cites
a work, “Al-Miftah,” and a commentary on the
prayers, “Tafsir al-Salawat,” written by himself,
but now lost.
Ibn Malkah’s commentary on the “Sefer Yezirah ”
is quoted by Samuel Motot in his commentary on
Ibn Ezra (according to Dukes, the commentator
who quotes Ibn Malkah is Joseph ha-Sefardi). Ibn
Malkah’s theory of the “active intellect” (“sekel
ha-po‘el”) is similar to that of Ibn Gabirol; but
there is no evidence of his having known the latter’s
“Fons Vite.”
537
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ibn Killis
Ibn Migas
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. tii. 758b, iv. 762c; Munk,
Mélanges, pp. 301, 302; idem, in Geiger’s Wiss. Zeit. Jtid.
Theol. ii. 158, v. 442; Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 405-
406; idem, Cat. Bodl. cols, 1244, 2455; idem, Die Arabische
Litteratur der Juden, § 184; Dukes, Philosophisches aus
dem Zehnten Jahrhundert, p._ 96; idem, in Orient, Lit. ix.
pins oe 15; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, pp. 412-413; R. E. J.
x1, 69,
G. M. SEL.
IBN MATKAH, JUDAH BEN SOLOMON
HA-KOHEN: Spanish philosopher, astronomer,
and mathematician; born at Toledo in 1215. On
his mother’s side he was the grandson of Ziza ibn
Shushan, Although Ibn Matkah wasa pupil of Meir
Abulafia, an anti-Maimonist, and was greatly in-
clined to mysticism, yet the “ Moreh ” of Maimonides
induced him to occupy himself with philosophical
studies. In fact, Ibn Matkah was the intermediary
between philosophy and mystic doctrines. Whilea
youth of eighteen he corresponded with Johannes
Palermitanus and Theodorus of Antioch, the phi-
losophers of the Roman emperor Frederick II. The
emperor himself consulted him about scientific mat-
ters, and his answers proved so satisfactory that he
was invited tosettle in Tuscany (1247), where he had
free access to the imperial court.
Ibn Matkah became known asa philosopher by the
encyclopedic work which he wrote in 1247 in Arabic
and himself translated into Hebrew under the title
“Midrash ha-Hokmah.” It is divided into two
parts. The first treats of logic, physics, and meta-
physics, adapted from Aristotle, and contains, be-
sides, a treatise on certain passages in Genesis,
Psalms, and Proverbs. The second treats of mathe-
matics, and contains, also, two treatises: the first,
a inystical one on the letters of the alphabet; the
other, a collection of Biblical passages to be inter-
preted pbilosophically. Ibn Matkah divides all
creatures into three categories, spiritual, celestial,
and terrestrial, ¢.e., mortal. He therefore divides
the sciences also into three branches, physics, mathe-
matics, and metaphysics. In the introduction to
this work he gives an anthology of Aristotle’s
sentences.
Ibn Matkah made an adaptation of Ptolemy’s “ Al-
magest,” which he arranged in eight chapters, and
of his “Quadripartitum” under the Hebrew title
“Mishpete ha-Kokabim,” a treatise on astrology.
He also made an adaptation of Al-Bitruji’s astron-
omy, under the title “ Miklal Yofi.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. i., note 736; ifi., notes 736,
‘ad
777; Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 1-4, 164, 507, 858;
idem, Cat. Leyden, pp. 53-60; idem, Jewish Literature, pp.
294, 10; 305, 20; 357, 49: idem, Die Arabische Litteratur der
Juden, $117; Ozar Nehmad, ii. 234; De Rossi, Codices, No.
421; Ha-Yonah, p. 32: Gritz, Gesch. 3d ed., vii. 85 ; Michael,
a Hayyim, note 414; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, pp. 413,
Ga. M. Set.
IBN MIGAS, ABRAHAM BEN ISAAC
HA-LEVI: Spanish physician and rabbinical
scholar; lived at Constantinople in the sixteenth
century. He was court physician to Sulaiman the
Great, and followed the latter’s army into Syria.
Several years after his return to Constantinople the
Jews of Damascus requested him to settle in their
city. He was also known as a Talmudist, and he
consulted Joseph Caro on rabbinical matters. <A re-
sponsum of his is to be found in Caro’s “Abkat
Rokel” (No. 27). In his only published work,
“ Kebod Elohim ” (Constantinople, 1585), he gives an
account of his travels and of the customs of the
Kurds and Druses. Another work of his is entitled
“ “Emek ha-Siddim.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 1384; Zunz, G. S.
i oa 5 Carmoly, Revue Orientale, ii. 198; First, Bibl. Jud.
G. M. SEL.
IBN MIGAS, JOSEPH: Spanish Jew of the
eleventh century ; ancestor of an important family of
scholars. Joseph ibn Migas, greatly respected among
the Jews of Granada, where he was probably born,
became involved in Granada politics when, after
the death of Habus, King of Granada (1087), quar-
rels broke out between his two sons, Badis and Bal-
kin. The Moorish nobles and the Jews, especially
Joseph ibn Migas, Isaac de Leon, and Nehemiah
Iskaffa, took the part of Balkin, the younger, and
desired to elect him king, while the rest of the pop-
ulation sided with Badis, whom they made king in
Oct., 1037. Balkin submitted; but Badis, fearing
his brother would regret his submission and seek
vengeance, caused him to be killed. Joseph ibn
Migas and the other J3wish adherents of Balkin
were compelled to flee. They were, however, kind-
ly received by the King of Seville, an opponent of
Badis, and Joseph ibn Migas was employed by him
in the public service.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abraham ibn Daud, Sefer ha-Kabhalah, in
Neubauer, M. J. C.i. 72, 76; Griitz, Geseh. vi. 14, 15, 48.
G. M. Sc.
IBN MIGAS, JOSEPH (JEHOSEF) BEN
MEIR HA-LEVI: Spanish rabbi and head of a
school in Lucena; born 1077; died in Lucena 1141.
His birthplace was probably Seville, where his
father, Meir ha-Levi ibn Migas, and his grandfather,
Joseph ha-Levi ibn Migas, had lived after the de-
parture of the latter from Granada (Saadia ibn
Danan, in Edelmann’s “ Hemdah Genuzah,” p. 80a;
De Rossi, “ Dizionario,” s.v. ; D. Cassel, in Ersch and
Gruber, “Encyc.” section ii., pt. 31, p. 85; Weiss,
“Dor,” iv. 289; Neubauer, “M. J.C.” i. 76). Abra-
ham ibn Daud says (see “M. J. C.” i. 76) that after
the removal to Lucena (1089) of the Talmudist Isaac
Alfasi, Joseph also went there, from Seville, he being
then twelve years old. Steinschneider, however,
because of a citation in Moses ibn Ezra, supposes
Joseph to have been born in Granada, which was
the home of his father’s bosom friend R. Isaac ben
Baruch Albalia. Joseph studied under Isaac Alfasi
at Lucena for fourteen years. Alfasi shortly before
his death (1108) ordained Joseph as a rabbi, and
wrote a testimonial for him. Passing over his own
son, he appointed Joseph, then twenty-six years of
age, to be his successor as director of the academy.
This position Joseph held for thirty-eight years.
His “accession to the throne” was commemorated
by his contemporary Judah ha-Levi
Head of (Gritz, “Blumenlese,” p. 76; Brody,
Academy “Diwan des Abu-]-Hasan Jehuda ha-
at Lucena. Levi,” p. 141). On the occasion of his
marriage, which occurred soon after,
the same poet wrote an epithalamium (Luzzatto,
“Betulat Bat Yehudah,” p. 38; partly translated
into German in Geiger’s “ Nachgelassene Schriften,”
Ibn Migas
Ibn Shaprut
ii, 118; see also Edelmann and Dukes, “Ginze
Oxford,” p. xiii.).
To R. Baruch ben [Isaac ben Baruch Albalia,
who was of the same age as himself and had been
his fellow student under Isaac Alfasi, he was bound
by ties of intimate friendship (Conforte, “Kore
ha-Dorot,” p.10a). Hisexternal life passed quietly.
He himself mentions (Responsa, No. 75) that he was
once in Fez. It is narrated that on the eve of a
Day of Atonement, which was also the Sabbath, he
caused the execution of a Jew in Lucena who had
turned informer in the wars between the Spanish
Arabs and the Almoravid Berbers (Judah ben Asher,
Responsa, No. 75).
An elegy in manuscript at Oxford, mentioned by
Dukes in his “ Nahal Kedumim ” (p. 11), is taken by
Gritz (“Blumenlese,” p. 112) to have been written
by Jekuthiel on the death of Ibn Migas. Dukes, on
the contrary, considers Jekuthiel to have been the
subject of the poem, and Ibn Migas—about whom
nothing further is said—to have been the author
(wre ‘yw Sempra mi dy.
Among the pupils of Ibn Migas may be mentioned
his son, R. Meir, whose son Isaac is mentioned by
Judah al-Harizi (“ Tahkemoni,” xliv.; see also D.
Cassel in “Zunz Jubelschrift,” p. 126); a nephew
of the same name (Edelmann, é.c. p. 80); and Mai-
mun, the father of Maimonides. That Joseph ibn
Migas was a teacher of Maimonides—who was only
six years old at the time of Joseph’s death—is an
old error (see Menahem Meiri, “ Bet ha-Behirah,” in
Neubauer, “M. J. C.” ii. 228; Edelmann, é.c. p. 30;
Sambari, in Neubauer, “ M. J. C.” i, 127; Ibn Yahya,
“Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah,” p. 82a; Weiss, “ Dor,”
iv. 290; Jew. Encyc. i. 875, s.v. ALFASI) which has
already been refuted by Zacuto (“Yuhasin,” p.
181a). It rests upon a gloss in Abraham ibn Daud’s
“Sefer ha-Kabbalah ” (Neubauer, /.c. i. 76) and upon
a misunderstood passage in Maimonides’ writings.
Of Joseph ibn Migas’ works may be mentioned:
(1) Responsa (Salonica, 1791; Warsaw, 1870), two
hundred and fourteen of which were collected by
Joseph Elijah ha-Levi, partly trans-
His Works. lated from the Arabic, and published
froma poor manuscript. Many of his
responsa are given in Bezaleel Ashkenazi’s “ Shittah
Mekubbezet” and in Azulai’s “ Birke Yosef”; and
a few appear in the Maimonidean collection of let-
ters “Pe’er ha-Dor” (Nos. 211 et seg.). Azulai
claimed to have possessed a volume of Joseph’s re-
sponsa in manuscript (“Shem ha-Gedolim,” i. 81).
Joseph’s responsa were cited also by older Jewish
law teachers, as those of an esteemed authority,
under the abbreviation O°~7777. (2) Talmud com-
mentaries (Menahem Meiri, “Bet ha-Behirah,” in
Neubauer, “M. J. C.” ii. 228), of which there have
been preserved, (2) Novelle on Baba Batra, quoted
by Zerahiah ha-Levi (see Reifmann, “ Toledot Rab-
benu Zerahyah ha-Levi,” p. 41, Prague, 18538), by
Solomon ben Adret (Responsa, No. 180), and by
others (first printed in Amsterdam, 1702; with Elea-
zar ben Aryeh’s commentary “Zer Zahab,” 1809);
(6) Hiddushim on Shebu‘ot, mentioned in the “ Pe’er
ha-Dor,” No. 145 (first printed in Prague, 1809, in
“Uryan Telitai”; together with other novell, 7d.
1826). His novelle contain no explanations of
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
538
words; but, conformably to the character of the
halakic Hippusui™, he lays emphasis on the clear-
ness and intelligibility of the whole context, some-
times giving two or more explanations of one passage.
He names Hananeel and Alfasi as his authorities,
He is of the opinion that it would be impossible to
obtain religious decisions directly from the Talmud
(Responsa, No. 114) without utilizing those of the
Geonim (“Teshubot ”),
A work entitled “ Megillat Setarim,” which Zera-
hiah ha-Levi mentions as having been written by
Joseph ibn Migas (Reifmann, /.c. p. 41), has not been
preserved; nor can it be determined whether, as
Griitz (“Gesch.” vi. 108) supposes, “Megillat Se-
tarim ” was the title of his Talmud commentary.
In view of the few, poorly edited fragments of his
works, an independent criticism of his importance as
a scholar is hardly possible. Maimonides says of
him in the introduction to his Mishnah commentary
(Pococke, “ Porta Mosis,” p. 108): “The Talmudic
learning of this man amazes every one who under-
stands his words and the depth of his speculative
spirit; so that it might almost be said of him that
his equal has never existed.” Judah ha-Levi eulo-
gizes him in six poems (see, besides those already
cited, Brody, U.c. pp. 87, 191), and is full of his praise
(7b. p. 178).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. Cassel, in Ersech and eros Encye. sec-
tion ii, pt. 31, p. 85; Gratz, Gesch. vi. 107 et seq.; Stein-
schneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1512; idem Neuh Literatur Cy
ae he inter and Winsche, Die Sidische Litteratur, ii.
G. M. Sc.
IBN MIGAS, MEIR: Spanish rabbi, and pres-
ident of the bet i midrash of Seville; flourished in
the eleventh century. He was the son of Joseph
ibn Migas and the father of Joseph ibn Migas ben
Meir ha Levi. Late in life he was compelled to
leave Seville and retire to Toledo.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abraham ibn Daud, Sefer ha-Kabbalah, in
Neubauer, M. J. C. i. 16; Gratz, Gesch. vi. 157.
G. M. Sc.
IBN MUHAJAR, AHUB BEN MEIR HA-
NASIIBN wp wnnw: Spanish-Arabian poet of the
twelfth century; probably a brother of the poct Jo-
seph ben Mcir and of Abraham b. Meir ibn Muha.
jar. In the earlier sources he is called either “ Ahub ”
or “Oheb”; and itis difficult to say which is correct.
If “Oheb,” then he is probably the author of the
poems signed “Oheb,” and beginning respectively:
(1) “Eloah hai asher yazar” (Luzzatto, “ Nahlat,”
p. 13); (2) “ Asher libbi we-kilyotai,” “reshut” for
the Torah festival (Zunz, “ Literaturgesch.” p. 587).
Judah ha-Levi dedicates a song of praise (“Mi
ya‘abor lanu le-‘eber yam”) to a certain Ahub, but
the latter’s surname is "WND>N ; and although the
name “ Ahub” is a rare one, it is improbable that the
poem was addressed to the subject of this article.
The designation wpyonrw, found in various other
forms, has not yet been explained.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abraham b. David, in Neubauer, M. J. C. 1.
81; Joseph b. Zaddik, ib. p. 93 (where ‘“Oheb” or ‘“*Ahub”
should be read instead of “* Abraham y Conforte, Kore ha-
Dorot, p. 8a. On ‘“*Oheb "and ** Ahub”* see Steinschneider in
J. Q. R. x. 131, 529; on “ Muhajar,” xi. 187. 1B
Ca, ‘
IBN NUNEZ, JACOB: Physician to King
Henry IV. of Castile and his chief judge (“juez
mayor”); also rabbi, as he calls himself. In 1474 he
539
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ibn Migas
Ibn Shaprut
was commissioned by the king to apportion at Se-
govia the taxes which the “aljamas” of the Jews
in all the King’s dominions had to pay annually.
These taxes were not collected by Ibn Nufiez, but
by the royal tax-collectors to whom Ibn Nufiez ap-
plied for that purpose.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rios, Estudios, p. 140; following him, Lindo,
History of the Jews in Spain, p. 242, and Gratz, Gesch. viii.
; Rios, Hist. iii. 590-602, where the tax-lists of the several
communities were for the first time published, from a manu-
script in the National Library at Madrid. :
G. M. K.
IBN PALQUERA. See Fauaquera (PALA-
QUERA), SHEM-TOB B. JOSEPH.
IBN PULGAR (PULKAR, or POLKAR),
ISAAC BEN JOSEPH: Spanish philosopher,
poet, and controversialist; flourished in the first
half of the fourteenth century. Where he lived is
not known, for though “ Avilla” is given at the end
of his translation of Al-Ghazali’s “Makasid,” the
town-name as well as the date is probably the copy-
ist’s (Gratz, “Gesch.” vii. 446). He was a warm de-
fender of Isaac Albalag, and continued his transla-
tion of Al-Ghazali’s work. Itseems from his “‘Ezer
ha-Dat” that he had been a friend of Abner of
Burgos; but when the latter, after conversion, sent
him one of his anti-Jewish writings, he replied in a
stinging satirical poem.
Ibn Pulgar wrote the following: (1) Hebrew
translation of the third book of Al-Ghazali’s “ Maka-
sid” (completed in 1807); (2) “‘Ezer ha-Dat,” the
most important of his writings (see below), a polem-
ical work in five books, in the form of dialogues,
and interspersed with verse; (8) “Iggeret ha-Har-
fit,” a refutation of Abner of Burgos’ “ Minhat
Kena’ot”; (4) a refutation in Spanish of astrology:
(5) verse (see De Rossi, “ Codices,” No. 861, 3).
Ibn Pulgar defended the Halakah, but said that
the Haggadah did not belong to the Talmud. One
of the points in dispute between Ibn Pulgar and
Abner of Burgos was in regard to the immortality
of the individual soul, which Ibn Pulgar denied, be-
Heving only in the immortality of the universal soul
(Ibn Shaprut, “Eben Bolan,” xv., § 3). Ibn Pul-
gar’s theory was that laws were not instituted for
the sake of God, who has no need of them, but for
the sake of man, Therefore he who observes these
laws must not expect any future reward, as he is
rewarded in the observance of them. Thus the
question, “Why are sinners often happy and the
pious unhappy?” has no meaning, for virtue and
wisdom contain happiness in themselves, while sin
and folly contain unhappiness.
Of the “‘Ezer ha-Dat,” the first book, in eight
chapters (“she‘arim ”), is a demonstration of the
superiority of the Jewish religion, in which Ibn
Pulgar attacks both apostates and Christians: the
second attacks infidels and skeptics; the third, as-
trologers; the fourth, those who explain the Bible
in a strictly literal sense and those who, like the
Christians, interpret it in a figurative and allegorical
sense; the fifth, those who do not believe in the im-
mortality of the soul. The second book, a dialogue
between an aged partizan of Talmudic Judaism
(“Torani”) and a youthful philosopher, has been
printed in Eliezer Ashkenazi’s “Ta‘am Zekenim ”
(Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1855). Ibn Pulgar’s object
here was to prove the superiority of philosophical
Judaism; but his arguments are more clearly ex-
pressed in the fourth book, in which he attacks caba-
lists, sorcerers, and false philosophers. His diatribes
against the first two classes have been published by
Isidore Loeb (“R. E. J.” xviii. 66-70).
BIBLIOGRAPITY : Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., Vii. 291, 292, 305-308, 446;
Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 299, 300: idem, Jewish
Literature, pp. 97, 171, 296; He-Haluz, iv. 88; Isidore Loen,
in R. E. J. xviii. 63-70.
G, M. SEL.
IBN ROSHD. See AVERROES.
IBN SAHL, ABU AL-HASAN.
IBN SAHL IBN RABBAN AL-TABARL.
IBN SAHL, ABU OMAR JOSEPH BEN
JACOB: Poct and scientist; died at Cordova 1124.
He was a pupil of Isaac ibn Ghayyat, was rabbi
at Curdova for nine years, and was distinguished for
both learning and piety. Joseph ibn Sahl, who must
not be confounded with the poet Joseph ibn Suli,
is counted by Al-Harizi among the foremost poets
of his time; though his verse is without any pecul-
iar elegance, it is easy and fluent. He was inti-
mately acquainted witk Moses ibn Ezra, who ad-
dressed several poems to him.
See ALI
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abraham ibn Daud, Sefer ha-Kabbalah, in
Neuhauer, M. J. C.i. 753 L. Dukes, Moses ibn Esra, pp. 101
et seq.; Sachs, Die Religidse Poesie, p. 256; Gratz, Gesch. vi.
123; Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 912, 1024, M
IBN SENEH. See ZArzan, SAMUEL IBN SENEH.
IBN SHAPRUT, HASDAI. See Haspar ABu
YUSUF IBN SHAPRUT.
IBN SHAPRUT (SHAFRUT, not Sport or
Sporta), SHEM-TOB BEN ISAAC: Spanish
philosopher, physician, and polemic; bornat Tudela
in the middle of the fourteenth century; often con-
fused with the physician Shem-Tob ben Isaac of Tor-
tosa, who lived one hundred and fifty years later.
While still a young man he was compelled to debate
in public, on original sin and redemption, with Car-
dinal Pedro de Luna, afterward Pope Benedict XIII.
This disputation took place in Pamplona, Dec. 26,
1375, in the presence of bishops and learned theo.
logians (see his “Eben Bohan”; an extract, entitled
“Wikkuah,” in manuscript, is in the Bibliothéque
Nationale, Paris, No. 831). A devastating war which
raged in Navarre between the Castilians and the
English obliged Ibn Shaprut, with many others,
to leave the country. He settled at Tarazona, in
Aragon, where he practised his profession of physi-
cian among both Jews and Christians. As a Tal-
mudic scholar he carried on a correspondence with
Sheshet. At Tarazona he completed his “ Eben
Bohan” (May, 1880 or 1385), a polemical work
against baptized Jews. As a model and guide for
this work, which consists of fourteen chapters, or
“ gates,” and is written in the form of a dialogue, he
took the polemical “Milhamot Adonai” of Jacob
ben Reuben, falseiy attributed to David Kimhi.
Ibn Shaprut’s work, however, is not a partial re
production of the “Milhamot,” as has been incor-
rectly stated (“ Ozar Nehmad,” ii. 32); it is rather an
extension or continuation of it, since it goes into
details which are either not mentioned, or are men-
tioned only briefly, in the other. In the fifteenth
Ibn Shem-Tob
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
540
chapter, which Ibn Shaprut added later, he criticizes
a work writteu by Alfonso de Valladolid against Ja-
cob ben Reuben. The thirteenth chapter contains a
very interesting fragment by a fourteenth-century
Schopenhauer, who wrote under the pseudonym
“Lamas” (“Samael”). The “Eben Bohan ” has been
preserved in several manuscripts. In order to as-
sist the Jews in their polemical writings, Ibn Sha-
prut translated portions of the Four Gospels into
Hebrew, accompanying them with pointed observa-
tions; answers to the latter, written by a neophyte
named Jona, also exist in manuscript. |
Ibn Shaprut wrote a commentary to the first
book of Avicenna’s canon entitled “‘En Kol,” for
which he probably made use of the Hebrew transla-
tion of Sulaiman ibn Yaish and that of Allorqui,
which latter he criticizes severely. He also wrote
a supercommentary, entitled “Zafnat Pa‘aneah,”
to Ibn Ezra’s commentary on the Pentateuch (see
M. Fricdliinder in the “Publications of the Society
of Hebrew Literature,” series ii., vol. iv., p. 221,
where “Shem-Tob ben Joseph Shaprut of Toledo”
should read “Shem-Tob ben Isaac of Tudela”). The
following works of Jbn Shaprut have been printed:
“Pardes Rimmonim,” explanations of difficult Tal-
mudic haggadot (Sabbionetta, 1554); “ Besorat Mat-
~ tai,” Hebrew translation of the gospel of Matthew
according to the editions of Seb. Minster and I.
de Tillet Mercier, reedited by Ad. Herbst (Gét-
tingen, 1879).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 2548-2557 ;
idem, Hebr. Bibl. xv. 82, xix. 43; idem, Hebr. Uehers. pp.
689 et seq.; Carmoly, Histoire des Médecins Juifs, p. 101; De
Rossi-Hamberger, Hist. Worterb. p. 301; Nepi-Ghirondi,
Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 852; Gratz, Gesch. viii. 23 et seq.;
Isidore Loeb, La Controverse Religieuse, in Revue de V His-
toire des Religinns, xviii. 145 et seg.; idem, in R. BE. J. xviii.
219 et seq. (with several extracts according to the Breslau MS.);
First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 259 et seq. (where Ibn Shaprut is con-
founded with Shem-Tob b. Isaac of Tortosa).
G, M, K.
IBN SHEM-TOB, ISAAC: Philosophical com-
meutator of the fifteenth century; younger brother
of Joseph ibn Shem-Tob, and a follower of Mai-
monides. Isaac sided with his brother against their
father, Shem-Tob ibu Shem-Tob, who, in his “Sefer
ha-Emunot,” had attacked Maimonides. Isaac’s
commentary on Maimonides’ “ Moreh ” is known only
through a quotation by Moses Alashkar (“ Hassa-
got,” p. 6, ed. Ferrara, 1556). According to Stein-
schneider, he is probably identical with the Isaac
ibn Shem-Tob who wrote, at Aguilar de Campo in
1459, a commentary on Ghazali’s “Metaphysics”
(Paris MS. No. 906).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. viii. 180; Steinschneider, Hebr.
Febers, p. 820.
G. M. Sc.
IBN SHEM-TOB, JOSEPH BEN SHEM-
TOB: One of the most prolific Judeo-Spanish wri-
ters of the fifteenth century; born in Castile; died
1480. He lived in various cities of Spain: Medina
del Campo de Leon (1441); Alcala di Henares (1451);
Segovia (1454). Though it is not known precisely
what office he held at court, he occupied a position
which brought him in contact with distinguished
Christian scholars. According to the custom of the
time, he held public disputations with them in the
presence of the court; this probably led him to study
the polemical literature of the Jews. In the preface
to his commentary on Profiat Duran’s “ Al-Tehi
ka-Aboteka,” he recounts a disputation with a Chris-
tian scholar concerning the doctrine of the Trinity.
He seems to have elaborated this disputation and to
have used it later in various anti-Christian writings.
In 1452 he was sent by the Prince of Asturia, Don
Enrique, to Segovia to prevent an outbreak of pop-
ular rage at Easter against the Jews. Hespeaks oc-
casionally in his writings of great sufferings which
drove him from place to place, and of passing
through a severe illness. Griitz (“Gesch.” viii. 422)
has discovered, from a quotation in Joseph Jabez’s
“Or ha-Hayyim,” that Ibn Shem-Tob died a martyr.
Ibu Shem-Tob’s numerous writings, a list of which
was compiled by Munk and supplemented by Beer
and Steinschneider, are divisible into (a) independent
works and (6) commentaries. Among the former are:
“ Hanhagat ha-Bayit,” treatise on economics, writ-
ten in his youth (see his “‘En ha-
Kore”); nothing further is known
concerning it. According to Stein-
schneider, it may be a revision of Aris-
totle’s “ Economics.”
“En ha-Kore,” the only medieval scientific He-
brew homiletical work extant (Zotenberg, “Cat.
Hebr. MSS. Paris,” No. 325, 2; Neubauer, “Cat.
Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 2052, 2). The book is
very rich in quotations from Christian and from
Mohammedan authors. It treats systematically of
the science of homiletics, defines the limitations of
exegesis, and expresses itself in regard to the funda-
mental aim of Jewish preaching. It contains fre-
quent references to Aristotle’s “ Ethics,” Ibn Shem-
Tob’s favorite work.
“Kebod Elohim,” on the summum bonum and the
aim of life; written in 1442, printed at Ferrara in
1555.
“Da‘at ‘Elyon,” a refutation of a fatalistic wri-
ting of the baptized Jew Abner of Burgos (Wolf,
“Bibl. Hebr.” iii. 428; the Oppenheim MS. cited
by Wolf is no longer to be found in the collection at
Oxford).
The following are his commentaries:
Commentary on Jedaiah ha-Penini’s “ Behinat
‘Olam.”
Commentary on his father’s “Sefer ha-Yesodot,”
known only through a citation in “‘EKn ha-Kore.”
Just as “Sefer ha-Yesodot” is, proba-
Original
Works.
His bly, only another title of his father’s
Commen- “Sefer ha-Emunot,” so is this com-
taries. mentary, according to Steinschneider,
probably identical with the “Sefer
Kebod Elohim.”
Commentary on the anti-Christian letter of Profiat
Duran, “Al-Tehi ka-Aboteka,” edited and printed
together for the first time at Constantinople, 1577;
reprinted by A. Geiger in “Kobez Wikkuhim,”
Breslau, 1844.
“Bittul ‘Ikkere ha-Nozerim,” a Hebrew transla-
tion of and commentary on Hasdai Crescas’ refuta-
tion, in Spanish, of the chief dogmas of Christian-
ity. It was written at Alcala di Henares in 1451,
and published anonymously at Salonica (?) in 1860.
The original work by Crescas and its title have been
lost (Steinschneider, “ Hebr. Uebers.” p. 462). These
last two commentaries were in accord with the anti.
541
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ibn Shem-Tob
Christian polemical spirit prevailing in the Jewish
rcligio-philosophic literature of the time.
Commentary on Lamentations, written at Medina
del Campo in 1441, after the author had recovered
from an illness (Parma, De Rossi MSS. No. 177).
Commentary on the “ITsavoge” of Porphyry, after
Averroes, of which no manuscript has yet been
found (see Steinschneider, “Cat. der Hebr. Hand-
schriften in der Stadtbibliothek zu Hamburg,” p.
106; idem, “Hebr. Uebers.” p. 86).
Commentary on Averroes’ treatise on the possi-
bility of union with the active intellect (“Sekel
ha-Po‘el”), after Moses Narboni’s translation, with
a long introduction (Steinschneider, “Cat. der Hebr.
Handschriften Berlin,” No. 216; Zotenberg, J.c. No.
885). Ibn Shem-Tob made ashort extract from this
voluminous commentary, which he finished at Sego-
via in 1454 (Neubauer, “Cat. Bod!. Hebr. MSS.” No.
1253; see Steinschneider in “ Monatsschrift,” xx xii.
459 et seq. ; idem, “ Hebr. Uebers.” pp. 194 et seg.).
Commentary on part of Averrves’ “large com-
mentary ” on the “De Anima” of Aristotle, cited in
Ibn Shem-Tob’s commentary on Aristotle’s “ Ethics ”
(Steinschneider, .c. p. 150).
Short commentary on Maimonides’ “ Moreh,” ii.
68, cited in his son’s commentary on the same work.
Nothing further concerning it is known.
Commentary on the Sidra Bereshit, cited by him
in the “‘En ha-Kore,” and a commentary on Deut.
xv. 11, cited in his commentary on the “ Nicomach-
ean Ethics” (according to Steinschneider these two
may be only sermons).
Commentary, containing minute and diffuse ex-
planations of words and subject-matter, on the He-
brew translation of the “ Nicomachean Ethics” of
Aristotle (“Sefer ha-Middot ”). Finished at Segovia
in 1455, this was probably the last and most exten-
sive of his works; he worked upon it for one hundred
days continuously in order that no interruption might
hinder him from an understanding of the text. The
commentary exists in many manuscripts and was
widely circulated in the Middle Ages, It has been
made use of in Satanow’s edition of the “Sefer ha-
Middot” (Berlin, 1784; Steinschneider, @.¢. pp. 212
et seq.).
The “ Kebod Elohim ” is Joseph’s chief work. His
leading ideas and principles, scattered throughout his
other writings, are here brought together. In it he
compares the ethical opinions of the Greeks, espe-
cially of Aristotle, with those of Judaism, a thing
which had not before been earnestly or thoroughly
done. For this purpose he gives many extracts
(“perakim ”) from the “Ethics” of Aristotle, and
translates chapters ix. and x., though
from a Latin version. In answer to the
question as to man’s summum bonum
he concludes it to be the Torah, which
teaches and promises immortality, whereas the
Greeks only speculate as to man’s final goal. That
the Torah and the philosophy of the Greeks have
one and the same end, as some maintain, he denies,
declaring the claim to be incompatible with the
essence of positive religion; the Torah ordains the
fulfilment of the 618 commandments, not the eth-
ical teachings of Aristotle. Speculation within the
bounds of the Torah is permitted, even commanded ;
Ethical
Views.
and its province should be “the secret meanings of
the Torah and of its rules, and the teachings of
the Prophets.” By this he probably indicates caba-
listic dogmas. The divine commands are reasonable,
although explanations based on reason, without the
help of tradition often fail to explain the founda-
tions of the commands.
Joseph ibn Shem-Tob was one of the most learned
writers of his time. His knowledge of science and
philosophy was intimate, and he had a very thor-
ough acquaintance with Aristotle, his
Characteri- chief commentator Averroes, and the
zation. prominent Jewish, Mohammedan, and
Christian writers. At the same time
he was an independent and outspoken critic. He
not only passed judgment upon Christianity and
Islam, but he criticized Maimonides, with whose
fundamental ideas he was not in sympathy, and
maintained that the claim made by the cabalists that
Simeon ben Yohai was the author of the Zohar was
baseless. Nevertheless, in a discussion as to the
proofs of the unity of God, he prefers the arguments
of the cabalists to those of the philosophers. His
attitude might be termed “ positive Jewish,” with a
remarkable mixture of rationalism and dogmatism.
He would allow no obscurity or confusion of ideas,
and emphatically asserted that religion and philos-
ophy are not identical in their final aim: “The Aris-
totelian laws make men; Jewish laws make Jews.”
In the strife then raging over the study of ration-
alistic sciences Ibn Shem-Tob took the following
position: The Jew in possession of the divine rev-
elation could dispense with the sciences, although
their study was useful to him, since they perfected
him asa human being; but their study should be
deferred to anadvancedage. In this he agreed with
Solomon ben Adret. He thought it was the “soph-
istry” of “Greek wisdom,” in which speculative
knowledge was the chief end of life, which made
materialists of so many prominent Jews, causing
their defection from Judaism and the extinction of
whole communities in Aragon and Castile. In other
districts, he said, not affected by this spirit, there
were thousands of Jews who would rather be killed
than surrender their faith,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. viii. 141, 163 ef seq., 178 et seq.,
421 et seq.; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, pp. 512 et seq.; Stein-
schneider. Cat. Bodl. cols. 1529 et seg.: idem, Jewish Litera-
ture, pp. 97, 100, 104, 127, 309, 317; idem, in Ersch and Gru-
ber, Eneye. section ii., part 31, pp. 87 et seg.; M. Straschon,
in Pirhe Zafon, pp. 84 ef seq.; Winter and Wiinsche, Die
Jitdische Litteratur, ii. 790, iii. 671; Munk, Mélanges, pp.
508 et seq.; Munk-Beer, Die Philosophischen Schriftsteller
der Juden, pp. 118 et seq.
J. M. Sc.
IBN SHEM-TOB, SHEM-TOB (BEN JO-
SEPH?): Spanish cabalist; a fanatical opponent
of rationalistic philosophy; president of a yeshibah
in Spain; lived about 1890-1440 (Gedaliah ibn
Yahya, “Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah,” ed. Venice, p.
62b). He was the father of Joseph and Isaac ibn
Shem-Tob. He wrote: “Sefer ha-Emunot,” on re-
ligious dogmas (Ferrara, 1556); “Sefer Yesodot”
(perhaps only another title for the preceding); a
commentary on the Pesah Haggadah (Steinschneider,
“Cat. Munich,” 264, 3; ¢dem, “Cat. Bodl.” col. 99).
The “Sefer ha-Emunot” is an attack on the Aristo-
telian philosophy and on the rationalistic and specu-
Ibn Shem-Tob
Ibn Shu‘ai
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
542
lative conception of Judaism in vogue in the author’s
day. Itisalsoaeulogy of the Cabala, “ the true teach-
ing, which has lived on through tradition and which
alone can help Israel.” Shem-Tob endeavors to
prove that, from the standpoint of positive Judaism,
there is not the agreement between religion and
philosophy that is claimed by many Jewish philos-
ophers. In theintroduction he makes the philosoph-
ical investigators and the “enlightenment” brought
about by them responsible for the defection from
Judaism and for the political persecutions of the
times. He renders especially severe judgments upon
Maimonides (who withheld belief in resurrection),
upon Abraham ibn Ezra, upon Levi ben Gershon, and
upon other men of liberal views.
In his survey of the historical development of the
Cabala Ibn Shem-Tob cites a number of older caba-
listic writers, whose existence, however, is not there-
by proved. This reference to them isappended to a
short passage from the Zohar. Moses ALASHKAR Vio-
lently opposed Shem-Tob’s dogmatic system in his
“ Hassagot ‘Al Mah She-Katab R. Shem-Tob Neged
ha-RaMbaM ” (Ferrara, 1556). The “Sefer ha-Emu-
not” has been much cited by both old and modern au-
thors, and is valuable for the history of the Cabala.
To judge from a remark on page 31b it would seem
that Ibn Shem-Tob wrote other works, but nothing
is known concerning them.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Gesch. Hebr. ed. of Rabbinowitz, vi. 99-
100; Kaufmann, Die Attributenlehre, Index ; Steinschneider,
Cat. Bodl. cols. 2558 et seq.; idem, Jewish Literature, pp. 94,
304; idem, Die Polemische und Apologetische Litteratur,
pp. 321], 367; idem, Hebr. Uebers. p. 120; M. Straschon, in
Pirhe Zafon, ii. 77 et seq.; Winter and Wiinsche, Die Jti-
dische Litteratur, iii. 281, 365.
J. M. Sc.
IBN SHEM-TOB, SHEM-TOB BEN JO-
SEPH BEN SHEM-TOB: Spanish writer and
philosopher; flourished about 1461-89; lived in Se-
govia and Almazan. He was a follower of Maimon-
ides, even though his grandfather Shem-Tob ibn
Shem-Tob was one of Maimonides’ most uncompro-
mising opponents, and though his father did not
agree with Maimonides on essential points in his
philosophy. Ibn Shem-Tob was the author of the
following works: (1) Treatise on matter and its re-
lation to form, according to the opinions of the an-
cient philosophers, especially Aristotle and his com-
mentators; written in Segovia, 1461 (Paris MS. No.
898, 4). (2) Commentary to book iii., ch. 4-7 of
Averroes’ “middle commentary ” on Aristotle’s “ De
Anima,” on the ratiocinative power of the soul;
finished in Almazan, in 1478, under the title “Bi’ur
ha-Koah ha-Debari” (Paris MS. No. 3). The other
parts of the commentary were written by one of
Shem-Tob’s pupils in tlie same year (1478), and
probably were either based upon the teacher’s lec-
tures or dictated by him (Paris MS. No. 967, 2). (3)
Commentary on Averroes’ “ middle commentary ” on
Aristotle’s “Physics”; finished in Almazan in 1480
(Paris MS. No. 967, 4). (4) “Ha-Ma’amar ba-Sib-
bah ha-Taklitit,” treatise on the final cause or pur-
pose of the creation of the world (Paris MS. No. 998,
2). The author quotes and discusses several of the
opinions of ancient writers on this subject, and
agrees with the last one cited, that the purpose of
creation is the existence of mankind The end of
all bumanity, according to him, is to approximate
to theimage of God. (5) “ Teshubot” to Eli Habillo’s
philosophical questions (De Rossi, MS. Parma No.
457, 2). (6) Commentary on Pirke Abot (Wolf,
“Bibl. Hebr.” iii. 1185). (7) Commentary on Mai-
monides’ “ Moreh” (Venice, 1551). This commen-
tary, his chief work, was written with the purpose
of reconciling “reason” (philosophy) and “law”
(religion). He frequently quotes the commentary of
Profiat Duran, to which his remarks are sometimes
only supplementary. In the preface he states his
intention to be merely to reproduce explanations and
comments already given and in his opinion correct.
A compendium, therefore, rather than a commen-
tary, the work is very prolix (see Friedlander, “The
Guide of the Perplexed,” vol. iii., p. xxii.). (8)
“Derashot ha-Torah,” homilies on the Pentateuch,
written in 1489 and printed three times during the
sixteenth century (Salonica, 1525 or 15380; Venice,
1547; Padua, 1567). Itsoon, however, fell into com-
parative oblivion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Munk, Mélanges, pp. 508-509; Munk-Beer,
Philosophie und Philosophische Schrifisteller der Juden,
pp. 119 et seq.; M. Straschon, Pirhe Zafon, ii. 86; Stein-
schneider, Cat. Boal. cols. 2534 et seq.; idem, Jewish Litera-
ture, pp. 99, 104; idem, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 120, 150, 425; Winter
and Winsche, Die Jtidische Litleratur, ii. 791.
J. M. Sc.
IBN SHOSHAN (Hebr. form, jwry or INL)
or IBN SUSAN (Arab. form, “Susan,” both forms
meaning “lily ”): Spanish family of Toledo, which
can be traced back to the twelfth century and which
is known to have existed up to the seventeenth cen-
tury. Its first known representative was Solomon,
called “Pattish he-Hazak” (= “the mighty ham-
mer”), He was nasi in Toledo in the twelfth
century (Graetz, “Hist.” iii, 384).
Joseph ben Solomon ibn Shoshan (called also
Yazid ibn Omar ha-Nasi): Communal worker
in Toledo; died there 1205. He succeeded his father
as nasi in that city, and stood high in the favor
of the court. Graetz says that he was a favorite of
Alfonso VIII. of Castile (1166-1214). He built a
beautiful synagogue in Toledo, which is mentioned
in “ Ha-Manhig ” (ed. Constantinople, p. 27a), and is
also alluded to in the chronogram “1205,” the year
of his death, in his epitaph (see 8. D. Luzzatto,
“Abne Zikkaron,” No. 75; Rapoport, in “Kerem
Hemed,” vii. 249-253). He gave a friendly recep-
tion at his home in Tcledo to Abraham ben Nathan,
the author of “Ha-Manhig.” The poet Al-Harizi
composed two elegies on his death, one of which
exists in manuscript, while the other is printed in
the “ Tahkemoni” (cd. Warsaw, 1890, 1. 412; comp.
xlvi. 850).
Joseph’s sou Solomon was also nasi of Toledo, in
succession to his father.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : D. Cassel. in Zunz Jubelschrift, p. 125; A.
Geiger, in Wiss. Zeit. Jiid. Theol. ii. 129; Gratz, Gesch. vi.
189, 328 ef seg.; Zunz, Z. G. Index, s.v. Schoschan.
Among other members of the family who lived
in the thirteenth century were: Abraham, who
built houses of shelter for poor travelers in Toledo.
Judah, known for his generosity. Sisa, grandfather
of the writer Judah ben Moses of Toledo, Samuel,
who provided the Talmudical high schools of Cairo
and Jerusalem with oil, and who suffered in a perse-
543
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ibn Shem-Tob
Ibn Shuai
cution of the Jews in Toledo. Jacob, a Jewish
judge, appointed by the government.
In the fourteenth century prominent members of
the family were: David, a judge, son of the above-
mentioned Jacob. He was associated with Asher
ben Jehiel. Meir ben Abraham, representative of
the community, and his son ABRAHAM (sce JEW.
Encyc. i. 119b). Jacob, who in 1340 was divorced
from his wife Satbona, daughter of Judah Benve-
niste of Loria, Isaac, a physician; born 1824; died
of the plaguc in 1899 (Graetz, l.c. iv. 118). Joseph,
a thorough student of the Talmud and of theology ;
author of a commentary on Pirke Abot (Neubauer,
“Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 885, 2; MS. Paris, No.
769, 5).
Noteworthy members in the fifteenth century
were: Meir ben Joseph, physician, “a helper of the
poor” ; died in Toledo 1415. An Ibn Shoshan, whose
given name is not known; author of a short com-
mentary on Ibn Gabirol’s “ Azharot” (Neubauer, Z.c.
No. 1177, 1b). Samuel ben Zadok, auther of a fes-
tival prayer (De Rossi, MS. Parma No. 13877) and of
a short compendium on Jacob ben Asher’s “Tur
Orah Hayyim,” under the title “Sefer ‘Ez Hayyim ”
(MS. Paris, No. 444). Samuel, author ot Sabbath
sermons (Buxtorf, “Bibl. Rab.” p. 467) and of a
supercommentary on Rashi’s commentary on the
Pentateuch (Neubauer, U.c. No, 201). Another Ibn
Shoshan, whose given nameis not known; died as
a martyr in Seville in 1481. Judah ben Isaac,
rabbi in Magnesia about 1500; quoted by several
halakists; author of a commentary on Ruth.
To the sixteenth century belong: Joseph, lived
in Constantinopie; publisher of Midrash Tanhu-
ma (1522). David, physician in Jerusalem (15386).
Isaac, copyist of a cabalistic work in Safed (Neu-
bauer, U.c. No. 1540). David ben Samuel, author
of a commentary on Ecclesiastes (Geiger, “ Jiid.
Zeit.” iii. 444). Solomon ben Samuel lived in
Salonica.
Issachar ben Mordecai ibn Susan: Pales-
tinian mathematician; flourished 1589-72. In early
youth he removed from the Maghreb, perhaps from
Fez, to Jerusalem, where he became a pupil of Levi
ibn Habib. From there he went to Safed, where,
under great hardship, he continued his studies.
But his increasing poverty induced him, in 15389, to
leave Safed and seek a living elsewhere. At this
time he commenced a work on the calendar, giving,
among other things, tables which embraced the
years 5299-6000 (1539-2240). Afterhis return to Safed
he resumed his work on the calendar, in which he
was assisted by the dayyan Joshua. It was pub-
lished at Salonica, in 1564, under the title “ Tikkun
Yissakar.” The second edition, under the title
““Tbbur Shanim ” (Venice, 1578), isnot as rare as the
first. The tables in both editions begin with the year
of publication.
The book also contains, in two appendixes, a
treatise on rites (“minlagim ”) depending upon the
variations in the calendar from year to year, and a
treatise on the division of the weekly portions and
the haftarot according to the ritual of the different
congregations. For the latter treatise the author
quotes as his source ancient manuscript commen-
taries, and holds that, according to the opinion of a
certain scholar, the division of the weekly portions
is to be traced back to Ezra. Rites, anonymously
given, are, according to p. 51, 2d edition, taken from
Abudarham, to w hom the author attributes great
authority.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, i. 704: First, Bibl.
Jud. iii, 396; Steinschneider, Cat. Boal. col. 1061; idem, in
Abhandlungyen zur Gesch, der Mathenatik, 1899, ix. 479.
David ibn Shoshan: A blind and very rich man
of Salonica; died in Constantinople. Of good gen-
eral education, he was intimately acquainted with
the Talmud as well as with philosophy and mathe-
matics. He was well known for his thorough
knowledge of the law-books of the Mohammedans,
and many Moslem scholars and judges came to him
at Salonica to be taught theirown law. Later he
left for Constantinople, where he remained till his
death and where, on account of his scholarship, he
was highly respected by the Mohammedan stu-
dents. One of his pupils was Asher Cohen ibn
Ardot (d. 1645).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, pp. 38b, 39a, 40a,
45a; Benjamin Motal, Tummat Yesharim, Preface, Venice,
1622; Zunz, Z. G. p. 440.
Members of the family in the seventeenth century
were: Eliezer, son of the above-mentioned David,
in Constantinople (1622). It is related of him that
every Friday he cleaned with his beard the place in
front of the Holy Ark. David ben David, rabbi
in Salonica about 1660.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Zunz, Z. G. pp. 486 et seq.
J. M., Sc.
IBN SHU‘AIB, BISHR (BASHAR) BEN
PHINEHAS: Oriental mathematician; lived at
the end of the tenth century. According to Hot-
tinger (“ Promptuarium,” p. 96), the Arabic works
of Ibn Shu‘aib are often quoted by Arabic writers.
In 997 the Jacobite Abu ‘Ali ‘Isa ibn Zara‘ah ad-
dressed to Ibn Shu‘aib a pamphlet against Judaism
which seemed to be an answer to a pro-Jewish work
by Ibn Shu‘aib (see Ibn Abi Usaibi‘a, “‘Uyun al-
Anba’,” ii. 236).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Polemische Literatiur, p. 145;
idem, Die Arabische Litteratur der Juden, § 6
G. M. SEL.
IBN SHU‘AIB, JOEL: Rabbi, preacher, and
commentator of the fifteenth century; born in Ara-
gon; lived also at Tudela. He wrote: “‘Olat Shab-
bat,” sermons, in the order of the Sabbatical sections,
written in 1469 (Venice, 1577) ; acommentary on Lam-
entations, written at Tudela in 1480, and published
together with Galante’s commentary on the same
book (¢. 1483); a commentary on Job, mentioned in
his “‘Olat Shabbat”; a short commentary on Canti-
cles (1556); “Nora Tehillot,” a commentary on the
Psalms, with a preface by his son Samuel (Salonica,
1568-69).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, p. 28a; De Rossi-
Hamberger, Hist. Worterb. p. 291; Steinschneider, Cat.
Bodl. col. 1400; Dukes, in Orient, Lit. ix. 302; Nepi-Ghi-
rondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 16 62.
K. I. Br.
IBN SHU‘AIB, JOSHUA: Preacher and caba-
list; flonrished about 1828. He was a pupil of Solo-
mon ben Adret and the teacher of Menahem ibn
Zerah. Together with Shem-Tob ben Abraham ibn
Gaon, he was accused by Isaac the Blind of Acco of
Ibn Tibbon
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
544
unreliability in his accounts of the utterances and
explanations of his teachers.
Shu‘aib was the author of “ Derashot al ha-Torah,”
homilies on the Pentateuch.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 78; Steinschnei-
der, Cat. Bodl. col. 1562.
K. P. B.
IBN TIBBON: Family of translators that lived
principally in southern France in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries. On the name “Tibbon” see
Steinschneider in “J. Q. R.” xi, 621. The more iin-
portant members of the family were:
Abraham ibn Tibbon: Translator of Aristotle’s
“Economics”; his exact relationship to the Tibbon
family is unknown (Steinschneider, “ Hebr. Uebers.”
p. 227).
M. Sc.
Jacob ben Machir ibn Tibbon: Provencal as-
tronomer; born, probably at Marseilles, about 1236;
died at Montpellier about 1804. He wasa grandson
of Samuel ben Judah ibn Tibbon. His Provencal
name was Don Profiat Tibbon; the Latin writers
called him Profatius Judzeus. Jacob occupies a
considerable place in the history of astronomy in the
Middle Ages. His works, translated into Latin,
were quoted by Copernicus, Reinhold, and Clavius.
He was also highly reputed as a physician, and,
according to Jean Astruc (“ Mémoires pour Servir a
VHistoire de la Faculté de Médecine de Mont-
pellier,” p. 168), was regent of the faculty of medi-
cine of Montpellier.
In the controversy between the Maimonists and
the anti-Maimonists Jacob defended science against
the attacks of Abba Mari and his party; the ener-
getic attitude of the community of Montpellier on
that occasion was due to his influence.
Jacob became known by a series of Hebrew trans-
lations of Arabic scientific and philosophical works,
and above all by two original works on astronomy.
His translations are: (1) the “ Elements” of Euclid,
divided into fifteen chapters; (2) the treatise of
Kosta ben Luka on the armillary sphere, in sixty-
five chapters; (8) “ Sefer ha-Mattanot,” the “ Data” of
Euclid, according to the Arabic translation of Ishak
ben Hunain; (4) “Ma’amar Talkus,” treatise of
Autolycus on the sphere in movement; (5) three
treatises on the sphere of Menelas of Alexandria;
(6) “ Ma’amar bi-Tekunah,” or “Sefer ‘al Tekunah,”
in forty-four chapters, from Abu ‘Ali ibn Hassan ibn
al-Haitham; (7) treatise on the use of the astrolabe,
in forty chapters, from Abu al-Kasim Ahmad ibn al-
Saffar; (8) compendium of the “ Almagest” of Ptol-
emy, from Abu Muhammed Jabar ibn Aflah; (9)
“Teecret ha-Ma‘aseh be-Luah ha-Nikra Sofihah,”
from Abu Ishak ben al-Zarkalah; (10) preface to
Abraham bar Hiyya’s astronomical work; (11) an
extract from the “ Almagest ” on the are of a circle;
(12) “Kizzur mi-Kol Meleket Higgayon,” A-verroes’
compendium of the “Organon” (Riva di Trento,
1559); (18) Averroes’ paraphrase of books xi.-xix.
of Aristotie’s history of animals; (14) “Mozene ha-
‘Iyyunim,” from Ghazali.
The two original works of Jacob are: (1) a de-
scription of the astronomical instrument called the
quadrant (Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris, MS. No.
1054), in sixteen chapters, the last of which shows
how to construct this instrument; it was translated
several times into Latin; (2) astronomical tables,
beginning with March 1, 1800 @funich MS. No.
343, 26). These tables, also, were translated into
Latin and enjoyed the greatest repute.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Munk, Mélanges, p. 489; Carmoly, Histoire
des Médecins Juifs, p. 90; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col.
1232: idem, Hebr. Uebers.; Gritz, Gesch. vii. 246; Renan-
Neubauer, Les Rahbins Francais, pp. 599 et seq.; Gross,
Gullia Judaica, p. 332. LB
A R.
Judah ben Moses ibn Tibbon: Rabbiin Mont-
pellier; took part in the dispute between the fol-
lowers and the opponents of Maimonides. He in-
duced his relative Jacob ben Machir ibn Tibbon to
support the Maimonidean party by pointing out
that the anti-Maimonideans were the opponents of
his grandfather Samuel ibn Tibbon and of the son-
in-law of the latter, Jacob ben Abba Mari ben
Samson ben Anatoli. In consequence of this, Jacob
ben Machir ibn Tibbon protested against the read-
ing of Solomon ben Adret’s letter to the commu-
nity of Montpellier, which nevertheless took place
in the synagogue of that city on the following
day, a Sabbath, in the month of Elul, 1804 (“ Min-
hat Kena’ot,” Nos. 21, 22). According to Jacob ben
Machir ibn Tibbon (7). No. 89), Judah wrote various
works, and made several translations which were
praised even by Nahmanides. None of them are
extant.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Perles, Salomo b. Abraham b. Adereth, pp.
30, 37; Gratz, Gesch. vii. 228 et seq., 248; Renan-Neubauer,
Les Rabbins Francais; Zunz, Z. G. p. 477; Geiger, Wiss.
Zeit. Jtiid. Theol. v. 93; Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 333.
Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon: Translator; born
at Granada, Spain, 1120; died after 1190. He left
his native place in 1150, probably on account of
persecution by the Almohades, and went to Lunel in
southern France. Benjamin of Tudela mentions
him as a physician there in 1160. Judah Jived on
terms of intimacy with Meshullam ben Jacob and
with Meshullam’s two sons, Asher and Aaron, whom
in his will he recommends as friends to his only son,
Samuel. He was also a close friend of Abraham ben
David of Posquiéres and of Zerahiah ha-Levi, the
latter of whom he freely recognized as a greater
scholar than himself, and whose son he also wished
to have as a friend for his own son. He had two
daughters whose marriage caused him much anx-
iety.
Judah was very active asa translator, his works in-
cluding the translation into Hebrew of the following:
(1) Bahya ben Joseph ibn Pakuda’s “ Al-Hidayah ila Fara’iqd
al-Kulub,’’ under the title ‘‘ Torat Hobot ha-Lebabot.”” He was
induced to undertake this work by Meshullam ben Jacob and
his son Asher, at whose desire he translated the first treatise, in
1161. After its completion Joseph Kimhi translated the other
nine treatises and afterward the first one also. At the wish of
Abraham ben David of Posquiéres, Judah con-
Translations tinued his translation of the work. Judah’s
of translation is the only one that has held its
Philosophie place. That of Kimhi was gradually super-
Works. seded and at last came to be forgotten entirely.
Only a small fragment of it has been preserved
(published by A. Jellinek in Benjacob’s edition of ‘* Hobot ha-
Lebabot,”’ Leipsic, 1846). Judah’s translation of Bahya’s work
was first printed at Naples in 1489 without a title.
(2) Solomon ibn Gabirol's ** Kitab Igiah al-Akhlak,”’ under the
title ** Tikkun Middot ha-Nefesh” (printed together with the
first-mentioned translation at Constantinople in 1550).
(3) Judah ha-Levi’s ‘* Kitab al-Hujjah,” under the title ** Sefer
ha-Kuzari’’ (1167; printed at Fano in 1606 and many times
545
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ibn Tibbou
since). In this instance also Judah’s translation drove that of
his rival, Judah ibn Cardinal, out of the field, so that only a
small portion of the Jatters work has been preserved (see Cas-
sel’s ed., pp. d44 ef sey.). :
(4) Two Works by Ion Janah: (a) His grammar, “ Kitab al-
Luma’,”’ under the title “Sefer ha-Rikmah ” (1171; edited by B.
Goldberg, with notes by R. Kirchheim, Frankfort-on-the-Main,
1856). The translator’s preface is interesting for the bistory of
literature, and it gives Judah's opinions on the art of Hebrew
translation. (b) ** Kitab al-Ugul.”* under the title ‘Sefer ha-
Shorashim ” (edited by Bacher, Berlin, 1896). Isaac al-Barce-
Joni and Isaac ha-Levi had aiready translated this dictionary as
far as the letter ““lamed,” and Judah finished it in 1171.
(5) Saadia’s © Kitab al-Amanat wal-I‘tikadat,”? under the title
**Sefer ha-Emunot weha-De'ot”’ (1186; first ed. Constantinople,
1562).
Judah is also said to have translated the collection of poems
**Mibbar ha-Peninim,” usually attributed to Solomon ibn Ga-
birol. This translation is ascribed to Ibn Tib-
Spurious bon in a very doubtful note in Neubauer,
Works “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.’ No. 1975, and in
Attributed manuscript Parma, de Rossi, No 1394. In no
to Judah. other manuscript is Judah ibn Tibbon called
the translator. Further, the note mentions
Seville instead of Granada as his home. The translation of
Aristotle’s “ Analytica Posteriora” is also ascribed to Judah.
This translation, however, is not extant; and it is altogether
improbable that Judah translated the work in question.
Judah’s independent works are:
(1) Sod Zahut ha-Lashon, on rhetoric and grammar. It is
doubtful if this work was ever completed : and nothing but its
title has been preserved (in Ibn Tibbon’s testament; see No. 2,
below).
It is also doubtful Whether he wrote a commentary on the
last chapter of Proverbs. The remark on the subject in his will
(see below), ‘* Remember also my explanation of ‘ Eshet Hayil,’
p. 9,” can refer to an oral explanation.
2) Zawwaah, his ethical will, written in 1190 or after, and
addressed to his son, Samuel, who at that time already had a son
of his own (published with a biographical sketch in German by
M. Steinschneider, Berlin, 1852; with an English translation by
H. Edelmann in ** Derek Tobim,”’ London, 1852).
Judah’s testament, with its homely style and
frankness, is one of the most interesting in this class
of literature. It gives a deep insight
His Ethical into the soul of the man and his re-
Will. lation to his indisputably greater son,
Samuel. Against the latter his chief
complaint is that he never initiated his father into
his literary or business affairs, never asked for his
advice, and, in fact, hid everything from him.
He recommends Samuel to practise writing in
Arabic, since Jews like Samuel ha-Nagid, for exam-
ple, attained rank and position solely through being
able to write in that language. He exhorts him to
morality and to the study of the Torah as well as of
the profane sciences, including medicine. He is to
read grammatical works on Sabbaths and festivals,
and is not to neglect the reading of “ Mishle ” and of
“Ben Mishle.” In regard to his medical practise he
gives his son sage advice. He further advises his
son to observe rigorously the laws of diet, lest he,
like others, become ill frequently in consequence of
intemperate and unwholesome eating, which would
not fail to engender mistrust in him as a physician
on the part of the general public. Interesting are
Judah’s references to his library as his “best treas-
ure,” his “best companion,” and to his book-shelves
as “the most beautiful pleasure-gardens.” Headds:
**T have collected a large library for thy sake so that thou
nheedest never borrow a book of any one. As thou thyself
Seest, most students run hither and thither searching for books
Without being able to find them. .. . Look over thy Hebrew books
every month, thy Arabic ones every two months, thy bound
books every three months. Keep thy library In order, so that
VI.—35 Z
thou wilt not need to search for a book. Prepare a list of the
books on each shelf, and place each book on its proper shelf.
Take care also of the loose, separate Jeaves in thy books, because
they contain exceedingly important things which T myself have
collected and written down. Lose no writing and no letter
which I leave thee. . . . Cover thy book-shelves with beautiful
curtains, protect them from water from the roof, from mice, and
from all harm, because they are thy best treasure.’
His fine linguistic sense and his conception of the
art of translating are shown by his counsels on this
subject.
He advises his son to read the weekly portion in Arabic every
Sabbath so as to initiate himself into the art of translating, in
case he should ever feel an inclination for it. He recommends
to him an easy, pregnant, elegant style, not overburdened with
words; further, he is to avoid foreign words and unusual and
affected constructions, and is to use words which have a har-
monious sound and are easy to pronounce. He always lays
great weight upon the advantages of having a beautiful, clear
handwriting and of using beautiful paper, good ink, etc. The
testament closes with a poem summarizing the contents of the
will.
Judah ibn Tibbon well understood the difficulties
of the translator’s task. He says in the preface to
his translation of Bahya’s “ Hobot ha-Lebabot ” that
he hesitated to translate the book because he did not
feel sufficiently acquainted with Hebrew, and that
he undertook the task oniy in compliance with the
wish of his friend. He knows that heis laying him-
self open to adverse criticism with his translation,
as is the case with every innovation. He attributes
the imperfect character of his pred-
Views ecessors’ translations from Arabic
on Trans- into Hebrew to the fact that either
lation. they did not have a thorough knowl-
edge of Arabic or of Hebrew or that
they gave in the translation their own Opinions in-
stead of those of the author, Judah is also of the
opinion that the Hebrew translation can not always
reproduce the pregnancy of the Arabic original.
He holds that a translator should first make a
strictly literal rendering of the original, and then
revise his translation as though it were an original
production of hisown. For his creation of new
word-forms (in the use of which he was not without
precedents), and for the rabbinicisms in his Hebrew
style, he excuses himsclif to the reader by saying
that they are unavoidable. It is true that he often
translated the mistakes of the original without
heeding the sense, or rather lack of Sense, ex-
pressed therein.
His son, Samuel, in his introduction to the “ Moreh
Nebukim ” justly calls Judah “the father of transla-
tors”; since Gedaliah ibn Yahya he has also had the
title of “chief of translators” (Wolf, “ Bibl. Hebr.”
i. 455). Maimonides speaks very flatteringly of
Judah in a letter to Samuel.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abrahams, in J. Q. &. iii. 433 et seq.; Ftirst.
Bibl. Jud. ili., pp. xiii. et seq.; Gritz, Gesch. vi. 264; Munk,
Notice sur Saadia Gaon, p. 19: De Rossi, Dizionario, s.v.
Tibbon; Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, pp. 86 et pas-
sim: idem, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 47, 373, ef passim; Zunz, G. S.
iii. 185; idem, Z. G. p. 2382; Renan-Nenbauer, Les Rabbing
Francais, xxvii. 511, 588, e¢ passim; idem, Les Ecrivatns
Juifs Francais, pp. 355, 482, 686; Winter and Winsche, Die
ue Litteratur, ii. 192; Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp.
Moses ibn Tibbon: Physician and author; born
in Marseilles; flourished between 1240 and 1288;
son of Samuel ibn Tibbon and father of the Judah
ibn Tibbon who was prominent in the Maimoni-
dean controversy which took place at Montpellier.
Ibn Tibbon
The number of vrorks written by Moses ibn Tibbon
makes it probagsle that he reached a great age.
With other Jewish physicians of Provence, he
suffered under the order of the Council of Béziers
(May, 1246) which prohibited Jewish physicians
from treating Gentiles. He wrote the following
works: (1) Commentary on Canticles (Lyck, 1874).
Written under the influence of Maimonides, it is of
a philosophical and allegorical character, and is sim-
ilar to that by his brother-in-law Abba Mari ben
Simson ben Anatoli, whom he quotes repeatedly.
In a long preface he deals with the poetical form
and the philosophical content of the book, especially
discussing the three classes of poctry according to
the “Organon” of Aristotle. This
part of the preface, taken from Im-
manuel ben Solomon’s commentary
to Canticles, was published by Dukes
in his “Nahal Kedumim” (pp. 55, 56; Brill’s
“Jahrb.” ili, 171 e¢ seg.; Steinschneider, “ Iebr.
Bibl.” xiv 99, Salfeld, in Berliner’s “ Magazin,” vi.
25).
(2) Commentary to the Pentateuch, according to
Isaac de Lattes’ “Sha‘are Ziyyon” (see p. 42 of
Buber’s Yaroslav, 1885, edition of the latter work)
and Gedaliah ibn Yahya’s “Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah
(see Wolf, “ Bibl. Hebr.” i. 1055). This commentary
is quoted in the Commentary on Canticles (p. 24a).
Azulai, in his “Shem ha-Gedolim” (i. 144), mentions
that, according to an early source, Moses ibn Tibbon
composed a work of this kind. But an ancient au-
thority, Judah Mosconi (¢. 1370), in his supercom-
mentary on Abraham ibn Ezra, expresses some doubt
as to the authenticity of this commentary on account
of its often very unsatisfactory explanations. Ac-
cording to Steinschneider, it was merely a super-
commentary on Abraham ibn Ezra (see “Cat. Bodl.”
col. 2004; “Hebr. Bibl.” xiv. 108; Berliner's “Ma-
gazin,” iii. 47, 150; comp. Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl.
Hebr. MSS.” No. 2282, 9).
(3) “ Leket Shikhah,” mentioned by Isaac de Lattes
(/.¢.) a8 contained in the foregoing work, though he
does not. give any further indication of its contents.
Gedaliah ibn Yahya (Le. p. 54b, ed. Venice) gives
only the title.
(4) “Sefer Pe’ah,” an allegorical explanation, in
ninety-one chapters, of haggadic passages in the Tal-
mud and the Midrash (Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr.
MSS.” No. 9389, 9). Its tendency is apologetical.
After Raymund de Pennaforte had established
schools, in which Arabic and Hebrew were taught,
for the purpose of converting Jews and Moors,
Christian clerics, in their incomplete knowledge of
the rabbinical writings, attempted to cast scorn on
the anthropomorphisms of the Midrashim. Moses
ibn Tibbon traces this to those who took the anthro-
pomorphic passages in a literal instead of, as Mai-
monides had taught, an allegorical sense (sce Isaac
de Lattes, 2.¢c.; Zunz, “G. V.” p. 400; Steinschnei-
der and Cassel, “Jiidische Litteratur,” in Ersch and
Gruber, “ Encyc.” section ii., part 28, p. 409; “Cat.
Bodl.” @.¢.).
(5) Commentary on the weights and measures of
the Bible and the Talmud (Vatican MSS., No. 298,
4; see Assemani, “Catal.” p. 288; Steinschneider,
“ Joseph ibn Aknin,” in Ersch and Gruber, “ Encyc.”
Original
Works.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
546
section ii., part 31, p. 50; “Ginze Nistarot,” ili. 185
et seg. ).
(6) “Sefer ha-Tanninim,” mentioned by Isaae de
Lattes (4.¢.), but without indication of its contents;
the Vatican MS. has the title “ Ma’amar ‘al ha-Tan-
minim.” According to Assemani (/.¢), it contained
explanations on the creation of the Tanninim (comp.
Gen. i. 21). Gedaliah ibn Yahya (Z.c.) gives its title
as “Sefer ha-Kinyanim,” which has been accepted
as correct by Azulai (“Shem ha-Gedolim ”) and Ben-
jacob (“ Ozar ha-Sefarim,” p. 531); it is, however,
certainly incorrect, as the contents of the book show.
(7) “‘Olam Katon,” a treatise on the immortality
of the soul, several manuscripts of which exist
(Vatican MSS., No. 292, 2; Paris MSS., No. 110. see
Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” Nos. 1819, 7,
1324, 10, 1385, 2, 1600, 18; see also Carmoly in
“Orient, Lit.” ii. 235, 314). Moses ibn Tibbon’s an-
thorship is doubtful. According to a Bodleian
manuscript, No. 1318, 7, his father, Samnel ibn Tib-
bon, was its author; in another passage Judah, his
grandfather, is said to be its author (see Steinschnei-
der, “Cat. Bodl.” cols. 2008-2004).
(8) Letter on questions raised by his father, Sam-
uel ibn Tibbon, in regard to Maimonides’ “ Moreh
Nebukim” (Neubauer, “Cat. Bod]. Hebr. MSS.”
No. 2218, 2).
Gedaliah ibn Yahya (/.c.) erroneously ascribes to
Moses ibn Tibbon a “Sefer ha-Kolel,” a “Sefer ha-
Melek,” and a “Sefer ‘Asarah Debarim” (sce Zunz,
“Z. G.” pp. 471-472; Steinschneider, Z¢.). Moses
was also wrongly accredited with three other works:
a commentary on Abot, a commentary on Ibn Gabi-
rol’s * Azharot,” and notes on the “ Sefer ha-Madda‘ ”
of Matmonides (Steinschneider, é.c.).
Moses ibn Tibbon’s translations are even more im-
portant and numerous than his original works.
They include versions of Arabic works on philoso-
phy, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. The
name of the author of the work from which the
translation was made precedes, in the following list,
the title by which the translation is known. His
most important translations are as follows:
Averroes: Commentaries, etc.,on Aristotle: “Physica Aus-
cultatio”’ (about 1250; Steinschneider, ‘* Hebr. Uebers.”’ p. 109);
“Kelale ha-Shamayim weha-‘Olam ” (° De Cuelo et Mundo”’;
Lc. p. 126); “Sefer ha-Hawayah weha-Hefsed’’ (1250: ** De
Generatione et Corruptione”’; l.e. p. 180); “Sefer Otot ‘Elyo-
not”’ (* Meteora’’; Lc. p. 135); “‘Kelale Sefer ha-Nefesh”
(1244: ““De Anima’; Le. p. 147); ‘“‘Bitur Sefer ha-Nefesh ”
(1261: ‘The Middle Commentary”; l.c. p. 148); ** Ha-Hush we-
ha-Muhash”’ (1254: ‘* Parva Naturalia’’; Le. p. 154): ‘* Mah
she-Ahar ha-Teba‘*’ (1258: ‘* Metaphysica’’; lc. p. 159); “ Bi’ur
Arguza”’? (commentary on Avicenna’s ‘ Arjuzah’*; Renan,
** Averroes,’’ p. 189; Steinschneider, lc. p. 699).
Avicenna: ** Ha-Seder ha-Katon”’ (1272: **The Small Canon’’;
Lc. p. 696, comp. p. 255).
Batalyusi: ‘* Ha-‘Agullot ha-Ra‘yoniyyot” (‘* Al-Hada’ik,” on
the “similarity of the world to an imaginary sphere’’; J.c. p.
287), edited by D. Kaufmann (“Die Spuren al-Bataljusi’s in
der Jiidischen Religionsphitosophie,’’ Leipsic, 1880).
Al-Hassar: “* Sefer ha-Heshbon”’ (1271: Treatise on Arith-
netic ; Steinschneider, Lc. p. 558; “Isr. Letterbode,” iii. 8).
Euclid: “*Shorashim,” or ‘* Yesodot’’ (1270: ‘ Elements”’;
Steinschneider, L.c. p. 506, comp. p. 510).
Alfarabi: *‘ Hathalot ha-Nimza’ot ha-Tib‘iyyim ” (1248: ‘* Book
of the Principles”; l.c. p. 291, comp. p. 47), edited by H. Fili-
powski, in a Hebrew almanac of 5610 (Leipsic, 1849).
Geminus : ‘*Hokmat ha-Kokabim,”’ or ‘** Hokmat Tekunah ”
(1246, Naples : Introduction to the ** Almagest’ of Ptolemy ; l.c.
p. 539).
Ibn al-Jazzar; ** Zedat ha-Derakim ” (1259: ‘' Viaticum”’).
PAGE OF THE FIRST EDITION OF MOSES 1BN TIBBON’S TRANSLATION OF MAIMONIDES’ “ SEFER HA-MIZWOT,’’ CONSTANTINOPLE, 1516-18,
(In the Columbia University Library, New York.)
Ibn Tibbon
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
548
Hunain: ‘*Mabo el Meleket ba-Refuw’ah ’ (“ Introduction to
Medical science 7; le. p. TU.
Razi: ° Ha-Hilluk weba-Hilluf™ C’ Book of the Divisions [of
Maladies]; Ge. p. 8G): 7° AL [krabadhbin ” (CS Antidotarium 5;
Le. p. 730).
For his other translations see Steinschneider, /.c.
pp. 177, 231, 862. 368, 416, 542, 544, 558; ¢dem,
“Cat. Bodl.” cols. 1998 e€ seq.
True to the traditions of his family, Moses ibn
Tibbon translated those of Maimonides’ Arabie wri-
tings which his father had not translated :
* Miktub’’ or “* Ma’amar be-Hanhagat ha-Beri’ut,”’ a treatise
on hygiene in the form of a letter to the sultan, printed in
“Kerem Hemed” (iii. 9 ef seq.), in Jacob ben
Translations Moses Zebi’s * bibre Mosheh ” (Warsaw, 1886},
from and by Jacob Saphir ha-Levi (Jerusalem, 1885,
Maimonides. froin his own manuscript, under the title “*Se-
fer Hanhagat ha-Beriut’’). This translation
(1244) was one of his first, if not the first (Steinschneider, ‘* Hebr.
Vehers.” pp. 770 et seq.).
Commentary on the Mishnah. <A fragment of his translation
of Pe’ah, which was published by A. Geiger 1847, makes it at
least possible that he translated the whole Seder Mo‘ed (t.c.
p. 925).
“Sefer ha-Mizwot,” another of his earliest translations (Con-
stantinople, c. 1516-18, also printed in various editions of Mai-
monides’ “ Yad,’ but without Moses ibn ‘Tibbon’s preface); in
it he excuses himself for continuing his own translation, though
having known of that of Abraham HAsDAT, on the ground that
the latter had obviously used the first edition of the Arabic orig-
inal, While he himself used a later revision (lc. p. 927).
** Millot ha-Higgayon,” a treatise on logic (Venice, 1452, with
two anonymous commentaries). No complete manuscript of
the Arabic original is known. The terminology here used by
Moses ibn Tibbon has been adopted throughout Hebrew philo-
sopbical literature (lc. p. 484).
**Ha-Ma’amar ha-Nikbad,”’ a treatise on poisons, also called
* Ha-Ma’amar be-Teri’ak ” (extant in several manuscripts; see
Steinschneider, ‘Cat. Bodl.’’ col. 1919, iv.; idem, ‘* Hebr.
Uebers.” p. 764).
Commentary on Hippocrates’ * Aphorisms ” (1257 or 1267: Le.
p. 769, comp. p. 639).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, pp. 96,
104, 125, 167, 184, 197; Renan-Neubauer, Les Rabbins Fran-
¢ais, XXVii. 5983 et seqg., 750 et xeq.; idem, Les Ecrivains Juifs
Francais, pp. 356, 432, 686, 759; Gritz, Gesch. vii. 108; Winter
and Winsche, Die Jtidische Litteratur, fii. 661; Gross,
Gallia Judaica, pp. 59, 827, 356, 8738, 534.
Moses ben Isaac ibn Tibbon appears as a
copyist on the island of Candia in the early part of
the fifteenth century (Steinschneider, “ Mose Anto-
logia Israelitica,” 1879, ii. 457; 1880, iii. 283).
Samuel ibn Tibbon: Son of Moses ibn Tibbon;
first mentioned in a responsum of Solomon ben
Adret (Neubauer, in“ R. E, J.” xii. 82 et seq.), which
narrates a suit brought by Samuel against his rich
young cousin Bionguda (833373). Bionguda was
the youngest of three daughters born to Bella,
the daughter of Moses ibn Tibbon. After the death
of her husband, Jacob ha-Kohen (1254), Bella went
to Marseilles, where Bionguda became engaged to
Isaac ben Isaac. Samuel ibn Tibbon, who at that
time was probably living at Marseilles, contested the
legality of the marriage to Isaac ben Isaac, saying
that he had made Bionguda his legal wife while she
was still living at Naples. Bionguda denied this.
The lawsuit connected with this dispute has been re-
viewed by Isidore Loeb (“Un Procés dans la Famille
des Ibn Tibbon,” Paris, 1886) and by Gritz (“Mo-
natsschrift,” xxxvi. 49).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Geiger, Wiss. Zeit. Jud. Theol. v. 98; Gross,
in R. BE. J. iv. 198 et seq.; idem, Gallia Judaica, p. 373;
Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers., p. 539.
Samuel ben Judah ibn Tibbon: Physician and
philosophical writer; born about 1150 in Lunel;
‘died about 1280 in Marseilles.
IIe received from
his father and other able teachers in Lunel a
thorough education in medicine, in Arabic, in Jew-
ish literature, and in all the secular knowledge of
hisage. Later he lived in several cities of southern
France (1199 in Beziers, 1204 in Arles) and traveled
to Barcelona, Toledo, and even to Alexandria (1210-
1213). Finally he settled in Marseilles. That he was
buried in Tiberias (sce Briill in Kobak’s “ Jeschurun,”
vi. 211, Hebr. text, note) is very improbable. His
father’s will (see Judah ben Saul 1px TiBeon) gives
a good insight into Samuel’s character.
In comparison with his translations, the original
works of Samuel are not numerous. He composed
in 1213, on shipboard, when returning
from Alexandria, “ Bi’ur meha-Millot
ha-Zarot,” an explanation of the philo-
sophical terms of Maimonides’ “ Moreh
Nebukim,” printed, together with his Hebrew trans-
lation of the “Moreh,” at Venice, 1551, and often
afterward (sce Geiger, “ Wiss. Zeit. Jiid. Theol.” iti,
427; Goldenthal, “ Grundziige und Beitriige zu einem
Sprachvergleichenden Rabbinisch-Philosophischen
Worterb.” in “Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Aka-
demie der Wissenschaften,” i. 424 e¢ seg., Vienna).
When finishing his translation of the “Moreh” he
felt the necessity of giving an alphabetical glossary
of the foreign words that he had used in his transla-
tion. In the introduction to the glossary he divides
these words into five classes: (1) words taken mainly
from the Arabic; (2) rare words occurring in the
Mishnah and in the Gemara; (8) Hebrew verbs and
adjectives derived from substantives by analogy
with the Arabic; (4) homonyms, used with special
meanings; and (5) words to which new meanings
were given by analogy with the Arabic. He gives
also alist of corrections which he desired to be made
in the copies of his translation of the “ Moreh.”
The glossary gives not only a short explanation of
each word and its origin, but also in many cases a
scientific definition with examples (Steinschneider,
“Hebr. Uebers.” pp. 420 e¢ seg.). According to
Isaac Lattes (Renan-Neubauer, “Les Ecrivains
Juifs Francais,” p. 686), Samuel wrote a commen-
tary on the whole Bible, but only the following por-
tions are known:
**Ma’amar Yikkawu ha-Mayim,” a philosophical treatise in
twenty-two chapters on Gen. i. 9, published by M. Bisliches,
Presburg, 18387 (Geiger, l.c. iv. 413 et seq.). It deals with phys-
ical and metaphysical subjects, interpreting in an allegoric-
philosophical manner the Bible verses cited by the author. At
the end of the treatise (p. 115) the author says that he was led
to write it through the propagation of philosophy among Gen-
tiles and the ignorance of his coreligionists in philosophical
matters. The many manuscripts of the ‘**Ma’amar’’ are enu-
merated in Steinsehneider, ‘‘ Hebr. Uebers.”? p. 199, note 671.
The year of its composition is not Known.
A philosophical commentary on Ecclesiastes, quoted by Samuel
in the foregoing work (p. 175), and of which several manuscripts
are extant (Steinschneider, ‘ Cat. Bod.” col. 2488). It is de-
scribed by Perreau in “ Bollettino Italiano degli Stud. Orient.”
new series, 1878.
A commentary on the Song of Solomon. Quotations from this
work are found in his commentary on Ecclesiastes ; in Neubauer,
“Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 1649, 2, fol. 21; and in his son’s
commentary on the Song of Solomen. These make it perfectly
evident that he really composed this work ; but its contents are
entirely unknown (see Salfeld, ‘*Das Hohelied bei den Ji-
dischen Erklarern des Mittelalters,’’ in Berliner’s ** Magazin,”’
vi. 24 ef seq.).
** Ner ha-Hofes,”’ a commentary on those parts of the Penta-
Original
Works.
549
teuch which, he contends, are to be taken allegorically. The
book is only quoted by himself (in bis °° Ma’amar Yikkawu ha-
Mayim,” pp. 9, 18, 17, 182), and no manuscript of it has yet been
found.
Samuel ibn Tibbon was an enthusiastic adherent
of Maimonides and his allegorical interpretation of
the Bible, and he is said to have even gone so far as
to declare that the Bible narratives are to be consid-
ered simply as parables (* meshalim ”) and the relig-
ious laws mercly as guides (“hanhagot ”) toa higher,
spiritual life (Brtill’s “Jahrb.” iv. 9, x. 89). Such
statements, not peculiar in hisage, aroused the wrath
of the adherents of the literal interpretation of the
Bible, the anti-Maimonidean party.
Samuel’s reputation is based not on his original
writings, however, but on his translations, espe-
cially on that of Maimonides’ “ Dala-
lat al-Ha’irin” (finished about 1190)
into Hebrew under the title “Moreh
Nebukim.” This title, by which the
book has always siuce been quoted, and which
signifies “Guide of the Perplexed,” his opponents
satirically changed into “ Nebukat ha-Morim ”
“ Perplexity of the Guides.” Before finishing this
difficult work, Samuel consulted Maimonides several
times by letter regarding some difficult passages,
Maimonides’ answers, some of which were written
in Arabic and were later on translated into Hebrew,
perhaps by Samuel himself, praise the translator’s
ability and acknowledge his thorough command of
Arabic, an acquirement very surprising in a country
like France. After having given some general rules
for translation from the Arabic into Hebrew, he
explains the doubtful passages, which he renders
into the latter language. (For some interesting re-
marks by Samuel on Arabic philosophical writers see
Steinschneider, “ Hebr. Ucbers.” pp. 40 e¢ seg.) Some
fragments of this correspondence have becn printed
in“ Kobez Teshubot ha-Rambam,” ii.
The 26 et seg.; and in Ottensoser, “ Briefe
““Moreh iiber den Moreh des Maimonides,”
Nebukim.” Nos. 1 and 2; others have been dis-
covered in a manuscript in the Bod-
leian Library, Oxford, by Steinschneider (“ Hebr.
Uebers.” pp. 415 ef seq.).
Samuel ibn Tibbon’s translation is preceded by an
introduction. Asthe motive for his undertaking he
mentions that the scholars of Lunel asked him for a
translation of the “Moreh.” As aids in his work he
indicates the Hebrew translation by his father (whom
he calls “the Father of the Translators ”), works on
the Arabic language, and the Arabic writings in his
own library. Samuel also wrote an index to the
Biblical verses quoted in the “ Moreh” (see Renan-
Neubauer, “Les Ecrivains Juifs Francais,” p. 684).
The distinction of Samuel’s translation is its accu-
racy and faithfulness to the original. Whether one
approves or disapproves his introduction of a num-
ber of Arabic words into Hebrew, and the fact that,
by analogy with the Arabic, he gives to certain He-
brew words meanings different from the accepted
ones, the magnitude of his work can not be ques-
tioned. Especially admirable is the skill with which
he reproduces in Hebrew the abstract ideas of Mai-
monides, which is essentially a language of a people
expressing concrete ideas. Soon after Samuel (that
Transla-
tions.
—
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ibn Tibbon
is, after 1280) the poet Judah al-Harizi also transla-
ted the “Moreh” (part 1, ed. Schlossberg, London,
1857; part ii., 7. 1876; part iii, 7.
Character- 1879). He adopted Ibn Tibbvon's He-
istics. brew title, “Moreh Nebukim” (see
Kkaufmann, “ Die Attributenlehre.” p.
363), and though he said of Samuel, not without
sume personal animus, that the latter bad intention-
ally obscured the meaniug of the original, he was
not successful in his attempt to have his own transla-
tion supersede that of Ibn Tibbon (Pococke, cited by
Wolf, “Bibl. Hebr.” i. $56),
That keen critic Shem-Tob ibn Palquera passes
judgment upon both translations in an anonymous
letter. “In Ibn Tibbon's translation,” he writes, “are
only a few errors; and if the learned translator bad
had time he would certainly have corrected these;
but in Al-Harizi’s translation mistakes are numerous,
and words are often givena Wrong meaning ” (Stein-
schneider, “ Hebr. Uebers.” pp. 428 e¢ seq.).
When the struggle between the Maimonists and
anti-Maimonists arose, Samuel did not escape re-
proach for having spread the ideas of Maimonides,
his chief accuser being Judah al-FakhkKhar (Kauf.
mann, d.¢. p. 498).
Samucl also translated the following works of Mai-
monides:
(1) A treatise on Resurrection under the Hebrew title ** Ig-
geret’’ or ‘* Ma’amar Tehiyyat ha-Metim,” Constantinople, 1569,
and often afterward (see Steinschneider, ** Cat. Bodl.”* col. 1914).
(2) Mishnah commentary on Pirke Abot, including the psycho-
logical introduction, entitled ** Shemonah Perakim ” (Soneino,
1484 ef seqg., and often afterward in the Mish-
Other Trans- nah and Talmud editions). The preface to his
lations. translations exists in two different versions
(Steinschneider, lc. col. 1890; idem, “ Hebr,
Uebers.”’ pp. 487, 926; see also Brann in Berliner’s “* Magazin,”
v. 4b et seq.; Baneth, tb. vi. 171 el sey... 237 et seg.; Geiger,
** Moses ben Maimon,*’ in “ Nachgelassene Schriften,” iii. 60, 88).
(3) ‘ The thirteen articles * under the title ‘* Shelosh ‘Esreh ‘Ik-
karim” or * Yesodot’’ (1505; see Steinschneider, *‘* Hebr.
Uebers.”’ p. 925; idem, ‘* Cat. Bodl.’’ col. 1887). () A letter to his
pupil Joseph ibn ‘Aknin, a part of Which is printed in ** Kobez
Teshubot ha-RaMBaM,"’ ii. 80 ef seg. (see Steinschneider,
* Hebr. Uebers.”’ p. 98ld; idem, “Cat. Bodl.’’ col. 1901).
Samuel also translated the following writings of other Arabic
authors: (1) “Aliibn Ridwan’s commentary on the ** Ars Parva”
of Galen (according to Paris MS, 1114), finished in 1199 in Béziers
(Steinschneider, ‘* Hebr. Uebers.”” p. 734). (2) Three smaller
trentises of AVerroes, under the title ‘*Sheloshah Ma’amarim ”
(edited by J. Herez, with Gernian transl.: * Drei Abhandlungen
liber die Conjunction des Separaten Intellects init den Menschen
von Averroes, aus dem Arabischen Uebersetzt von Samnel ion
Tibbon,’’ Berlin, 1869). Saimuel translated these three trea-
tises both as an appendix to his commentary on Ecclesiastes (see
above) and separately (Steinschneider, [.c. p. 199).
(3) Yahya ibn Batrik’s Arabic translation of Aristotle’s ** Mete-
ora,’’? under the title “* Otot ha-Shamayim ” (also quoted under
the title '’ Otot ‘Elyonot ”’), translated on a voyage from Alexan-
dria, between the two islands Lampedosa and Pantellaria. It is
extant in several manuscripts. The preface and the beginning of -
the text have been printed by Filipowski (c. 1860) as a specimen.
Samuel made this translation, at the request of Joseph ben Israel
of Toledo, from a single and bad Arabic translation of Batrik
(Steinschneider, U.c. p. 132).
Some works are wrongly ascribed to Samucl by
late copyists, e.g., the translation of a “Biography
of Alexander the Great,” under the title “Sefer Alek-
sandros Makedon we-Korotaw” (see “Kobez ‘al
Yad,” ii. 12 e¢ seq., Berlin, 1886; [. Lévi, in “BR. E.
J.” iii. 248 et seg.; for the contrary view see Stcin-
schneider, ¢.c. p. 899); a commentary on Avicen-
na’s “Kanon” (Steinschneider, é.c. pp. 686, 692);
Ibn Verga
Ibn Vives
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
550
in ee eS SS SS SS S08 0858606068508 SS 0608585850808
Shem-Tob ibn Palquera’s “De‘ot ha-Pilusufim”
(the error in this case is due to a mistake in the
introduction, where “Samuel” occurs instead of
“Shem-Tob”; see Stcinsclineider, Qe. pp. 5, 289;
idem, “Cat. Bodl.” cols. 2488 et seq.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Renan-Neubauer, Les Rabbins Francais, pp.
578 et seq.; idem, Les EFerivains Juifs Frangais, Index ;
Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, pp. 86 et passim: Gratz,
Gesch. vi. 204; Winter and Wiinsche. Die Jtidische Littera-
tur, ii, 830, 88).
G. M. Sc.
IBN VERGA, JOSEPH: Turkish rabbi and
historian; lived at Adrianople at the beginning of
the sixteenth century; son of Solomon ibn Verga,
author of “Shebet Yehudah,” who emigrated from
Spain to Turkey asa Marano. Joseph was a pupil
of Joseph Fasi, a contemporary of Tam ibn Yahya
and of the physician Moses Hamon, and belonged to
the college of rabbis of Adrianople. Hecompleted his
father’s work by adding a record of some of the events
of hisown time and of the age immediately preceding.
He knew Latin, and incorporated in the “Shebet
Yehudah” some narratives which he translated from
what he calls the “Christian language.” He also
added a supplication (“tehinnah ”) written by him-
self.
Joseph was the author of “She’erit Yosef ” (Adria-
nople, 1554), a methodology of the Talmud, giving
the rules that are wanting in the “ Halikot ‘Olam ”
of Joshua ha-Levi and in the “Sefer Keritut” of
Samson of Chinon. Wolf (“ Bibl. Hebr.” i., No. 880)
attributes this book to another Joseph ibn Verga,
who lived at Avlona.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conforte, Kore ha-Doret, p. 34a; Azulai,
Shem ha-Gedolim, i, 39; Gratz, Geseh. 3d ed., ix. 821, 323,
324; Steinschneider, Cat. Beal. col. 1538; First, Bibl. Jud.
fii. 473.
G. M. SEL.
IBN VERGA, JUDAH: Spanish historian,
cabalist, perhaps also mathematician, and astrono-
mer, of the fifteeuth century; born at Seville; mar-
tyredat Lisbon. He is supposed to have been the
grandfather (by Carmoly, “Revue Orientale,” ii. 98,
the father) of Solomonibn Verga, author of the “ She-
bet Yehudah,” and it is this work which furnishes
some details of Ibn Verga’s life. Ile was held in high
esteem by the governor of Andalusia. Once the Jews
of a little town, near Seville, called “Xerez de la
Frontera,” were accused of transferring the body of
a converted Jew to their cemetery; they applied to
Ibn Verga for help, who, admitted to the presence
of the governor, proved by means of a cabalistic wri-
ting that the real criminals were the priests (“Shebet
Yehudah,” § 88). He was very active in maintain-
ing an understanding between the Maranos and the
Jews; aud the Inquisition, on its introduction into
Spain, desired him to betray the former. He suc-
ceeded, however, in escaping to Lisbon, where pos-
sibly he lived several years, until he was taken by the
Inquisition; he diced under torture (7. § 62). Tbn
Verga wrote a history of the persecutions of the
Jews, largely taken from Profiat Duran’s “ Zikron
ha-Shemadot” (comp. the synopsis in Gritz,
“Gesch.” viii., note 1); his work, in turn, was the
basis of the “Shebet Yehudah” (see preface to the
latter).
The Biblioth¢que Nationale, Paris (MS. No. 1005,
Hebr.), containsa scrics of scientific treatises wriiten
bya certain Judah ibn Verga, who is generally iden-
tified with the Judah ibn Verga of the “Shebet
Yehudah.” These treatises are: (1) “Kizzur ha-
Mispar,” ashort manual of arithmetic (24. folios 100-
110a); (2) * Keli ba-Ofeki,” a description of the as-
troncmical instrument which he invented to deter-
mine the sun's meridian, written at Lisbon toward
1457 (folios 110b-118a); (8) a method for determin-
ing heights (folios 118b-119b); (4) a short treatise on
astronomy, the result of his own observations, com-
vieted at Lisbon in 1457 (folios 120-127). Ibn Verga
also wrote a commentary on Al-Farghani’s compen-
dium of the “Almagest,” about 1480 (Neubauer,
“Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 20138, 4).
There is, however, some reason for the state-
ment that this identification is doubtful (comp.
“Shebet Yehudah,” § 62). Another Judah ibn
Verga lived in the sixteenth century and corre-
sponded with Joseph Caro (“ Abkat Rokel,” Nos. 99,
100).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gritz, Gesch, 3d ed., viii. 322; Steinschneider,
Hebr. Uebers. p. 557; Wiener’s introduction to the Shebet
Yehudah.
G. M. SEL.
IBN VERGA, SOLOMON: Spanish historian
and physician; lived in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries. His relationship to Judah ibn Verga can
not be determined; it is certain, however, that he
was not the son of the latter, for he never refers to
Judah as his father (see IBN VERGA, JUDAH). Schudt
(“Jiidische Merkwitrdigkeiten,” i. 181) was appar-
ently misled by the title of the “Shebet Yehudah”
when he called its author “Solomon b. Schefet.”
Ibn Verga himself says (““Shebet Yehudah,” § 64)
that he was sent by the Spanish communities to col-
lect money for the ransom of the prisoners of Malaga ;
but he lived also at Lisbon as a Marano, and was an
eye-witness of the massacre there (26. § 60). Later
he escaped to Turkey, probably to Adrianople,
where he wrote the “Shebet Yelhudah,” an account
of the persecutions of the Jewsin different countries
and epochs. In a short preface he says that he
found an account cf some persecutions at the end of
a work of Judah ibn Verga, which he copied; to this
he added a narration of the persecutions of his own
time, the compilation being afterward completed
and edited by his son, Joseph ibn Verga. The title
“Shebet Yehudah,” which is an allusion to Judah
ibn Verga (“Shebet” in Hebrew being the equiva-
lent of the Spanish “ Verga”), refers to Gen. xlix.
10. The work contains an account of 64 persecu-
tions, besides narratives of many disputations and an
account of Jewish customs in different countries.
Ibn Verga endeavored to solve the problem why the
Jews, particularly the Spanish Jews, suffered from
persecutious more than any other people. He gives
various reasons, among them being the superiority
of the Jews (“whom the Lord loveth He chasten-
eth”: Prov. ii. 12, Hebr.), and chiefly their sepa-
ration from the Christians in matters of food; their
troubles were also a punishment for their sins. In
general, Ibn Verga does not endeavor to conceal the
faults of the Jews; he sometimes even exaggerates
them.
As this work is the compilation of three authors,
it is not arranged in chronological order. There is
551
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ibn Verga
Ibn Vives
no connection between the narratives, but the He-
brew style is clearand attractive. Ibn Verga knew
Latin, and derived many narratives from Latin
sources. This work contains also a treatise on the
form of the Temple of Solomon. Zunz (“ Notes on
the Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela,” ed. Asher, ii.
268) points out the importance of the work from the
geographical point of view, as it contains a consid-
erable number of names of places, as well as a de-
scription of customs.
The “Shebet Yehudah” was first printed in Tur-
key ¢. 1650; simce then it has been reprinted sev-
eral times. Jt has been four times translated into
Judzo-German, first at Cracow, 1591. It has been
translated into Spanish by Meir de Leon, Amster-
dam, 1640; into Latin by Gentius, 7b, 1651; into
German by M. Wiener, Hanover, 1856. Fragments
of it have been translated by Eisenmenger (“ Das
Entdecte Judenthum,” ii.), Schudt (“J tidische Merk-
wiirdigkeiten,” i.), Menahem Man ha-Levi (“ She’ erit
Yisrael”), and Zedner (“ Auswahl,” pp. 96 ef seq.).
At the end of paragraph 64 Ibn Verga says that he
wrote a work entitled “Shebet ‘Ebrato,” containing
persecution narratives and some rabbinical treatises,
now lost.
[The historical value of the data contained in the
“Shebet Yehudah” has been seriously questioned by
Tsidore Loeb (“R. E. J.” xxiv. tet seqg.). Loeb holds
that, though an original writer, Ibn Verga is not
always trustworthy, and that some of his material
belongs really in the domain of legend. Ibn Verga
was especially interested in the religious controver-
sies held between Jews and Christians; and the
fullest account of these controversies is given in his
work. But even these seem to be fictitious—with
the exception, perhaps, of that of the one at Tor-
tosa (§ 40). The “Shebet Yehudah” is valuable,
however, for the Jewish folk-lore and the popular tra-
ditions which it contains. The ouly one of Verga’s
contemporaries that made use of his work seems to
be Samuel Usque, in his “Consolacgéio” (“R. E. J.”
xvii. 270). The Latin translation of Gentius con-
tains two peculiar mistakes on the title-page: the
word pay is written Aw, and is translated “tribe”
instead of “rod.” A Yiddish translation, with ad-
ditions (“Shebet Yehudah ha-Shalem”), was pub-
lished in Wilna, 1900. Corrections to the text of
Wiener are given by Loeb in “R. E. J.” xvii. 87.
—G. |
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Geseh. 3d ed.. Ix. 823, 324; De Rossi,
Dizionariv, ii. 157-159; Steinschneider, Cat. RBodl. cols. 2391-
2395; Loeb, in R. BE. J. xvii. 87; Wiener, preface to his edition
of the Shebet Vehudah.
G. M. SEL.
IBN VIVES (VIVAS), HAYYIM: Spanish
translator; translated from Arabic into Hebrew for
David ibn Bilia the farewell letter of Ibn al-Sa’igh
to ‘Ali ben ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn al-Imam of Granada.
‘Ali was Ibn al-Sa’igh’s pupil and the collector of
his works (Steinschncider, “ Hebr. Uebers.” p, 357).
Another Hayyim ibn Vives (Vivas) lived at the
period when Judah b. Asher was in Toledo. He
was then an old man, and occupied himself with
rabbinical science. He lived at Xativa, at which
place Isaac ben Sheshet addressed a letter to him
(Responsa, No. 297).
G. M. K.
IBN VIVES, JUAN: Grandson of one of the
richest Jews of Valencia, and one of the most influ-
eutial and respected of the citizens of that city. In
1510, at an auto da fé held in Valencia, he was con-
demned for Judaizing, and his houses, which were
located in the district which had formerly been the
Juderia, were torn down. Luis Vives, tle many-
sided scholar, was one of his relatives, and in order
to avoid all suspicion of unbelief, wrote his “ De
Veritate Fidei Christian,” attacking Judaism (Rios,
“Hist.” i. 14).
G. M. XK.
IBN VIVES AL-LORQUI (OF LORCA), JO-
SEPH BEN JOSHUA: Spanish physician; died
before 13872; father of Joshua ben Joseph ibn Vives
al-Lorqui. Herevised Tibbon’s translation of Moses
Maimonides’ “ Millot Higgayon” and dedicated the
revision to his pupil Ezra ben Solomon ibn Gatigno.
He wrote also the “Sefer Yesodot.”
G. M. K.
IBN VIVES AL-LORQUI (OF LORCA),
JOSEPH BEN JOSHUA: Spanish physician;
died before 1408; son of Joshua ibn Vives al-Lorqui.
Ile translated from Arabic into Hlebrew various books
of the short canon of Avicenna, and added to the
translation a commentary which was used by Shem-
Tob Shaprut.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cal. Bodl. col. 1505; idem,
Hebr. Bibl. xviii. 68; idem, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 436, 681, 921;
Carmoly, Les Médecins Juifs, p. 117. a
G. M. K.
IBN VIVES AL-LORQUI (OF LORCA),
JOSHUA BEN JOSEPH: Spanish physician;
lived about 1400 in Aleafiiz. In 1408, at the com-
mand of the rich and influential Benveniste ben
Solomon b. Labi, he wrote a work in Arabic on the
value and effects of various foodstuils and of simple
and composite medicaments. It was translated into
Hebrew, under the title “Gerem ha-Ma‘alot,” by
Benveniste’s son, Joseph Vidal.
This Joshua al-Lorqui is perhaps, as Philoxene
Luzzatto points out, identical with the Joshua al-
Lorqui who wrote an anti-Christian letter to his
friend Solomon ha-Levi (Paul de Burgos), and who
was also a physician in Alcafiiz and was on friendly
terms with Benveniste ben Labi, being present at
Moses Benveniste’s wedding. In the letter the
writer expresses his astonishment at the fact that
Paul de Burgos should have resolved to change his
faith; he investigates the motives which could have
led him to take such a step—ambition, mania for
wealth and power, satisfaction of sensual desires,
doubt of the truths of Judaism. He then gives
eight arguments against the truth of Christianity,
and in concinsion asks Paul if one who professes a
certain religion is obliged to inquire into the truth
of its doctrines.
This letter was addressed to Paul de Burgos at a
time when the latter occupied a high position, was
surrounded by luxury and a band of servants, and,
as is supposed, had already been appointed tutor to
the young king Juan II.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. p. 162; Car-
moly, Les Médecins Juifs, p. 118: Dibre Hakamin, p. 41,
where the letter of Joshua al-Lorqui is reproduced; Ozar
Ibn Vives
Ibn Ya'ish
Nehimad, ii. 5, which gives the answer of Paul de Burgvs;
Gratz. Gesch, viii. 90 et seg., 424 et seq.; see also Hieronymus
de Santa Fe in Bril’s Jahrb. iv. 50 et sey.
G. M. K.
IBN VIVES AL-LORQUI (OF LORCA),
JOSHUA BEN JOSEPH (Hieronymus [Geroni-
mo] de Santa Fé): Spanish physician, anti-Semitic
writer, and propagandist, As a Jew his name was
Joshua ha-Lorki (from the name of his birthplace,
Lorca, near Murcia), although it is hardly correct to
identify him with the author of the same name who
wrote an anti-Christian letter to Solomon ha-Levi
(Paul de Burgos). The only proof offered for such
an identification is a note appended to the manu-
script of the letter to the effect that “the author
afterward became a Christian.” This note, not in
another manuscript (Cat. Leyden,” pp. 276, 354),
was probably added by a later copyist who was
misled by the similarity of the names (see [bn VIVES
AL-LORQUI, JOSHUA BEN JOSEPH, above), Joshua
ha-Lorki was baptized before Vicente Ferrer deliv-
ered his proselytizing sermons in Lorca. Although
not a rabbi, as Spanish chroniclers claim, he was
well versed in the Taimud and in rabbinical litera-
ture. In order to show his zeal for the new faith he
tried to win over to Christianity his former cobe-
lievers, and to throw suspicion on them and on their
religion, For that reason he was called “ megaddef ”
(= “the slanderer”), from the initial letters of his
name, Maestro Geronimo de Santa Fe. He offered
~ to prove from the Talmud that the Messiah had al-
ready come in the person of Jesus. For this pur-
pose he induced Pope Benedict XIII., whose physi-
cian be was, to arrange a public disputation with
learned Jews, which event was celebrated as a great
triumph for Hieronymus. Either before or after
the debate Hicronymus, at the request of Pope Ben-
edict XIII, wrote two articles in which he heaped
up accusations against the Jews and
His Works. repeated the old slanderous charges.
Oue of these articles, was entitled
“Tractatus Contra Perfidiam Judeorum ”; the other,
“De Judieis Erroribus ex Talmuth”; they were pub-
Hshed together as “ Hebreomastix ” (Zurich, 1552;
Frankfort -on-the- Main, 1602; Llamburg, n. d.),
printed in the “ Bibliotheca Magna Veterum Patrum,”
Lyons, vol. xxvi., and Cologne, 1618; they were
also translated into Spanish under the title “ Azote
de jos Hebreos.” Articles in response were written
by Don Vidal Benveniste, with the title “ Kodesh ha-
Kodashim,” and by Isaac Nathan ben Kalonymus in
his “ Tokahat Mat‘ch.”
Hieronymus de Santa Fé had several sons. One
of them, Pedro, was in special favor with Queen
Maria. Another was assessor for the governor of
Aragon and lived in Saragossa; this son of the
“apostle of Tortosa,” as De los Rios calls him
(“ Hist.” iii. 264), took part in the rebellion against
Pedro Arbues, was arrested with other Maranos, and,
in order to escape the disgrace of being publicly
burned, killed himself in prison. His body was
burned publicly on Oct. 21-22, 1486. Other mem-
bers of the Santa Fé family were burned as Maranos
in 1497 and 1499.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : See under TORTOSA.
G. M. K.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
552
IBN WAKAR, JOSEPH BEN ABRAHAM:
Spanish cabalist and Talmudist; lived at Toledo in
the fourteenthcentury. Moses Narboni, who began
his commentary on the “ Moreh” at Toledo in 1355,
speaks of a discussion he had there with Ibn Wakar
(Commentary on the “ Moreh,” i. 28); and Solomon
Franco, who wrote his supercommentary on Ibn
Ezra to the Pentateuch before 1372, speaks, at the
end, of Ibn Wakar as dead and ag having been his
teacher. Ibn Wakar must have died between 1855
and 1870. Wedrew up the statutes of the Jewish
community of Toledo (Judah b. Asher, Responsa,
No. 51). He is quoted by Samuel Zarzah in his phil-
osophical commentary on the Pentateuch (* Mekor
Hayyim,” beginning of Bereshit and Behukkotai),
and by Ezra b. Solomon Gatigno, who gives Ibn
Wakar’s opinion that the “standing still” of the sun
at the time of Joshua was due to an eclipse, under-
stood only by Joshua,
As a cabalist Ibn Wakar attempted to reconcile
the Cabala with philosophy. Whether he wrote
his treatises in Arabic and then translated them
into Hebrew, is uncertain. They are: (1) on the
principles of Cabala, and especially on the Sefirot
(probably Scaliger’s “De Fundamentis Artis Cab-
balisticee ” [see Wolf, “Bibl. Hebr.” i., No. 877
suggested Neubauer’s title, “ Yesod ha-Kabbalah ”
[* Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 1627], though Johanan
ALLEMANNO [“Collectanea,” p. 96] mentions it un-
der the title “Ba-Shorashim be-‘Inyan ha-Sefirot ”);
(2) “ Ha-Ma’amar ha-Kolel,” an effort to reconcile the
Cabala with the Torah and with philosophy (see be-
low); (8) “Shir ha-Yihud,” a cabalistic poem on
the Sefirot, to which the author himself wrote a com-
mentary (published in the Venice prayer-book of
1645); (4) “Sefer ha-Yihud,” a cabalistic treatise
on the unity of God (transl. from the Arabic and
edited with notes by Manassch Grossberg, Vienna,
n.d).
In the treatise on the principles of the Cabala Ibn
Wakar shows how the Sefirot emanate from the
First Cause, and treats of the relation between the
Sefirot and the divine attributes, the various names of
God, and the various names used in Biblical and Tal-
mudic literature for the Sefirot. According to him
the chief difference ef opinion among the cabalists
is as to whether the Sefirot are extrinsic to the Pri-
mal Being (which seems to be [bn Wakar’s opinion),
or whether they are intrinsic (see CABALA and SEFI-
not). Hischief authorities are the Talmud, Midrash
Rabbah, Sifra, Sifre, Bahir, Pirke R. Eliezer, and,
among the later cabalists, Nahmanides, Todros ha-
Levi, and Abulafia. He cautions the cabalistic stu-
dentagainst the Zohar as fullof mistakes. The “ Ha-
Ma’amar ha-Kolel” is known only through Samuel
Motot (who described it in his “Meshobeb Neti-
bot,” i., ch. 5), Zunz (“G. V.” p. 422), and Stein-
schneider (Ersch and Gruber, “ Encyc.” section ii.,
part 31, pp. 100-106). Steinschneider identified Jo-
seph ibn Wakar with Joseph b. Yakar, and, despite
difference in the titles, the latter’s “Sefer Haska-
mat” (Vatican MS. No. 884, 2) with the work
described by Motot. But later, Steinschneider at-
tributed the “Sefer Haskamat ” to Isaac b, Moses ibn
Wakar (“Hebr. Uebers.” p. 598). Jellinek (“ Bei-
triige,” ii. 44) attributes the work described by
553
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ibn Vives
Ibn Ya'‘ish
Motot to Joseph ibn Samnun (* Hebr. Bibl.” xiv. 81).
Two other works, “Sefer Refuot ” (a medical treatise,
translated from the Arabic) and * Likkutim,” or
“Collectanca” (Munich MSS. Nos. 221, 820), are
ascribed by Lilienthal to Joseph ibn Wakar. Stein-
schueider (7.¢.) thinks it not impossible that it was
this Joseph ibn Wakar who in 1295 translated into
Hebrew Zahrawi's “ Kitab al-Tasrif.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, p. 1143
idem, Hebr, Uebers. p. 921; Karpeles, Gesch. der Jiidischen
Litteratur, p. 774, Berlin, 186; Zunz, Literaturgesch. p.
503; Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., vii. 288.
G, M. SEn.
IBN WAKAR (WAKKAR, HUACAR,
HUCAR, Np), JUDAH BEN ISAAC OF
CORDOVA: Tax-collector for, and representative
and traveling companion (about 1820) of, the in-
fante Don Juan Manuel; the author of “Conde
Lucanor.” He was a very pious man, an admirer
of R. Jehiel b. Asher of Toledo, and punished re-
lentlessly all moral and religious offenses.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Asher b. Jehiel’s Responsa, xvii. 8, xviii. 13;
Gratz, Gesch. vii. 291 et seq.
G. M. K.
IBN WAKAR (HUACAR), SAMUEL: Phy-
sician to King Alfonso XJ. of Castile; astronomer
and astrologer; flourished in the fourteenth century.
A favorite of the king, he gained influence in the
administration of the finances of the country, and
received the privilege of minting the coin at a lower
standard. He induced the king to forbid the im-
portation of grain, etc., frora the kingdom of Gra-
nada, thereby arousing the antagonisin and envy of
Joseph de Ecija. Both of them were accused by
Gonzalo Martinez of enriching themselves at the
expense of the state. Samuel ibn Wakar was im-
prisoned with his two brothers and other members
of his family, and dicd under torture. His body was
left unburied for an entire year. It is doubtful
whether Samuel ibn Wakar was the author of the
anonymous “Castilian Medicine,” still extant in
manuscript. If Don Samuel ibn Wakar is iden-
tical, as is here assumed, with the “Hebreo medico
del rey y grande astrologo” who treated the queen
before the birth of Don Pedro and saved her life, he
did not die until late in 1833.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cronica de Alfonso XI. ch. 98 et seqg.; She-
bet Yehucdah, pp. 30 et seq.; Antonio de Vera, El Rey D.
Pedro, p. 2a; Gratz, Gesch. vii. 335 et seq.; Carmoly, Histoire
des Médecins Juifs, pp. 99 et sey.; Monatssehrift, vi. 868,
xxxiii. 479.
G. M. K.
IBN YAHYA, DAVID: Grammarian and
philosopher; son of the martyr Don Joseph; born at
Lisbon 1465; died 1548. He wasa pupil of David ben
Solomon ibn Yahya, a relative, who wrote express-
ly for him two school-books, entitled respectively
“TLeshon Limmudim” and “Shekel ha-Kodesh.” In
1496 he and his family were forced to emigrate to
Italy. In 1518 he became rabbi of Naples, and re-
mained in that position until the expulsion of the
Jews from the kingdom of Naples in 1940. To his
eare for the interests of his own congregation, Tbn
Yahya added an active concern for the welfare of
his coreligionists elsewhere. In 1583 a number of
Jewish prisoners were brought from Tunis to
Naples; Ibn Yahya was instrumental in effecting
their release; his own congregation having already
exhausted its means, he sent a veneral appeal to his
brethren in Genoa, Lombardy, Montferrat, and (in
1535) Bologna. In 1584 he engaged in an effort to
avert the impending decree of expulsion. When
the expulsion of the Jews occurred, six years later,
Ibn Yahya resumed his wanderings, which ended at
Imola, where he died.
David ibn Yahya corresponded with Meir of
Padua, the chief rabbinical authority of his time in
Italy, and was highly eulogized by him. He wrote
various works ou grammar and philosophy, which
his grandson, the chronicler Gedaliah ibn Yahya,
possessed in manuscript. David Kaufmann had in
his possession a copy of the “ Makasid” of Ghazali,
copied by David ibn Yahya. The Hebraist Wid-
mannstadt, a pupil of Reuchlin, was also a pupil of
Ibn Yahya.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl, col. 864; idem,
Jiidische Litteratur, in Ersch and Gruber, Hneyc. section
ii., part 27, p. 450; Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 181; R.#.J.
xvi. 37, 46
G, I, E.
IBN YAHYA, JOSEPH BEN DAVID: Ital-
ian exegete and philosopher; born at Florence 1494;
died at Imola 1589. His parents were Spanish
exiles who had lived for a time in Florence and had
then settled in Imola. His son Gedaliah, author of
“Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah,” relates that his father
having asked to be buried in the Holy Land, his
body was sent to Safed, where Joseph Caro super-
intended its interment. Ibn Yahya was the author
of two works: (1) “ Perush” (Bologna, 1588), a com-
mentary on the Five Scrolls and Hagiographa, and (2)
“Torah Or” (6. 1537-88), a treatise on theology and
eschatology.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Cat. Bodt. col. 1476; De Rossi,
Dizionario, p. 183; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden
in Rom, ii. 101.
G. I. Br.
IBN YA‘ISH, BARUCH BEN ISAAC: Phi-
losopher and translator of the fifteenth century; ap-
parently a native of Spain, though he lived in Italy.
Ibn Ya‘ish, in addition to being a master of Tlebrew,
had a thorough knowledge of Arabic and Latin.
His only original work is a Hebrew commentary, in
ten chapters, to Avicenna’s “Medicamenta Cor-
dialia,” entitled “Bur la-Sammim ha-Libbiy yim,”
taken from a Latin translation. He analyzes the
functions of the heart, quoting Averroes and Aris-
totle (comp. Parma, De Rossi, MS. No. 1036). MS.
(Hebr.) No. 1001 in the Bibliothéque Nationale,
Paris, an anonymous commentary on Aristotle’s
“Ethics,” bears the name of Ibu Ya‘ish, but it is not
clearly indicated whether he was the commentator
or only the translator (see Steinschneider, “ Hebr.
Ucbers.” p. 218). He also translated from the Latin,
at the request of Samuel Zarfati, Aristotle’s “ Meta-
physics,” under the title “* Mal she-Ahar ha-Teba‘”
(ce. 14857). In the introduction he explains that he
gave the preference to the Latin translation because
the Arabic translation was very confused. While his
Hebrew translation is literal, he divided each of the
twelve books into chapters, a division not existing
in the original. He prefaced the work with a mi
nute table of contents. Another Baruch ben Isaac
ibn Ya‘ish, of Cordova, was the author of * Mekor
Baruk,” a triple commentary on Canticles, Ecclesi-
Ibn Zabarra
Idi b. Gershom
astes, Proverbs, and Job (Constantinople, 1576).
Carmoly (Jost’s “Annalen,” i. 302) identifies the
two,
BIBLIOGRAPHY : First, Bibl. Jud. ii. 12; Steinschneider, Cat.
Bod. col. 7743 idem, Hebr. Vebers. pp. 157-158, 218, 701.
Ji M. SEL.
IBN ZABARRA or ZABARA (S23),
TTNIN, MD or wea): Judeeo-Spanish family-
name, found as early as the twelfth century ; derived
perhaps from a place-name. In Spanish documents
a Jafre Avinzabarre is mentioned, in 1258; and, to-
ward the end of the thirteenth century, at Manresa,
the brothers Ausch, Jucef, and Astruc Zabarra (or
de Zabarra), and Mair Zabarra. <A Jucef Zabarra is
also mentioned at Besalu. In Jewish literature
Joseph Zabara (¢e. 1200), Judah ibn Zabarra, Joseph
b. Benveniste Zabarra, and Moses ibn Zabara are
known.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Isidore Loeb, in AR. EB. J. 8
Sources, Index ; Steinschneider, in J. Q. BR. xX. 520
<3 Jacobs,
G
IBN ZABARRA, JUDAH: Poet and theolo-
gian; flourished in the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries; probably a native of Spain, where the
surname of “ Zabara” was borne by several scholars.
He was the pupil of Aaron ha-Levi (d. 1293-94) and
of Meir Abulafia, and seems to have resided a cer-
tain time at Montpeljier. Judah was the author of
“Miktab ha-Tchiyyah,” a treatise on resurrection
(Constautinople, 1569). Of his poetical productions
only one poem has survived, which celebrates the
works of Menahem Meiri of Perpignan (Stern, pref-
ace to the introduction of Meiri, ed. Vienna, p. xiv.).
BIBLIOGRAPITY : Dukes, in Orient, Lit. viii. 117, note; Schle-
singer, introduction to Albo’s ‘ikkarim, p. xli.; Steinschnei-
der, Cat. Boul. col. 1869; Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 331.
G I. Br.
IBN ZARZAL. See ZArZat, ABRAHAM IBN.
IBRAHIM IBN YA‘KUB, The Israel-
ite: Jewish merchant-traveler of the tenth century.
The little that is known about [brahim ibn Ya‘kub is
from his own account of the countries of the Slavs,
and this is rather uncertain. He wasa merchant and
a slave-dealer, and perhaps he traveled besides on a
diplomatic mission, His native Jand was most proba-
bly North Africa; i¢ can scarcely have been Spain.
In 965 he crossed the Adriatic Sea, went to the coun-
tries of the West Slavs, visited Prague and eastern
Germany, and later on at Magdeburg met Bulgarian
ambassadors at the court of OttoI. He traveled
thence along the right bank of the Elbe, through Sla-
vonic countries and farther northward to Schwerin,
situated near the Lake of Schwerin. It isextremely
ditficult to find out which road he took, as the names
of towns and places which he mentioned have been
corrupted. Tis short, important, and cleverly writ-
ten sketch of the Slavs is a most precious source for
the history of the Slavs in general and the West
Slavs in particular.
It is worthy of note that thirty miles from Neu-
berg, near Thietmar, Ibrahim found a “Saline of
the Jews”—probably Dtirrenbergen on the Saale.
Inspeaking of the kingdom of Boleslan of Bohemia,
he mentions the Jewish merchants who came. to-
gether with Mohammedans, from Hungary. They
carried away from Bohemia “flour, tin, and skins.”
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
554
Ibrahim mentions the Chazars, but says nothing
about their being Jews; though he probably trav-
eled only to those places where Jews lived and
where he was sure of a friendly reception. His
account is therefore also of interest for the study of
the commercial activity of the Jews in the tenth
century.
It may be mentioned that the account of his jour-
neys throws light also on the much-disputed nation-
ality of the Old-Russians.
De Goeje of Leyden discovered the account of
Tbrahim's journeys in the second part of the “ Kitab
al-Masalik wal-Maimalik,” by the Spanish-Arabic
savant Abu ‘Ubaid al-Bakri (1094), which was found
by Schefer in 1875 in the library of the Nuri Os-
manie mosque at Constantinople. In the “ Wémoires
de Vl Académie Impériale des Sciences” of St. Pe-
tersburg (Appendix, vol. xxxii., No. 2) appeared in
1878 the Arabic text of ITbrahim’s sketch, with an
introduction and a translation by Rosen, anda minute
explanation by Kunik, under the title “ Records of
Al-Bakri and Other Authors About Russia and the
Slavs” (in Russian). In 1880 De Goeje edited a
Dutch translation of the report, with extracts from
Kunik’s abundant explanations, published in “ Ver-
slagen in Medeelingen der Konigelijke Academie
van Wetenschappen, Afdeeling Letterkunde,” 2de
Recks, Deel ix., Amsterdam, 1880. These two pub-
lications form the foundation for the study of Ibra-
him’s account.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Westberg, Ibrahim-ibn-Yatkub’s Reisehe-
rieht, in Mémoires de Vv Académie des Sciences, 8th series,
vol. jii., No. 4, St. Petersburg, 1898; comp. the literature in
Jacob, Ein Arabischer Berichterstatter tber Fulda. Schles-
wig, etc., p. 6, Berlin, 1890; 2d ed., p. 29 (1891); idem, Stu-
dien in Arabischen Geographen, part iv., Berlin, 1892.
F. W.—G.
IBZAN (j¥3N): Judge of Isracl for seven years
after Jephthah; a native of Beth-lehem; he had
thirty sons and thirty daughters, and was buried
in his native town (Judges xii. 8-10). As “ Beth-
Iehem ” here is not followed by “ Ephratah” or by
“Judah,” the town may have been one in the tribe
of Zebulun (Josh. xix, 15).
Ibzan is identified by the Talmudists with Boaz.
The objection which might be based upon Ruth iv.
17, where it appears that Obed was Boaz’s only
child, is met by the assertion that all the children of
Tbzan died in their father’s lifetime because he had
not invited Manoah to their weddings (B. B. 91a;
Yalk., Judges, 601).
E. G. ¥. M. SEt.
ICHABOD: Son of Phinehasand grandson of Eli.
3orn after the death in battle of his father and the
tragic death of his grandfather, he was named “ Ich-
abod” (Gx = particle of negation; \25 = “ glory ”)
by his dying mother, who exclaimed at the same
time, “The glory is departed from Israel” (1 Sam.
iv. 14-22), Thus, his very name embodied a me-
morial of a great battle which resulted disastrously
for Israel.
The Septuagint rendering of “Ichabod ”—“ wo to
the glory of Israel”—points to a similar origin
CN = “wo”; comp. Eccl. x. 16). The name occurs
but once besides, in I Sam. xiv. 3, where Ahijah, son
of Ahitub, Ichabod’s (evidently elder) brother, is
mentioned as a priest. The description of Ahitub
555
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ibn Zabarra
Idi b. Gershom
as “Ichabod’s brother” is evidence that Ichabod
was a priest of recognized importance in Israel at
this period.
E.G. H. I. M. P.
IDDO (yy): A-seer (MIM), or prophet (8°39),
whose prophecies were directed against Jeroboam
(IJ Chron. ix. 29). In the Masoretic text his name
occurs as “yr (ketib) and yoy (keri). He is quoted
also (t).) as an authority on the lives of Solomon,
Rehoboam (/b. xii, 15), and Abijah (7b. xiii. 22); his
work being entitled the “Midrash of the Prophet
Iddo” (¢., Hebr.). Iddo, on account of his proph-
ecies against Jeroboam, has been identitied by Jose-
phus (“ Ant.” vil. 8, § 5) and Jerome (* Quiestiones
Hebraic,” to Tf Chron. xii. 15) with the prophet who
denounced the altar of Jeroboam and who was after-
ward killed by a lion (I Kings xiii.). Jerome identi-
fies Iddo also with the Oded of II Chron. xv. 8.
E. G. TI. M. SEL.
IDENTITY, PROOF OF: I[n criminal cases
the witnesses were required to be certain of the iden-
tity both of the accused and of the victim, as weil
as of the nationality to which the victim belonged
(Sanh. 40b). When the accused succeeded in es-
caping among acrowd of people, where he could
not be clearly identified, or even when found with
only one other person who was beyond all suspicion
of crime, there could be no trial (zd. 79a, 80a; Mai-
monides, “ Yad,” Rozeah, iv. 67). The mere testi-
mony of the witnesses was believed; and they did
not ueed to bring any proofs to establish the identity
of either the criminal or the victim.
Inthe case of lost objects, the loser had to describe
“convincing signs ” (“simanim mubhakim ”) before
the object was restored to him. By “convincing
signs” the Rabbis understood such marks of iden-
tity as referred to the measure or weight of the ob-
ject, to the number of objects found, or to the place
where found. An exception was made in the case
of ascholar who was known never to deviate from
the exact truth; to him the found object was re-
turned on his simple claim, even though he could
not describe the object itself. Ifthe object did not
possess any intrinsic marks by which it could be
identified, the finder was not obliged to announce
his tind in public, as was the custom with regard to
found objects which did possess such marks (see
FINDER OF PROPERTY). In all cases the testimony
of witnesses with regard to the ownership of the
object superseded any proof of identity advanced
by those claiming it (B. M. 24a, 28a; “Yad,” Ge-
zelah, xiii. 5,6; xiv. 18; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen
Mishpat, 262, 3, 21; 207, 7, 9).
In the case of an ‘AGUNAH the Rabbis manifested
great leniency with regard to the kind of evidence
required to establish the death of her husband, so
that she should not remain in continual suspense
and be prevented from marrying again. They were,
however, very strict regarding the proofs necessary
to identify a corpse. If it was found within three
days of death, the identity of the person could be
established if convincing peculiarities were found
on the body, such as a superfluous or missing mb,
or an unusual growth, or if the face and forehead
could be recognized. Testimony derived from the
garments, however, or from such general character-
istics as the color of the hair or the size of the body,
was not sufficient to establish identity. If the body
had been iu water, although fora long time and had
been cast up on the land, no special marks were
necessary to establish the identity; for water was
supposed to preserve the body. The question of
identity, In connection with a dead body, through
which a woman might become free from the shack-
les of uncertainty, is, on account of its frequent oc-
currence, discussed in all its details by rabbinical
authorities in their various responsa (Yeb. 120a
et seg.; “Yad,” Gerushin, xiii. 21, 22; Shulhan
‘Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer, 17, 22-28; “ Pithe Teshubah,”
ad lve.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mielziner, The Jewish Law of Marriage and
Divorce, § 64, Cincinnati, 1854; Mendelsohn, Criminal Juris-
prudence, §$ 86, 127, Baltimore, 1891.
5. 8. J. Hi. G.
IDI: Name of several Babylonian amoraim who
flourished from the middle of the second to the
middle of the fifth century, In the Talmud “Idi”
is sometimes interchanged with “ Ada” (S18 = “T),
according to the variation of pronunciation bet ween
eastern and western Syriac, as in the case of “ Abba”
= “Tha,” “Ami” = “Imi,” “ Asi” = “Isi,” “Tlasda ”
—~“ Hisda.”
S38, J. D. E,
IDI B. ABIN NAGGARA: Babylonian amora
of the fourth period (about 850). His father, whose
name (* Naggara ”=“ carpenter ”) probably indicates
his occupation, came from Nerash or Nerus (ANW AY),
in Babylonia. The son, Idi (or Ada), gave an ex-
planation in the presence of R. Joseph (Shab. 60a),
had discussions with Abaye on various occasions
(B. M. 35b), and likewise gave cxplanations in the
presence of Rabbah (‘Er. 56b; Kid. 40a). He also had
occasion to appear in the court of Hisda (B. B. 33a).
Idi was the brother of Hiyya. Passing the door of
their father’s house one Friday evening, Huna (b.
Hiyya of Pumbedita) noticed that the house was
illuminated with candles; whereupon Huna_ pre-
dicted that two shining lights would issue froni that
house. The prophecy was verified in the birth of
Idi and Hiyya (Shab, 28b). Tdi married the daugh-
ter of a priest, who bore him two sons—sheshet and
Joshua (Pes. 49a). Idi took advantage of his wife’s
position as a kohen to accept “the shoulder, and the
two checks, and the maw” as the share due to a
priest (Deut. xvili. 8), a custom which prevailed even
during the Exile (Hul. x. 1) Idi was considered
the main authority in Nerash, where he introduced
a certain ordinance (Ned. 67b). Idi seems to have
moved at a later period to Shekanzib, where he had
occasion to receive Papa and Huna, whom he treated
in a somewhat slighting manner (Yeb. 85a).
S. 8, J. D. E,
IDI OF CAESAREA. Sec Ipr zs. Jacon II.
IDI B. GERSHOM (ADA B. GERSHON):
Babylonian amora of the tannaitic period (about 150);
father of Idi b. Idi (Hul. 98a; comp. Yer. Ter. x.
10). There is some connection between Idi b. Ger-
shom and Idib. Jacob I. ; perhaps they were brothers-
in-law. Idi quotes Ada b. Ahabah in the name of
Simeon (b. Eleazar) (Ker. 9a).
S. 8. J. D. E.
Idi of Hutra
Ignatiev
IDI OF HUTRA. See Ipi B. Jacos IL.
IDI BEN IDI. See JprI B. GERSHOM.
IDI B. JACOB IIL: Babylonian amora of the
second period (about 250). Idi was a disciple of
Johanan. The journey from Idi’s home in Baby-
lonia to the yeshibah of Johanan at Tiberias occupied
about three months, aud two journeys there and back
in the vear left him but one day each six months to
attend the yeshibah. This caused his comrades to
call him “the one-day scholar.” Idi answered by
quoting Job xii. 4. Johanan, however, begged Idi
not to call down the punishment of Ileaven, and
delivered a lecture in the yeshibah on the text
“They seek me daily” (py ov; Isa. lvili. 2), con-
cluding with the statement that to devote a single
day to learning the Jaws of God is as meritorious
as devoting a whole year to study. On the other
hand, one day speut in doing evil is equivalent to
one year of iniquity; which explains the imposition
of forty years of punishment for forty days of evil
(Num, xiv. 384; Hag. 5b). Idi was likewise kuown
as Idi of Hutra (Yer. Shab, v., end; M. K. v. 2),
and is probably identical with Idi of Ceesarea (Iprt).
8. 8. J. D. E.
IDIOCY: Mental deficiency, depending upon
disease or imperfect development of the nervous
system, and dating from birth or from early infancy
previous to the evolution of the mental faculties.
Though the parents of more than 15 per cent of
idiotic children have been alcoholies, and alcohol-
ism is rare among Jews, yet idiocy and imbecility are
found comparatively more often among Jews than
among non-Jews. Thus in Prussia in 1871 there
were among Jews 1,826 idiots per 100,000 of popu-
lation; among Protestants 1,487, and among Catho-
lics 1,346 (* Preussische Statistik,” 1875, xxx. 137).
In Silesia there was one idiot among 580 Catholics,
one among 408 Protestants, and oue among 514
Jews (“Bulletin de la Société d’ Anthropologie,”
iv.). From recent statistics collected by Pilez it is
evident that in Vienna the proportion of Jews af-
fected with mental deficiency is very large. He
found that of the cases of idiocy and imbecility
treated at the clinic for nervous diseases in that
city between Jan. 1, 1898, and Aug., 1901, no less
than 17.7 per cent of the males and 15.3 per cent of
the females were of Jewish extraction. At the cen-
sus of 1900 the Jews of Vienna were found to con-
stitute only 8.86 per cent of the general population.
In Wirttemberg, also, there was one idiot among
3,003 Jews, a8 against one among 3,207 Protestants,
and one among 4,118 Catholics. Mayr reports that
in 1880 the proportion of idiots and imbeciles per
10,000 population in Baden, Bavaria, and Prussia
was as follows:
State. Jews. Non-Jews.
BaGen 6. cc0 se500s uiratasg:b beara ted bares 26.07 15.8
BRYON Gi: betimatiae eade eek Aaee oe ae 20.78 14.4
Prussia .....- So eléass Linsey deed daa meecs 15.27 18.6
In Hanover it has been calculated that according
to the census of 1855-56 there was one idiot to 1,528
3
THE JEWISID ENCYCLOPEDIA
556
Lutherans; 1,478 Reformed Church; 1,143 Catholics;
763 Jews (G. Brandes, “ Der Idiotismus und dic Idi-
otie mit Besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Verhiilt-
nisse im Ker. Hannover,” 1862).
In New York city a large proportion of the in-
mates of the hospital for feeble-minded children are
Jewish; but no definite statistics are obtainable. It
must be recalled in this connection that the rigid
examination at the port prevents the entrance of
such defectives into the United States.
It isa curious fact that amaurotic family idiocy,
arare and fatal disease of children, occurs mostly
among Jews. The largest number of cases have
been observed in the United States—over thirty in
number. It was at first thought that this was an
exclusively Jewish disease, because most of the cases
at first reported were among Russian
Amaurotic and Polish Jews; but recently there
Idiocy. have been reported a few cases occur-
ring in non-Jewish children, The chief
characteristics of the disease are progressive mental
aud physical enfeeblement; weakness and paralysis
of all the extremities; and marasmus, associated
with symmetrical changes in the macula lutea. On
investigation of the reported cases it has been found
that neither consanguinity nor syphilitic, alcoholic,
or nervous antecedents in the family history are
factors in the ctiology of the disease. No preventive
measures have as yet been discovered, and no treat-
ment has been of any benefit, all the cases having
terminated fatally.
The Mongolian type of idiocy is also very fre-
quently observed among Jews. Its chief features
are Shortness of stature; broad, protruding cheek-
bones, flattened bridge of the nose, rounded pinna of
the ears, enlarged tongue, and the obliquely placed
Mongolian eyes. There isa more hopeful prognosis
iu this type than inamaurotic family idiocy. Many
cases improve under treatment.
Marriages of those of near kin, which occur more
often among Jews than among Gentiles (see JEw.
ENcyc. iv. 229, 8.0. CONSANGUINITY), have been as-
signed as a cause of the frequent procreation of
mentally deficient children; but statistics do not
bear out this contention. It appears that the pro-
portion of idiotic children who are the offspring of
cousins is not in excess of the ratio of consanguine-
ous marriages to marriages generally; and the sole
evil result of such marriages is the intensification in
the offspring of some morbid proclivity conunon to
both parents.
In the present state of knowledge of the etiology
of idiocy and imbecility in general the only cause of
their freyuency among Jews that may be considered
is the neurotic taint of therace. Children descend-
ing from a neurotic ancestry have nervous systems
which are very unstable, and they are often incapable
of tiding safely over the crises attending growth and
development. They are often idiots or imbeciles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Prewussische Statistik, vols. lviii., 1xix., ¢., cix.,
exi., CXxXVili., exxx., exliv., exlviii., elvili., elxiii., clLxxili. 5
Beitrdge zur Statistik des Konigreichs Bayern, xxxi. 48,
49: Georg Luschan, Hinfluss der Rasse auf die Htiwfigkeit
und Form der Nerven- und Geisteskrankheiten, in Allge-
meine Medizinische Centralzeitung, 1897, Nos. 9-11; Fal-
kenheim., Ueber Familidre Amaurotische [diotie, in Jahr
biteher fiir Kinderheiikunde, liv. 123, 171, Berlin, 1901.
J. M. FL
557
IDIT : Name of anamora whois known only from
a passage preserved by Nahman (Sanh. 388b), the
passage being a part of a controversy between Idit
and a heretic. The proper reading of the name is
“Tdi” GDS), and this amora is identical with the
Palestinian Idi (comp. Bacher, “Ag. Pal. Amor.”
iti. 708).
Ss. 8, J. D. E.
IDOLATRY AND IDOLS. Sec Worsur,
IDOL.
IDUMBEA. See Epom,
IGEL, LAZAR ELIAS: Austrian rabbi; born
Feb. 28, 1825, at Lemberg, where his father wasa
second-hand bookseHer; died at Czernowitz March
26,1892. After studying in the gymnasium of Lem-
berg, he went, at the ave of fifteen, to Padua, where
he continued his studies in the rabbinical seminary,
under 8. D. Luzzatto and Della Torre, graduating
(D.D.) in 1849. On his return to Lemberg he was
appointed religious teacher at the gymnasium and
“Realschule,” becoming at the same time privat-
docent of Semitic languages at Lemberg University.
In 1854 he was called as district rabbi (‘ Kreisrab-
biner ”) to Czernowitz, and became later chief rabbi
of Bukowina. He was the author of “Syrischer
Wegweiser ” (1851), and of a larye number of essays
in various German and Iebrew periodicals. His
“Israelitische Moraltheologie” (1870) is a German
translation from the Italian of 8. D. Luzzatto.
S.
IGGERET. Sce LETTER-WRITING.
‘IGGUL OF RABBI NAHSHON GAON. See
CALENDAR.
IGLAU: Mining-town in Moravia, Austria.
While Jews settled at Briinn at a very early time,
regulations concerning the Jews of Iglau are not
found in the town records before 1250. Charles
IV., while margrave of Moravia, sought to stimu-
late commerce by importing Jews—at that time
called “servi camere ”~—into Iglau. Attracted by
the favorable conditions, many Jewish families of
Bohemia and Moravia settled in the western part of
the town, in the “Judengasse,” which still retains
that name; and they built a synagogue in 13845.
Jews lived in Iglau undisturbed for nearly a cen-
tury; but in 1426 Margrave Albert expelled them
from the town, on the ground that they had been in
league with the Taborites. They were obliged to
relinquish their immovable property ; and the syna-
gogue was transformed into a chapel. The exiles
settled in the neighboring localities of Triesch, Pir-
nitz, etc. Iglau was thus the first of the royal towns
of Moravia to expel the Jews. The town records
show, however, that many Jews returned to Iglau
in 1463,
After the departure of the Swedes, the municipal
council complained, in 1648, that the Jews, who
since 1576 had not been permitted to engage in any
commerce whatever, dared to traffic in public and
to enter and leave the city at will. Since their ex-
pulsion in 1426 they had been allowed to enter the
city one at a time only, and under certain condi-
tions; and they had not been permitted to remain
there. The many quarrels that thus arose were
adjusted by the general ordinance of May 18, 1709,
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Idi of Hutra
Ignatiev
—
permitting Jews to enter the city by a certain gate
on payment of an entrance-fee of 15 kreuzer. The
census of 1846 showed that there were many Jews
from Triesch, Trebitsch, ete., in Iglau.
These oppressive conditions remained unchanged
till 1848. With the permission of the imperial vicege-
rency at Briinn the Jews of Iglau founded a religious
society April25, 1861, for the purpose of organizing
and maintaining the necessary educational and phil-
anthropic institutions. By adecree of Feb. 17, 1862,
there was granted to this society the right to organ-
ize itself into a cougregation. Its first statutes were
drafted in Dec., 1875, and, according to the statutes
which were approved by the government or “Statt-
halterei” June 2, 1878, the congregation included
only the town of Iglau. By the law of March 21,
1890, referring to the regulation of the external legal
affairsof the Jewish congregations, thirty-one locali-
ties Within the jurisdiction of Iglau were assigned
to the congregation of that town. The statutes of
the reorganized congregation were approved by the
government Feb. 15, 1895.
The synagogue, in the Moorish style, was begun
in 1862 and dedicated in «he following year, orations
being delivered by Rabbis J. J. Unger of Iglau and
A. Jellinek of Vienna. Precisely thirty-three years
later (Sept. 8, 1896) dedicatory services were held in
the remodeled synagogue. The institutions include
a society for the relief of the poor, a hebra kad-
disha and burial society, a women’s society for the
relief of poorand sick women, and Shir Ziyyon, the
Temple choral society. In 1900 the Jews of Iglau
numbered about 1,450 in a total population of 24,387,
D. S. Sp.
IGNATIEV (IGNATYEV, IGNATIEFF),
COUNT NIKOLAI PAVLOVICH: Russian
statesman; born 1832, He was one of the prime
movers in the reactionary anti-Jewish legislation of
the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the al-
leged instigator of the anti-Jewish riots, and the au-
thor of the notorious May Laws. On the assassin-
ation of Alexander I]. (March 18, 1881), Ignatiev
became minister of domains, and in May of the same
yeay minister of the interior, and used his influence
to promote anti-Jewish legislation. Gathering about
him a group of followers, he through them encour.
aged anti-Jewish agitation, which soon assumed seri-
ous proportions and which led to the organization
of the “ barefooted brigades” (“ bosaya
Fosters komanda”). These were bands com-
Anti- posed of irresponsible characters who
Jewish preached open violence against the
Agitation. Jews. Asa result riots occurred in
a number of places, particularly in
South Russia (see ALEXANDER III., ALEXANDRO-
VICH).
Tgnatiev, it is said, took advantage of the great anx-
icty which was caused to the Jews of Russia by the
riots, and extorted blackmail from the wealthy among
them; and he was successfully imitated by the great
host of minor officials. It was his purpose to make
the Jews appear responsible for the nihilistic move-
ment, and to create the impression that they were a
source of danger to the rest of the population. In his
circular to the provincial governors (Sept., 1881) he
Ignatiev
Illegitimacy
stated: “ While protecting the Jews against violence,
the government recognizes the need of equally vig-
orous measures for changing the existing abnormal
relations between the Jews and the native popula-
tion, and for protecting the people from that injuri-
ous activity of the Jews which has been the real
cause of the agitation.”
The anti-Jewish movement continued while an
inquiry was being made by a commission appointed
by the czar in response to 2 petition from the Jews
of St. Petersburg. Fresh outbreaks occurred; and
there is abundant proof that the riots were pre-
arranged. They could not have taken place had an
earnest cffort been made to prevent them. This is
evidenced by the fact that order was maintained
without difficulty in the provinces where the gov-
ernors Were not adherents or followers of Ignatiev,
e.g., in Wilna.
On May 15, 1882, with the sanction of the czar,
zenatiev issued what are known as the May Laws,
he having availed himself of the state provision
applicable to cases of emergency, since the oppo-
sition to the enactment of the laws was too great
to permit of their passage as permanent measures.
It has been stated that Ignatiev offered to exempt
the Jews of St. Petersburg from the ukase on the
payment of a large sum of money; but while he
may have secured large sums from individuals,
lie was not successful in obtaining any from the
community generally. Ignatiev retired from office
June 12, 1882, because, it is said, proof was fur-
nished to the czar of his dishonesty and attempted
extortions. It is stated by some, however, that
Tgnatiev's retirement was due partly to his action
in connection with his own vast es-
May Laws tates; for before the May Laws were
of 1882. brought to the czar for signature,
Ignatiev sent his mother to south-
ern Russia to renew his contracts with his Jewish
tenantsand leaseholders fora further period of twelve
years. The czar’s uncle, Grand Duke Nicholas,
when informed of the proposed laws hurried to re-
new his own contracts with his Jewish tenants, but
the law had become operative before he was able to
get the contracts signed. On learning that Igna-
tiev had renewed his contracts before the laws had
been signed, he reported the matter to the ezar.
According to the official statement, however, Igna-
tiev was retired because of 1 resolution of the Senate
stating that “he had not taken the necessary steps
to prevent the riots,”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Voskhod, May 24, 1881, p. 75; 1883, i. 210;
Harold Frederic, The New Hxvodus, New York, 1892; L. Er-
rera, The Russian Jews, London, 1894; Rukovodstvo k
Russkim Zakonam o Yevreyakh, St. Petersburg, 1898; S.
Sychevski, Protivo-Yevreiskiya Bezobraziya, Odessa, 1881.
H.R. J. G. L.
IGNORANCE OF THE LAW (“shogeg”):
Through the institution of HaTra’au, warning by
the witnesses before the crime was committed was
made by the Rabbis a prerequisite to the inflic-
tion of punishment for all criminal acts (Sanh. 8b).
The warning once given, the culprit could claim
neither ignorance of fact nor ignorance of the Law.
But when the warning had vot been administered,
the claim of ignorance was sufficient to exculpate
the accused. In the case of murder, however, where,
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
558
if the act was committed unwittingly, the manslayer
was obliged to tlee toa city of refuge, there was a
(distinction drawn between those who claimed ig-
norance or mistake in fact, and those who claimed
ignorance of the Law. The former could escape the
revenge of the GO’EL (theavenger of blood) by flee-
ing toa city of refuge; but the latter could not, and
if he was killed by the go’el, the court did not prose-
cute his slayer (Mak. Tb, 9a: Maimonides, “ Yad,”
Rozeah, vi. 10). A Noachid who had killed an
Israclite could not advance the plea of ignorance
of the Law, for “it was his duty to learn, and he
did not learn.” Nor was the hatra’ah necessary in
order to convict a Noachid of murder (“ Yad,” Mela-
Kim, ix. 14),
In Temple times a sacrifice was provided for the
transgression, if committed unwittingly or through
ignorance of the Law, of any of the negative
Biblical commands which carried with it the pun-
ishment of excision (“karet”) (Lev. iv. 27; Num.
xv. 27). Ignorance was thus considered a sin, and
had to be expiated by a sin-offering, differing in
nature and in the accompanying ritual with the per-
sons who exhibited it—whether the individual, the
anointed priest, the ruler (“nasi”), or the highest
court (see Horayor), Maimonides (“ Yad,” Shega-
got, 1. 4) enumerates forty-three transgressions for
which, if committed unwittingly or through igno-
rance of the Law, a sin-offering (“hattat”) was
brought. For every one of these transgressions,
even if committed a number of times, the trans-
gressor had to bring only one sacrifice. If, how-
ever, he was reminded of the Law after having
transgressed it, and then forgot again and committed
the same sin, he had to bring a sacrifice for each
single act of transgression (er. 2b, 15a; “ Yad,” de.
iv.-V1.).
With regard to Sabbath, the following general
rule was established: One who did not know that
the Israelites were commanded to observe the Sab-
bath—e.g., one who was brought up from his child-
hood among non-Jews, or one who became a prose-
lyte when very young and was not taught the
principles of Judaism—even though he violated
many Sabbaths, had to bring one sacrifice only.
The same principle applied to all other laws that he
violated through ignorance; and for each transgres-
sion, even when repeated a number of times, only
one sin-offering had to be brought. If, however, he
knew of the institution of Sabbath, but did not
know that particular kinds of work were forbidden
on that day, he had to bring a sacrifice for every
one of the thirty-nine classes of works (“ Abot Me-
lakot”) forbidden on the Sabbath (seeSaRBarir) and
which he transgressed (Shab. 67b, 68b; “Yad,” Jc.
ii. 6, vii. 2).
Scholars were frequently warned not to insist
upon the observance of such laws as were generally
disregarded by the people; for, as the Talmud puts
it, “it is better that they do it out of ignorance than
that they should do it knowingly.” This principle
applied only to such cases as did not touch on any
law expressly stated in the Bible, and to other laws
concerning which the scholar was convinced that
his words would not be heeded. In other respects
the Rabbis were ordered to teach and warn the peo-
559
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ignatiev
lTllegitimacy
ple against any law of which they may have in the
course of time become ignorant (Bezah 80a; “ Yad,”
Shebitot ‘Asor, i. 7; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim,
G08. 2, and Isserles’ note). 1tis especially the scholar
who can not plead ignorance in case of mistake. An
old proverb runs: “Be cautious in study: for mis-
take may amount to a presumptuous sin” (Ab. R.
N. 18). See Sacriricr; Sty,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hastings, Dict, Bible, s.v. Ignorance; Men-
delsohn, Craminal J tcrisprude ice, Baitimore, 1891.
gs. 8 J. H. G.
IKRITI Cy aN), SHEMARIAH B., ELI-
JAH OF NEGROPONT: Italian philosopher and
Biblical exegete ; contemporary of Dante and Imman-
uel; born probably at Rome about 1275, the descend-
ant of a long line of Roman Jews. His father, in
his youth, went as rabbi to Crete, whence his sur-
name, “Ha-Yewani” (= “the Greck”), or “LHa-
Tkriti” (= “the Cretan”). Shemariah had a critical
mind, and knew Italian, Latin, and Greek. Up to
1305 he studied the Bible exclusively; then he took
up Talmudic haggadah and philosophy. His repu-
tation was such that he was called to the court of
King Robert of Naptes, where he devoted himself
chietly to Biblical studies and wrote commentaries
on Scripture. By 13828 he had completed philo-
sophic commentaries on the Pentateuch (especially
the story of the Creation), the Book of Job, and
Canticles. He aimed at bringing about a union be-
tween Karaites and Rabbinites; the Karaites, in
fact, recognized and honored him. The death of a
gon (1830) interrupted his work for a time, but he
soon took it up again. In 1346 he wrote his “Sefer
ha-Mora,” a refutation of the philosophical views on
the Creation. Believing that he had placed Rab-
binism on a sure foundation, Shemariah undertook,
in 1852, a journey to Castile and Andalusia, in order
to convert the Karaites. He is said to have pre-
tended to be the Messiah, and was reviled to such
an extent that the government arrested him. He
dicd in prison. Like most of his contemporaries,
he was scientifically an epigone of the great philoso-
phersand exegetes. UWealso wrote “ Elef ha-Magen ”
(a commentary on the haggadah in the treatise Me-
gillah), some piyyutim, and poems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Literaturgesch. p. 367; Gratz, Gesch.
vii. 277 et seq.; Geiger, in He-Haluz, ti.; Luzzatto, in Ozar
Nehmad, ti: Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in
Rom, i. 446-450.
T. I. E.
IL PROGRESSO LADINO.
ICALS,
ILIOWIZI, HENRY: American rabbi and au-
thor; born in Choinick, in the government of Minsk,
Russia, Jan. 2, 1850. His father was athliated with
the Hasidim. Iliowizi was educated at first in the
local heder, afterward at the yeshibah of Vietka,
where he studied under Rabbi Bear, and later at
Frankfort-on-the-Main, Berlin, Breslau, London, and
Paris. At the age of fourteen he was sent to
Jassy, Rumania, to escape military conscription; he
left Jassy for Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1865.
Iliowizi became a teacher in the schools of the
Anglo-Jewish Association and of the Alliance Isra-
élite Universelle. From 1877 to 1880 he taught in the
Alliance’s school at Tetuan, Morocco, In July,
See PERIOD-
L880, he emigrated to New York. Fora brief time
he was minister of a congregation at Harrisonburg,
Virginia; from 1880 to 1888, rabbi of the Congrega-
tion Sha‘aré Tob in Minneapolis: and from 1888 to
1900, of the Congregation Adath Jeshurun in Phila-
delphia. Since 1900 he has devoted himself exclu-
sively to literature.
lliowizi’s writings inelude: “Sol,” an epic poem
(1883); “Ilerod,” a tragedy (1884); “Joseph,” a
drama (1885); “ Through Morocco to Minnesota”
(1888); “Six Lectures on Religion ” (1889); “Jewish
Dreams and Realities” (1890); “The Quest of Co-
lumbus” (1892); “Saul” and “A Patriarch’s Bless-
ing,” tragedies (1894); “In the Pale: Stories and
Legends of Russian Jews” (1897); “The Weird
Orient” (1901). He has also published many arti-
cles in“ The Jewish Messenger” and “The Jewish
Exponent.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Morais, The Jews of Philadelphia, passim,
Philadelphia, 1894; Jew. World, May 31, 1901, pp. 156, 157.
A, A. M. F.
‘ILISH: Babylonian scholar of the fourth cen-
tury (fourth amoraic generation); contemporary of
Raba (B. M. 96a). He and the daughters of R.
Nahman were kidnaped. One day while ‘Tlish was
sitting in the company of a fellow captive who un-
dlerstood the language of birds, the croak of a raven
overhead prompted him to ask his companion what
the bird said, and he was informed that the raven
had said, “‘Tlish, escape!” ‘Tlish, however, disbe-
lieved the message. Thena dove passed with the
saine message, Which the interpreter again commu-
nicated to ‘Tish. This time ‘Tish, remembering
that Israel is likened to a dove (see Ber. 58b), ac-
cepted the message as providential, and determined
to escape. He wished to find a way to save Nah-
inan’s daughters also; but, finding that they were
not worthy, he abandoned them and escaped in
company with his interpreter. ‘Tlish succeeded in
evading their pursuers, but his companion was over-
taken and killed (Git. 45a).
Once Raba, after hearing a divorce case affecting
property, was about to pronounce an erroneous ver-
dict, when ‘Tlish corrected him (Git. 77b). Another
time Raba had occasion to reciprocate the service
thus rendered him. ‘Tlish showed some embarrass-
inent, fearing that such errors might have occurred
before in his judicial practise, but Raba reassured
him (B. B. 1838b),
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ti.
S, S. M.
ILIYER MANASSEH. See MANASSEH,
TLIYER.
ILLEGITIMACY: The state of being born out
of lawful wedlock; in Jewish law, the state of being
born of any of the marriages prohibited in the Bible
and for which the punishment is excision (“ Karet ”;
Yeb. 49a; Maimonides, “ Yad,” Issure Biah, xv. 1).
The exception to this rule is the child born of rela-
tions with a woman during her period of uncleanli-
ness, in which case, although the punishment for
such a transgression is excision, the child is not con-
sidered illegitimate (see BAsTARD; HaLALan),
Three kinds of illegitimates (“mamzer ”) are rec-
ognized in Jewish law; namely:
Tllegitimacy
Imber
(1) The real maizer (“ waddai”), who may not in-
termarry with Israelites; “even to his tenth genera-
tion shall he not enter into the congregation of the
Lord” (Deut. xxiii. 2). He may, however, marry a
woman who is of the same status or a proselyte.
(2) The doubtful mamzer (“safek ”); one born of
a woman who had been previously married, but
whose marriage was Jater considered doubtful, or of
a woman who had been divorced and whose divorce
was doubtful (see Divorck), Hemay marry neither
an Israelitish woman nor an illegitimate nor a pros-
elyte, nor even one who is of the same status as him-
self (Kid. 74a).
(3) A mamzer made so by the decree of the sages
(“mi-derabanan ”). The offspring of a woman who
on hearing that her husband has died marries again,
and when the report proves false, goes back to
her first husband and lives with him, is declared
amamzer, He may not marry any woman except
one of the same status as himself (Yeb. 87b, 89b).
But if 2 woman during her husband’s absence has
illicit connection with another man, and then lives
with her husband, the offspring is not regarded as
illegitimate (Mordecai to Yeb. iv. 42).
A child born of an unmarried woman (“ penuyah ”)
is considered only a doubtful mamzer, even if the
mother admits that she has had relations with a
mamzer and the alleged father also admits the fact.
If, however, the mother says that she has had inter-
course with an Israelite (“ Kasher ”), even though the
latter does not admit it, the child is legitimate.
He may not, however, marry into the alleged
father’s family, aud he can not claim inheritance in
the estate, unless the alleged father admits the pa-
ternity. The child of a betrothed woman is legiti-
mate if she claims that the child is by her betrothed
husband, and if he does not refute her. In such
a case the child is also entitled to a share in the al-
leged father’s estate. - If, however, the alleged father
denies the paternity, the child is considered a mam-
zer (Shulhan ‘Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer, 4, 26, 27).
The children of illegitimates are also considered
illegitimates, whether both parents are illegitimates
or only one of them is an Israelite. The mother’s
testimony concerning the illegitimacy of her child
is not admitted in evidence, and the father is
believed with regard to his child only if that child
has not yet any children of his own (Kid. 78b), A
man’s testimony against himself is believed in so far
as to disqualify him or his children from marrying
an Israelitish woman; but it does not permit him to
marry an illegitimate (“mamzeret”) until he pro-
duces confirmatory testimony. If he has grandchil-
dren, his testimony is admitted in evidence only
with regard to himself; he can not place the stigma
onhis family. See Erwan; FounDLING; MEssIan.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Maimonides, Yad, Issure Biah, xv. 1-22;
Shulhan ‘Aruk, Eben ha-'fizer, 4, 13-30.
J. H. G.
8. 8.
ILLESCOS, JACOB DI: Bible commentator,
probably of Italian origin; lived in the fourteenth
century. He was the author of “Imre No‘am,” an
allegorical, cabalistic, and grammatical commentary
on the Pentateuch, with explanatory notes on the
obscure passages of Rashi and Ibn Ezra; it was
first published at Constantinople in 1546. The work
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
560
went through many editions, and was incorporated
by Moses Frankfurter in the “Mikra’ot Gedolot”
(Amsterdam, 1724-27). Ilescos quotes Rashi, “ Le-
kah Tob,” “Bekor Shor,” together with Judah ha-
Hasid, the tosafot, Moses of Coucy, and many other
commentators.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim; Steinschneider,
Jewish Literature, p. 145; idem, Cat. Budl. col. 1215; Zunz,
Z.G. p. 102; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 531.
J. Br.
8. 8,
ILLIBERIS. See ELVIRA.
ILLINOIS: One of the Central States of the
United States of America; admitted to the Union
Dec. 8, 1818. The Jewish pioneer of Hlinois prior
to its admission as a state was John Hays. He was
sheriff of St. Clair county 1798-1818, and was ap-
pointed collector of internal revenue for THinois
territory by President Madisonin 1814. The earliest
Jewish settlement in the state was that in Chicago,
to which city the first Jewish settler went in 1838;
and up to 1844 he was followed by quite a number of
Jews (see JEW. ENCYC. iv. 22, 8.v. Ciicaco). Some
of these early settlers soon left the city, moving to
Joliet, Will county; to Troy Grove, La Salle county ;
and to Grundy county; but they all returned to Chi-
cago a few years later.
Among these early arrivals in Chicago was Henry
Meyer, an agent of a Jewish colonization society
established in New York about 1842
by William Renau and others. Meyer
was sent by the society to select in the
vicinity of Chicago a suitable loca-
tion fora Jewish colony. He purchased from the
government 160 acres of land in the town of Schaum-
burg, Cook county; and on this land he settled as a
farmer. He reported to the society that the land
which he had bought was good land, and he recom-
mended that some Jewish families be sent to the
neighborhood. In consequence of his favorable re-
port, a number of Jews soon went to Chicago; but
only two settled as farmers near Schaumburg, the
rest drifting into mercantile pursuits throughout the
state.
In the city of Peoria Jews first settled in 1847;
in Quincy and Bloomington, in 1850; in Pontiac, in
1856; in Aurora, in 1861; and in Moline, in 1866.
The settlements of Cairo, Urbana, Champaign,
Frankfort Station, and other places in the state are
of more recent date.
Chicago had the earliest Jewish organizations in
the state, the first being the Jewish Burial-Ground
Society (established 1846), followed by
First Or- the congregations Anshe Ma‘arab
ganization. (1847), B’nai Sholom (1852), Sinai con-
gregation (1861). Since the establish-
ment of these three congregations seventy-five have
been organized in the state of Illinois, sixty-eight in
Chicago, and eight in seven other towns. The total
membership of these congregations is not less than
5,000; their annual income is fully $250,000; and
their property value is about $1,000,000. Religious
schools are connected with twenty-five congrega-
tions.
In Chicago are located the most prominent Jew-
ish institutions and associations of the state. Of
the smaller Jewish communities in the state, the fol-
Jewish
Farmers.
561
lowing may be mentioned: Bloomington (congrega-
tion organized in 1892); Cairo (congregation organ-
ized in 1894); Chicago Heights; Danville; Elgin;
Joliet; Peoria (which has two congregations: Anshai
Emeth, organized in 1865, and Agudath Achim,
organized in 1897, besides a Council of Jewish
Women, United Jewish Charities, and other Jewish
organizations); Quincy (with a congregation, organ-
ized in 1870, and a Hebrew Ladies’ Benevolent Soci-
ety): Springfield (with two congregations, the first
Beth Sholem, organized in 1865); and Waukegan.
They contain 47 benevolent associa-
General tions; 25 ladies’ societics for charity
Statistics. and social purposes; 11 social clubs;
13 loan associations; 5 sections of the
Council of Jewish Women; 4 Zionist socicties; 20
lodges of the Order B’nai B’rith; 10 of the Free Sons
of Israel; 8 of the Order Sons of Benjamin; 33 of the
Order B’rith Abraham; and 25 cemeteries. Most of
these are in Chicago.
The Jews of Illinois are important factors in the
commerce and manufactures of the state; and their
financial power and influence manifest themselves
in many directions. In the professions Jews are
well represented ; Jewish lawyers, physicians, archi-
tects, engineers, engravers, designers, pharmacists,
rabbis, professors, teachers, and journalists being
numbered by hundreds,
In public life the Jews of Illinois have been and
are honored by their fellow citizens with elections,
and by the authorities with appointments, to posi-
tions of trust. Samuel ALTSCHULER of Aurora was
nominated for the governorship of the state by the
Democratic party in the campaign of 1900, A
number of Jews have held the office of mayor in
several towns of the state.
More than $150,000 is annually collected by the
Jews of Illinois for non-sectarian institutions. The
Associated Hebrew Charities of Chicago collect
$130,000 annually. Within the last twenty years
nearly $1,000,000 has been donated by Jews to Jew-
ish charities.
The Jewish inhabitants of Illinois are estimated
to exceed 100,000, three-fourths of this number liv-
ingin Chicago. Peoria and Quincy have the largest
Jewish communities outside of Chicago, the former
numbering 2,000 and the latter 600 Jews. See also
CHICAGO.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Chicago Daily News Almanac, 1897; Amer-
fean Jewish Year Book, 1901-02; B. Felsenthal and Herman
Eliassof, History of Kehillath Anshe Maarabh, Chicago,
1897: Herman Eliassof. The Jews of Illinois, in Reform
Advocate (Chicago), May 4, 1901. WF
A, 1. Tu.
ILLOWY, BERNHARD: American rabbi;
born at Kolin, Bohemia, 1814; died near Cincinnati,
Ohio, June 22, 1871. He was descended from a fam-
ily of Talmudists, his great-grandfather, Jacob Ii-
lowy, having beenrabbiof Kolin. Hestudied in his
native city, later at the school of Moses Sofer in Pres-
burg, and received the degree of Ph.D. from the
University of Budapest. Dlowy continued his
studies at the rabbinical college in Padua under 5S.
D. Luzzatto, and then returned to his native coun-
try, where for a time he was engaged in teaching;
but political conditions forced him to look for a rab-
binical position elsewhere. He was prominently
VI.—36
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Tllegitimacy
Imber
mentioned as a candidate for the position of “ Land-
rabbiner” of Cassel (“ Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” 1850, p.
826), but, not being elected, he emigrated to the
United States, where he was successively rabbi at
Syracuse, New Orleans, and Cincinnati.
Illowy was one of the ablest champions of Ortio-
doxy, being a man of great Talmudic learning and
an accomplished linguist. He was one of the pro-
moters of the rabbinical conference held at Cleve-
land in 1855; but, the general feeling at that gath-
ering being in favor of Reform, he did not exercise
the influence to which his scholarship and eloquence
entitled him. He wrote numerous articles for the
Jewish press. Those published in 8. R. Hirsch’s
“Jeschurun” are a specially valuable source of
information concerning the condition of American
Judaism. One of lis sons, Henry Illoway of
New York, is a medical writer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Phrenological Journal, quoted in Alig. Zeit.
des Jud. 1869, p. lov; American Israelite, June 30, 1871.
A. D.
ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS. See
MANUSCRIPTS.
ILLUSTRA GUERT« DE HISTORIA. See
PERIODICALS.
ILLUSTRATING OF HEBREW MANU-
SCRIPTS. See MANUscRIPTs.
ILLUSTRIRTE JUDENZEITUNG.
PERIODICALS.
ILLUSTRIRTE MONATSHEFTE FUR
DIE GESAMMTEN INTERESSEN DES JU-
DENTHUMS. Sec PERIODICALS.
ILLUSTRIRTE WIENER JUDISCHE
PRESSE. See PERIODICALS.
IMAGES. See Worsuip, Ipou.
IMBER, NAPHTALI HERZ: Austrian He-
brew poet; born at Zloezow, Galicia, in 1856. After
the usual Talmudic training he began his wandering
life by journeying to Vienna and Constantinople.
At the latter place he met Laurence Oliphant, with
whom he spent some time in Palestine, paying a visit
to Egypt in the interim. After Oliphant’s death
(1888) Imber went to England, where he became
acquainted with Israel Zangwill and did some work
for the “ Jewish Standard,” then edited by that wri-
ter. In 1892 he went to the United States, wander-
ing through the country, and spending some time at
Boston (where he edited the journal “ Uriel”; 1895),
Chicago, San Francisco, and Los Angeles, in each
city becoming connected with persons interested in
mysticism, on Which subject he has written several
pamphlets; e.g., “The History of the Golden Calf”
and “Keynote to Mystic Science.” Besides these
he has published a translation of the Targum Sheni
under the title “Treasures of Ancient Jerusalem”
(1898), and an account of “The Education of the Tal-
mud” supplemented by “The Alphabet of Rabbi
Akiba,” which appeared in the reports of the United
States commissioner of education for 1895-96.
Imber obtained his reputation, however, by the
mastery of Hebrew verse, displayed in his two books
of collected poems, “Barkai” (1877-99). These
show great command of the language. His most
famous poem is “ Ta-Tikwah,” in which the Zionistic
See
Imma Shalom
Immanuel
hope is expressed with great force, and which has
been practically adopted as the national anthem of
the Zionists. He died October 8, 1909.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Imber, A Child of Half Asia, Philadelphia,
1904; International Encyclopedia, s.v. Uriel, Preface.
8.
IMMA SHALOM: Wife of ELIEZER BEN Hyr-
CANUS and sister of GAMALIEL II. Of her early life
but little is known. She was probably brought up
under the care of her brother, and is therefore some-
times cited as his daughter (4°49 MPN, Sanh. 39a;
see Rabbinovicz, “Dikduke Soferim,” ad loe. and
90b et seg.); and she received an education befitting
the sister of a nasi and a daughter of the family of
Hillelthe Great. That she put her accomplishments
to use is seen from the anecdotes preserved in rabbinic
lore. On one occasion she heard a skeptic taunting
her brother: “ Your God is not strictly honest, or He
would not have stolen a rib from sleeping Adam”
(Gen. ii. 21). “Leave him to me,” said Imma
Shalom; “I will answer him.” Turning to the skep-
tic, she requested him to summon @ constable. The
skeptic inquired: “ What need hast thou for a con-
stable?” “We were robbed last night,” she an-
swered, “of a silver cruet, and the thief left in its
place a golden one.” “If that is all,” exclaimed the
skeptic, “I wish that thief would visit me every
day!” “And yet,” retorted Imma, “thou objectest
to the removal of the rib from sleeping Adam! Did
he not receive in exchange a woman to wait on him?”
Imma Shalom’s marriage with Eliezer ben Hyr-
canus was blessed with extraordinarily handsome
children (Ned. 20a). In spite of Eliezer’s avowed an-
tagonism to the education of women, he thoroughly
appreciated his wife’s intellectual gifts. He not
only passed on to her some traditions (‘Er. 68a), but
even obeyed her in matters ritualistic. After the
rupture between her brother Gamaliel and her hus-
band she feared that the complaints of so great and
wronged a man as Eliezer would be answered by
Heaven, and that the wrong done him would be vis-
ited on her brother; she therefore requested her hus-
band not “to fall on his face,” that is, not. to offer a
prayer (such as Ps. vi. 10 or xxv. 19) for deliver-
ance from enemies (see TAHANUN). Eliezer complied
with her request, of which she reminded him at the
proper time each day. One morning, however, she
did not do so, and found him in the midst of the
prayer; she sorrowfully exclaimed, “Cease, thou
hast killed my brother!” Not long after Gamaliel’s
death occurred. Asked by Eliezer what had led
her to expect such dire consequences, she stated that
there was a tradition in her family that while all
other gates of prayer are sometimes closed the gates
for the cry of oppression are never closed (B. M.
59b).
Imma Shalom survived both her husband and her
brother. She dutifully tended the former in his last
moments, although his disposition had become
soured (Sanh. 68a). A story is told of a mock suit
between Imma Shalom and her brother, in which
the pretensions of a certain judge were exposed.
The judge (the Talmud calls him “ philosophos”)
appears to have been a Jewish Christian who boasted
of his honesty and impartiality. Imma Shalom pre-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
562
sented him with a golden lamp, and then brought a
suit against ber brother for a share in their father’s
estate. The judge favored her claim. Gamaliel
protested on the ground of the provision “in our
Law ”"—“ Where there is a son, a daughter inherits
nothing ” (see Num. xxvii. 8 et seg.); but the judge
replied, “Since your people have come under for-
eign government the law of Moses has been super-
seded by other writings, which rule that son and
daughter inherit alike.” Gamaliel then presented
him with a Libyan ass and renewed his protest.
Then the judge reversed his previous decision, say-
ing, “I have read further in those writings, and
there it is written, ‘I came neither to take away from
the law of Moses nor to add to the law of Moses”
{[comp. Matt. v. 17], and in that law it is written
that where there isa son a daughter inherits not.”
Imma Shalom thereupon exclaimed, “ Let thy light
shine as a lamp” (comp. Matt. v. 16), in allusion to
her gift. But Gamaliel said, “An ass came and up-
set the lamp” (Shab. 116a et segq.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zirndorf, Some Jewish Women, pp. o Ae
s. a,
IMMANUEL ers \3py): This name occurs only
thrice in the Bible, in Isa. vii. 14 and viii. 8, 10 (in
the last-cited verse the rendering “God is with us ” is
given in the English versions). According to the
Targum Yerushalmi, “Immanuel” in the first two in-
stances is to be taken as a proper name and not as
two words; in the last passage, as two words form-
ing an entire sentence (Norzi’s “ Minhat Shai,” ad
loc.; Geiger, “ Urschrift,” p. 282; Miller, “ Masseket
Soferim,” p. 88). In the Talmud and Midrash the
name does not occurat all; nor is it among the many
names for the Messiah enumerated by Hamburger,
“R. B. T.” ii. 740 ef seg. The Greek Baruch Apoca-
lypse (iv.) says (see Kautzsch, “ Apokry phen,” ii. 451)
that Jesus Christ is called “Immanuel,” which of
course is a Christian interpolation. In the Hagga-
dah “Immanuel” is not mentioned, which seems to
indicate that the application of this word to the
Messiah was not known in Jewish circles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bredenkamp, Vatictnium Quod de Immanu-
ele Edidit Jesaias, 1880; Giesebrecht, Die Immanuelweis-
sagung, in Studien und Kritiken, 1888; F. C. Porter, A
Suggestion Regarding Isaiah’s Immanuel, in Jour, Bib.
Lit. 1895
E. C. L. B.
IMMANUEL B. JACOB OF TARASCON.
See BonFILS, IMMANUEL BEN JACOB.
IMMANUEL BEN JEKUTHIEL OF BENE-
VENTO: Grammarian and corrector for the press
at Mantua; lived in the second half of the sixteenth
century. He was connected with the printing es-
tablishments of Meir Sofer ben Ephraim of Padua
and Jacob ben Naphtali ha-Kohen of Gazolo, and
was the author of “Livyat Hen,” on Hebrew grani-
mar and prosody, in eleven chapters (Mantua, 1557).
On page 16 he gives an explanation of the riddle of
Abraham ibn Ezra on the four letters ','3, 7, &.
Owing to an obscure note by Judah Moscato, Im-
manuel has becn accused of taking this explanation
from Profiat Duran without acknowledgment (see
Friedlander and Kohn, “ Ma‘aseh Efod,” pp. 11, 46).
This accusation, however, has bcen refuted by Mor-
tara in “Bet Talmud” (ii. 179 e¢ seg.). The Mantua
563
(1557) edition of the * Tikkune Zohar ” was annotated
by Immanuel.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: ZunzZ, Z. G. ». 2533 Steinsehneider., Cat. Bod.
cols. 541, 10553 idem, Bibliographisches Handbuch, p. 68;
Mortara, Indice, p. 7; Renan-Neubauer, Les Rabbins Fran-
cais, p. 638.
M. Sc.
G,
IMMANUEL, SIEGMUND (SOLOMON
JACOB): German philologist; born at Hamburg
Sept. 4, 1792; died at Minden Dec. 28, 1847. Edu-
eated at the gymnasium of Altona and later at
ITamburg, he embraced Christianity in 1809. He
then studied theology and philology at the univer-
sities of Helmstidt, Gottingen, and Leipsic, gradu-
ating in 1813. After being a private teacher fora
year he in 1814 became state teacher at Hirschberg
in Silesia, and in 1821 was appointed principal of
the gymnasium at Minden, which position he held
until his death. His work in this school was of
great importance. He was the first principal to in-
troduce gymnastics into the school curriculum
(1831) and to divide the gymnasium into depart-
ments of arts and sciences (1840), which division
(“Gymnasium” and “Realschule”) for the higher
classes was later adopted by the German states.
Among lnmanuel’s works may be mentioned:
“Die Anfaénge der Reformation und die Gritndung
des Gymnasiuins in Minden,” Minden, 1822; “ Decla-
mations - Unterricht auf Schulen,” 2b. 1824; “ His-
torischer Unterricht auf Gymnasien,” 7). 1827;
“Gutachten tiber Herrn Lorinser’s Schrift: Zum
Schutze der Gesundheit auf Schulen,” Bielefeld,
1836.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, xiv. 36, 37;
De le Roi, Jiden-Mission, i. 219.
S. F. T. H.
IMMANUEL B. SOLOMON B. JEKU-
THIEL: Italian scholar, satirical poet, and the
most interesting figure among the Jews of Italy;
born at Rome ¢. 1270; died probably at Fermo ec. 1880.
He was a member ofanimportant and wealthy fam-
ily, and occupied a very prominent position at Rome.
He seenis to have been president or secretary of the
Roman community, preached on the Day of Atone.
ment, and also delivered discourses on special occa-
sions. In 1325 he had the misfortune to lose his en-
tire wealth, and was obliged to leave his home. All
his friends deserted him, and, “bowed by poverty
and the double burden of age,” he wandered through
Italy, until he found refuge in 1828 at Fermo in
the march of Ancona, at the house of a patron of
the name of Daniel (?), who provided for his old
age and enabled him to devote himself to poetry.
The studies of Immanuel comprised not only Bib-
licaland Talmudical literature, but also mathematics,
astronomy, medicine, and the philosophical works
of Arabians and Christians. He was aided by an
excellent memory, and was acquainted with Italian,
Arabic, Latin, and perhaps some Greek, He espe-
cially devoted himself to writing verse. He was
stimulated in this work by his cousin Judah Ro-
mano, one of the foremost philosophers of his time.
Immanuel, whose poctic gifts appeared at an early
age, devoted himself to the study of rime, took
lessons in versification, and read the works of the
foremost Jewish and Christian poets. He mentions
among his teachers Benjamin b. Joab and his cousin
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Imma Shalom
Immanuel
Daniel; he may also have been a pupil of Zerahiah
b. Shealttel Hen.
Imimanuel’s varied scientific activity corresponded
with his wide scholarship, although he confined his
activity exclusively to Jewish subjects.. With the
exception of an introductory poem his
first work is lost; it dealt with the
letter-symbolism popular at that time.
A second work, “Eben Bohan” (Touchstone), con-
cerns Biblical hermeneutics, and deals with the
different meaniugs of the verbs in different construc-
tions, with the omission, addition, and interchange
of letters, and with other linguistic questions. More
important are lis Biblical commentaries, which cov-
ered almost all the books of the Bible, and of which
a part are lost. Following his Jewish and Christian
contemporaries, he interpreted the Bible allegoric-
ally, symbolically, and mystically, endeavoring to
find therein his own philosophic and religious views,
though not disregarding the simple, literal mean-
ing, which he placed above the symbolical. The
sole value of his commentaries lies in the fact that his
wide range of reading enabled him to make the works
of the exegetes and ;‘iilosophers accessible to his
contemporaries and countrymen. The commentary
on Proverbs is printed in the edition of the Hagiog-
rapha, Naples, 1487; the others are preserved in
manuscript at Parma and Munich. Abbé Perreau
published the commentaries on the Megillot and the
Psalms (i.-Ixxv.}; on the commentary to Job see
Perreau’s article in “ Mosé,” Corfu, 1884.
The originality that Immanuel lacked as a scholar
he possessed asa poet. In lis verse this is given
free play, and his poems assure him a
His Verse. place forall time. The child of his
time, in sympathy with the social and
intellectual life of Italy of that period, he had
acquired the then prevalent pleasing, easy, hu-
morous, harmlessly flippant tone, and the art of
treating questionable subjects wittily and elegantly.
He composed both in Italian and in Hebrew, Only
a few of his Italian poems have been preserved. In
a truly national spirit they portray and satirize the
political or religious conditions of the time. Im-
manuel was held in high regard by the contempora-
neous Italian poets; two Italian sonnets referring to
his death have been preserved, which place him as
poet beside Dante. Immanuel in fact knew Dante’s
works, and drew upon them; in his own Italian as
well as in his Hebrew poems there are very clear
traces of the “divine poet.” See JEw. Encyc. iv.
4395.
Immanuel introduced the form of the sonnet from
Italian literature into Hebrew, and in this respect he
is justified in saying that he excelled his models, the
Spaniards, for he introduced alternate rime instead of
singlerime. Healso excelled all his predecessors in in-
vention and humor. In his old age, during his sojourn
at his patron’s at Fermo, he collected his Hebrew
poems, in the manner of Al-Harizi’s “ Makamat,” in
adiwanthathe entitled “Mah berot”
(masanyD). Out of gratitude for his
generous friend he put these poenis in
a setting that made it appear as if they
had been composed entirely during his intercourse
with him and as if stimulated by him, although
Works.
Hebrew
Poems.
Immanuel
Immortality
THE JEWISIT ENCYCLOPEDIA
564
they were in reality composed at different periods.
These poems deal with all the events and episodes
of Jewish fife, and are replete with clever witti-
cisms, harmless fun, caustic satire, and at times friv-
olity. The Hebrew idiom in winch Immannel
wrote lends an especial charm to his work. His
parodies of Biblical and Talmudic sentences, his
clever allusions and puns, his cquivocations, are
gems of diction on account of which it is almost
impossible to translate his poems into another Jan-
guage. These 27 poems—satires and letters, prayers
and dirges, intermingled—embrace a great variety
of themes, serious or lumorous, A vision entitled
“TWa-Tofet weha Eden” (Hell and Paradise: poet
28), at the end of the diwan, is a sublime finale,
the seriousness of which, however, is tempered by
lighter passages, the humorist asserting himself even
in dealing with the supernatural world. As an old
man of sixty, the poet recounts, he was overcome
by the consciousness of his sins and the fear of his
fate after death, when a recently deceased young
friend, Danicl, appeared to him, offering to lead him
through the tortures of hell to the flowering fields
of the blessed. There then follows a minute de-
scription of hell and heaven. It need hardly be
said that Immanuel’s poem is patterned in idea as
well as in execution on Dante’s “ Divine Comedy.”
It has even been asserted that he intended to seta
monument to his friend Dante in the person of the
highly praised Daniel for whom he found a magnifi-
cent throne prepared in paradise. This theory, how-
ever, is untenable, and there remains only that pos-
iting hisimitation of Dante. Though the poem lacks
the depth and sublimity, and the significant refer-
ences to the religious, scientific, and political views
of the time, that have made Dante’s work immortal,
yet it is not without merit. Immanuel’s descrip-
tion, free from dogmatism, is true to human nature.
Not the least of its merits is the humane point of
view and the tolerance toward those of a different
belief which one looks for in vain in Dante, who
excludes all non-Christians as such from eternal
felicity.
Immanuel’s “ Diwan” was printed at Brescia 1491],
Constantinople 15385, Berlin 1796, and Lemberg
1870; the last chapter also separately, Prague 1613,
Frank fort-on-the-Odcr 1718. Some passages have
also been translated into German, e.g., the introduc-
tion and ch. 28, and the latter alsointo Italian. Yet
the book is little Known or disseminated. Lis con-
temporaries even censure Immanuel as a wanton
scoffer, as he is occasionally flippant even in relig-
ious matters. He fared worse with later critics.
Moscs Rieti excluded him from the hall of fame that
he erected to Jewish sages in his “ Mikdash Me‘at”
(c. 1420). Joseph Caro even forbade the reading of
his poems (Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 307, 16).
Immanuel Frances censures his “wanton songs,”
and warns all poets of love-songs against imitating
them (“ Metek Sefatayim,” pp. 34, 38). This criti-
cism is due to the strong admixture of the lasciv-
ious, frivolous, and erotic found in the poems.
Never since Immanuel’s verse has the Ifebrew muse
appeared so bold and wanton, notwithstanding that
his work contains poems filled with true piety and
even With invitations to penitence and asceticism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Griitz, Gesch. 3d ed., Vii. 264 ef seq.; Giide-
mann, Geseh. des Mrziehungswesens der Juden in Italien,
eh. iv. and note vil.; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch, der Juden
in Rom, i. 421-440; Fr. Delitzseh, Zur Gesch. der Jtil. Po-
este, pp. 52 and 144, Leipsic, 1836: Steinschneider, in the
Lemberg ed. of the Mchabberot; A. Geiger, Jiidische
Dichtungen der Spanischen und Ttalienisehen Sehule, pp.
58 et seg.: Zunz, Literaturgesch. p. 368. On Immanuel and
Dante: Geiger, Jiid. Zeit. v. 286-301 ; Th. Paur, in Jahrbuch
der Deutschen Dantegeselischaft, tii, 452, iv. 429: Leonellto
Modona, Una Poesia treetita dit Marvello Gitedeo, in Ves-
sillo Israeltiticu, xxxiit., No. 12; and Rime Volgari di Im-
manuele Romano, Parma, 1898; F. H. Kraus, Dante, Sein
Leben, ete., Berlin, 1897; Kaufmann, in Allg. Zeit. des Jud.,
1899, p. 33,
G. I. E.
IMMIGRATION. Sce MicGRration.
IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL (late He-
brew, “hasharat ha-nefesh”; “hayye ‘olam”): The
belief that the soul continues its existence after the
dissolution of the body is a matter of philosophical
or theological speculation rather than of simple faith,
aud is accordingly nowhere expressly taught in
Holy Scripture. As long as the soul was conceived
to be merely a breath (“nefesh”; “neshamah ”;
comp. “anima”), and inseparably connected, if not
identified, with the life-blood (Gen. ix. 4, comp. iv.
it; Lev. xvii. 11; see Sout), no real substance could
be ascribed to it. As soon as the spirit or breath of
God (“nishmat” or “ruah hayyim ”), which was be-
lieved to keep body and soul together, both in man
andin beast (Gen. ii. 7, vi. 17, vii, 22; Job xxvii. 3),
is taken away (Ps. cxlvi. 4) or returns to God (Eccl,
xii. 7; Job xxxiv. 14), the soul goes down to
SHEOL or Hades, there to lead a shadowy existence
without life and consciousness (Job xiv. 21; Ps. vi.
6 [A. V. 5], cxv. 17; Isa. xxxviii. 18; Eccl. ix. 5,
10). The belief in a continuous life of the soul,
which underlies primitive ANCcestor Worsnip and
the rites of necromancy, practised also in ancient
Israel (I Sam. xxviii. 13 ef seg.: Isa. vili. 19; see
NECROMANCY), Was discouraged and suppressed by
prophet and Jawgiver as antagonistic to the belief
in Yunwu, the God of life, the Ruler of heaven
and earth, whose reign was not extended over
Sheol until post-exilic times (Ps. xvi. 10, xlix. 16,
CXXxIXx, 8),
Asa matter of fact, eternal life was ascribed ex-
clusively to God and to celestial beings who “eat of
the tree of life and live forever” (Gen. ili. 22, Hebr.),
whereas man by being driven out of the Garden of
Eden was deprived of the opportunity of eating
the food of immortality (see Roscher, “Lexikon
der Griechischen und Rémischen Mythologie,” s.v.
“Ambrosia ”). It is the Psalmist’s implicit faith in
God’s omnipotence and omnipresence that Jeads him
to the hope of immortality (Ps. xvi. 11, xvii. 15,
xlix. 16, Ixxiil. 24 et seqg., cxvi. 6-9); Whereas Job
(xiv, 18 ¢¢ seg., xix. 26) betrays only a desire for, nota
real faith in, a life after death. Ben Sira (xiv. 12,
Xvii. 27 et seq., xxi. 10, xxviii. 21) still clings to the
belief in Sheol as the destination of man. It was
only in connection with the Messianic hope that,
under the influence of Persian ideas, the belief in
resurrection lent to the disembodied soul a continu-
ous existence (Isa. xxv. 6-8; Dan. xii. 2; see Escua-
TOLOGY; RESURRECTION).
The belief in the immortality of the soul came to
the Jews from contact with Greek thought and
chiefly through the philosophy of Plato, its principal
PAGE FROM THE FIRST EDITION OF IMMANUEL BEN SOLOMON’S ‘* MEHABBEROT,” BRESCIA, 1491,
(In the Columbia University Library, New York.)
Immortality
Imprisonment
exponent, who was led to it through Orphic and
Eleusinian mysteries in which Babylonian and Egyp-
tian views were strangely blended, as
Hellenistic the Semitic name “ Minos” (comp. “ Mi-
View. notaurus”), and the Egy ptian “ Rhada-
manthys” (“Ra of Ament,” “Ruler of
Hades”; Naville, “ La Litanie du Soleil,” 1875, p. 18)
with others, sufficiently prove. Consult especially
E. Rhode,“ Psyche: Seelencult und Unsterblichkeits-
glaube der Gricchen,” 1894, pp. 55 et seg. A blessed
immortality awaiting the spirit while the bones rest
in the earth is mentioned in Jubilees xxiii. 31 and
Enoch iii. 4. Immortality, the “dwelling near God’s
throne” “free from the load of the body,” is “the
fruit of righteousness,” says the Book of Wisdom (i.
15; iii. 4; iv. 1; viii. 18, 17; xv. 3). In TV Macca-
bees, also (ix. 8, 22; x. 15; xiv. 5; xv. 2; xvi. 18;
xvii. 5, 18), immortality of the soul is represented as
life with God in heaven, and declared to be the re-
ward for righteousness and martyrdom. The souls
of the righteous are transplanted into heaven and
transformed into holy souls (¢@. xiii. 17, xviii. 28).
According to Philo, the soul exists before it enters
the body, a prison-house from which death liber-
ates it; to return to God and live in constant con-
templation of Him is man’s highest destiny (Philo,
“De Opificio Mundi,” §3 46, 47; ¢der, “De Alle-
gorlis Legum,” i., §§ 33, 65; ili., $8 14, 37; ¢dem,
“Quis Rerum Divinarum Heeres Sit,” §$ 38, 57).
It is not quite clear whether the Sadducees, in
denying resurrection (Josephus, “ Ant.” xviii. 1, § 4;
idem, “B. J.” ii. 12; Mark xii. 18; Acts xxiii. 8;
comp. Sanh. 90b), denied also the tmmortality of the
soul (see Ab. R.N., recension B, x. [ed. Schechter,
26]). Certain it is that the Pharisaic belief in resur-
rection had not even a name for the immortality of
the soul. For them, man was made for two worlds,
the world that now is, and the world to come, where
life does not end in death (Gen. R. viii.; Yer. Meg.
ii. 73b; M. K. iii. 88b, where the words ny Sy, Ps.
xlviii. 15, are translated by Aquilas as if they read:
nis ON “no death,” a6avacia),
The point of view from which the Hasidim re-
garded earthly existence was that man was born for
another and a better world than this. Hence Abra-
ham is told by God: “ Depart from this vain world;
leave the body and go to thy Lord among the good ”
(Testament of Abraham, 1.). The immortality of
martyrs was especially dwelt on by the Essenes
(Josephus, “B. J.” vii. 8, § 7; i. 83, § 2; comp. ii. 8,
88 10, 14; tdem, “Ant.” xviii. 1, § 5). The souls of
the righteous live like birds (sce JEw. Encyc. iii.
219, sc. Brrps) in cages (“columbaria”) guarded
by angels (1V Esd. vii. 32, $5; Apoc. Baruch, xxi.
23, xxx. 2; comp. Shab. 152b). Ac-
Immor- cording to IV Esdras iv. 41 (comp.
tality of Yeb. 62a), they are kept In such cages
Martyrs. (3) before entering upon earthly ex-
istence. The souls of martyrs also
have a special place in heaven, according to Enoch
(xxii. 12, cii. 4, cviii. 11 et seg.); whereas the Sla-
vonic Enoch (xxiii. 5) teaches that “every soul was
created for eternity before the foundation of the
worid.” This Platonic doctrine of the preexistence
of the soul (comp. Wisdom viii. 20; Philo, “De
Gigantibus,” &§ 3 et seg.; tdem, “De Somniis,” i.,
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
0 a a
A nr
566
§ 22) is taught also by the Rabbis, who spoke of
a storehouse of the souls in the seventh heaven
(“‘Arabot”; Sifre, Deut. 844; Hag. 12b). In Gen.
R. viii. the souls of the righteous are mentioned as
counselors of God at the world’s creation (comp. the
Fravashi in “ Farwardin Yast,” in “S. B. E.” xxiii.
179),
Upon the belief that the soul has a life of its own
after death is based the following story: “Said Em-
peror Antoninus to Judah ha-Nasi, ‘ Both body and
soul could plead guiltless on the day of judgment,
as neither sinned without the other.’ ‘But then,’
answered Judah, ‘God reunites both for the judg-
ment, holding them both responsible for the sin
committed, just as in the fable the blind and the
lame are punished in common for aiding each other
in stealing the fruit of the orchard’ ” (Sanh. 91a;
Lev. R.iv.). “There is neither eating nor drinking
nor any sensual pleasure nor strife in the world to
come, but the righteous with their crowns sit around
the table of God, feeding upon the splendor of His
majesty,” said Rab (Ber. 17a), thus insisting that the
nature of the soul when freed from the body is
purely spiritual, while the common belief loved to
dwell upon the banquet prepared for the pious in
the world to come (see EscHATOLOGY; LEVIATHAN).
Hence the saying, “ Prepare thyself in the vestibule
that thou mayest be admitted into the triclinium ”;
that is, “Let this world be a preparation for the
next” (Ab. iv. 16). The following sayings also
indicate a pure conception of the soul’simmortality :
“The Prophets have spoken only concerning the
Messianic future; but concerning the future state
of the soul it is said: ‘Men have not heard nor per-
ceived by the car, neither hath the eye seen, O God
beside Thee, what He hath prepared for him that
waiteth for Him’” (Ber. 34b; comp. I Cor. ii. 9,
Greek; Resh, “Agrapha,” 1889, p. 154). “ When
man dies,” says R. Meir, “three sets of angels go
forth to welcome him” (Num. R. xii.); thiscan only
refer to the disembodied soul.
Nevertheless, the prevailing rabbinical conception
of the future world is that of the world of resurrec-
tion, not that of pure immortality. Resurrection
became the dogma of Judaism, fixed in the Mishnah
(Sanh. x. 1) and in the liturgy (“ Elohai Neshamah ”
and “Shemoneh ‘Esreh ”), just as the Church knows
only of a future based upon theresurrection ; whereas
immortality remained merely a philosophical assump-
tion. When therefore Maimonides (“ Yad,” Teshu-
bah, viii. 2) declared, with reference to Ber, t%a,
quoted above, that the world to come is entirely
spiritual, one in which the body and bodily enjoy-
ments have no share, he met with strong opposition
on the part of Abraham of Posquiéres, who pointed
in his critical annotations (“ Hassagot RABaD”) to
a number of Talmudical passages (Shab. 114a; Ket.
1lla; Sanh. 91b) which leave no doubt as to the
identification of the world to come (“ ‘olam ha-ba ”)
with that of the resurrection of the body.
The medieval Jewish philosophers without ex-
ception recognized the dogmatic character of the
belief in resurrection, while on the other hand they
insisted on the axiomatic character of the belief in
immortality of the soul (sce Albo, “ ‘Ikkarim,” iv.
35-41). SAapriaA made the dogma of the resurrection
567
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Immortality
Imprisonment
partof his speculation (* Emunot we-De‘ot,” vii. and
ix.); Judah ha-Levi (“Cuzari,” i. 109) accentuated
more the spiritual nature of the future
existence, the bliss of which con-
sisted in the contemplation of God;
whereas Maimonides, though he ac-
cepted the resurrection dogma in his
Mishnah commentary (Sanh. xi.; comp. his mono-
graph on the subject, © Ma‘tamar Tehiyyat ha-
Metim ”), ignored it altogether in his code (“ Yad,”
Teshubah, viii.); and in his “ Moreh ” (iii, 27, 51-52,
54, comp. “ Yad,” Yesode ha-Torah, iv. 9) he went
so far as to assign immortality only to the thinkers,
whose acquired intelligence (*sekel ha-nikneh ”),
according to the Aristotelians, becomes part of the
“active divine intelligence,” and thus attains perfec-
tion and permanence. This Maimonidean view,
which practically denies to the soul of man person-
ality aud substance and excludes the simple-minded
doer of good from future existence, is strongly com-
bated by Hasdai Crescas (“Or Adonai,” ii. 5, 5; 6,
1) as contrary to Scripture and to common sense; he
claims, instead, immortality for every soul filled
with love for God, whose very essence is moral
rather than intellectual, and consists in perfection
and goodness rather than in knowledge (comp. also
Gersonides, “ Milhamot ha-Shem,”i. 18; Albo, “ ‘Ik-
karim,” iv. 29). Owing to Crescas, and in opposi-
tion to Leibnitz’s view that without future retribu-
tion there could be no morality and no justice in the
world, Spinoza (“ Ethics,” v. 41) declared, “ Virtue
is eternal bliss; even if we should not be aware of
the soul’s immortality we must love virtue above
everything.”
While medieval philosophy dwelt on the intellec-
tual, moral, or spiritual nature of the soul to prove
its immortality, the cabalists endeavored to explain
the soul as a light from heaven, after Prov. xx, 27,
and immortality as a return to the celestial world of
pure light (Bahya b. Asher to Gen. i. 3; Zohar,
Terumah, 127a). But the belief in the preexistence
of the soul led the mystics to the adoption, with all
its weird notions and superstitions, of the Pythago-
rean system of the transmigration of the soul (see
TRANSMIGRATION OF Sous). Of this mystic view
Manasseh ben Isracl also was an exponent, as his
“Nishmat Hayyim” shows.
It was the merit of Moses Mendelssohn, the most
prominent philosopher of the deistic school in an
eraof enlightenment and skepticism, to have revived
by his “Pheedon” the Platonic doctrine of immor-
tality, and to have asserted the divine nature of man
by presenting new arguments in behalf of the spiri-
tual substance of the soul (see Kayserling, “ Moses
Mendelssohn,” 1862, pp. 148-169). Thenceforth Ju-
daism, and especially progressive or Reform Juda-
ism, emphasized the doctrine of immortality, in
both its religious instruction and its liturgy (see Cat-
ECHISMS; CONFERENCES, RABBINICAL), While the
dogma of resurrection was gradually discarded and,
in the Reform rituals, eliminated from the prayer-
books. Immortality of the soul, instead of resurrec-
tion, was found to be “an integral part of the Jew-
ish creed ” and “the logical sequel to the God-idea,”
inasmuch as God’s faithfulness “seemed to point,
not to the fulfilment of the promise of resurrection ”
In Jewish
Phi-
losophy.
given to those that “sleep in the dust,” as the second
of the Eighteen Benedictions has it, but to “the
realization of those higher expectations which are
sown, as part of its very nature, in every human
soul” (Morris Joseph, “ Judaism as Creed and Life,”
1903, pp. 91 et seg.). The Biblical statement “God
created man in his own image” (Gen. i. 27) and the
passage “ May the soul . . . be bound in the bundle
of life with the Lord thy God” (I Sam. xxv. 29,
Hebr.), which, asa divine promise and a human sup-
plication, filled the generations with comfort and
hope (Zunz, “Z. G.” p. 350), received a new meaning
from this view of man’s future; and the rabbinical
saying, “ The righteous rest not, either in this or in
the future world, but go from strength to strength
until they see God on Zion” (Ber, 64a, after Ps.
Ixxxiv. 8 [A. V.]), appeared to offer an endless vista
to the hope of immortality.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Alger, Critical History of the Doctrine of a
Future Life, with bibliography by Ezra Abbot, New York,
1867; Charles, in Cheyne and Black, Eneye. Bibl. s.vy. Escha-
tology; Formstecher, Beitrage zur Entwicklungsgesch. des
Begriffs der Cisteidliechkett der Seele, in Geiger’s Wiss,
Zeit. Jtid, Theol. iii. 251-249; Hamburger, R. B. T. s.v. Un-
sterblichkeit; Hastings, Dict. Bible, s.v. Hschatology ; Her-
zog-Hauck, Real-Eneye. s.v. Unsterblichkeit; Manasseh
ben Israel, Vishmat Hayyi. :, Amsterdam, 1652; L. Philipp-
son, Israelitische Religionslehre, 1862, ii. 231-270; Paul Volz,
Jiidische Eschatologie von Daniel bis Akiba, 1903; F, We-
ber, System der Alfsynagogalen Paldstinischen T heologie,
Leipsic, 1880, Index. K
IMMOVABLE PROPERTY. See REA Es-
TATE,
IMPLIED CONTRACT. See Conrractr,
IMPRISONMENT: Imprisonment asa punish-
ment for crime is not known in Mosaic law. The
few apparent cases mentioned in the Pentateuch
(Lev, xxiv. 12; Num. xv. 84) refer in fact to the
temporary detention of the criminal until sentence
could be passed on him. Later, however, during
the period of the first commonwealth, a few cases
of punishment by imprisonment are recorded (I
Kings xxii. 27; I] Chron. xvi. 10; Jer. xxxvii. 15-
16; comp. Ps. cvii. 10). The Hebrew language con-
tains a number of words meaning “prison” or
“dungeon,” which would imply that imprisonment
was customary among the Jews, as it was likewise
among many other nations of antiquity. Never-
theless, it seems to have been an arbitrary punish-
ment inflicted by the magistrates or by the kings
upon those who were under accusation orin disfavor,
The Rabbis, however, tixed this punishment for
the folowing cases: (1) When the court is convinced
of the guilt of one accused of murder, but can not
legally convict because some condition has not been
complied with (Sanh. 81b; Maimonides, “ Yad,”
Rozeah, iv. 8). (2) When one commits murder by
the hands of a hireling (Kid. 48a; Rozeah, ii. 2-4).
(8) When one who has been twice condemned and
punished with stripes for the same offense is found
guilty for the third time (Sanh. 81b; “ Yad,” San-
hedrin, xviii. 4). (4) When one can not be con-
victed by the court foracrime which involves capital
punishment because he does not acknowledge that he
was cansciaus of the guilt, even after being warned
three times by the witnesses (Sanh. 8ib; Tosef.,
Sanh. xii. 4; “ Yad,” de. xviii. 5). In all these cases
the period of imprisonment was left to the discre:
Impure
Incense
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
568
tion of the court. In most such cases, especially in
the first instance given above, the sentence was for
lite, the treatment being very severe, atming at the
speedy death of the criminal (Sanh. 81b).
Temporary imprisonment, pending trial, is au-
thorized by the Talmud, as it is in the Bible, in all
cases (Sanh. 78b; Rozeah, iv. 3). See Crime; PUy-
ISHMENT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hastings, Diet. Bible, s.v. Crimes and Pun-
ixhinents: Mendelsohn, Criminal Jurisprudence of the An-
cient Hebreics, Baltimore, 1891; Saalsehutz. Das Mosaische
Reeht, ch. tviii., Berlin, 1833.
J. H. G.
Si Be
IMPURITY. See Carcass; CLEAN AND UN-
CLEAN ANIMALS; PURtItTy.
INCANTATION: The invocation of magical
powers. All peoples, civilized as well as savage,
have believed and stil] believe in magical Influences
and effects. The chief means of harming or of
protecting from harm was the utterance of some
word or words invested with the highest magical
power; and whoever knew the right word had in-
fluence over gods and demons; for they could not
resist the command, spoken under certain necessary
and auspicious conditions. Magic pervaded the re-
ligions of the Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians,
Greeks, and Romans, and in a still higher degree the
religions of primitive peoples. According to the
Bible the nations which lived in the same country
as the ancient Israelites or in that surrounding it
practised all sorts of superstitions forbidden to the
Israclites (Blau, “Das Altjiidische Zauberwesen,”
pp. 16-19). The nature of these superstitions can
not always be determined. Probably the original
meaning of Awd, the root-word by which magic is
indicated in Hebrew, is “to murmur” or “to mut-
ter” (Fleischer, in Levy, “Neuhebr. Worterb.” ii.
459). Hence, the magician (wD) was a person
who muttered magic formulas; but no example of
such formulas has been preserved in the Bible.
Rabbinical literature, however, contains a large
number of these formulas, the majority of which,
designated as “heathen” (Amoritic), are forbidden,
while a small number are recommended. Thirty-
two incantations in Hebrew and Aramaic are enu-
merated in Blau, Zc. pp. 65-86. In
Talmudic some there are unintelligible words,
Formulas. which are the characteristic mark of
magic formulas; in others there are
Persian words, pointing to a Persian origin of the
formula. The exclamations “Jammia and Bizia”;
“ Dagan and Kedron”; “Healing” (onsneczing; see
Asvsa); “Abundance and remainder, drink and
leave a drop” (bd. p. 66) are Amoritic; that is, they
originated among the primitive heathen inhabitants
of Palestine. Whenateacher of the Law had taken
an excessive quantity of wine, his palm and knee
were rubbed with oil and salt, while these words
were pronounced: “As this oil evaporates, so may
the wine evaporate from A. son of B.” (¢. p. 72).
Several observances were followed in the case of
ague, one of them being as follows: The person took
anew earthen jug to ariver, turned it around his
head seven times, poured out the water backward,
and said “River, river, lend a jug full of water for
the guest who has come to me” (2. p. 78). Ifa
ralis,” xxviil, 49.
person is choking with a bone, another bone of the
same kind is laid on his head, while some one utters
the words: “One, one, it gocs down; swallow,
swallow, it goes down; one, one” (2. p. 76). This
formula consists of four words, which in the second
part are repeated in inverse order, The same rem-
edy is also mentioned in Pliny’s “ Historia Natu-
The following abracadabra is
pronounced against the demon of blindness:
SHABRIRI
BRIRI
RIRI
IRI
RI
During the Hellenistic period of Jewish history
Hebrew incantations were used among both the
Jews and the pagans, as appears from the magic
papyri published by Wessely (Vienna, 1888, 1894).
The Tetragrammaton and the divine names “ Eloe”
and “Adonai” were most frequently used (7). pp.
102 et seq.). But there are other words, which it is
difficult to identify on account of the obscurity in
which the formulas were euveloped. The Greco-
Roman world was acquainted with the barbaric
words of the “Chaldeans” (magicians), and in the
famous inscription on the pedestal of a Greek oracle
altar several Hebrew words may be recognized.
The “Sword of Moses” (“ Harba de-Mosheh ”), pub-
lished by Gaster, which also contains incantations,
is connected with Judivo-Hellenistic magic.
The literature of niedieval mysticism likewise
presents formulas for incantation. These formu-
las are an essential part of the so-called practical
Cabala, which has still its adepts in eastern Europe
and in Asia. Jewish folk-lore also furnishes exam.
ples of incautation, some of which are noted in
“Mittheilungen der Gesellschaft fiir
Medieval Jiidische Volkskunde,” published by
Formulas. Grunwald (see No. vii., s.c “Be-
schworungen, Besprechungen, Feuer-
beschworen”). The “Revue des Ecoles de ) Alli-
ance Israélite,” published by the Alliance Israélite
Universelle, contains valuable material relating to
incantations from the folk-lore of all countries of
the East.
J. L. B.
INCARNATION. See Locos,
INCENSE: Anaromatic substance which exhales
perfume during combustion; the odor of spices and
gums burned as an act of worship. In aucient
times, on account of the extreme heat of the Orient,
incense was used, as it is to-day, to a much greater
extent in the East than in the West. “Ointment
and perfume rejoice the heart,” says Prov, xxvii. 9.
Garments were perfumed to such an extent that an
old marriage song (Ps. xlv. 9 [A. V. 8}) could say
of theroyal bridegroom, “All thy garments smell of
myrrh, and aloes, and cassia.” Beds were perfumed
with “myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon” (Prov. vii. 17).
The bride in Cant. iii. 6 was perfumed with all sorts
of incense; and noble guests were honored by being
sprinkled with perfume or incense (Luke vii. 46;
comp. Lane, “Manners and Customs of the Mod-
ern Kgyptians,” iii. 8). It was customary among
noble Jews to pass incense (“mugmar”) around on
a brazier after meals (comp. Ber. vi. 6).
569
Under these circumstances tiie use, with sacrifices,
of spices and perfumes that were burned as incense
seems a matter of course. It is an
Sacrifices open question whether the ancient He-
of Incense. brewsascribed to this incense any spe-
cial etticacy in banning demons (comp.
Tobit vi.l-7); but in any case the offering of incense
was widely practised in the ancient Oriental relig-
ions. Thatit wasa common adjunct of Egyptian
worship is evident from the fact that in the repre-
sentations of worship the king is nearly always pic-
tured with a censer in his hund offering incense.
Enormous quantities of spices were used for this
purpose every year by the temples. According to
one list, King Rameses IL presented during the
thirty-one years of his reign 868,461 jars and 1,933,-
766 pieces of incense, honey, and oil (Erman, “ Egyp-
ten,” p. 40%). Incense is mentioned just as fre-
quently in the Babylonian-Assyrian cult. According
to Herodotus (1. 183), at the great yearly feast of Bel
1,000 talents (58,944 ke.) of incense were burned on
his great altar,
It might be inferred from the foregoing, as a mat-
ter of course, that incense was also used in the cult
of Israel. The offering of incense is not, however,
mentioned til a comparatively late date in the Old
Testament. Occupying a prominent
In position in the sacrificial legislation of
Israelitish the middle Pentateuch, this sacrifice
Cult. is mentioned seldom, if at all, in the
historic and prophetic books. This is
all the more remarkable since the Israelites must
from early times have been acquainted with the in-
gredients themselves, the fragrant gums, etc. The
caravans that carrted the spices of Syria to the
Egyptian markets went by way of Palestine (Gen.
XXxvii, 25); and the spices of southern Arabia were
brought by Solomon to Jerusalem (I Kings x. 10 e¢
seqg.). Nevertheless no trace can be found in He-
brew literature of the offering of incense in the time
of the carly kingdom; nor is It represented as a reg-
ular and especially important part of worship, as it
became in later times. Although the noun “* ketoret ”
and the verb “ katar ” (“kitter,” “ hiktir ”) occur, they
do not designate Incense burnt on the altar and its
offering, as in the sacrificial legislation. “ Ketoret ”
is rather a general term for the burning sacrifice and
the sacrificial odor; and in the same way “katar” is
used as an entirely general term for the burning of
any gift on the altar (comp. Amos iv. 5; Hosea iv.
13, xi. 2).
This can not be accidental; for there is likewise
no mention of the offering of incense in those pas-
sages where it might be expected. The Prophets
rcfer more than once to the vain endeavors of the
people to gain Yitwn’s favor. They enumerate all
the things that the people are doing, and all the gifts
they offer, including even their own children; but
nowhere is there an allusion to the holy sacrifice of
incense (comp. Amos iv. 4 et seqg., V. 21 et seg.; Isa.
i. 11 et seqg.; Micah vi. 6 et seg.). Jeremiah is the
first to say, in such an enumeration, “To what pur-
pose cometh there to me incense from Sheba, and
the sweet cane from a far country?” (Jer. vi. 20;
comp. 7b. xli. 5). It is clearly evident that the of-
fering of incense is here still considered as something
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Impure
Incense
Aare een
rare and precious, because the material of the incense
comes from a far country and is valuable. Simi-
larly, Isaiah says (xliit. 23 ef seg.), ° Lhave not caused
thee to serve with an offering, nor wearied thee
with incense.” From this time onward, however,
the offering of incense is mentioned much more fre.
quently, and especially often in Chronicles. In view
of these facts it may be assumed that the incense-
offering was not frequent in the time of the Ear-
lier Prophets, becoming more popular only in the
time of Jeremiah, and that it did not become im-
portant as the most holy of offerings until the post-
exilic period.
In the sacrificial legislation of the Pentateuch the
incense-offering is mentioned both as a concomitant
of other offerings and by itself. As re-
Legal Or- gards the former, every meat-offering
dinances. (“minhah”) required the addition of
incense, which was burned, under the
name of “azkarah,” on the great altar with a certain
part of the flour. The sacrifice of the twelve loaves
of showbread was also combined with an incense-
offering; according to later sources (Josephus,
“Ant.” ii, 10,7; Men. xi. 5, 7, 8), two golden bowls
were placed upon the table of the showbread. When
the stale loaves were taken away on the Sabbath, to
be replaced by new ones, the old incense was burned
in the fire of the great altar of burnt offering (Lev.
xxiv. 7-9). The incense-offering was omitted only in
two cases—with the sin-offering of the poor (Lev. v.
11-13) and with the meat-offering of the lepers (Lev.
xiv. 10, 20).
The independent incense-offering (“tamid”) was
brought twice every day, in the morning and in the
evening, corresponding to the daily morning and
evening sacrifices on the altar of burnt offering.
The ordinance regarding the tamid prescribes that
when the priest dresses the lamps in the morning he
shall burn incense, and also when he lights the lamps
at even (“ben ha-‘arbayim”; Ex, xxx. 7-9). This
reference was considered obscure even in early
times; the Samaritan and Karaitic interpretation,
that it refers to the time from sunset to complete
darkness, ¢.¢., twilight, ismost probably the correct
one. An independent incense-offering was pre-
scribed also forthe Day of Atonement. On thisday
the high priest himself was required to burn the in-
cense in the censer in the Holy of Holies (see CEN-
SER), not, as usually, on the altar of incense (Lev.
xvi. 12).
The importance ascribed to the incense-offering is
evident from the special sanctity characterizing the
sacrifice. It is the high prerogative of the priest-
hood to offer it. UWzziah is severely
Importance punished for presuming upon this
of the prerogative (II Chron. xxvi, 16); and
Sacrifice. the Levites who attempt to bring this
offering without being entitled to do
so suffer death (Num. xvi. 6 et seqg., 17 et seq.). But
the two priests entitled to perform the service,
Aaron’s sons Nadab and Abihu, also perished when
they committed an error In offering this most holy
sacrifice by putting profane fire into their censers
instead of fire from the altar of burnt offering (Lev.
x. 1 et seq.). In the Law itself it is denounced asa
sin deserving death if any one takes of the holy in-
Incense
Incest
cense for profane purposes, or even makes incense
according to the special receipt for holy incense;
and similarly if any one uses for the offering in-
cense other than that prescribed by law (Ex. xxx.
34-388).
The receipt for making the holy incense, given
in Ex. xxx. 84-88, names four ingredients: (1)
“nataf” (A. V. “stacte”), probably storax-gum, the
Rabbis taking it to be balsam; (2) “shehelet” (A.
V. “onycha”), the fragrant operculum of a species
of shell found in the Red Sea, and still used in the
East for incense and medicine; (8) “helbenah” (A.
V. “galbanum”), a species of gunn,
Composi- according to ancient authoritics the
tion of the product of narthex, and according to
Holy the modern view that of the ferula
Incense. herb; (4) “lebonah” (A. V. “ frankin-
cense ”), the resin of the olibanum-tree,
t.e., one of the various species of Boswellia indige-
nous to Arabia Felix. The same quantity of each
is to be taken and, mixed with salt, made into a
confection.
In the later tradition (Ker. vi. a, b; comp. Mai-
monides, “ Yad,” Kele ha-Mikdash, ii. 1-5; on the
Arabic words used by Maimonides see Bacher, “ Aus
dem Worterbuche Tanchum Jeruschalmi's,” p. 122)
these four spices were not regarded as sufficient, and
seven others were added, namely: myrrh (“mor”),
cassia (“kezi‘ah”), the flower of nard (“shibbolet
nerd ”), saffron (“karkom ”), kostus (“ kosht ”), cinna-
mon (“kKinnamon”), and cinnamon-bark (“ kina-
shah”). Josephus (“B. J.” v. 5, § 5) speaks of
thirteen ingredients; this agrees with the fact that
in other sources Jordan amber (“ kippat ha- Yarden ”)
and a herb now unknown, which caused the smoke to
rise (hence called “ma‘aleh ‘ashan”), are mentioned.
Salt is omitted in these lists, a very small quantity
being added (} kab to the incense used for the whole
year). But only the salt of Sodom (“melah Sedo-
mit ”) might be used.
Three hundred and sixty-eight minas of incense
were prepared once a year, in the Temple, one for
each day and three extra for the sacrifice of the Day
of Atonement. Some of the ingredients had to be
specially prepared, as, for example, the onycha,
which was first soaked in Cyprus wine to take away
the tartness. Great care was bestowed upon the
comminuting of the ingredients, each of which was
pounded by itself; and the man who performed that
work incited himself by repeating the words, “ hadek
heteb” = “make it very fine.” The incense was
pounded in the mortar twice a year, and required
care otherwise. On damp days it was piled up; on
warm, dry days it was spread out for drying. In
Herodian times the preparation of the incense was a
kind of privilege retained in the family of Abtinas,
which was thought to be in possession of special
directions for making it. They were particularly
credited with knowing how to cause the smoke of
the incense-offering to rise in the form of the stem of
a date-tree. I. Br.
When it reached the cetling it spread out and
descended, and covered the whole space. The
smoke from incense prepared by other apothe-
caries spread irregularly as it rose. The family
would not divulge the secret of its art, and was
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
570
consequently driven from office. Apothecaries from
Alexandria were sent for who were proficient in
incense-making: but they could not secure smoke
which rose regularly. The Abtinases were, there-
fore, recalled. but they demanded double the pay
they had previously received (Yoma 88b; Yer. Yoma
iii. 9). They gave as areason for their secrecy that,
anticipating the destruction of the Temple, they
feared the secret might be used later in idolatrous
services (Yer. Shek. v. 1). The Rabbis, however,
severely criticized the Abtinases for their selfishness.
The Mishnah records their name as infamous (Yoma
jii., end). RR. Johanan b. Nari tells of meeting an
old man of the Abtivas family carrying ascroil con.
taining a list of the ingredients used in the composi-
tion of the incense; the old man surrendered the
scroll to R. Johanan, “since the Abtinases were no
longer trustworthy.” When R. Akiba heard of
this he shed tears, aud said: “From now we must
never mention their name with blame” (Yer. Shek.
v. 1). J. D. E.
Apparently incense was generally offered in a pan
(*mahtah ”), which the priest carried in his hand.
In such a pan Aaron carried the incense that he of-
fered for the sins of the people (Num. xvii. 11-12
[A. V. xvi. 46-47]) Each of Aaron’s sons had his
own pan (Lev. x. 1 eé seg.); and the
The Ritual rebellious Levites also sacrificed in-
ofthe cense on pans, which were subse-
Offering. quently used to cover the altar of
burnt offering of the Tabernacle (Num,
xvii, 4[A. V. xvi, 39]). It would thus appear that
every priest had his censer (comp. Egyptian illus-
trations). In the Jewish statutory sacrificial ritual,
on the Introduction of a special incense-altar this
custom was set aside, surviving only in the ritual of
the Day of Atonement. On that day the priest en-
tered the Holy of Holies, carrying in his right hand
the pan for the incense, filled with live coals, and
in his left hand a spoonlike vessel, called “kaf,”
containing the incense, After placing both of these
utensils on the floor, the high priest took the incense
from the kaf with the hollow of his hand, not with
his fingers, and heaped it upon the pan containing
the coals. It was considered especially difficult to
take the incense up thus without spilling any (Lev.
xvi. 12; comp. Yoma i. 5, 47b).
In later times a special altar for the incense-offer-
ing was introduced, and this, more than anything
else, shows the great importance that was ascribed
to the offering. The assumption that the incense-
altar mentioned in the Lawis of later origin is sup-
ported by the passages quoted above, where it is
expressly said that the holy sacrifice of incense was
not burned on a special altar, but in the censers of
the priests. It must, moreover, be noted that this
altar is not mentioned in the account of the building
and arrangement of the Tabernacle, being referred
to only in Ex. xxx. 1 et seg. Reference to it was
similarly added later in the account of the building
of the Temple. Otherwise these points of criticism
need not be discussed here. According to the de-
scription in I Kings vi. 20-22, vii. 48, the altarin the
Temple consisted of a table of cedar-wood overlaid
with gold. Ht stood in the sanctuary, near the en-
trance to the Holy of Holies. The fact that in the
571
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Incense
Incest
Epistle to the Hebrews (Heb. ix. 4) this altar was
included in the Holy of Holies shows how sacred
it was considered to be.
In the course of time the ritual became increas-
ingly complicated. According to the Talmud
(Tamid iii. 6, vi. 1-3), the ceremony wasas follows:
After completing the preparations for the morning's
purnt offering, such as the cleaning of the altar, ete.,
two priests removed the ashes from the altar of
burnt offering and tlie lamps; then the sacrificial
animals were killed ; lots were drawn to decide which
priest should offer the incense; and then followed
the preparations for the sacrifice. A priest took live
coals from the altar of burnt offering in a silver
prazier (“mahtah ”) and placed them on the incense-
altar. The officiating priest then entered the sanc-
tuary, carrying the incense in a jar (“bazak”),
which he held over a shallow spoon-shaped uten-
sil (kaf) to prevent any grains from dropping on
the floor from the heaped jar; and when the com-
mand “burn the incense” issued from the chaniber
of the priests he spread upon the coals the incense
in the jar. An assisting priest held the spoon; he
was also to pour into the hollow hand of the
officiant any grains that might drop into the spoon.
Both priesis then left the sanctuary. It is ex-
pressly stated that none of the other priests was
to be present, and that no other person might be in
the sanctuary, After the incense had been consumed
the pieces of the tamid were placed on the altar of
burnt offering.
The importance of the incense-offering is evident
from what has been said above regarding its origin.
Whatever was pleasing to men was
Signifi- offered to the Deity also; and as men
cance ofthe were honored with incense, to the
Incense- Deity was paid similar honor. This
Offering. explanation is entirely sufficient. It
was natural that the rising smoke
should be regarded as the symbol or vehicle of
prayer (thus, perhaps, may be interpreted Ps. cxli.
2; comp. Rev, v. 8). But all other symbolical in-
terpretations are far-fetched and not supported by
the ancient sources, as, for example, the opinion of
Josephus (“B. J.” v. 5, § 5) that the thirteen ingre-
dients, which come from the sea, the desert, and the
fertile country, are meant to signify that all things
are God’s and are intended for His service; or the
view of Philo, that the four ingredients mentioned
in the Law symbolize the four elements, water,
earth, fire, and air, which combined represent the
universe. J. Be.
Maimonides regards the incense-offering as de-
signed originally to counteract the odors arising
from the slaughtered animals and to animate the
spirit of the priests (“ Moreh,” iii., ch. 45, p. 69, ed.
Schlosberg, London, 1851). The incense was also
considered as an antidote against the plague. The
reciting of the incense chapter (AWOPN OW) after
Psalm cxlv. prevents death from entcriug the house
(comp. Num. xvii. 12, Hebr. ; Zohar, s.o. “ Pinehas,”
p. 224a). This passage of the Talmud is now in-
corporated in some prayer-books. J. D. E.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Maimonides, Yad. Temidin u-Musafin, tii,
1 et seq. (comp. ib. Kele ha-Mikdash, ii. 1-5); Benzinger,
Arch.; Nowack, Hebr. Archdologie ; the commentaries to
Ey. rvxx.; Delitzsch, in Riehm's Handwérterb. des Biblischen
Alterthums; Selbie, in Hastings, Dict. Bible, ii. 467 et sey.:
G. F. Moore, in Cheyne and Black. Encye. Bibl. ii. 2165 et
seq.
E. C. I. BE.
INCEST.—Biblical Data: Marriage or carnal
commerce between persons of a close degree of con-
sanguinity. Even in modern times the connotation
of “incestuous” is not the same in all countries.
Among primitive and barbarous races there is a still
wider divergence. Nor has the opinion as to which
marriages between relatives were incestuous and
hence forbidden been constant at all times among
the Israelites. The oidest customs were laxer in
permitting marriages than was the law of the interme-
diary books of the Pentateuch. The marriage of the
father with his own daughter (and therefore pre-
sumably also that of the son with his mother) was
forbidden at all times as incestuous. The story of
Lot, which might be construed as showing that even
this relationship was allowed in Ammon and Moab
(Gen, xix, 80 e¢ seg.), reflects the antipathy of Israel,
which regarded these peoples as born of an inces-
tuous union. But of other marriages forbidden in
olden times as incestuous ro definite data are obtain-
able. Endogamic marriages (¢.e., within the circle
of one’s relatives) were preferred by ancient tribes.
The chosen suitor for a girl was her cousin; if was
actually forbidden for the eldest daughter to marry
outside the family. By analogy, then, the conclusion
is safe that marriages between very near relatives
were permitted among the ancient Hebrews also.
In fact, there is no lack of evidence for this. Abra-
ham, whose wife Sarah was also his half-sister, may
be mentioned as an example of a marriage between
brother and sister (Gen. xx. 12). Even in David’s
time, although it is represented as unusual for a
royal prince to marry his sister (II Sam. xiii. 18), it
was still regarded as neither objectionable nor for-
bidden. It should be noticed that in both these
cases the union was with a paternal half-sister; the
husband and wife being of one father, but not of
one mother. Jacob had to wife two sisters at the
same time, and Moses was born of a marriage be-
tween nephew and aunt (Num. xxvi. 59). Marriage
with a sister-in-law, or the widow of a deceased
brother, is in certain cases a religious duty (see LEv-
IRATE): only from the account of Judah and Tamar
(Gen, xxxviil.; comp. especially v. 26) is it to be con-
cluded that in case of a lack of brothers the oldest
custom obliged the father to marry his daughter-in-
law.
It has been contended that marriage with the
father’s wife (who was not the son’s own mother)
seems not to have been objectionable in olden times.
As an instance of this the union between Reuben
and Bilhah is adduced (Gen. xxxv. 22). Butin Gen.
xlix. 4 this union is severely condemned. The right
explanation of this incident as well as of the similar
occurrence reported in the story of Absalom’s up-
rising (II Sam. xvi. 21, 22) is that control of the
harem of one’s predecessor was regarded as the as-
sertion of one’s right to the throne. And when
Adonijah asks for Abishag from his father’s harem,
he appears from this act to claim to be his heir (I
Kings ii. 18 et seg.). The phrase Pax ‘22wo moby
(Gen. xlix. 4) may be taken symbolically, and does
Incest
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
572
not necessarily convey the idea of an actual in-
cestuous union. The following, however, are the
degrees of consanguinity and relationship within
which marriage is forbidden as incestuous in Deu-
teronomy: the father’s wife (xxi. 80, xxvii. 20); a
sister or half-sister (xXvii. 22); and a mother-in-law
(xxvii. 23). In all three points, however, even in
Ezekiel’s time, custom by no means upheld the law
(Ezek. xxii. 10 ef seq.).
The so-called Priestly Code goes furthest in for-
bidding marriages among relatives. According to
Lev, xviii. 6-18, a man may under no circumstances
marry: (1) mother, (2) stepmother, (8) sister, (4)
son’s daughter, (5) daughter's daughter, (6) haltf-sis-
ter, father’s side [or mother’s side], (7) father’s sis-
ter, (8) mother’s sister [aunt], (9) wife of father’s
brother, (10) daughter-in-law, (11) sister-in-law, (12)
wife and Ler daughter [or wife and (16) her mother],
(18) wife’s son’s daughter, (14) wife’s daughter's
daughter, or (15) wife and her sister [both living].
In Lev. xx. 11-21 another list is given, which
enumerates only Nos. 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 12, and
omits those that are implied, such as mother’s sister,
granddaughter, and sister-in-law; explaining also
that No. 6 includes a half-sister on the mother’s side,
and that No. 12 includes wife and Ler mother. This
chapter describes the punishments of the various
classes of incest (see PUNISHMENT).
The same unions were in general forbidden by
Islam, as also by custom earlier than Islain.
E. G. Il. I. Be.
——In Rabbinical Literature: The crime of in-
cest is known in the Talmud as “‘arayot”; and it is
implied that alliances involving its commission are
illegitimate and consequently nuil and void.
A notable omission from the list of those with
whom sexual intercourse, according to Lev. xviil.,
constitutes incest is a daughter, in regard to whom
the prohibition is explained by the Talmud as
“self-evident” or implied from the expressed pro-
scription against a granddaughter (Yeb. 8a). Deut.
XXVil. 20, 22, 28, as was noted above, enumerates
only Nos. 2, 6, and 12, namely, father’s wife, half-
sister, and mother-in-law; this, according to the
Rabbis, is because they are more remote [the others
being implied], and because, since they usually live
together in the same house, if they violate the law
they can not be easily detected (Rashbam, Commen-
tary). The intercourse of such relatives is among
the “secret sins” to which the Levites’ curse on Mt.
Ebel was directed (Deut. xxvii. 15). The levirate
marriage of the childless wife of a dead brother
(AD3'), though commended in the Bible, is discour-
aged by some rabbis. Abba Saul said that “hali-
zah” is preferable to marriage (Yeb. 8a). Later it
was prohibited in European countries. See Levi-
RATE MARRIAGE.
The soferim or scribes (822-221 B.c.) extended the
number of degrees of relationship within which
marriage involved incest, and ranked those relations
as “seconds” (AY3w) or subordinates which are not
included in the Bible. Marriage with these was for-
bidden by the Rabbis 3277) as a precaution and
safeguard against the infringement of the Mosaic
degrees (RA UNW; Yeb. 21a). The rabbinica!
“seconds” are as follows: [19] mother’s mother;
[20] father’s mother; [21] wife of father’s father;
[22] wife of mother’s father; [23] wife of father’s
brother, on the mother’s side; [24] wife of mother’s
brother, on the father’s side; [256] son's daughter-
in-law; [26] daughter’s daughter-in-law (Tosef.,
Yeb. it. 8). The prohibition is thus raised one de-
giee on the ascent, and one degree on the descent in
the case of the daughter-in-law; while the prohibi-
tion of the wife of a father’s half-brother is balanced
by the prohibition of the wife of a mother’s half-
brother on the mother's side (being comparative sec-
ouds to the Mosaic half-sister prohibition).
R. Hiyya, in his list of seconds, or rather “thirds,”
goes one step further, and adds the third generation
on the descent, namely: [27] daughter’s grand-
daughter, and [28] son’s granddaughter; likewise a
wife’s third generation [29] and [80]. On the ascent
he includes the fourth generation and prohibits the
grandmother of a wife’s mother or father [31] and
[32] (Yeb. 22a). A like prohibition on the man’s
side is implied, but not mentioned, the existence of
relatives of this degree being an improbability, ex-
cept on the wife’s side, who usually was the hus-
band’s junior. It is questionable whether R. Hiy-
ya’s seconds are infinite, ¢@.e., whether the prohibi-
tion is endless, both on the ascent and the descent,
or Whether it stops at the point described (72.),
Rab is of the opinion that the prohibition stops with
the wife of a mother’s brother [24], and goes no
further, even on the father’s side; nor above the
wife of a father’s brother on the mother’s side [23];
nor below a daughter’s daughter-in-law [26]. Ze‘era
permits the wife of the father of a mother [22] (2d.
21a). Rab denies this permission, as it might be
mistaken to refer to the wife of a father’s father,
whereas she, as well as the wife of any of a father’s
direct ancestors, to the infinite degree, is prohibited.
Ze‘era, however, thought there was no chance for
an error, 28S a man is not in the habit of visiting his
mother’s family in like manner as his father’s (2d.).
Beyond the line of seconds, affinitive incest, accord-
ing to Rab, stops, but consanguinitive incest is in-
finite. Accordingly the marriage of any of the
direct descendants of Abraham with any of those of
Sarah, to the end of humanity, would be prohibited
(Yer. Yeb. ii. 4).
Bar Kappara adds to the seconds the mother of
the father of one’s mother [83], and the mother of the
father of one’s father [84], and thinks that incest
stops both above and below the line of seconds. R.
Hanina, however, is of the opinion that the seconds
which are specifically mentioned include merely
those with whom the natural length of human life
allows marriage to be thought of as a probable con-
tingency; but the prohibition extends to infinity,
except in the case of a mother’s father’s wife (2.).
Rab rules as a second a male whose female proto-
type is prohibited in the Mosaic law, and thus
includes among the seconds the wife of a father’s
or mother’s brother [28] and [24]; also his son’s or
daughter’s daughter-in-law [25] and [26] (2b.); but
he excepts the wife of a father-in-law (40) and the
wife of the son of a mother-in-law or father-in-law,
or the wife of the son of a stepson; these are per-
mitted, for the reason that in these cases the affinity
is not direct, but requires two distinct marriages to
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Incest
Incunabula
bind the kinship (Yeb. 21b). There is no incest be-
tween one's wife and his stepson, nor between his
stepson and his daughter, although a stepdaughter
is prohibited in the Bible (Tosef., Yeb. ii. 3); nor
between two stepchildren, that is, one his own and
the other his wife’s, who may intermarry, though
they both live in the same house, R. Eleazar, how-
ever, prohibited their marriage for appearance’s
sake, and R. Hanina would permit it only in a place
where the parties are unknown as stepchildren (Yer.
Yeb. ii. 4). Amemar permitted the wife of the
brother of a father’s father (27), and the sister of a
father’s father (28); while other authorities prohibit
them (Yeb. 21b). The authorities agree on the
prohibition of the son’s son’s daughter-in-law in-
finitely, on the ground that the inheritance line is
continuous on the son’s side, and because father
and son usually visit each other, whereas on the
daughter’s side both the inheritance and the visits
cease (Tosafot, s.o. my3aw; Yeb. 22a).
The principal reason for prohibiting the great-
grandmother, though she is not on the inheritance
line, is because she is likewise called “ grandmother ”
(NN NON). A similar reason is applied to the
great-granddaughter. R. Hana derives the prohibi-
tion against the third generation, both ascending and
descending, from the specific proscription against
the wife’s grandchild in Lev. xviii. 17 (Yer. Yeb. ii.
4). Some authorities prohibit the grandmother's sis-
ter (39) and also the marriage of a man to the wife
of the former husband of his wife (41) (“ Tif’eret
Yisrael” to Yeb. ii. 1).
David took Rizpah, the wife of his father-in-law
Saul (II Sam. xii. 8), which is permitted according
to the Biblical law, though R. Hanina prohibits a
wife’s stepmother for appearance’s sake (Yer. /.c.).
But the Talmud Babli permits a father-in-law’s wife.
The Babylonian Talmud is less strict in regard to the
degree of relationship which renders a marriage
incestuous than the Jerusalem Talmud, a difference
which furthermore divides the Sephardim from the
Ashkenazim (“ Bet Yosef” to Tur Eben ha-'Ezer, xv.
39a). The former, led by Maimonides, are guided
by the Babylonian Talmud, while the Ashkenazim,
headed by Asheri and Caro, concur with the Jerusa-
lem Talmud. :
The later authorities in Europe were even more
rigid, as the condition of their countries and the de-
velopment of the time warranted a stricter observ-
ance of the law against incest. Thus Rabbenu Tam
in France stopped the marriage of a man to the wife
of his father-in-law, and spoiled the banquet and all
preparations for the wedding (2b.). Yet the Sephar-
dim permit such a marriage. In a case presented
to Rabbi Nathanson he rules to prohibit it (Re-
sponsa, “Sho’el u-Meshib,” tii., No, 29), and where the
marriage has already taken place would compel the
husband to divorce his wife; making an exception,
however, if she has borne him children, so as not to
reflect on their legitimacy. The responsum is dated
1857.
There is a difference between Maimonides, who is
against, and Asheri and Caro, who are for, the in-
finite extension of the prohibition beyond the line of
seconds of the wife’s ancestors and descendants to
the third generation, also below the third generation
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
574
on the man’s side, except the daughter-in-law from
son to son, But all authorities agree that the man’s
parental line is infinite except in cases indicated.
The majority of the rabbis permit the illegitimate
(seduced) wife of a father or of his son. R. Judah
prohibits the former (Yeb. 4a) But the decision is
against him, though there is no question as to the pro-
hibition of an illegitimate daughter or granddaugh-
ter. Cousins german are permitted to marry, and
to marry the daughter of a sister (a niece) is even
advised as a meritorious act (Yeb. 62a, and Rashi).
The difference between the principal (Biblical)
degrees of incest and the rabbinical seconds is that
the marriages involving the former are considered
illegal, requiring no divorcee, and the issue is declared
illegitimate, while the marriages involving the latter
must be dissolved by a divorce, and the children are
legitimate (Shulhan ‘Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer, 16, 1).
Incest by affinity is disregarded when the first mar-
riage is not legal (Yeb. 94b).
Prior to the enactment of the Mosaic law on Sinai,
a Noachid was prohibited only the natural degrees of
incest, such as were later capitally punished by the
Jews (Sanh, 57b). Maimonides enumerates them as
follows: marriage with (1) mother, (2) father’s wife,
(3) married woman, and (4) sister on the mother’s
side (“ Yad,” Melakim, ix.). Hence Abraham was
permitted to marry his half-sister on the father’s
side, and Jacob might marry two sisters because
these cases were not contrary to the natural law,
although they were later prohibited by the laws of
Moses. It should be noted that the Noachian law
was more rigorous on the mother’s side and the
Mosaic law stricter on the father’s side, as the former
was based on nature and the latter on the civil law
of inheritance and social connections.
Special rules were made for teaching the laws of
incest: “ Whoever puts a different interpretation
upon ‘arayot at the public reading of the Pentateuch
shall be stopped” (Meg. vi. 9). The teacher must
explain the various grades of incest to each student
separately ; therefore “‘arayot shall not be taught
in public” (Hag. ii. 1), as one might be inattentive
and misinterpret the Law. The chapter on incest
(Lev. xviii.) is read on the most solemn day, Yom
Kippur, to impress the public with its importance.
[Reference-numbers in parentheses in the article
IncEs?r correspond with names of relatives printed
in capitals in table; those in brackets with the names
in small letters; those in italics with the names in
italics. |
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tif’eret Yisrael to Yeb. ii. 1; Michaelis,
a Laws of Moses, art. 265,38; Monatsschrift, xxxviii.
gs. 8. J. D. E.
—~Karaite View: Among the points on which
Karaites and Rabbinites were divided was the inter-
pretation of the Biblical laws concerning incest.
Applying tothese laws the hermeneutic rule of anal-
ogy (“hekesh ”), Anan, the founder of Karaism, was
more strict than the Rabbinites, who laid down the
principle that the laws concerning incest were not
subject to the hermeneutic rules of interpretation.
Anan’s immediate successors went still further. As-
suming the principle that uusband and wife are to
be considered legally as one person, the Karaite ex-
575
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Incest
Incunabula
pounders of the Law, known as “ ba‘ale ha-rikkub,”
prohibited the marriage of the husband to the wife’s
relatives, regarding them as being related to him in
the same degree as they are to her. On the same
principle, the prohibition was extended to the rela-
tives of the second, third, or fourth husband of a
divorced wife. - A stepsister, because of the name
“sister,” was classed by them as a sister, the pro-
hibition being made to apply to her relatives as well
as to those of a real sister. The Biblical prohibition
of Lev. xviii. 17 applies, according to them, not only
to a wife’s direct daughter, but also to her step-
daughter, and even to her husband’s stepdaughter.
In the eleventh century two expounders of the
Law, Joseph ha-Ro’eh and his pupil Jeshua, started
a reform movement. They refuted the arguments
upon which the ba‘ale ha-rikkub based
Reforms their principle that husband and wife
of Joseph are to be considered as one person,
ha-Ro’eh. and rejected their prohibitions based
on “appellation,” e.g., the prohibition
against marrying a stepsister on account of the name,
and the prohibition derived “by inversion,” as that
of marrying a woman and her stepdaughter. Only
the prohibitions enumerated in the Pentateuch and
those derived from them by the application of the
hermeneutic rule of analogy were recognized by
Joseph ha-Ro’eh and Jeshua, whose views were ulti-
mately adopted by all Karaites.
These prohibitions, both expressed and derived,
are divided into five categories according to Joseph,
into six according to Jeshua. To the first category
belong those referring to the six relatives known in
legislation as INw (= “issue of flesh”), namely,
mother, stepmother, sister, sister-in-law, daughter,
and daughter-in-law. Of these prohibitions, five are
expressed and one (that of the daughter) is derived.
According to Jeshua, the prohibition in this category
is infinite, both in the ascending line (é.g., grand-
mother, great-grandmother, etc.), and in the descend
ing (¢.g., granddaughter, great-granddaughter, etc. ).
The second category comprises the prohibitions of
relatives in the second degree (URW AN), namely,
aunt (father’s side or mother’s side, by blood or by
alliance), granddaughter (by son or daughter), and
son’s or daughter’s daughter-in-law. The prohibi-
tion in this category is infinite in the direct line,
but stops at the point described in the collateral
line. To the third category belong the prohibitions
against marrying two women who are related in the
first degree, as mother and daughter, sisters, sisters-
in-law, a mother and her daughter-in-law.
By analogy the prohibition is extended to the
“rivals” of the prohibited women, as the wife of the
mother’s, sister’s, and sister-in-law’s husband. The
fourth category prohibits marrying two women who
are related in the second degree, namely, grand-
mother and granddaughter (by the son or by the
daughter), aunt and niece (father’s side or mother’s
side), grandmother-in-law and granddaughter-in-law
(by the son or by the daughter).
The fifth category prohibits the marriage of paral-
lel related pairs, as of a father and son respectively
to a mother and daughter, or to two sisters; of two
brothers to mother and daughter, or to two sisters
or two sisters-in-law; the prohibition affecting both
the ascending and the descending lines, the direct
and the collateral lines. Stepbrothers are considered
as brothers, and the prohibition contained in this
category is applied also to them.
The sixth category prohibits marrying a Woman
one of whose relatives in the first, degree, as, for in-
stance, her mother, or her daughter, has married
one’s relative in the second degree, as, for instance,
a grandfather, grandson, or uncle. Jeshua infers
from the omission of the word Nw (= “ kins-
woman”) in Lev. xviii. 14 that “brother” includes
the stepbrother, to whom the prohibition contained
in the sixth category is extended.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Aaron of Nicomedia, Gan ‘Eden, pp. 128
et seq.; Hadassi, Fishkol ha-Kofer, $$ 316 et sey.; Elijah
Bashyazi, .4derct Eliyahu, pp. 144 et seq.
J. I. Bn.
INCUNABULA: Works printed in the fifteenth
century. Those of Jewish interest consist of («)
works printed in Hebrew and (2) works in other types
relating to Jewish subjects. Of the former about
101 can be traced as certainly printed before 1500;
or exactly 100 if the Isaiah and Jeremiah with
Kimhi (22*) is merely the first part of the Guada-
lajara Later Prophets of 1482 (26). Both have
thirty-three lines to the page. The number of incu-
nabula is reduced to 99 if the Brescia Pentatench
of 1493 (91) be regarded as a part of the Bible of
1494. There are, besides these, eight incunabula of
which either no copy is known or the time and place
of publication can not be definitely determined. A
list of ascertained incunabula is given in tabular form
on pp. 578 and 579, and to these may be added the last-
mentioned eight, which include the Talmud tractates
Ketubot, Gittin, and Baba Mezi‘a, each printed sep-
arately by Joshua Soncino in 1488-89, and of which
no copy is known to exist. The same fate has met
all the copies of the Leiria edition of the Early
Prophets (1494). There is also a siddur of the Roman
rite, probably published by one of the Soncinos, and,
from its type, likely to be of the fifteenth century,
This was first described by Berliner (* Aus Meiner
Bibliothek,” p. 58); a copy is possessed by E. N.
Adler of London, and an incomplete copy is in the
library of Frankfort-on-the-Main. In addition, there
are two ecitions of Maimonides’ “ Mishneh Torah,”
one possibly printed in Italy in the fifteenth century, |
a copy of which is in the library of the Vienna com-
munity; the other, parts of which Dr. E. Mittwoch
of Berlin possesses, was probably printed in Spain,
The date at which printing in Hebrew began can
not be definitely established. There is a whole se-
ries of works without date or place (12-21) which
experts are inclined to assign to Rome (where Latin
printing began in 1467), and any or all
Date of these may be anterior to the first
of First dated work, which is an edition of
Printing. Rashi’s commentary on the Penta-
teuch, published in Reggio, Calabria,
by Abraham Garton, Feb. 5, 1475. It may be as-
sumed that the actual printing of this work took
some time, and that it was begun in the latter part
of 1474. Even thismust have been preceded by the
printing of the four parts of the Turim of Jacob b.
* Numbers in parentheses refer to the list on pp. 578 and 579.
Incunabula
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
576
Asher, finished July 8, 1475, in Piove di Sacco by
Meshullam Cusi, which must have taken considera-
bly longer to print than the Rashi. Jt is excep-
tional for Hebrew works to be dated at all before
1482, but from that time onward to 1492, during
which decade two-thirds of the Hebrew incunabula
were produced, most of them are dated. With the
expulsion from Spain in 1492 the I[ebrew printing-
presses in that country were stopped, and those in
Italy and Portugal produced only about a dozen
works during the remainder of the century.
Hebrew books were produced in the fifteenth
century only in the Italian and Iberian peninsulas,
though several of the printers were of German
origin, as Abraham Jedidiah, the Soncinos, Hayyim
ha-Levi, Joseph and Azriel Gunzenhauser. The
period under review was perhaps the nadir of Jew-
ish fortunes in Germany. Expulsions
occurred throughout the land, and it
is not to be wondered at that no He-
brew presses were started in the land
of printing. In all there are known seventeen places
where Hebrew printing took place in the fifteenth
century—eleven in Italy, three in Spain, and three
in Portugal, as may be seen from the following
list, which gives in chronological order the places,
the names of the printers, and numbers (in parenthe-
ses) indicating the works printed by each, the num-
bers having reference to the table on pp, 578, 579.
Places of
Printing.
ITALY.
. Reggio, Calabria; 1475; Abraham Garton (1).
. Piove di Sacco; 1475; Meshullam Cusi (2),
Mantua; 1475-80; Abraham Conat (3, 7, 8, 9, 11, 28); Es-
tellina Conat (10); Abraham of Cologne (11).
. Ferrara; 1477; Abraham dei Tintori (4, 5).
. Bologna; 1477-83; Hayyiin Mordecai (6); Hezekiah de
Ventura (6); Abraham dei Tintori (25, 28).
, Rome (7); before 1480; Obadiah (12, 13, 14, 18); Manasseh
(12, 18, 14); Benjamin (12, 18,14); Solomon b. Judah (18);
... (1d, 16, 17, 21, 22, 24).
. Soncino; 1483-95; Joshua Solomon Soncino (29, 30, 31, 32,
33, 34, 36, 87, 88, 40, 41, 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 56, ST, 58, 60);
Gershon b. Moses Soneino (55, 71, 75, 90); Solomon b.
Moses Soncino (64, 95, 96, 97).
8. Casal Maggiore; 1486; Joshua Solomon Soncino (42).
9. Naples; 1486-92; Hayyim ha-Levi (39); Joseph b. Jacob
of Gunzenhauser (43, 46, 53, 61, 62, 70); Yom-Tob b. Perez
(61, 62); Solomon b. Perez (61, 62); Isaac ben Judah ibn
Katorzi (72, 73, 78); Joshua Solomon Sonecino (74, 76, 77,
86); Azriel] Gunzenhauser (81, 87); ... (54, 69, 85, 89).
10. Brescia; 1491-94; Gershon Soncino (80, 84, 91, 92, 94).
11. Barco; 1497; Gershon Soncino (100, 101).
Ne ODO
for)
~t
SPAIN.
1. Guadalajara; 1482; Solomon ibn al-Kabiz (26, 27).
2. Ixar; 1485-95; Eliezer Alantansi (35, 45, 68, 99); Solomon
Salmati b. Maimon (5).
3. Zamora; 1487 (1492); Samuel b. Musa (44); Immanuel (44).
PORTUGAL.
1. Faro; 1487; Don Samuel Giacon (49).
2. Lisbon; 1459-92; Eliezer Toledano (59, 67, 79, 83); Eliezer
Alantansi (68); .. . (66, 82).
3. Leiria; 1492-95; Abraham d’Ortas (88, 93, 98).
As to the personal history of the printers enumer-
ated in the list above very few details are known.
Abraham Conat was a physician whose wife also
was interested in printing; she produced the first
edition of the “ Behinat ‘Olam.” Garton, Cusi, and
Giacon appear to have produced their works as
a labor of love rather than for profit. Abraham dei
Tintori, the Soncinos, and the Gunzenhausers, on
the other hand. seem to have regarded their craft asa
means of livelihood. The Soucinos, indeed, printed
books in other characters than He-
brew (see SONCINO), as did also Abra-
ham @Ortas. There does not appear
to have been much competition, though it is re-
markable how invariably the choice of publishers
fell within a limited class of works. In one case,
however, two printers of the same city opposed each
other with an edition of the same work. In Aug.,
1490, Joseph Gunzenhauser produced at Naples an
edition of Kimhi's “Shorashim”; on Feb. 11, 1491,
the same work was produced, as Zedner states, by
Isaac b. Judah b. David Katorzi, who, according to
Proctor, was also the printer of the Naples Nah-
manides of 1490. It would seem also that the two
Pentateuchs of Ixar, 1490, were produced by rival
printers.
Ail forms of Hebrew type were used in this period,
the square, the Rashi or rabbinic (in which the first
dated work was entirely priuted), and the so-called
“ Weiberteutsch ” (in which the later Yiddish works
were printed), a primitive form of this last had al-
ready been used in the Psalms of 1477. Different
sizes of type were used as early as the Turim of
Piove di Sacco, which uses no less than three. The
actual fonts have not yet been determined, and until
this is done no adequate scientific treat-
Printers.
Typo- ment of the subjectis possible. A be-
graphical ginning, however, has been made by
Details. Proctor. Generally speaking, a more
rounded form was used in Spain and
Portugal (perhaps under the influence of Arabic
script) than in the Italian presses, whose types were
somewhat Gothic in style. It has been conjectured
that the Spanish printers used logotypes in addition
to the single letters. The Soncinos and Alantansis
used initials, in other presses vacant spaces were
left for them to be inserted by hand. Vowel-points
were only used for Scripture or for prayer-books,
and accents seem to have been inserted for the first
time in the Bologna Pentateuch of 1482 (25). Spe-
cial title-pages were rare; colophons were usually
short. Borders were used by the Soncinos, as well
as by Toledano at Lisbon and D’Ortas in the Tur
of 1495 (see BorDERS; CoLoPHon; TITLE-PAGE).
Illustrations were only used in one book, the “ Ma-
shal ha-Kadmoni” (75). Printers’ marks appear to
have been used only in Spain and Portugal, each of
the works produccd in Ixar having a different mark,
Of the number of copies printed for an edition the
only detail known is that relating to the Psalms
with Kimhi in 1477, of which three hundred were
printed. If this number applies to many of the in-
cunabula, it isnot surprising that they are extremely
rare at the present day. Twenty of them exist only
in a single copy; most of the rest are imperfect
through misuse or have been disfigured by censors.
A majority of the examples still extant exist in
seven public libraries (British Museum, Londen;
Columbia University, New York; Bibliothéque
Nationale, Paris;. Bodleian, Oxford; Frankfort City
Library; Biblioteca Palatina, Parma; Asiatic Mu-
seum, St. Petersburg) and seven or eight private
collections (E. N. Adler, London; Dr. Chwolson, St.
Petersburg; A. Freimann, Frankfort; Dr. M. Gas-
577
ter, London; Baron Gtinzburg, St. Petersburg; H.
B. Levy, Hamburg; Mayer Sulzberger, Philadel-
phia). The numbers included in each
Location. of these collections are given in the
folowing lists, with the letters by
which they are indicated in the table on pp. 578, 579.
Each of the following lists has been checked and
authenticated by the librarian or owner of the col-
lection, and is here published for the first time.
The remaining locations are mentioned in the table
only in sporadic instances, and do not. profess to ex-
hausi the incunabula contained in such collections
as those of Amsterdam, Berlin, Breslau, Carlsruhe,
Munich, etc. Dr. N. Porges of Leipsic and Dr.
Simonsen of Copenhagen are also understood to
have collections.
Ae AGIOr (29 lies sec uedtused wena 6, 9, 10, 11, 18, 24, 31, 32, 33, 36,
34, 38, 39, 42, 43, 46, 55, 59, 61,
64, 68, 69, 71, 73, 78, 79, 80, 82,
89.
B. British Museum (75)......... 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13,
14, 16, 18, 19, 25, 26, 29, 30, 31,
32, 33, 35, 386, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41,
42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51,
53, 54, 55, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65,
66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 73,
76, 48, 79, 86, 81, 83, 84, 86, 87,
88, 89, 90, 91, 94, 95, 97, 100, 101.
Cc. Columbia University (23).....2, 8, 9, 11, 18, 14, 17, 18, 31, 32,
33, 36, 38, 42, 53, 61, 62, 63, 71,
72, 78, 80, 81.
Ch. Chwolson (28).............. 6, 11, 14, 17, 18, 24, 82, 33, 37, 38,
39, 40, 42, 53, 54, 55, 58, 59, 60,
62, 68, 64, 69, 71, 72, 78, 80, 86.
F. Frankfort (56)............2.. 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 18, 14, 15, 16,
17, 18, 24, 25, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33,
35, 36, 37, 88, 39, 40, 42, 43, 45,
51, 58, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 62, 63,
64, 69, 71, 72, 74, 77, 78, 79, 80,
81, 82, 86, 89, 94, 95, 97, 98, 100.
Fr. Freimann (16).............. 11, 31, 32, 33, 37, 40, 55, 62, 63,
64, 71, 72, 82, 86, 89, 100.
G. Baron Giinzburg (25)........ 2, 4, 8, 11, 18, 17, 18, 24, 31, 32,
34, 38, 39, 42, 53, 59, G1, 62, 69,
. 71, 73, 78, 80, 81, 82.
Ga. Gaster (16)....ccceccececanes 8 9, 1], 13, 38, 42, 46, 61, 62, 69,
71, 79, 80, 81, 87, 89.
L. H. B. Levy, Hamburg (15)....2, 8, 9, 11, 18, 24, 32, 36, 37, 40,
42, 62, 80, 81, 86.
N. Bibliothéque Nationale (26). .8, 9, 25, 31, 32, 36, 37, 38, 42, 50,
54, 55, 59, 63, 64, 65, 66, 73, 77,
79, 80, 81, 86, 98, 95, 99.
QO. Oxford (87)... ccceecceesees 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13,
14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 24, 25, 27, 29,
30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39,
40, 42, 43, 46, 47, 51, 58, 54, 53,
59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68,
69, 70, 72, 73, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83,
84, 86, 88, 89, 91, 95, 94, 95, 96,
99.
P. St. Petersburg (33)........... 9, 11, 17, 18, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 38,
40, 42, 50, 52, 53, 55, 59, 60, 62,
63, 64, 69, 71, 72, 73, 79, 80, 81,
86, 87, 88, 89, 93.
Pr. Parma (61).. ........ Ek vena 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 11, 18, 14, 16, 17,
18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 28, 29,
31, 33, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 44,
45, 46, 55, 54, 55, 58, 59, 60, 61,
63, 64, 65, 70, 71 72, 73, 74, 76,
77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 88,
89, 93, 94, 99, 100.
S. Sulzberger (45)........06: seee2, 8, 6, 9, 11, 12, 15, 16, 18, 24,
31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40,
41, 42, 48, 45, 46, 55, 59, 60, 61,
63, 64, 69, 70, '71, 72, 73, 75, 78,
80, 81, 83, 86, 87, 89, 94, 95.
But few details are known as to the actual prices
paid forsome of these works. It would appear that
VI.—37
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Incunabula
Reuchlin paid three Rhine gulden for the Naples
Nahmanides of 1490 and the Former Prophets with
Kimhi (Soncino, 1485). and twice as much for the
Soncino Bible of 1488. A note at the end of De
Rossi’s copy of the Guadalajara Kimhi of 1482 states
that three carline were paid for it in 1496 by the
owncr of that date.
The subject-matter of the works selected for the
honors of print was on the whole what might have
been anticipated. First came the Bible text, either
a part (19, 30, 49, 68, 74, 77, 84, 91, 92, 93) or the
whole (51, 76, 94). A large number of Bibie com-
mentaries was printed, including those of Abraham
ibn Ezra (58), Bahya ben Asher (87),
Choice of David Kimhi (6, 22, 37, 40, 46, 83),
Books.: David ibn Yahya (82), Immanuel of
Rome (39), Levi b. Gershon (4, 11, 16),
Nahmanides (14, 59, 72), and Rashi (1, 12, 25, 28,
44, 48): some of the works contained a combination
of commentaries (48, 65, 79, 88). Then came the
Mishnah (86) and parts of the Talmud (29, 30, 56, 57,
58, 60,90). As further aids to these were grammars
(54, 85), Kimhi’s Bible lexicon (21, 78, 78), and the
Talmud lexicon of Nathan b. Jechiel (18). Next in
popularity to Bible anc Talmud came the halakic
works, especially the codes of Jacob b. Asher (2, 8,
5, 27, 85, 45, 64, 67, 98)—the most popular single
work—Maimonides (18, 71), and Moses de Coucy
(15, 55), together with the “Agur” (89) and Kol Bo
(69). To these may be added the solitary volume of
responsa, that of Solomou beu Adret (17).
After law came prayers, of which a considerable
number were printed (36, 41, 42, 47, 68, 95, 96, 97, 100) ;
and to these may be added the tables of day dura-
tions (23) and Nahmanides’ “Sha‘ar ha-Gemul ” (70).
Ethical works were moderately frequent (10, 31,
32, 58, 60, 61, 62, 66), which only two philosoph-
ical works received permanent form in print, Mai-
monides’ “Moreh” (24), and Albo’s “‘Ikkarim ”
(88). Very few belletristic works appeared (75, 80);
history is represented by Eldad ha-Dani (7) and the
“Yosippon ” (8); and science by Avicenna (81), in
the most bulky Hebrew book printed in the fifteenth
century. It is characteristic that the only book
known to be printed during its author’s lifetime
was the “ Nofet Zufim” of Judah b. Jehiel (9), one
of the few Hebrew works showing the influence
of the Renaissance. It is doubtful whether Lan.
dau’s “Agur” was issued during the author’s life-
time, though it may have been printed with the aid of
his son Abraham, who was a compositor in Naples
at the time. Very few works went into a second
edition, Mahzor Romi (86, 42, 95) and the tractate
Bezah (80, 90) being the chief exceptions. The re-
printing of Bezah seems to show that this treatise
was the one selected then, as it is now, for initial
instruction in the Talmud.
As regards the second class of incunabula of Jew-
ish interest—such as were printed in other languages
than Hebrew—these have never before been treated,
and only a few specimens can be here referred to.
They deal with topics of controversial interest, as the
“Contra Perfidos Judeos” of Peter Schwarz (Eslin-
gen, 1475), his “Stella Meschiah ” (2d. 1477), and the
well-known “Epistle” of Samuel of Morocco (Co-
logne, 1493). Two earlier tractates deal with the
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 578
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Indemnity
India
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 580
legend of Simon of Trent (Hain, Nos. 7,788, 15,658),
while there exists in Munich an illustrated broadside
relating to the blood accusation at Passau, printed
as early as 1470, Folz’s “Die Rechnung Kolper-
gers von dem Gesuch die Juden” (Nuremberg, 1491;
Hain, No. 7,210) may also be referred to. Chief
among the incunabula of this kind, however, are
those of Latin translations of the medieval Jewish
scientists and philosophers, as that of Abraham ibn
Ezra, “De Nativitatibus ” (1485, Venice), of Bonet
de Latis, Astronomy (1498, Rome), of Maimonides,
Aphorisms (Bologna; Hain, No. 10,524), and of
Israeli, “De Particularibus Diectis” (Padua, 1487).
One of the most interesting of Latin incunabula is
the version of Abraham Zacuto’s tables published in
Leiria by Abraham d’Ortas (1496).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Rossi, Annales Hebrawo-Typographict,
section Xv., Parma, 1795; Cassel and Steinschneider, Jlidische
Typographie, in Ersch and Gruber, Eneyc. section ii., part
28, pp. 33-37; M. Schwab, Les Incunables Orientaux, Paris,
1883; Chwolson, Reshit Ma‘ase ha-Defut be- Yisrael, War-
saw, 1897; Berliner, Ueher den Hinfluss, Frankfort-on-the-
Main, 1897: Simonsen, Hebraisk Bogtryk, Copenhagen, 1901 ;
Proctor, Index of Printed Books tn the British Museum,
1901; Freimann, Veber Hebriische Inkunabeln, in Central-
blatt fiir Bibliothekswesen, 1902, vol. xix. (printed separately,
Leipsic); Leone Luzzatto, in Vesillo, 1900, pp. 296 et ee
G.
INDEMNITY: That by which a surety who
has been compelled to pay the debt of his principal
is reimbursed, either by the principal or from other
sources, The rabbinic law recognizes the surety’s
right to reimbursement (B. B. 1%4a, b), and also, in
certain cases, his right to take steps, before the ma-
turing of the debt, to secure himself against loss.
The surety can not recover in case of dispute, unless
he has witnesses to the fact that he has paid a debt
on behalf of the principal; the production of the
joint bond is not sufficient, unless a receipt by the
creditor is attached showing that the bond was sat-
istied by the surety. Where the fact of debt de-
pends for proof upon oral evidence, there must be
also proof, by witnesses or by the debtor’s admission,
of the fact of suretyship.
The right to recover from the debtor’s land, sold
or encumbered after the date of the bond (see
Deep), does not pass by subrogation to the surety
upon payment alone; the bond which carries this
right must be formally assigned and delivered to
him by the creditor, unless the surety has a sepa-
rate bond of indemnity from the debtor in which
he (the debtor) subjects himself and his estate to
the surety upon the surety’s payment. Should the
surety pay the joint bond, but leave the document
in the hands of the creditor, he can not recover from
the principal, for he is guilty of gross neglect toward
him.
Should the surety pay the debt and the principal
debtor die before the surety can recover from him,
in order to recover from the principal’s heirs the
surety must show that the principal has not paid
the debt himself. He may show the admission of
the debtor shortly before his death; or he may show
that the debtor actually died under the ban for non-
payment (see EXECUTION).
Should the surety pay the debt after the principal
has paid it, he has no remedy; but if the creditor
brings proof that he has not been satisfied, and the
surety pays under compulsion, the debtor, as the
cause of the loss, must reimburse the surety. The
law on this subject is, however, full of exceptions
and disputed points, and Is of little practical value.
What applies to the surety holds good in the case
of the “kablan,” or “undertaker” (one who in
form is the principal contractor, though the consid-
eration moves to another; as when A buys in his
own name goods that are delivered to B). It also
holds good of joint contractors or joint sureties; for
each of them is to the extent of half (or some other
share, proportionate to the number of sureties) the
surety of the other or others, and has therefore the
right to reimbursement for whatever he is com-
pelled to pay beyond his just share.
A surety, or kablan, who finds that the debtor
is wasting his estate can, even before the maturity
of the debt, apply to the court for indemnity against
the debtor, so as to be secured against the latter’s
default. A remedy of this sort (an attachment for
a debt not due) is wholly unknown to the Tal-
mud, and, like ForrEIGN ATTACHMENT, grew up in
the age of the Geonim to meet the necessities of
times when the Jews were no longer farmers and
land-owners, but acted as money-lenders and traders.
Whether the surety can, upon the maturity of the
debt, call upon the creditor to collect from the
principal, and whether the surety is exempt from
liability in the event of the creditor’s refusal to
bring suit, are matters nowhere discussed in the Tal-
mud, and are subjects of dispute among the later
authorities.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Maimonides, Yad, Malweh we-Loweh, xxvi.
6; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 130-132,
8. 8. L. N. D.
INDEPENDENT HEBREW, THE. See
PERIODICALS.
INDIA: An extensive region of southern Asia,
comprising many countries, races, and sects. In-
cluding about 2,800 in the settlement of Aden, which
is administered by the presidency of Bombay, there
are at present about 21,000 Jews in the whole of
India. This number is an insignificant fraction of a
population amounting to more than 280,000,000.
According to the census of 1901, the following are
the official numbers of Jews residing in the vari-
ous states of India in that year:
ASSAIN ages teens 1 Central Provinces...... 127
Baluchistan (Districts, Hyderabad ......ccseees 13
CLG) ick eves eer aigied die 48 MAIS <3 o6iewk cog ae'eeos 45
Baroda .aciwedaiees sc b4 ess 8 Madras States.......... 1,288
Bengal..... ccc sce ceeees 1,939 MYSOLE 2... cc cece eee eee 34
Bengal States........... 7 North West Frontier
Berar secs Giwe sieeas 3 PrOVINCe...... 0. eees 4
BOWMDAY wi. svivudewis eye sale 12,928 PUNIAD 2 ook Ss tees huss 14
Bombay States.......... 991 Punjab States.......... 10
BUY Mess oisvn Saree bee ee 685 Rajputama. .........006 5
Central India........... 24 United Provinces....... 54
From very early times India has been accessible
to the West. The navies of Kings Hiram and Solo-
mon possibly visited India; for it is stated that they
brought back gold, silver, ivory, apes, and pea-
cocks (I Kings x. 22). These are all Indian prod-
ucts, especially peacocks; and it is interesting to
note that the Hebrew word for “ peacock,” “tukkiy-
yim,” is of Dravidian origin. Caravans of Indian
wares passed over the Palestinian frontier in ancient
times. The Midianite merchants who purchased
Joseph were importing spices, balm, and myrrh.
581
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Indemnity
ndia
The Jews of India comprise both Whites and
Blacks: the former being racially pure; the latter,
of mixed descent. To the White Jews belong the
so-called “Jerusalem Jews” of Cochin, who have
been reenforced by coreligionists from Europe, and
a part of the Beni-Israel of Bombay. The Black
Jews are descended from converts from the Hindu
race, or are the offspring of marriages between Jews
and natives. Just as the Eurasian descendants of
the Portuguese of Goa resemble the natives in the
color of their skin, so do the Jewish offspring of
mixed unions.
The Cochin Jews claim to have come to Malabar
from Jerusalem after its destruction, and to have set-
tled at Cranganore, a few miles north of their pres-
ent location. There they acquired, about 750, a
feudal property, sometimes dignified as a “state”
(see, however, Cocuty). In 1523 the Portuguese
seized Cranganore and fortified it. According to
Zain al-Din al-Ma‘bari, the Mohammedaus in the
following year attacked the Jews near Cranganore,
and, after killing many of them and destroying their
synagogues, drove them with the Portuguese out of
the town, The ruin of the Jewish fief, after its
existence for a thousand years, was brought about
by strife between the White aud the Biack Jews.
One tradition states that there arose dissensions be-
tween the brothers of the ruler’s household, and one
of them sought the aid of a powerful raja, who
drove out the Jews or enslaved them. Neither Zain
al-Din nor Moens (the latter was the Dutch gov-
ernor of Cochin from 1771 to 1782) mentions this
fraternal struggle. Whichever story is correct, it
seems that Joseph Azar, the seventy-second and last
feudal ruler, fled with a few faithful followers to
Nabo and thence to Cochin. Their flourishing city,
which, according to Alexander Hamilton’s account,
had contained 80,000 families, was ruined, and the
survivors went to Cochin. Even to-day the site of
Cranganore isavoided by the Jews. Joan Hugo von
Lindschotten, a Dutchman, visited Cochin at the
end of the seventeenth century. He says: “In Co-
chin the Jews have fine stone houses; they are first-
rate merchants, and are advisers tothe King. They
possess a synagogue.”
In 1662 the Portuguese killed many of the Cochin
Jews on account of the sympathy with the Dutch
which they had shown when the Dutch ineffectually
attacked the city. The following year Cochin was
taken by the Dutch, and the Jews received religious
liberty. In 1685 the Dutch Jews sent a commission
from Amsterdam to investigate the condition of the
Jews of Cochin. Thereport appeared in 1697 under
the title “ Notisias dos Judeos de Cochim Mandadas
por Mosseh Pereyra de Paiva.” In 1795 the English
became possessors of Cochin. For further particu-
lars of the Cochin Jews and for an account of the
Beni-[srael, see Bent-ISRAEL; COCHIN,
Benjamin of Tudela’s itinerary contains one of
the earliest descriptions of the Black Jews of India.
According to him, about 1,000 families lived “in
the land of pepper, cinnamon, and ginger.” He
describes them as honest people who follow the Ten
Commandments and the Mosaic code, who read the
Prophets, and are good Talmudists and strict ob-
Servers. Benjamin made his journey between the
years 1160 and 1174. Many merchants, sailors, and
travelers must have visited India. The Jew Gaspar
de las Indias became admiral to Sabayo, the Moorish
ruler of Goa, in the fifteenth century. More than
one Jew sailed with the flotillas of the Portuguese.
Hucefe was the most intimate friend of Alfonso
d’Albuquerque. Arecent traveler was Rabbi David
di-Bet Hillel of Safed, whose travels were published
in English at Madras in 1882. G. O.
The first foreign Jew to settle in India was Jacob
Semah of Bagdad. He settled at Surat about 1680,
where the first English factory was built, and was
followed by several more from the same region.
Others came from Persia and southern Arabia. A
small synagogue was erected and a cemetery ac-
quired. Seeing Bombay growing in commercial
importance, Semah removed the seat of his business
thither. The synagogue at Surat is now demolished,
but the cemetery remains. The new settlers in Bom-
bay were very hospitably received by the Beni-Israel.
An early settler was David Sassoon of Bagdad.
Compelled to flee from his native place on account
of persecution, he sought refuge in Bombay under
British rule. Beginning with Httle capital, he built
up a world-wide business, and almost lield the
monopoly of the opium trade with China. About
fifty years ago nearly all the Jews of Bombay were
dependent upon the Sassoon family for their liveli-
hood; but their position is now considerably im-
proved, and they are a body of great commercial
importance. There are a few petty merchants and
hawkers among them, There are only two Jews
in the employ of the government: one in the cus-
toms, the other in the engineering department of
the municipality.
In Bombay there is a hebra kaddisha, of which
Jacob Elias David Sassoon is the president. Though
its chief object is the assistance of the poor Jews of
Palestine and Bombay, it seems to have given rise
to much the same condition of affairs as the Pales-
tine halukkah. The Sassoon family and others reg-
ularly distribute aid to the Jewish poor of the city,
and Jacob Elias David Sassoon has bestowed the
sum of 75,000 rupees for the erection of a building,
the income of which is to be used exclusively in the
aid of poor Jews. The Beni-Isracl poor are totally
excluded from any share in these charities.
The members of the community have no compe-
tent rabbis for their religious guides; there are a
few, however, who are acquainted with the Gemara
and the Shulhan ‘Aruk. Their views are strictly
Orthodox. Most of them are from Bagdad. On ac-
count of their poverty the poor are sometimes led to
change their faith and to accept Christianity, which
they abjure as soon as they find some better means
of support. They are careful for the Hebrew educa-
tion of their children. Toward the end of the year
1855 David Sassoon opened a school in which English,
Hebrew, and Arabic were taught. In 1860 it was
removed to a spacious building with large class-
rooms, built by David Sassoon in the compound of
the Magen David Synagogue at Byculla.
The vernacular of the Beni-Israel is Mahrati; that
of the Cochin Jews, Malayalam. The Jews from Bag-
dad, Syria, and southern Arabia use Arabic; and
there are Jews from Persia who speak Persian.
Indiana
Inheritance
There are also small communities of German, Aus-
trian, and Rumanian Jews who employ the lan-
guages of their respective countries. Most of the
Arabic-speaking portion of the community is now
adopting the use of English. The European Jews
holding high government and mercantile oflices do
not associate much with the others. See BeENI-
ISRAEL; CALCUTTA. J. E.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Phil. Baldaeus, Beschrethung der ORB ee)
Kiisten Malabar und Coromandel, Amsterdain, 16723 H. V
Bellew, Inquiry into the Ethnography af Afghanistan,
Woking, 1891; Bibliotheca Librorum Nororium, 1698; F.G.
Cc. RUtz, in J. G. Eichhorn, Allgemeine Bibliothek, ib3 Francis
Day, The Land of the Perumauls, Madras, 1863: Jonathan
Duncan, Historical Remariis on the Coast of Matlahar, in
Asiatic Researches, ii: Bernhard Dorn, History of the Af:
ghans (Makhzanti A fghani), London, 1829; Mountstuart
Elphinstone, Account of the Kingdom of Caubul, London,
1815; Alexander Hamilton, An Account of the # ‘ast Indies,
Edinburgh, 1727: Adrian Gravezande, Nachrichten von den
Weissen und Schwarzen Juden zu Codsehin, in Biisching’s
Magazin fiir die Neue Historie und Geographie . Burnell,
facsimile and translation of the Cochin grant, in fidian An-
tiquary, iii; Eugen Hultsch, facsimile and translation of the
grant, in Epigraphia Indica: ; G. A. Kohut, Les Juifs dans
les Colonies Hollandaises; Joan Hugo von Lindschotten, 47
der Theilung der Urientalischen Indien, Frankfort-on-the-
Main, 1598; F. W. Ellis, in Macdras Journal of Literature
and Science, xiii., part ii.; Gundert, text and translation of
the Cochin grant, “tb. part i; Gustav Oppert, Ucber die Jti-
dischen Colonien in Indien; Whish, in Oriental Christian
Spectator, 1839; John Wilson, The Land of the Bible. il.
J. G. O.
INDIANA: One of the Central States of the
American Union; admitted 1816. The earliest Jew-
ish congregation, the Achduth Vesholom congrega-
tion, was established at Fort Wayne in 1848. Fort
Wayne now (1903) has a second congregation, Shea-
rith Israel, founded in 1878, and asocial club. Con-
gregation Ahavath Achim was established at Lafay-
ette in 1849 (present rabbi, Morris Feuerlicht, his
predecessor having been Joseph Leiser). Lafayette
has a second congregation and a social club.
The first Jews to settle in Evansville were a
family named Gumberts, who arrived there in about
1887. In 1838 Isaac Heiman settled there and was
followed by his brothers in 1849. From 1849 to
1857 these men and their families held divine serv-
ices in their own homes, over their storehouses, and
in the court house. On August 18, 1857, the Jew-
ish community organized and established a congre-
gation under the name B’Nai Israel. It purchased
land on which to erect a house of worship and for a
cemetery. It clected five trustees, Jacob Lowen-
thal, Louis Kahn, Simon Gumberts, Louis Frey,
and Simon Roser. The records of this election
were filed in the Recorder’s Office, Vanderburg
county. On Sept. 2, 1857, the congregation ac-
quired the land, and in 1865 completed the erec-
tion of a temple which was dedicated by Isaac M.
Wise. The first regular reader of the community
was Del Banco. He was succeeded by Dr. Fuld
(about 1860), and he in turn by Leon Leopold.
The ministers of the congregation were Simon
Hecht, Dr. Schwab, E. B. M. Browne, Falk Vida-
r, Hyman Elkin, and Isaac L. Rypins. The
present rabbi is Israel Klein.
In 1903 the congregation B’Nai Israel] dedicated
anew building, completed in 1904.
Evansville has also an orthodox congregation,
B’Nai Mosche, which numbers about forty fam-
ilies. It owns its house of worship and has a
cemetery.
THE JEWISLIE ENCYCLOPEDIA
582
Indianapolis, the capital of the state, has a
Jewish population of about 4,000. Its first Jew-
ish settlers were Moses Woolf, and Aljexander and
Daniel Franco, who went there from London about
1850. Its principal congregation was organized in
1856; services were held at first, under Rabbi M.
Berman, in a rented room; before 1858 a hall was
fitted up, in which, until 1861, Rabbi J. Wechs-
ler officiated. In 1863 Isidore Kalish entered upon
the rabbinate, which he occupied forone year. The
corner-stone of the new temple was laid in 1865; in
1867 Rabbi M. Messing, the present incumbent, was
clected. The building was dedicated Oct. 31, 1868.
A new building, rendered necessary by the growth
of the congregation, was dedicated Nov. 3, 1899.
Indianapolis has four other congregations and vari-
ous charitable societies, among them a ladies’ benev-
olent society (founded 1859),
Of the other towns in the state, Anderson has
holy day services; Attica, a congregation and burial-
ground; Columbia City, holy day services; El-
wood, holy day services and a ladies’ Hebrew benev-
olent socicty; Goshen has a congregation, founded
in 1878 ; Kendallville, holy day services; Kokomo,
a small congregation; Ligonier, a congregation,
founded in 1864 (present rabbi, Henry Englander,
whose predecessor was Julius M. Magil; there are
several benevolent and social organizations in Ligo-
nier); Logansport, a congregation, founded in
1900; Madison, a congregation and a burial-ground ;
Marion, a congregation and a club; Michigan
City, Mount Vernon, and Muncie, a congrega-
tion each; Muncie has also a ladies’ aid society and
a literary association; Peru, a congregation, founded
in 1870; South Bend, a congregation and a ladies’
benevolent society; Terre Haute, two congrega-
tious—Temple Israel (founded in 1890; Emil W.
Leipziger, rabbi) and B’nat Abraham (Reuben Hor-
witz, rabbi); Vincennes and Wabash, a congrega-
tion each.
The Jewish population of the state is estimated at
25,000.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: American Jewish Vear-Book, 5661 (1900-01).
A,
INDIANAPOLIS. See INDIANA.
INDICTMENT. See AccUsATORY AND INQUIs-
ITORIAL PROCEDURE.
INFAMY. See EVIDENCE.
INFANCY, LEGAL ASPECT OF: Infants,
the deuf, and those of unsound mind are always
named together, as bot lable for torts, nor punish-
able for offenses, nor competent as witnesses (see
AccIDENT; ASSAULT AND BatTERY; EVIDENCE).
For the difficulties encountered in suing infant heirs
see Dents oF DecEDENTS. The freedom of infants
from punishment for crime seems to be silently
admitted. There is therefore no need to discuss
anything but the validity of contracts (See ALIENA-
rron). A boy over thirteen, and a girl over twelve,
years old are of age, provided signs of puberty exist.
The age of competency to contract differs with
the kind of contract, A child having no guardian
may buy and sell movable property (Git. v. 7); the
very rare word “ pe‘utot ” (= “children”) used here
is explained (Git. 59a) to refer to children between
583
six and ten, according to their capacity for business,
and the child is given this power in order that he
may obtain food and raiment. But later amoraim
add that such a child may also make gifts of mova-
ble property either “inter vivos” or “ mortis causa”;
though such ability can not be for his good. But a
child that has a guardian, or, according to ReMA’s
gloss to Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 285, 2, one
that is under the care of a householder, can neither
buy nor sell without the guardian’s or householder’s
consent. An infant can in no case dispose of land;
but if he buys land, pays for it, and takes posses-
sion, he becomes the owner; though it is not clear
that he may not rescind’ the purchase (B. B. 187b).
An iufant can not appoint an attorney; hence all
alienations or acquisitions resting on an agency for
the infant fall to the ground.
An infant can not become surety for the debt of
another. Before the age of twenty an infant can not
dispose of lands that have come to him by descent or
by gift “mortis causa” (Git. 63a), because a young
person anxious to get money would sell his land too
cheaply. In the purchase and sale of movable prop-
erty, and in disposing of lands that have not come
by descent or by gift “mortis causa,” persons under
twenty, though inexperienced in business, are con-
sidered as of age. In regard to an infant that has
borrowed money, the opinion of later authorities
{the Talmud being silent) is divided; some assert,
others deny, his liability; while the best opinion
distinguishes: if it can be shown that the money
was borrowed for necessaries, the debt is binding;
otherwise it is not; and if necessaries have been ob-
tained on credit, the debt so incurred is binding.
Suit, however, can be brought only after the infant
comes of age.
Where an infant sells land, whether acquired or
inherited, by deed attested, and dies, the heirs can
not impeach the deed and recover the land (see B.
B. 154a). Butone who has sold ancestral land while
under the age of twenty can reclaim it, either before
or after that age (¢d.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Shulhan “Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 285, 1-22;
Maimonides, Yad, Mekirah, xxix.
K, L. N. D.
INFORMERS. Sce Moser™.
INFRATIREA. Sce PERIODICALS.
INGATHERING, FEAST OF.
NACLES, FEAST OF.
INHERITANCE (“yerushah,” “nahalah ”).—
Biblical Data: Among the early Hebrews, as
wellas among many other nations of antiquity,
custom decided that the next of kin should enter
upon the possession of the estate of a deceased
person.
The first-born son usually assumed the headship of
the family, and succeeded to the control of the family
property (see PRIMOGENITURE). When there were
no sons, the dying man would appoint a trustec
friend as his heir, sometimes to the exclusion of a
near relative. Thus, Abraham, when he despaired
of having children himself, was about to appoint
his slave Eliezer as his heir, although his nephew
Lot was living (Gen. xv.3). Even when there were
children, if was within the right of the father to
prefer one child to another in the disposition of his
See TABER-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Indiana
Inheritance
property. Sarah, not wishing Ishmael to share in
the inheritance with her son Isaac, prevailed upon
Abraham to drive Hagar and her son out of her
house (Gen, xxi. 10); and Abraham later sent away
his children by concubines, with presents, so that
they should not interfere in the inheritance of Isaac
(Gen, xxv. 6). Jacob, however, as it appears, made
no distinction between the sons of his wives and
those of his concubines (Gen. xlix.), and included
his grandsons Ephraim and Manasseh among his
heirs (Gen. xlviii. 5, 6). There could have been no
question in those days of a widow inheriting from
her husband, since she was regarded as part of the
property which went over to the heirs, as is shown
by the stories of Ruth, Absalom (1I Sam. xvi. 21,
22), Adonijah, and Abishag (1 Kings ii. 22: see
LEVIRATE MARRIAGE). Nor could there have been
a question about daughters inheriting from their
father, since daughters were given in marriage
either by their father, or by their brothers or other
relatives after the father’s death, thus becoming the
property of the family into which they married (see
DAUGHTER IN JEWISH Law). An exceptional case
is mentioned: Job gave ‘1is daughters a share in his
estate equal to that of their brothers (Job xiii. 15).
As a result of the question raised by the daugh-
ters of Zelophehad, the following general rules of
inheritance were laid down by Moses:
Case of “If aman die, and have no son, then
Zelo- ye shall cause his inheritance to pass
phehad. untohisdaughter. And if he have no
daughter, then ye shall give his inher-
itance unto his brethren. And if he have no breth-
ren, then ye shall give his inheritance unto his
father’s brethren. And if his father have no breth-
ren, then ye shall give his inheritance unto his kins-
man thatis next to him of his family, and he shall
possess it” (Num, xxvii, 8-11). Brief though this
law is, it allows sufficient latitude for legitimate
interpretation by the phrase, “unto his kinsman that
is next to him.” According to this provision, there
are four degrees of hereditary succession—that of
the son, the daughter, the brother, and the father’s
brother. In the case of the daughter, it is stated that
when she becomes the heir of her father’s estate, she
shall marry in her own clan (Num. xxxvi. 6, 7).
This restriction was later repealed by the Rabbis
(Ta‘an. 80b; B. B. 120a), On the right of the first-
born to a double share in the inheritance (Deut. xxi.
17) see PRIMOGENITURE.
In Rabbinic Law: In accordance with the
principles that he who comes first in the order of
hereditary succession transmits that right to his
descendants, and that the father comes before all
his descendants in hereditary succession (B. B. 115a),
the Rabbis elaborated the incomplete provisions of
the Bible and established the following order of legal
heirs: (1) sons and their descendants; (2) daughters
and their descendants; (8) the father; (4) brothers
and their descendants; (5) sisters and their descend-
ants; (6) the father’s father; (7) the father’s brothers
and their descendants; (8) the father’s sisters and
their descendants; (9) the father’s father’s father;
and so on (Maimonides, “ Yad,” Nahalot, i. 1-8:
Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 276, 1). To this
list, which they regarded as implied in the Biblical
Inheritance
In
passages, the Rabbis added another legal heir, the
husband, whose right to the inheritance of his wife’s
possessions was deduced from the term “NB (=
“kinsman”; B. B. 111b).
Each of the sons of the deceased receives an equal
share of the estate of his father or of his mother,
except the first-born of the father, who receives a
double share (see PRIMOGENITURE). A son born
after the death of his father (Yeb. 67a), or one born
of illegitimate connections (“mamzer”; 75, 22b), is
also a legal heir to his father’s estate, but the son
born of a slave or of a non-Jewess is excluded (2. ;
Nahalot, i. 7, comp. iv. 6; Hoshen Mishpat, 276, 6;
comp. 7b. 279, 6, and “Be'er ha-Golah,” ad ¢éoc.).
An apostate Jew does not lose his right of inherit-
ance, although the court, if it sees fit, may deprive
him of his share (Kid. 18a; Nahalot, vi. 12; Hoshen
Mishpat, 288, 2). Where the laws of a non-Jewish
state deprive a proselyte of the right
of inheritance, the Jewish court may
do likewise with an apostate (comp.
responsa “Geone Mizrah u-Ma‘arab ”
[ed. Miller, Berlin, 1888], § 11, and Weiss, “ Dor,”
iv. 117, 129, and notes). In the case of the death of
a son during his father’s life, his children inherit his
portion of the estate. If one of the sons dies before
his mother, and leaves no children, his brothers of
the same father but not of the same mother do not
inherit the estate of his mother by reason of his right
to it. But if he lives even for one hour after his
mother’s death, he becomes her heir, and on his death
his brothers, as his heirs, inherit his portion of his
mother’s estate (B. B. 114b; Nahalot, i. 18; Hoshen
Mishpat, 276, 5).
Where there are neither sons nor sons’ children
the daughters and their descendants become the
rightful heirs. The Sadducees held that the daugh-
ter shared in the inheritance when there was only a
daughter of a son Jiving, but Johanan b. Zakkai and
the other Pharisees decided that the son and all his
descendants, whether male or female, should precede
the daughter in the right of inheritance (B. B. 115b;
comp. Tosef., Yad. ii. 9; Meg. Ta‘an. 5). Among
the Karaites the daughters always receive an equal
share with their brothers in their father’s estate
(First, “Gesch. des Kariiert.” part i., § 9, and note;
comp. Shab. 116b). The Rabbis, while denying the
daughters a share in the inheritance where there are
sons, still make ample provision for their main-
tenance and support as loug as they remain unmar-
ried (see DAUGHTER; KETUBAN).
When there are no heirs in the descending line,
the property is transmitted to the nearest relative
in the ascending line. Although the father is not
mentioned in the Bible among the legal heirs, the
Rabbis did not hesitate to make hiin precede the
brothers of the deceased, mentioned as the next heirs
in the absence of either sons or daughters. Philo
(“ De Vita Moysis,” iii. 82) gave as a reason for this
omission that if would be an evil omen for father and
mother to receive any gain from the inconsolable
affliction of the loss of children dying prematurely,
but he indirectly intimated their right to be invited
to such an inheritance when he conceded it to the
uncles (comp. Bb. B. 108b; Nahmanides’ commen-
tary to Num, xxvii. 8), The mother of the deceased
Ex-
ceptions.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
584
and his brothers of the same mother are excluded
from the line of hereditary succession, on the prin-
ciple that the family is based on relationship to the
father and not that to the mother (B. B. 108b).
The husband inherits from his wife, but the wife
does not inherit from her husband. Provision is,
however, made for her support as long as she re-
mains unmarried (see HUsBAND AND WIFE; JSETU-
BAH). The husband’s right of inheritance extends
only to property that actually belonged
Husband to his wife at the time of her death
and Wife. (see Dowry), but not to property that
would have faleu to her had she lived,
as, for instance, an expected inheritance from a rela-
tive who, however, survived her, or a debt which
was not secured by a pledge or by amortgage (B. B.
125b; Nahalot, i. 11, and “ Maggid Mishneh,” ad loc. ;
Shulhan ‘Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer, 90, 1). As in the
case of her sons who died before her death, the hus-
baud who dies before his wife is not regarded as her
heir to the extent of transmitting her estate to his
relatives (B. B. 114b; see RaShBaM and Tos. ad
loc.; Nahalot, i. 12). A man does not inherit from
his betrothed (“arusah”; Yeb. 29b). Later au-
thorities also made provision against his inheriting
his wife’s property in case she died childless soon
after marriage (see Dowry), The husband does not
inherit from his wife if his marriage with her was
illegal and carried the punishment of excision
(“Kkaret”), but if the punishment involved was only
stripes, as in the case of a priest marrving a divorced
woman, he docs not lose liis right of inheritance to
her estate (Tosef., Yeb. ii. 3). The husband is also
the heir of his apostate wife (Eben ha-‘Ezer, 90, 3,
gloss; Hoshen Mishpat, 288, 2, gloss).
The “yabam” (see LEVIRATE MARRIAGE) who
performed his duty by marrying the widow of a
brother who died without children became the sole
heir to his brother’s estate. But he did not receive
his brother’s share in their father’s estate unless
the father died before the brother (Yeb. 40a), for his
right of inheritance extended only to such property
as actually belonged to his brother at the time of his
death, and not to property in expectancy (Bek. 52a).
If, however, he did not marry his brother’s widow,
but followed the alternative of performing the cere-
mony of Hatrzan, he was not entitled to his broth-
er’s inheritance, but took an equal share with his
other brothers. Later, by an institution established
in various Jewish communities as an inducement to
one of the brothers to free the widow from her uncer-
tain state, the property of the deceased brother was
divided into two equal parts, one part being given
to the widow and the other to the yabam who went
through the ceremony of halizah. There is much
difference of opinion regarding the de-
Levirate tails connected with this institution,
Con- and the court that has to deal with
nections. sucha case is advised to arbitrate be-
tween the contending parties (Eben
ha-‘Ezer, 165, 5, gloss; Mordecai to Yeb. iv. 28;
Responsa of Meir of Lublin, § 11). Where the
widow died before any of her deceased husband’s
brothers either married her or submitted to the cere-
mony of halizah, the heirs of her deceased husband
inherited the amount due to her by her “ ketubah”
585
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Inheritance
Ink
(marriage contract) and one-half of the dowry given
(at marriage) to her by her father or his heirs (“ nikse
zon barzel”; see Dowry), while the rest of her
property went to her family (Ket. 80a; Nahalot,
iii. 9; Eben ha-‘Ezer, 160, 7; comp. Nissim Gerondi,
Responsa, §§ 46, 54).
Mere presumption is sufficient to establish the
identity of an heir (see Hazagxan). If two witnesses
testify that a man is known as the son of the de-
ceased, though they can not trace the gencalogy of
the family, the man so known is regarded as the
jegal heir (Nahalot, iv. 7; Hoshen Mishpat, 280, 1).
If, however, the deceased said before death that the
claimant was not his son, the latter, although the
presumption is in his favor, can not claim a portion
in the inheritance. The testimony of the deceased is
valid only when it relates to a son, but not when it
relates to a brother or to another relative (B. B. 184a).
On the other hand, the identity of the deceased and
positive proof of his death by two legal witnesses
must be established before the heirs are permitted
to enter upon his estate (B. M. 88b, 39a; Nahalot,
vii. 4-10; Hoshen Mishpat, 285; see Trusts aNnpD
TRUSTEES).
If one said before his death: “This, my son, shall
have no portion in my estate,” or if he appointed a
stranger as his heir in the place of his Iegal heirs,
his declaration is void, for this is against the pre-
scription of the Bible. It is, however, possible for
aman to disinherit legal heirs either
Testa- _—_— by preferring one legal heir to another
mentary or by bequcathing his entire estate to
Dis- a stranger in the form of a gift (B. B.
position. 130a, 183b). But such action on the
part of a father was regarded with
disfavor by the Rabbis (Kid. 53a; Nahalot, vi. 11;
Hoshen Mishpat, 282; see BequrEsT; WILL). _
The heirs enter upon their possession immediately
on the death of the deceased. If all the heirs are of
age, the division of the property may be proceeded
with at once. If, however, there are minors among
the heirs, the court appoints a trustee for the minors
before the division takes place. If, after the divi-
sion, a new heir appears, of whose existence the
others were unaware, or if a creditor of the deceased
collects a debt from the portion of one of the heirs,
a redivision of the whole property has to take place
(B. B. 106b; Nahalot, x. 1; Hoshen Mishpat, 175,
3-4). Before the division all the heirs are regarded
as partners in the estate, and if they all live together
each one may spend on his person according to his
needs, except in the case of an extraordinary ex-
pense, as an expense incurred by marriage, which
is counted against him at the division. When there
are majors and minors among the heirs, and the
majors have improved the property by their toil,
they all share alike in the improvement. But if the
majors said before they entered upon the estate,
“This is what our father Jeft us,” thus taking an
inventory of the estate, in the presence of the court,
any improvement that came to it through their
efforts belongs to them only (B. B. 148b). At the
time of the division of the property, when appraise-
ment is made of the estate, the garments that were
provided for the heirs from the paternal estate are
also estimated, but not the garments worn by their
wives and children, although these also may have
been supplied from the common treasury. The holi-
day garments, even of their wives and children, are
included in the appraisement (B. K. lla; see Ap-
PRAISEMENT).
Heirs whose title to the inheritance is doubtful are
excluded in favor of those who can produce certain
testimony to their title (Yeb. 38a). If, however, there
are two sets of doubtful heirs and the facts can not
be determined, the property is divided
(B. B. 159b). For instance, a man and
his daughter’s son were killed, and it
is not known who died first; the direct
heirs of the man claim that his grandson died first
and therefore did not inherit from his grandfather,
but left them the only legal heirs; the heirs of the
grandson claim that the grandfather died first and
that the grandson inherited from him, leaving them,
as the heirs of the grandson, sole legal heirs to the
estate of his grandfather: in such a case the prop-
erty is divided between the claimants. Many simi-
lar instances are recorded in the Talmud; in some
cases the decision is in favor of the present possessor ;
in others, as in the cas cited, the decision is that
the property be divided among the various claimants
(Yeb. 87b; B. B. 157-159).
The property of a proselyte who has left no chil-
dren belongs to the first who takes possession of it
(see HEFKER). The property of a criminal who was
executed for his crime is not diverted, but belongs
to those who would have inherited it in the regular
way (Sanh. 48b). If, however, his crime was that
of treason, his property may be confiscated (7é.).
See also AGNATES; FAMILY AND Faminty LIFE;
PATERNITY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bloch, Das Mosaisch-Talmudische Erbrecht,
Budapest, 1890: Hamburger, R. B. T. s.v. Erbe; Hastings,
Dict. Bible,s.v. Heir: Kent, The Messages of Israel’s Law-
givers, pp. 162-164, New York, 1902; Mayer, Die Rechte der
{sraeliten, Athener und Roémer, ii., 88 250-259, Leipsic, 1866;
Mendelssohn, Ritualgesetze der Juden, pp. 1-32, Berlin, 1793;
Michaelis, Mosaisches Recht, ii., § 78, 79, Reutlingen, 1785:
Mielziner, The Rabbinical Law of Hereditary Succession,
n.d., n.p.; Nowack, Hebrdische Archdologie, part i., § 64,
Leipsic, 1894; Saalschutz, Das Mosaische Recht, ch. 109,
Berlin, 1853: Wolff, Das Jiidische Erbrecht, Berlin, 1888.
J. J. H. G.
INITIALS. See ABBREVIATIONS.
INJURIES. See DamaGeE; Tort.
INK (Hebr. “deyo”): The only passage in the Old
Testament in which ink is mentioned is Jer. xxxvi.
18. It would evidently, however, be a mistake to
conclude that it was unknown in earlier times, for in
this passage “deyo” is spoken of as something well
known. Perhaps the Hebrew word “katab” pre-
supposes the existence of ink; and ink was certainly
known to the ancient Egyptians. It has not been
determined how ink was prepared by the ancient
Jews; at any rate the Talmudic “deyo” designates
no fluid ink, but rather a cake of pigment which
had to be made liquid before use. This ink was made
chiefly from soot. Oilor balsam-gum was used to
change the soot into a tough, pitchy substance
(Shab. 28a); and that made with olive-oil was pre-
ferred, as it gave the finest pigment.
Gallnuts, first mentioned by Marcianus Capella,
are unknown to the Misbnah, but are mentioned in
the Gemara. A mineral ink was “kalkantus” (yaa-
xavééc), which was also used occasionally in Pales-
Proof
of Title.
Inn,
Inquisition
tine unmixed. As the ancient world had mixed
copper sulphate with the ink of gallnuts, R. Metr
(after 100 c. E.), a descendant of Greek proselytes, did
the same with devo, the national ink of the Jews.
His object was evidently to make the writing more
permanent, since ink with a mincral mixture has
the advantage of penetrating the material written
upon, although it also gradually destroys it. The
writing was provably done with an “ ‘et, ” which des-
ignates not only a metal style, but also a reed pen
which corresponds to the Arabic “kalam ” of to-day.
As is still common in the Orient, the scribe used to
carry the ‘et or stylus together with the “ oe ha-
sofer,” or inkhorn, in his virdle (Ezek. ix. 2-11). He
carried also a particular kind of penknife (* ta‘ar ha-
sofer”) wherewith to sharpen his reed pen and to
cut the writing-material (Jer, xxxvi. 23).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: VL. Low, Graphische Requisiten und Evzewuy-
nisse bet den Jiulen, i. 145 et seq., Leipsie, 1870; Blau, Sti
dien zum Allhebriiischen Buchwesen, pp. 150 ct seq., Buda-
pest, 1902.
E, G. if. W. ON.
INN: House of entertainment for travelers. In
the Bible references are made to lodging-places
(‘malon”) where caravans or parties of travelers
stopped for the night (comp. Gen. xlil, 27, xlil. 21;
Ex. iv. 24), This does not necessarily imply a sep-
arate building; a wall or enclosure to prevent the
cattle from straying, with room to pitch tents and
with accessibility to a well, would be suflicient to
constitute such a lodging-place in early tines, when it
would scarcely have been to the advantage of any one
individual to at-
tempt to make
a living out of
passing travel-
ers. According
to tradition,
there was an inn
(“gerut”), built
by Chimham, near Bethlehem (JI Sam. xix. 37-
40; but comp. Targum ad loc.). By New Testa-
ment times the Holy Land had been sufficiently
developed to afford opportunity for real inns,
which are referred to in the New Testament (Luke
x. 84, 85) and in the Talmud under the same
word (ravdoyeiov, ITND). That in both cases the
house of entertainment was strictly of the nature of
an inn is shown by the fact that there was a special
word for “host” or “innkeeper” (zavdoyotc, YTD).
The good Samaritan left his patient at an ton (Luke x.
34), just asa company of Levites traveling to Zoar
left at an inn one of their comrades who had fallen
sick (Yeb. xvi. 7). The character of female inn-
keepers was by no means above suspicion, as in the
instance of Rahab, who is credited with being of
that calling (Yer. Targ., Josh. ii. 1). Nevertheless,
Rabbi Ishmael bar Jose declared that his father used
to pray In an inn (Yer, Ber, iv. 7). Cattle as well
as men were put up at inns (Ab. Zarah ii. 1). The
ancient inn was probably unfurnished, like the mod-
ern khan or caravansary, but probably had arches in
the walls in which the travelers could shelter them-
selves.
In the Middle Ages cach Jewish community had
a communal inn where wandering travelers who had
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
: y a j i i ‘Nl Hi if
Modern Palestinian Inkhorn and Reed Pens.
586
no acquaintances in the town could put up fora
night or two without cost. These would usually be
connected with the dancing-hall, or “* Tanzhaus,”
where entertainments too large for private houses
were given, Jews’ inns occur in carly Spanish rec-
ords, and were probably of this kind. In Paris dur-
ing the cighteenth century there was a special Jews’
inn, or “auberge Juive,” where all Jewish travelers
had to stop, and which often became the subject of
blackmail by the police under the charge of being
disreputable (L. Kahn, “Les Juifs de Paris,” ps-
sim). These communal inns were maintained out
of the communal funds; wandering beggars being
entertained on the ground floor, while paying guests
could take rooms on the upper story. The use of
Christian inns was often forbidden to Jews in medi-
eval regulations (G@udemann, “Gesch.” 1. 260). An
instance occurs where a Jew in England himself
kept an inn (Jacobs, “Jews of Angevin England,”
p. 153).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abrahatns, Jeiish Life in the Middle Ages,
pp. 74, 314; Levy, Neuhebr. Worterb.
G, J.
INNOCENT III. (LOTHARIO CONTI):
Pope from 1198 to 1216; born at Anagni in 1161;
elected June 8, 1198; died July 17, 1216. A Roman
writer said of him, “Thy words are the words of
God; thy deeds are the deeds of the devil” (Grego-
rovius, “Gesch. der Stadt Rom,” v.92). This was
eminently true of his conduct toward the Jews. He
ras the first pope who not only did not protect the
Jews, but persecuted them with the utmost cruelty.
Feeling obliged
to show some
pity for the vic-
tims of the ex-
cesses coin-
mitted by the
crusaders, Inno-
cent, on ascend-
ing the pontifical throne, issued a bull (“Sicut
Judreis”) in which he renewed the prohibitions
that had been issued by Clement ITT. (see Popgs).
“Although,” it read, “the faithlessness of the
Jews can not be too much disapproved, they
ought not to be excessively oppressed by believers,
for they are the living witness of the true religion.”
He did not, however, conform to this maxim him-
self; and at his instigation the LATERAN CoUNCIL,
over which he presided, dictated the humiliating
laws which rendered the Jews the pariahs of human-
ity; and it especially condemned them to wear
BADGES.
Believing that the spread of the heretical sects, es-
pecially of the Albigenses, in southern France, was
due to Jewish influence, Innocent endeavored so to
humiliate the Jews that the Christians should shrink
from associating with them. To the common accu-
gation of ritual murder, Innocent added new ones of
hisowninvention. “The doors of the Jews,” writes
he, “are open to bandits, and the Christians are
mocked for believing ina crucified peasant ” (“ Epis-
tole,” vii., No. 186, ed. Bréquigny, in his “ Diplo-
mata,” ji. 610). He remonstrated with Philip Au-
gustus for allowing the Jews to possess landed
property and employ Christian servants and nurses
- : 7 . ivan nn He
Ty
i. H Wh
587
(1b.). In 1205 Innocent censured Alfonso the Noble
for the protection granted by that monarch to his
Jewish subjects. He wrote, also, to the Count of
Nevers, Whom he threatened with excommunication
if he continued to protect the Jews:
“The Jews, like the fratricide Cain, are doomed to wander
through the earth as fugitives and yvagabonds, and their faces
must be covered with shame. They are under no circumstances
to be protected by Christian princes: but are, on the contrary,
to be condemned to serfdom. It is, therefore, discreditable for
Christian princes to recreive Jews into their towns and villages,
and to employ them as usurers in order to extort money from
Christians. They (the princes] arrest Christians who are indebted
to Jews, and allow the Jews to take Christian castles and villages
in pledge; and the worst of the matter is that the Church in
this manner toses its tithes. It is scandalous that Christians
should have their cattle slaughtered and their grapes pressed by
Jews, who are thus enabled to take their portion and to iuipose
the leavings, prepared according to Jewish religious precepts,
upon Christians, It is a still greater sin that this wine, prepared
by Jews, should be used in the Chureh for the sacrament of the
Lord’s Supper. While the Christians are excommunicated for
favoring the Jews, and their lands laid under the ban, the Jews
are laughing in their sleeves because, on their aecount, the
harps of the Church are hung on willows and the priests are
gees of their revenues” (Epistoke x. 120, ed. Baluz. IL.,
p. le
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gidemann, Gesch. i. 60 et seq., ii. 85 et 8eq.;
Gratz, Gesch. vii. 4 ef seq.; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der
Juden in Rom, i, passim.
G I. Br.
INNOCENT XI. (BENEDETTO ODESCAL-
CHI): Pope from 1676 to 1689; born at Como in
1611; elected Sept. 21, 1676; dicd Aug. 12, 1689.
That the Jews were not excluded from the re-
sults of his Keen sense of justice is evidenced in
hiscompelling the city of Venice to release the Jew-
ish prisoners that had been taken by General Moro-
sini in 1685. Still he went so far as to forbid
(Oct. 80, 1682) the Jews to engage in banking trans-
actions. However, ultimatcly convineed that such
a measure would cause much misery to the Jews,
the enforcement of the edict was twice delayed (Feb.
26, 1683; March 21, 1684). Innocent discouraged
compulsory baptisms, which accordingly became
less frequent under his pontificate. But he could
not abolish altogether the old practise, and on Nov.
12, 1678, the Holy Congregation declared the bap-
tism of a Jewish child, performed by its Christian
nurse, to be valid.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in
Rom, ii. 223-226.
G. I. Br.
INNSBRUCK: Capital of Tyrol, Austria.
While Jews settled throughout Tyrol, especially in
the southern part, as early as the beginning of the
fourteenth century, no mention of them at Inns-
bruck is met with until the end of the sixteenth
century. As elsewhere in the country, they were
engaged in business, chiefly as dealers in grain and
bullion or as money-lenders and brokers. By a spe-
cial privilege granted by Archduke Ferdinand IL.
June 11, 1578, Samuel May, descendant of the spe-
cially privileged Solomon of Bassano, was permitted
to establish himself at the court at Innsbruck, at
first for eight years, and then for an additional
period; and this privilege was subsequently ex-
tended to hischildren. May and his friends lived in
the so-called “ Judengasse”; but there never was a
ghetto at Innsbruck. In 1748 Maria Theresa ex-
pelled from Innsbruck the Jews Uffenheimer and
Landauer, although both were prominent purveyors,
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Inn ;
Inquisition
and the first a court factor. Wheo the Jews-swere
expelled from HonEenrmnms in 1670, the Dannhauser
and other families went to Innsbruck. <A descend-
ant of the Dannhauscrs, Wilhelm, was for twenty-
four years a member of the municipal council of
Innsbruck. Although the Bavarian edict of 1318
(when Tyrol was under Bavarian rule) regulating the
condition of the Jews was confirmed by Austria in
1817 (after the latter had again come into possession
of ‘Tyrol, the laws against new settlers, the acquisi-
tion of real estate, and the holding of public office,
reiaived in force down to the promulgation of the
constitution of 1867. The revolt of Hofer in 1809
began at Innsbruck with excesses against the Jews,
although Hofer was supplied with funds by the Jew
Nathan Elias of Hohenems, and the firm of Arnstein
& Eskeles of Vienna,
There is no separate community at Innsbruck,
but under the law of 1890 the Jews of the city
are included in the community of Hohenems. The
Jews of Innsbruck number 40 families, and about
160 individuals, in a total population of 27,056.
They have independent schools and religious com-
mittees, and have theirc vn synagogue and cemetery.
The neighboring village of Rinn, near Mall, is
noted as the place where the child Andreas Oxner
wassaid to have been murdered by Jews July 12, 1462
(sce JEW. Encyc. jit, 262, se. BLoop ACCUSATION),
The so-called * Judenstein,” where the deed was al-
leged to have occurred, is still a place of pilgrimage.
The story, with which many miracles have been
connected, has Jong since been proved to have been
a mere invention (Scherer, “ Die Rechtsverhi]ltnisse
der Juden in den Deutsch-Oesterreichischen Liind-
ern,” pp. 594-596, Leipsic, 1901).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tanzer, Geschichte der Juden tn Tirol und
Vorarlberg, 1908, vol. i. Scherer, Die Rechtsverhdltnisse der
Juden in den Deutsch-Oesterreichischen Liindern, p. 627,
D. A. TA.
INQUISITION (called also Sanctum Officium
or Holy Office): Court forthe punishment of here-
tics‘and infidels, established as carly as the reigns of
the emperors Theodosius and Justinian, though not
under that name. Little was heard of this institu-
tion until the beginning of the thirteenth century,
when, in consequence of the spread of the heretical
sect of the Albigenses, it was established in various
cities of southern France. Its management was
then given into the hands of the Dominicans and
Franciscans, of the mendicant orders of friars, who,
being severed from all worldly ties, were sure to show
themselves pitiless in the persecution of heretics and
infidels, Having their time fully ocenpied with the
Albigenses, the inquisitors at first left the Jews
unmolested, contenting themselves with occasional
autos da féof Jewish books that had been denounced
as heretical. But when the dissenters becaine more
rare, the Inquisition began to persecute backsliding
converts from Judaism and Jews who attempted to
proselytize. The converts were especially the ob-
ject of the rigor of the Inquisition from the pro-
mulgation, in 1268, of the papal bull
“Turbato Corde.” In 1274 Bertrand
de la Roche was appointed inquisitor
£ Judaizing Christians in Provence, and in 1285
William of Auxerre was nominated inquisitor for
Origin.
Inquisition
heretics and apostatizing Jews. About 1276 sev-
eral backsliding converts were burned by order of
Nicolas III.; thirteen Jews were burned as heretics
in 1288 at Troyes; and at the auto da fé held at
Paris March 3l, 1810, a converted Jew who had re-
turned to Judaism also died at the stake.
About the same time as in southern France the
Inquisition was introduced into Aragon. In 1238
Pope Gregory X. commissioned the Archbishop of
Tarragona to appoint inquisitors; and by the four-
teenth century there was a grand inquisitor in Ara-
gon. In 1359, when some Jews who had returned
to Judaism after conversion fled from Provence to
Spain, King Pedro IV. of Aragon empowered the
inquisitor Bernard du Puy to sentence them wher-
ever found. One of the most prominent personages
of the Aragonese Inquisition was the grand inquisi-
tor or inquisitor-general Nicolas Eymeric. He sen-
tenced the Jew Astruc da Picra, accused of sorcery,
to imprisonment for life; and Ramon de Tarrega, a
Jew who accepted baptism and became a Dominican,
and whose philosophic works Eymeric stigmatized
as heretical, he kept imprisoned for two years, until
compelled by Pope Gregory XI. to liberate him.
The New or Spanish Inquisition, introduced into
the united kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, and Navarre
by Ferdinand VY. and Isabella the Catholic, was di-
rected chiefly against converted Jews and against
Jews and Moors. During the cruel persecutions of
1391 many thousands of Jewish families accepted
baptism in order to save their lives. These converts,
called “Conversos,” “ Neo-Christians” (“ Christaés
Novos”), or “ Maranos,” preserved their love for Ju-
daism, and secretly observed the Jewish law and Jew-
ish customs. Many of these families by their high
positions at court and by alliances with the nobility
excited the envy and hatred of the fanatics, espe-
cially of the clergy. After several unavailing at-
tempts to introduce the Inquisition made successive-
ly, from the reign of Juan II., by the
The New Bishop of Osma, Alfonso de Espina,
In- and by Niccolo Franco, nuncio of Six-
quisition. tus IV. at the Spanish court, the Do-
minicans applied to the young queen
Isabella. Alfonso de Hojeda and the papal nuncio
exerted all their energies, and succeeded in 1478 in
obtaining from Sixtus IV. a bull authorizing Ferdi-
nand and Isabella to choose sundry archbishops,
bishops, and other persons, both clericals and lay-
men, for the purpose of conducting investigations in
matters of faith. The king readily gave his consent
to a scheme which promised to satisfy his cupidity,
while the queen hesitated to sanction its establish-
ment in Castile. It was early in Sept., 1480, that
Isabella, urged by Alfonso de Hojeda, Diego de
Marlo, Pedro de Solis, and other ecclesiastical digni-
taries, finally affixed her signature to the document
which established the Inquisition in her dominions.
On Sept. 27, 1480, two Dominicans, Juan de San
Martin and Miguel de Morillo, were appointed the
first inquisitors.
The newly appointed inquisitors together with
their assistant, Dr. Juan Ruiz de Medina, and with
Diego Merlo, went first to Seville, where the feeling
aroused was divided. The“ good ” Christians and the
populace gave the visitors a ceremonious reception ;
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
588
but many nobles, several of whom had intermarried
with the Maranos, were terrified at the new arrivals.
A number of prominent and wealthy Maranos of Se-
ville, Utrera, Carmona, Lorca, and other places, in-
cluding Diego de Susan, father of the beautiful Su-
sanna: Benadeva, father of the canon of the same
name; Abolafia “el Perfumado,” farmer of the royal
taxes; Pedro Fernandez Cansino; Alfonso Fer-
nandez de Lorca, Juan del Monte, Juan de Xerez,
and his father Alvaro de Sepulveda the Elder, and
many others, convened and agreed to oppose the
inquisitors. They intended to distribute arms and
to win over the people by bribes. An old Jew of
their number encouraged them. The conspiracy,
however, was betrayed and suppressed in its incep-
tion (details of this “Conjurados de Sevilla” are
given in Fita, “La Espafiia Hebreea,” I. 71-77, 184-
196). .
Many Maranos, on receiving news of the intro-
duction of the Inquisition, went with all their pos-
sessions to Cadiz, in the hope of finding protection
there; but the inquisitors addressed (Jan. 2, 1481)
an edict to Rodrigo Ponce de Leon, Marquis of Ca-
diz, and to all dukes, counts, grand masters of or-
ders, and knights, as well as to the alcaldes of the
cities of Seville, Cordova, Jerez de la
First Frontera, Toledo, and others in Cas-
Seizure of tile, ordering them to seize and give
Maranos. up ail Maranos hidden among them,
and to confiscate their property. All
persons who refused to obey this edict were to be
punished by excommunication and by forfeiture of
their property, offices, and dignities (Fita, d.¢. p.
77). The bands of fugitive Maranos were very nu-
merous; in the territory of the Marquis of Cadiz
alone there were 8,000, who were transported to Se-
ville and delivered to the Inquisition. Even during
the early days of 1481 many of the wealthiest, most
prominent, and learned Maranos, municipal coun-
cilors, physicians, etc., had been apprehended, and
it had been deemed necessary to transfer the tribunal
to the castle of Triana near Seville.
This tribunal, the object of fear and terror for
nearly 300 years, began its work; and on Feb. 6, 1481,
the first auto da fé at Seville was held with a solemn
procession on the Tablada. Six men and women
were burned at the stake, probably the same persons
whom Alfonso de Hojeda had accused of desecra-
ting an image of Jesus. This zealous Dominican
preached at this first auto da fé; but he did not live
to see a second one, as he was one of the first vic-
tims of the plague which was then raging in Anda-
lusia. A few days later three of the wealthiest and
most prominent men of Seville, Diego de Susan (a
“gran rabi,” with a fortune of 106,000,000 mara-
vedis), Manuel Sauli, and Bartolome de Torralba,
mounted the “quemadero,” as the stake was called.
Many other members of the conspiracy mentioned
above were burned soon after: Pedro Fernandez
Benadeva; Pedro Fernandez Cansino and Gabriel de
Zamora, the two last-named being municipal coun-
cilors of Seville; Abolatia “el Perfumado,” reputed
to be a scholar; Medina el Barbudo, meat commis-
sary at Seville; the municipal councilor Pedro de
Jaen and his son Juan del Monte; Aleman Poca
Sangre, progenitor of the Alemanes; the wealthy
589
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Inquisition
brothers Aldafes, who had been living in the castle
of Triana; Alvaro de Sepulveda the Elder and his
son Juan de Xerez; and others from Utrera and
Carmona, The immense wealth of all the condemned
was seized by the royal treasury. At Seville there
was at least one anto da fé every month; 17 Maranos
were burned on March 26, 1481; many more, a few
weeks later; and by the following November nearly
300 had perished at the stake, while 79 were con-
demned to imprisonment for life. The Inquisition
held office also at Cordova and in the archbish-
opric of Cadiz, where many Jewish heretics, mostly
wealthy persons, Were burned during the same year.
The Inquisition, in order to seta trap for the un-
no pork, hare, rabbits, or eels; if. soon after baptizing a child,
they Wash With water the spot touched by the oil : give Old Tes-
tulnent names to their children, or bless the children by the
laying on of hands; if the Women do not attend church within
forty davs after confinement; if the dying turn toward the wall;
if they wash a corpse with warn water; if they recite the
Psalms without adding at the end: *“‘Glory be to the Father, the
Son, and the Holy Ghost,” ete. (see Llorente, ** Histoire de ]’In-
quisition,”’ i. 153, iv. Supplement, 6; * Boletin Acad. Hist.”’ xxii.
181] et seqg.: “ R. E. J.” xi. 96 eb seq., xx xvii. 266 et seq.).
It was casy for the Inquisition, with this mode of
procedure, to entrap more and more Maranos. From
Seville, the only permanent tribunal, it sent its offi-
cers to Cordova, Jerez de Ja Frontera, and Ecija, in
order to track the fugitives and especially to con-
fiscate their property. The two inquisitors at Se-
happy victims, issued a dispensation and called upon | ville were so cruel that complaints were made to
all Maranos guilty of ob-
Sixtus IV., who addressed
a brief (Jan. 29, 1482) to
serving Jewish customs to
appear voluntarily before
the royal couple, amend-
the court, promising the
ing the bull of Nov. 1,
1478, and expressing his
repentants absolution and
enjoyment of their life
dissatisfaction. He de-
and property. Many ap-
peared, but they did not
obtain absolution, until,
under the seal of secrecy
and under oath, they had
betray ed the name, occupa-
tion, dwelling, and modeof
life of each of the persons
they knew to be Judaizers,
or had heard described as
such. <A large number of
unfortupates were thus
entrapped by the Inquisi-
tion. On the lapse of this
decree all those who had
been betrayed were sum-
moned to appear before
the tribunal within three
clared that but for con-
sideration for their maj-
esties he would depose
Miguel de Morillo and
Juan de San Martin. He
refused a request to ap-
point inquisitors for the
other countries of the uni-
tel kingdom; neverthe-
less, hardly two weeks
later (Feb, 11, 1482) he ap-
pointed Vicar-General Al-
fonso de San Capriani
inquisitor-general for the
kingdoms of Castile and
Leon, and seven other
clericals, including
Thomas de Torquemada
Fa
Fettel
ze
=
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==
rh
oh lit
anenmesneyousnnyy
days. Those that did not
attend voluntarily were
dragged from their houses
(Turrecremata) as inquis-
itors.
Ferdinand and Isabella
to the prisons of the In-
quisition. Then a law
was issued, indicating in
thirty-seven articles the
signs by which backsliding
Maranos might be recognized. These signs were
enumerated as follows:
If they celebrate the Sabbath, wear a clean shirt or better
garments, spread a clean tablecloth, light no fire, eat the food
[‘‘ani”’] which has been cooked overnight in the oven, or per-
form no work on that day; if they eat meat during Lent; if
they take neither meat nor drink on the Day of Atonement, go
barefoot, or ask forgiveness of another on that day; if they cele.
brate the Passover with unleavened bread, or eat bitter herbs;
if on the Feast of Tabernacles they use green branches or send
fruit as gifts to friends; if they marry according to Jewish cus-
toms or take Jewish names; if they circumcise their boys
or observe the ‘“‘hadas” [a Babylonian superstition], that is,
celebrate the seventh night after the birth ofa
child by filling a vessel with water, throwing
in gold, silver, pearls, and grain, and then
bathing the child while certain prayers are re-
cited; if they throw a piece of dough in the stove before baking ;
if they wash their hands before praying, bless a cup of wine
before meals and pass it round among the people at table; if
they pronounce blessings while slaughtering poultry, cover the
blood with earth, separate the veins from meat, soak the flesh
in water before cooking, and cleanse it from blood; if they eat
Signs of
Judaism.
A Sanbenito.
(After Picart.)
|
gave no heed to the pope’s
urgent recommendation to
treat the Maranos more
humanely; and they still
morestrongly disapproved
his giving absolution to heretics condemned by the
tribunal. Upon this subject Queen Isabella ad-
dressed an autograph letter to Sixtus IV., which he
answered at length (Feb. 23, 1488). While recogni-
zing lier piety, he hinted that the queen was urged
to proceed so rigorously against the Maranos “ by
ambition and greed for earthly possessions, rather
than by zeal for the faith and true fear of God.”
Still, he made many concessions. Although, as he
expressly says in the bull of May 25, 1488, he
was the only power to whom final appeal could be
made in matters of faith, yet, at the request of the
Spanish sovereigns, he appointed the Archbishop of
Seville, Inigo Manrique, judge of appeals for Spain.
This, however, did not prevent the vacillating pope
from issuing a few months later (Aug. 2) the bull
“Ad Futuram Rei Memoriam,” in which he com.
manded that all Maranos who had repented at Rome
and had done penance should no longer be perse-
Inquisition
cuted by the Inquisition. The fact that he had per-
mitted as many copies as possible to be made of this
bull did not prevent him from repealing it cleveu
days later (Aug, 13). By way of further concession
to the royal couple the pope appointed as officials of
the Inquisition only clericals of pure Christian de-
scent and orthodox Catholics in no degree related to
Maranos.
On Oct. 17, 1488, Thomas de Torqnemada, then
sixty-three years of age and prior of a monastery at
Segovia, his native city, was appointed inquisitor-
gencral, Hischief endeavor was to make the Inqui-
sition more effective. Tribunals were established in
f,
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ete
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
590
either sex suifered at the stake, among them Alvaro
de Belmonte, Pero Carga, Macstre Fernaudo (known
as “el Licenciado de Cordova ”). and Marta Gonsales
Ja Pampana. Jian Gonsales Pampana, husband of
the last-named, was burned in efigy on the follow-
ing day together with 41 others, some of whom, like
him, had fled, and some of whom had died. On
March 15, 1485, not less than 8 were burned alive
and 54 in effigy. One of the former was Juan Gon-
sales Escogido, who was reputed to be a rabbi and
“Confesor de los Confesos” (Process of Maria Gon-
sales la Pampana and of Juan G, Escogido, pub-
lished, after the acts of the Inquisition, in “ Boletin
AS
re ST te
J, Pop Ae
en ee
ee fe tt
VARIOUS MANNERS OF TORTURING DURING THE INQUISITION.
(After Picart.)
quick succession at Cordova, Jaen, and Ciudad Real.
At Cordova, seat of the oldest tribunal next to Seville,
the first inquisitors were Pedro Marti-
Thomas de nezde Barrio and Alvar Gonzalez; and
Torque- one of the first to be condemned was
mada. Pedro Fernandez de Aleaudete, treas-
urer of a church (Ad. de Castro, “Ju-
dios en Espatia,” p. 118; “Boletin Acad. Hist.” v.
AQ1 et seg.). The first inquisitors at Jaen were Juan
Garcia de Canas, chaplain to their majesties, and
Juan de Yarea, prior of a monastery at Toledo. The
tribunal at Ciudad Real, whose first inquisitors were
Pedro Diaz de Costana and Francisco Sanchez de la
Fuente, existed only two years. From Feb. 6, 1484,
to May 6, 1485. ten autos da fé were held in that city,
the largest being celebrated Feb, 23-24, 1484, and
March 15, 1485. On Feb. 23 about 26 Maranos of
Acad. Hist.” xx, 485 et seg., xxii. 189 e¢ seq.). In
May, 1485, the tribunal of Ciudad Real was trans-
ferred to Toledo.
In order to give more uniformity and stability to
the tribunal, Torquemada drafted an inquisitorial
constitution, “Compilacion de las Instrucciones,”
containing twenty-eight articles, to which several
additions were subsequently made. It provided for
arespite of thirty or forty davs for those accused
of Judaizing, and that all who voluntarily con-
fessed within that time should, on
Conditions payment of a small fine and on ma-
of king presents to the state treasury, re-
Confession. main in possession of their property.
They had to make their confession in
writing before the inquisitors and several wit-
nesses, conscientiously answering all questions ad-
591
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Inquisition
dressed to them concerning the time and duration of
their Judaizing. Thereupon followed the public
recantation, which could be made in sceret only in
rare cases. Those that confessed only after the ex-
piration of the respite were punished by having their
property confiscated or by imprisonment for life
(“careel perpetuo ”) according to the gravity of the
offense. Maranos under twenty years of age who
adinitted that they were obliged by their parents,
relations, or other persons to observe Jewish cere-
monics were not subject to confiscation of their prop-
erty, but were compelled to wear fora certain length
of time the sanbenito (see Auro pA F&). Those
that confessed after the publication of the testimony,
but before sentence was pronounced, were admitted
to “reconciliation,” but were sentenced to imprison-
ment for life, while those that concealed part of
their guilt were condemned to the stake. If a sus-
pected Marano could not be convicted of apostasy
he was to be tortured; if he confessed on the rack,
he was condemned to death asa Judaizer; but if he
recanted his confession or resorted to untruths, he
was again subjected to torture.
The prisons of the Inquisition—which, with the
instruments of torture, still exist in some cities in
Spain, as in Saragossa—were small, dark, damp
apartments, often underground. The food of the
captives, furnished at their own cost, was both
meager and poor; and their only beverage was
water. Complaining aloud, crying, or whimpering
was rigorously repressed. The punishment inflicted
by the Inquisition was imprisonment, either for a
stated time or for life, or death by fire. If impenitent
the condemned was tied to the stake and burned alive ;
if penitent he was strangled before being placed on
the pile. Flight was considered equivalent to a
confession or to a relapse (“relapso”) to Judaism.
The property of the fugitive was confiscated, and
he himself was burned in effigy (“ Compilacion de
las Instrucciones del Oficio de la 8S. Inquisicion,”
Madrid, 1667; Llorente, U.c. 1. 175 et seg.; “R. EB. J.”
xi. 91 e¢ seq.).
With Torquemada the Inquisition was introduced
into Catalonia (Oct. 17, 1483); as to Valencia, it had
existed there since 1420, the inquisitor being the
Dominican Juan Cristobal de Gualbes
In Aragon, (Galves). In Aragon the Inquisition
Catalonia, could be instituted only with the con-
and sent of the Cortes; and its introduc-
Valencia. tion according to the new organization
was determined (April, 1484) only after
violent debates. Gaspar Juglar, and Pedro Arbues,
canon of the metropolitan church of Saragossa,
were appointed inquisitors for Aragon, and Pedro
d’Epila and Martin Ifiigo for Valencia. On May 19,
1484, the first auto da fé at Saragossa was held
under the presidency of Maestre Julian, who, ac-
cording to Lea, is identical with Gaspar Juglar.
He was soon after poisoned by the Conversos or
Maranos. .
There was violent opposition to the Inquisition
throughout Aragon as well asin Catalonia; not only
the Conversos and persons descended from Conversos
or connected with them by marriage, but Christians
also considered the Inquisition as destructive of their
liberties. There was so much opposition that the
assembled Cortes determined to send a deputa-
tion to protest to the king, who remained inflexi-
ble, even refusing the enormous sum which the
Maranos offered to induce him to revoke the decree
confiscating their property. The Maranos in de-
spair then assassinated the inquisitor
Death ARBUFS. When the murder became
of Pedro known, the populace proceeded to the
Arbues. ghetto in order to kill the Jews and
Maranos, anda fearful massacre would
have followed had not the young Archbishop Al-
fonso de Aragon appeared in time to pacify the
people.
This conspiracy incited the Inquisition to horrible
activity. Between Dec. 15, 1485, and the beginning
of the sixteenth century one or two autos da fé were
held nearly every month at Saragossa. Especial
severity was exercised toward the instigators of and
participants in the conspiracy. Juande Esperanden
first had his hands chopped off, and was then
dragged with Vidal de Urango to the market-place,
and beheaded. Both were quartered and finally
burned June 80, 1486. On Dec. 15 a similar fate
befell the scholarly Francisco de 8. Fé (a descendant
of Jerome de 8. Fé), wi. was held in high esteem by
the governor of Aragon. Juan de la Abadia, who
had attempted suicide, was dragged through the
streets, quartered, and burned Jan. 21, 1487. Four
wecks later the Jesuit Juan Martinez de Rueden, in
whose possession anti-Christian books in Hebrew
were found, was burned; and on April 10, 1492, his
relative, the widow of Antonio de Rueda of Cata-
layud, who had kept the Sabbath and had regularly
eaten “hamyn ” (* potagium vocatum hamyn ”= jon
or “shalet ”), meta similar fate. GaspardeS. Cruce
and Juan Pedro Sanchez, who had escaped to Tou-
louse, were burned ineffigy. During the last fifteen
years of the fifteenth century more than fifty autos
da f@ were held at Saragossa, and during the year in
which the Jews were expelled from Spain not less
than nine were celebrated there; hundreds of mem-
bers of the most wealthy and prominent families—
those of Sanchez, Cabulleria, Santangel, Paternoy,
Monfort, Ram, Almacan, and Clemente—were either
burned or sentenced to imprisonment for life (Henry
C. Lea, “The Martyrdom of 8. Pedro Arbues,” New
York, 1889; Rios, “Hist.” iii. 615-6384; “R. E. J.”
xi. 84 et seq.).
The Maranos of Toledo likewise resisted the intro-
duction of the Inquisition; and several of them con-
spired to kill the inquisitor. In May, 1485, the in-
quisitors Pero Diaz de la Costanaand Vasco Ramirez
de Ribera entered Toledo. On June2an attack was
made on one of them; but he was protected by the
populace, who, falling upon the conspirators, De
la Torre and his four companions, strangled and
hanged them. The inquisitors granted a respite of
forty days to the Maranos, which was extended to
seventy, in order to afford them the opportunity to
give themselves up voluntarily to the Inquisition.
At the same time they called together the rabbis,
and demanded from them, under oath and on pain
of dire punishment, that they pronounce the great
excommunication upon all the Jews, and that they
recall it only after the Jews had denounced all Mara-
nos following Jewish customs. Some frightened
Inquisition
Jews are said to have betrayed their coreligionists ;
others, poor, degraded, and filled with hatred against
the apostates, denounced them as Judaizers, giving
fulse testimony. Eight or more of these false wit-
nesses were tortured with hot trons at the command
of Queen Isabella (Pulgar, “ Cron. de los Reyes Catoli-
cos,” iti., li. 100; “Boletin Acad. Hist.” xi. 297,
x xiii. 407).
There was no lack of victims. On Feb. 12,
1486, oecurred the first auto da fé in Toledo in the
presence of a large concourse of the
In Toledo. people of the city and of the sur-
rounding country. On this day 750
persons were received into the Church; on April
2, 900; on June 11, 750. On Aug. 16 of the same
year, 25 persons, including Alfonso Cota and
other prominent men, were burned alive; on the
following day the pastor of Talavera and a cleric,
both of whom were adherents of Judaism, were
burned; and on Oct. 15 several hundred deceased
persons, whose property had been confiscated by the
state, were burned in effigy. At an auto da fé held
Dec. 10 following, 950 persons received absolution.
On Jan. 15 and March 10, 1487, 1,900 Judaizers were
readmitted to the Church. On May 7, 23 per-
sons, including a canon, were burned alive; on
July 25, 1488, 37 persons, and two days later 6
Judaizing clericals, shared the same fate. On May
24, 1490, 21 persons suffered at the stake, and 11 were
sentenced toimprisonment forlife. Ata great auto
da fé on the following day the bones of 400 Juda-
izers and many Hebrew books formed the pile for a
woman who wished to die as a Jewess, and who
expired with the word “Adonai” on her lips. On
July 25, 1492, eight days before the expulsion, 5
Maranos were led to the stake, and many others
were condemned to imprisonment for life. Atan
especially large auto da fé held July 30, 1494, 16
persons from Guadalajara, Alcala de Henares, and To-
ledo were burned, and 30 were condemned to life im-
prisonment. In 1496 three autos da fé were held, and
in the following yeartwo. All thecondemned persons
were of course deprived of their property (on Toledo
see “ Boletin Acad. Hist.” xi. 285 et seg., xx. 462).
Before the end of the fifteenth century there were
nearly a dozen tribunals in Spain. The one at
Guadalupe, province of Estremadura, was estab-
lished as early as that at Toledo; many Maranos
were living there; and the inquisitor, Nuno de Are-
vato, proceeded rigorously against them. The tri-
bunal existed there for a few years only; but during
that time, beginning with 1485, seven autos da fé
were held, at which 52 Judaizers were burned alive,
25 were burned in effigy together with the bones of
46 deceased persons, 16 were condemned to impris-
onment for life, and many were sentenced to wear
the sanbenito, and were deprived of their property.
The Catalonian cities, too, stubbornly opposed the
newly organized Inquisition; and in 1486 there were
riots at Teruel, Lerida, Barcelona, and
Opposition Valencia, during which the tribunals
in were destroyed. It was not until 1487
Catalonia. that the inquisitor-general Torque-
mada was able to appoint Alfonso de
Espina of Huesca inquisitor of Barcelona. De Es-
pina began his activity on Jan. 25, 1488, with a sol-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
592
emn auto da fé, the first victim being the royal offi-
cial Santa Fé, a descendant of a well-known
Jew-hater, Jerome de Santa Fe. On May 2, 1489,
the wife of Jacob Monfort, the former Catalonian
treasurer, was burned in effigy; and on March5 and
23, 1490, Louis Ribelles, a surgeon of Falces, to-
gether with his children and his daughter-in-law, was
condemned to imprisonment for life; his wife Con-
stancia was burned on March 12 at Tarracona, where
a large auto da fé was held on July 18, 1489; and on
March 24, 1490, Gabriel Miro (magister in artibus et
medicina), his wife Blanquina, the wealthy Gaspar
de la Cavalleria, and his wife were burned in effigy.
Simon de Santangel and his wife, whom their own
son denounced to the Inquisition at Huescaas Juda-
izers, were burned on July 80, 1490, at Lerida.
In Catalonia the activity of the Inquisition was
restricted to a few autos da fé held at Barceloua
and some other cities; and the number of victims
was limited. The Inquisition was all the more
active in Old Castile, where Ferdinand and Isabella,
with Torguemada, did their utmost, not to confirm
the Maranos in their new faith, but to destroy them
and to deprive them of their property. OnJune 19,
1488, the tribunal of Valladolid held its first auto da
fé, at which 18 persons who had openly confessed
Judaism were burnedalive. The first inquisitors at
Segovia were Dr. de Mora and the licentiate De
Cafias; and the first victim to be publicly burned
was Gonzalo de Cuellar, whose property to the
amount of 393,000 maravedis was confiscated by the
state treasury. Involved in the processagainst him
were his Jewish relatives, Don Moses de Cuellar,
the latter’s son Rabbi Abraham and his brother, of
Buytrago, as well as Juan (Chalfon) Conbiador (=
“changer”) and Isaac Herrera, both
Conform- of Segovia (“Boletin Acad. Hist.”
ing Jews xxiii. 323 e¢ seg.). At Avila the first
Involved. victims were the Francos, who were
accused of having murdered the child
La GuarpiA. Between 1490 and the end of the
century more than 100 persons were burned’at Avila
as “Judios” or Judaizers, the majority being na-
tives of Avila, with a few from Arevalo, Oropesa,
and Almeda; 70 were punished otherwise (see lists
of the condemned in Fita, é.¢. i. 51 et seg.).
Torquemada accused even bishops who were of
Jewish descent, as Juan Arias Davila, Bishop of
Segovia, and Pedro de Aranda, Bishop of Calahorra.
During his term of fifteen years he condemned more
than 8,000 Jews and Maranos to be burned alive,
and more than 6,000 in effigy. His successor, the
scholarly Dominican Diego Deza, the friend and
patron of Columbus, was equally cruel, condemning
many Maranos. On Feb. 22, 1501, a great auto da
fé was held at Toledo, at which 38 persons were
burned, all of them from Herrera. On the follow-
ing day 67 women of Herrera and Alcocen were
burned at Toledo; a few days previously about 90
Maranos of Chillon were burned at Cordova; and on
March 30, 1501, 9 persons were burned at Toledo,
while 56 young men and 87 young women were con-
demned to life imprisonment. In July of the same
year 45 persons were burned at Seville, among them
a young woman 25 years of age, who was considered
a scholar and who read the Bible with her fellow
593
sufferers (“ Boletin Acad. Hist.” x1. 807 e¢ seqg.; “R.
E. J.” XxXxvil. 268, xxxviii. 275). Diego Deza, of
Jewish descent on his mother’s side, despite his
cruelty to the Jews, was himself accused of Judai-
zing. «As he was continually ill, Juan, Bishop of
Vigue, was appointed grand inquisitor of Aragon,
and Francisco de Ximenes, Archbishop of Toledo,
was appointed grand inquisitor of Castile, even dur-
ing Deza’s lifetime.
Deza’s most pliable tool was Diego Rodriguez
Lucero, the inquisitor of Cordova, who enjoyed the
special favor of Ferdinand and Isabella. For his
espionage and confiscations he received from them
“ayudas de Costa” to the value of 20,000 and 25,000
maravedis. He was a monster of cruelty and com-
mitted so many atrocities that Gon-
Diego zalo de Avora wrote to the royal sec-
Rodriguez retary Almazan on July 16, 1507-
Lucero. “*Deza, Lucero, and Juan de la Fuente
have dishonored all provinces; they
have no regard cither for God or for justice; they
kill or steal, and dishonor women and girls to the
disgrace of the Christian faith.” In order to curry
favor with King Ferdinand, Lucero brought accusa-
tions against all persons suspected of being of Jew-
ish blood, regardless of their station in life, and
extorted confession on the rack. One of these vic-
tims was the young Archdeacon de Castro, whose
mother was of an old Christian family, while his
father was a Marano; his revenues, amounting to
300,000 maravedis, were divided among Lucero,
Cardinal Carvajal, the royal treasurer, and the
king’s secretary. A bachelor of divinity, Mem-
breque oy name, was accused of having publicly
preached on the doctrines of Judaism, whereupon
Lucero procured a list of the persons who had lis-
tened to his sermon, and all of them, 107 in number,
were burned alive.
No one was sure of his life. The prisons were
crowded, and large numbers of prisoners were taken
to Toro, the seat of the supreme council of the In-
quisition. Lucero’s principal object was the contis-
cation of property, as the Bishop of Cordova and
many dignitaries of the city stated in a complaint
against him which they sent to the pope. The most
prominent persons of Cordova requested the inquis-
itor-general Deza to depose Lucero; and an appeal
was made to Queen Juana and her husband, Philip
of Austria, who then lived in Flanders. On Sept.
30, 1505, Philip and Juana addressed a cedula to
Deza, in which they sharply criticized Lucero’s
proceedings and suspended the Inquisition until
their arrival in Spain. Though this missive was
disregarded, Philip’s coming filled the Maranos with
new hope. At Rome they had bought the Curia;
and they had offered 100,000 ducats to King Ferdi-
nand during his sojourn at Valladolid if he would
suspend the Inquisition until the arrival of the
young couple. At first matters looked very bright
for their attempts, and Lucero’s con-
Attempts duct was the object of an investiga-
to Check tion. Unfortunately, Philip died sud-
Lucero. denly, and Lucero, now emboldened,
asserted that most of the knights and
nobles of Cordova and other cities were Judaizers,
and had synagogues in their houses. The highest
VI.—38
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Inquisition
dignitaries were treated by him like “Jewish dogs.”
He accused the pious Hernando de Talavera,
Archbishop of Granada, who had Jewish blood in
lis veins, and his whole family, of Judaizing. His
relatives were imprisoned, and he himself, who once
liad been the confessor of Queen Isabella, was com-
pelled with many other converts to go barefoot and
bareheaded in procession through the streets of
Granada. The exposure brought on an attack of
fever, and he died five days later.
Ferdinand, who reascended the throne after
Philip's death, was obliged to dismiss Deza, in order
to stem the movement against the Inquisition at
Cordova; and Ximenes, Archbishop of Toledo, was
appointed inquisitor-general in his place (June,
1507). The supreme council of the Inquisition,
headed by Ximenes, decided in May, 1508, to im-
prison Lucero; and he was taken in chains to Bur-
gos and confined in the castle there. The “Con-
gregacion Catolica,” consisting of the most pious and
learned bishops and other high ecclesiastics of the
whole country, was commissioned to investigate the
charges against Lucero, and at a solemn session held
at Valladolid Aug. 1, 1508, it gave orders for the lib-
eration of all those imprisoned on the charge of
Judaizing (Henry C. Lea, “Lucero, the Inquisitor,”
in “Am. Hist. Review,” ii. 611-626; Rios, “ Hist.”
iii, 483 et seq.).
The grand inquisitor Cardinal Ximenes de Cis-
neros was not more tolerant toward the Maranos
than his predecessor had been; he caused many to
be burned and many thousands to be punished by
forcing them to perform various acts as penance. A
few years after his death the victims of incessant per-
secution, profiting by the opposition of Castile to the
young Charles I, (afterward Emperor Charles V.),
sent a deputation, consisting of the most prominent
Maranos, to King Charles in Flanders,
Attitude of requesting him to restrict the powers of
Charles V. the Inquisition and to have testimony
heardin public. Asan inducement to
the king they offered him a very large sum, said to
have amounted to 800,000 gold thalers. In order to
win over the Curia, Gutierrez sent his nephew, Luis
Gutierrez, to Rome, where other converts, among
them Diego de las Casas and Bernaldino Diez, were
working forthem. The tolerant Pope Leo X. grant-
ed them a bull such as they desired, and which some
persons claim to have seen in a Spanish translation.
Assoonas Charles heard of the intended bull, he made
every effort to prevent its publication. Hesent word
to Leo X. by his envoy Lope Hurtado de Mendoza
that the complaints of the converts as well as the
expostulations of afew Spanish prelates and of mis-
informed or interested persons deserved no credit, and
that the inquisitor-general for Castile, Adrian, for-
merly Bishop of Tortosa, who had been appointed
May 4, 1518, was much more inclined to moderation
than to severity. Furthermore, he stated that the
converts had sent a complaint to him against the
servants of the Inquisition, and had offered to him,
as formerly to his grandfather, a large sum to re-
strain the tribunal. Moreover, Charles affirmed that
under no conditions would he allow a bull restrain-
ing the Inquisition to be published in his kingdom.
The pope acceded to Charles’s demand. issuing the
Inquisition
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
594
brief of Oct. 12, 1519; and the Inquisition pursued
its course unchecked (“ Boletin Acad. Hist.” xxxili.
307 et seqg.; “R. E. J.” xxxvii. 269 et seg.). Never-
theless, Charles would have restrained the Inquisi-
tion in his dominions had not his chancellor Selva-
gio, who advocated the plan, died. After his death
Charles became an ardent protector of the Inquisi-
tion. Down to 1588 there were tribunals at Seville,
Cordova, Jaen, Toledo, Valladolid, Calahorra, Lle-
rena, Saragossa, Valencia, Barcelona, Cuenca, Gra-
nada, Tudela, and at Palma in the Balearic Isles,
where the first auto da fé was held in 1506, and 22
Judaizers were burned ineffigy. Several Jews were
burned alivein 1509 and 1510, and 62 Judaizers were
burned in effigy in the following year.
The cruel Philip IL. favored the Inquisition. One
of his grand inquisitors was Fernando de Valdes,
formerly Archbishop of Seville, who
Under the was unsurpassed for his cruelty. The
Philips. Cortesin vain repeatedly remonstrated
against the terrible abuses of the tri-
bunals and demanded that they be restricted. Philip
II{. was very weak, aud during his reign the Inqui-
sition proceeded still more shamelessly after the un-
successful attempt of the Duke de Olivares to check it.
Under this king as well as under his successor, Philip
IV., Jews were burned throughout therealm; every
tribunal held at least one great auto da fé each year.
The largest number occurred in Andalusia, at Se-
ville, Granada, and Cordova. The fanatical popu-
lace gathered in greater multitudes at the autos than
at theaters and bull-fights. Every auto was likea
great popular festival, to which the Knights and
representatives of neighboring cities were solemnly
invited, the windows of the houses nearest to the
quemadero being reserved for them. Great autos
were held at Cordova on Dec. 8, 1625; May 3, 1655;
and June 29, 1665. Among the large number burned
at the first of these was Manucl Lepez, who obsti-
nately resisted all attempts at conversion. At the
last-mentioned auto the city spent, according to the
bills preserved in the municipal archives, not Jess
than 392,616 maravedis for food served to the in-
quisitors and their servants, the dignitaries, knights,
and invited guests. The auto lasted from seven in
the morning till nine at night; and 55 Judaizers
were burned, 8 of them alive. In addition 16 were
burned in effigy. Under Philip IV. a tribunal was
instituted at Madrid, the new capital, and on July 4,
1682, the first auto was held for Fudaizers in cele-
bration of the delivery of Elizabeth of Bourbon.
One of the largest autos at Madrid took place on
June 30, 1680, in the presence of King Charles II.
and his young wife. In the previous year, between
May 6 and May 28, five autos had been held at
Palma, at which 210 “Chuctas” (or Maranos) were
condemned to imprisonment for life; and on May 6,
1691, 25 Chuetas were burned there.
Philip V. took the Inquisition under his especial
care. During the forty-six years of his reign it cel-
ebrated its greatest triumphs. Every tribunal held
one and sometimes two or three autos a year for
Judaizers. In 1722 three autos were held at Seville,
and two each at Murcia and Cuenca; in 1723
three were held at Granada, and two each at Valla-
dolid, Toledo, and Cuenca.
During the reign of |
Philip V. 1,564 persons were burned alive and 782 in
effigy, and 11,7380 were sentenced to various punish-
ments, ranging from imprisonment for six months
to imprisonment for life. Nine-tenths of this num-
ber were accused of Judaizing.
Under Ferdinand VI. and Charles III. the power
of the Inquisition was more and more restricted.
Judaizers were no longer burned; and thie terrible
auto da fé became less frequent. King Joseph
Bonaparte abrogated the Inquisition in 1808, and
the Cortes condemned it in 1813; but, to the aston-
ishment of both nations and rulers, Ferdinand VII.
reinstituted it. Not until 1884 did the tribunals of
the Inquisition disappear completely from Spain; in
1835 its property was devoted to the payment of
the public debt. Through the Inquisition Spain was
depopulated and impoverished.
After the discovery of the New World, Spain in-
troduced the Inquisition into her American colonies,
and proceeded against the Maranos and Jews who
had sought refuge there. One of the
In first to be condemned by the Inquisi-
America. tion at New Espaiiola was Diego Ca-
ballero, the son of Neo-Christians from
Barrameda. The Inquisition was introduced into
Mexico in 1571; and three years later the first auto
da fé was held. Between 1574 and 1593 nine autos
were held there. At one held Dec. 8, 1596, 60 per-
sons appeared in the sanbenito, and more than 100
at the auto of March 25, 1602. In 1608 Jorge de
Almeida was excommunicated “in contumaciam,”
and in 1645 the young Gabriel de Granada was sen-
tenced (Cyrus Adler, in “ Publications Am. Jew.
Hist. Soc.” iv. 29 e¢ seg.; “Trial of Gabriel de Gra-
nada,” ed. C. Adler, 7b. No. vii.). In 1646 and the
following years autos continued to be held in Mexico;
at the first two of these, 71 persons, mostly Judai-
zers, appeared; at the auto of March 13, 1648, 48 per-
sons, among them Anna Xuarez; and in 1649 many
Judaizers were either readmitted to the Church or
burned in effigy. In 1659 Diego Diaz and Francisco
Botello suffered at the stake as faithful Jews (A.
de Castro, “Historia de los Judios en Esvajfia,”
p. 214; Puigblanch, “Inquisition Unveiled,” p..
106).
There were also tribunals at Lima and Carthagena.
One of the first victims at Lima, about 1581, was
the physician Juan Alvarez of Zafra, who, together
with his wife, children, and father, was burned asa
confessor of Judaism. <A few years later a similar
fate befell Manuel Lopez, also called “ Luis Coro-
nado.” A great auto da fé was held at Lima Jan. 23,
1639. Of the 63 Judaizers who then appeared 11 (and
these were the wealthiest) were burned. Among the
martyrs for Judaism on that day were the physician
Francisco Meldonado de Silva, also called “ Eli Naza-
reno,” and Diego Lopez de Fonseca. At the same
time the physician Thomas (Isaac) Tremifio (Tre-
bifio) de Sobremonte was burned at Lima, or, accord-
ing to another source, at Mexico. In all, 129 autos
da fé were held in America; and in the period be-
tween 1581 and 1776, 59 persons were burned alive,
and 18 in effigy.
The Inquisition was not introduced into Portugal
until after many struggles. Joln JI. (1521-57),
possessed of the most intense hatred for the Neo-
1642.
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Inquisition
Christians, began to intrigue for its establishment
in his dominions. He was supported in his schemes
by Queen Catherine, a granddaughter
Introduc- of Isabella the Catholic, and especially
tion into by aconverted Jew named Henrique
Portugal. Nunes, who represented to the king
that the greater part of the Neo-Chris-
tians were still Jews at heart, and who strongly urged
the institution of the tribunal.
A further stimulus to the introduction of the In-
quisition was the appearance of the young Portuguese
visionary David Reubini, who, after circumcision,
called himself Solomon MouKko (Malcho) and the
impressionable Diogo Pires, who was so power-
fully influenced by Molko. The Maranos, trusting
in the Messianic redemption proclaimed by Molko,
ventured in their enthusiasm to rescue a few women
from the clutches of the Spanish Inquisition. En-
raged at this, Selayo, the inquisitor of Badajoz,
wrote to the king (March 30, 1528), beseeching him
to follow the example of the neighboring country
and to extirpate the Neo-Christian heretics, root and
branch. At the same time, the Maranos in Gouvea
were falsely accused of having desecrated an image
of the Virgin and were subjected to other ground-
less charges. The king, influenced by these facts as
well as by the continued urging of the young queen
and of “other powerful lords,” as stated in a memo-
rial of the Neo-Christians to the pope, was finally
induced to adopt the plan for the introduction of
the Inquisition. But Jews were burned in Portu-
gal even before the introduction of the Inquisition.
To the great delight of the populace, who arranged
for a bull-fight to celebrate the event, the Bishop of
Ceuta, a former Franciscan, caused five Maranos who
had observed the Mosaic law to be publicly burned
in Olivenca, which town belonged to his diocese.
The king, in spite of the dissuasion of the noble
Bishop Fernando Coutinho of Silves and of Diogo
Pinheiro of Funchal, applied to the pope for per-
mission to introduce the Holy Office. In the spring
of 1531 the king commissioned Bras
John III. Neto, his ambassador at the Curia, to
Seeks to obtain from Pope Clement VII. as
In- quickly and secretly as possible a bull
to this effect. At first Bras Neto en-
countered great opposition; for Cardi-
nal Lorengo Pucci openly declared that King John’s
chief aim was, as had been that of Ferdinand and
Isabella, to get possession of the Maranos’ property.
Pucci, however, died shortly after, and the bull
“Cum ad Nihil Magis,” which gratified King John’s
wishes, was obtained (Dec. 17, 1531). At the sugges-
tion of Affonso, the Franciscan Diogo da Silva, con-
fessor of King John, was appointed grand inquisitor.
But it was a far cry from the papal decree to the
actual establishment of the Inquisition. Da Silva,
who had been appointed grand inquisitor, refused to
accept the position, which he detested.
troduce It.
Restrain- In the meanwhile the Neo-Christians,
ing the who were kept informed of the prog-
Neo- ress of affairs by friends in Rome, made
Christians. preparations to emigrate, although a
law issued by John on June 14, 1582,
sought to make it impossible for them to leave the
country, Every one who should aid or abet the Ma-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
596
ranos in theirattempt to escape was to be punished
with confiscation of property, and any owner of
a vessel and any captain who should transport them
were to be sentenced to death.
As it seemed to the Neo-Christians that they were
destined to be killed, they determined to adopt the
most extreme measures and to turn to Rome for pro-
tection. They sent to that city the talented Marana
Duarte de Paz, who obtained first the suspension
of the bull, then (Oct. 17, 1582) its abrogation, and
finally (April 7, 1533) the bull of pardon (“ Bulle de
Perdon”). In this the pope pointed out that those
who had been baptized by force were not to be re-
garded as members of the Church, and hence not
as heretics; but that, on the other
*‘Bulle de hand, those who had been voluntarily
Perdon” brought into the Church by their
of 1533. parents were to be regarded as Chris-
tians, and even if they had neverthe-
less been educated as Jews were to be treated with
consideration and won over to Christianity through
kindness and love.
According to this bull all Neo-Christians shared in
the edict of pardon and were to be enabled to leave
the country with their property. Disregarding the
threats of ban and excommunication, John pre-
vented the publication of the bull; and he employed
every means to have it repealed. He sent D. Hen-
Tiquez de Menezes as ambassador extraordinary to
Rome. With the aid of Cardinal Santiquatro,
Menezes finally succeeded in having the matter in-
vestigated by a new commission, consisting of Car-
dinals Campeggio and De Cesis, in whose knowledge
and integrity the pope had full confidence, of San-
tiquatro and of the Portuguese ambassador. Asa
result of their report Clement issued a new and
much more energetic brief (April 2, 1534), and a few
months later (July 26) another brief to the nuncio in
Lisbon, ordering him to publish the bull of April 7,
1533, without delay and to effect the liberation of all
imprisoned Maranos.
Under Clement’s successor, Paul TII., a friend to
the Jews, the struggle concerning the Inquisition in
Portugal was continued. King John,
Continued in whose interest the Spanish ambas-
Struggles. sador at Rome, Count de Cifuentas,
and Cardinal Santiquatro were active,
left, no means untried to induce the pope to repeal
the bull of his predecessor. At the same time the
representatives of the Neo-Christians, Duarte de
Paz and Diogo Rodriguez Pinto (who joined De
Paz later), were not idJe. Paul decided in Nov. (3
or 26), 1584, that for the present the “ Bulle de Per-
don” should not be published. He then submitted
the matter for further careful investigation to 4
comniission consisting of theologians and jurists,
among whom were Cardinals Hieronymo Ghenucci,
author of a work in defense of the Neo-Christians,
and Jacobo Simonetta, one of the most learned men
in the Curia. The majority of this commission ex-
pressed itself in favor of the Neo-Christians. Atthe
same time the papal nuncio in Lisbon informed the
Curia that the “Bulle de Perdon” had been published
throughout the land, but that the king not only re-
fused to liberate those imprisoned for their religious
belief, but had made new arrests and had renewed
597
(June 14, 1585) for three years the law of July 14,
1532, prohibiting emigration.
With John, as with his father Manuel, the chief
concern was the property of the Maranos; and for
this reason neither father nor son wished them to
leave the country. The former desired to baptize
them; the latter, to burn them. Knowing this, the
pope issued the humane brief of July 20, 1585, in
which every one, on pain of excommunication, was
forbidden to hinder the emigration of the Maranos.
Soon after the issue of this brief the pope made a
proposition to King John—it is said on the advice of
Diogo Rodriguez Pinto—to grant pardon to all Neo-
Christians, even to those imprisoned, and to permit
them to leave the country within a year. In case
he did this, the pope would permit the king to intro-
duce the Inquisition in the way he desired. John,
however, would listen to no concessions of this sort.
Tired of these endless negotiations, Paul issued
(Oct. 12, 1585) a new and decisive bull, similar to
the “Bulle de Perdon” of April 7, 1583, in which he
suppressed all suits brought against
Bull the Neo-Christians, canceled every
of Oct. 12, confiscation of their property, and an-
1535. nulled all sentences against them with-
out regard to place of residence or to
any avowals made by them. In short, he declared
all Neo-Christians of Portugal to be free. This bull
was published in all parts of the country, the king
being unable to prevent it. The whole Christian
population of Portugal feared the anger of Rome.
John, and still more eagerly the Infante Affonso,
hastened to liberate the imprisoned Maranos, espe-
cially those who had a recommendation from Rome
(* Bullar. Roman.” ed. Cherubini, i. 712 e¢ seg.:
Herculano, “Da Origem . . . da Inquisicao,” ii. 148
et seq.).
It was said that the pope was willing to sanction
the institution of a tribunal for matters of faith on
the following conditions: namely, that the Inquisi-
tion should not be an independent institution; that
the evidence of servants, low persons, or convicts
should not be received; that the testimony of wit-
nesses should not be kept secret; that the prisons
should be kept open; that suits should not be
brought against deceased persons; that the property
of heretics should not fall to the state treasury, but
to the heirs of the condemned; and that appeal to
the Curia should be permitted (Sousa, “ Annes,” p.
459; Herculano, J.e. ii. 107 et seg.). The hatred of the
king toward the Maranos and his greed were too
great to permit him to assent to any such conditions.
In order to attain his end he turned to his brother-
in-law, Emperor Charles V., to secure his interven-
tion with the pope. Accordingly, when Charles
entered Rome (April, 1586) as victor over the Turks,
he asked the pope as a special favor to grant John’s
demand. Paul, however, refused, saying that the
Maranos of Portugal, who had been forcibly bap-
tized, could not be regarded as Christians.
Meanwhile Duarte de Paz had been disposed of
—not without the knowledge or the connivance of
King John—and unfortunately the enormous sums
which he had promised the Roman Curia could not
be raised by the Neo-Christians. In vain did the
nuncio Della Ruvere negotiate with the rich Maranos
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
a
Inquisition
in Evora; he also put himself in communication
with the wealthy Diogo Mendes, who had already
made so many pecuniary sacrifices for the sake of
his fellow sufferers. Paul could not long withstand
the violent demands of the emperor. The Portu-
guese ambassador at Rome, Alvare Mendes de Vas-
concellos, pressed for a settlement of the affair; and
on May 28, 1586, the pope issued a bull in which the
establishment of the Inquisition in Portugal was
definitely announced and by which the
Bull bulls of April 7, 1533, and Oct. 12,
of May 28, 1535, were wholly repealed (Aboab,
1536. “Nomologia o Discursos Legales,” p.
293, the text of which is followed by
Manasseh b. Israel, “ Humble Addresses,” p. 15, in
Lucien Wolf, “Menasseh ben Israel’s Mission to
Oliver Cromwell,” p. 95; Sousa, @.¢. p. 897; ¢dem,
“Provas,” ii. 718 e¢ seg.). Paul III., however, im-
posed, for the first three years, the conditions that
the procedure customary in civil courts should be
observed; that the names of the accusers and wit-
nesses should not be concealed from the unfortunate
Neo-Christians; and that during the first ten years
the property of the condemned should be secured to
their nearest relatives. Joln ostensibly acceded to
these conditions.
Before the Inquisition began its activity, the hu-
mane inquisitor-general Diogo da Silva, who had
been recommended by Paul, promulgated a mani-
festo in which all Maranos were required within
thirty days to make a complete confession of faith,
under promise of full pardon. Before the thirty
days had expired two of the most influential Neo-
Christians of Lisbon, Jorge Leaé and Nufio Hen-
riquez, entered into negotiations with the Infante
Louis, the king’s brother, for an extension of this
period to one year. All the representations, how-
ever, of the Infante and the advice of the most im-
portant statesmen were disregarded by the king.
Thereupon, the “representatives of the Jewish na-
tion,” as they are called in documents of the time,
appealed from the pope “ignorant of the true state
of affairs,” as they put it, to the pope whom they
would acquaint with the real facts; and they tried
to get from him a repeal of the bull of May 28.
They declared openly:
“Tf your Holiness should disregard the petitions and the tears
of the Jewish nation, which we do not indeed expect, we hereby
swear before God and before your Holiness with loud lamenta-
tions, and we solemnly declare before the whole world, that,
since no place has been found where we have been admitted
among Christians and since we, our honor, our children, our flesh
and blood, have been persecuted, though we have tried to ab-
stain from Judaism, if hereafter tyranny does not cease, we
will do that which not one of us would otherwise have thought
of; namely, we will return to our Mosaic religion and will
abandon Christianity, through the teachings of which we have
been forced to take this step.
** We solemnly declare this, in the face of the cruelty to which
we are sacrificed; we will make use of the right assured to us
by your Holiness, by the cardinal protector, and by the ambas-
sadors of Portugal, and we will all leave our old homes to seek
safety and protection among less cruel peoples ” (see the memo-
rial in Herculano, ii. 182).
The Maranos were aided considerably in their
struggle against the Inquisition by the nuncio Della
Ruvere, who pictured the cruel procedure of King
John in the darkest colors, and succeeded in per-
suading the pope to entrust the bull of May 23, 15386,
“w
Inquisition
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
598
toa commission for investigation. This commission
consisted of Cardinal Ghinucci, Jacobacio, and Car-
dinal Simoneta. A new nuncio, Hiecronymo Ricenati
Capodiferro, was sent to Portugal with directions to
protect the Neo-Christians and to sce
Further = that the king punctiliously fulfilled his
Ne- agreement. In consequence of com-
gotiations. plaints from Maranos concerning the
inhuman treatment to which they were
subjected, a brief was issued (Feb., 1537), in which
the pope called upon the king, under pain of excom-
munication, no longer to oppose the emigration of
Neo-Christians. It also authorized every one to give
the accused help and support. Capodiferro, who
was not proof against gifts of money, liberated the
Maranos from the dungeons of the Inquisition and
helped them to escape to Turkey and to Barbary.
In spite of a grand inquisitor and all the machinery
for persecution, the efforts of the nuncio practically
put a check upon the Inquisition, and the Neo-Chris-
tians for a short time enjoyed repose, from which
they were aroused by a remarkable incident.
In Feb., 1539, placards were found on the doors of
the cathedrals and churches of Lisbon, with the
words: “The Messiah has not come.
The Lisbon Jesus was not thetrue Messiah.” The
Placard. king and Capodiferro offered rewards
of 10,000 (and 5,000) crusados for the
discovery of the author of this proclamation. The
Maranos, in order to divert suspicion from. them-
selves and to escape the popular fury. posted the
following proclamation on the cathedral door: “T,
the author, am neither Spaniard nor Portuguese,
but an Englishman; and if instead of 10,000 you
should offer 20,000 escudos, you would not discover
my name.” Nevertheless the author was detected
in the person of a Marano by the name of Manuel
da Costa. Stretched on therack he confessed every-
thing; and after both his hands had been cut off he
was publicly burned in Lisbon. The mild treat-
ment of the Neo-Christians again ecased. The weak
and lenient Diogo da Silva was removed; the Car-
dinal-Infante Henrique, a brother of the king, was
appointed grand inquisitor; and the fanatical John
of Mello and the immoral John Soares were made
inquisitors. In order to win over the Curia, King
John sent as ambassador to Rome the unprincipled
Pedro Mascarenhas, who, by means of money gifts
and promises, enlisted the cardinals on his side.
Only the pope remained immovable. He insisted on
the recall of the newly appointed inquisitor-general,
and, influenced by reports concerning the cruelty
of the tribunal, he issued a new bull Oct. 12, 1539,
ordaining that the names of the ac-
Bull cuser aud of the witnesses be tald to
of Oct. 12, the accused; that false witnesses be
1539. punished; that no one be arraigned on
the ground of statements made on the
rack; that a commutation of punishment to a loss of
property be not allowed without the consent of the
condemned; and that appeal to Rome be always
permitted.
This bull remained a dead letter, and John carried
on his work with the greatestenergy. In a commu-
nication to his ambassador, Mascarenhas, he offered
to renounce all claim to the property of the con-
demned for ten full years, if the pope would grant
the Portuguese Inquisition the same independence
which that of Spain possessed. Scarcely had the
ambassador given this letter to the pope, when Hec-
tor Antonio, brother of Diogo Antonio, who had
come directly from Portugal, brought a complaint
concerning the inhuman procedure of the Cardinal-
Infante.
The bull of Oct. 12, 1539, was never published.
D. Henrique, who was hated by the pope, remained
grand inquisitor; and the Holy Office developed an
ever greater activity. The first tribunals were ces-
tablished in Lisbon, Evora, and Coimbra. The tri-
bunalin Lisbon, the first inauisitor of which was
John of Mello, celebrated its first public auto da fé
Oct. 23, 1541. Among those burned was Goncalo
Bandara, a shoemaker who had proclaimed himself
a prophet. A few months later the tribunal in
Evora, the authority of which extended over Alem-
tejo and Algave, held its first auto da
First fé. There the first to suffer death at
Portuguese the stake were David Reubeni and
Auto da Fé. Luis Dias, who had called himself the
Messiah and who had imposed upon
many Neo-Christians, among them the body-physi-
cian of D. Affonso, brother of the Cardinal-Infante.
The prisons of the Inquisition filled rapidly, and
pyres burned in many places. The Maranos, bit-
terly disappointed in their expectations, tried only
to limit the power of the tribunal and to have an-
other nuncio sent to Portugal for their protection.
To these ends they placed large sums at the disposal
of their representative in Rome, Diogo Fernandez
Neto. Neto had gained a powerful supporter in Car-
dinal Parisio, who during his residence in Bologna
in the second and third sessions of the “Consil pro
Christianis Noviter Conversis” had demonstrated
“by reason and law, that considering they [the
Jews] were forced to accept baptism and were not
converted willingly, they had not fallen, nordo they
fall, under any censure” (Aboab, f.c. p. 98; Manas-
seh ben Israel, Zc. p. 96). Although Neto had of-
fered to make the pope a present of 10,000 crusados
and to give the nuncio 250 crusados every month,
and although the pope was strongly urged to take
the step by Cardinals Parisio and Carpi, it was only
after a stormy debate between the pontiff and the
Portuguese minister De Sousa that the pope re-
solved to appoint a new nuncio, He chose Luis
Lippomano, Bishop of Bergamo. Lippomano had
not yet reached Lisbon when a remarkable incident
occurred, which was exploited by King John to his
own advantage. Letters were seized which serious-
ly compromised the agents of the Maranos, the new
nuncio, and even the pope himself.
The situation of the Maranos was now hopeless.
The hands of the nuncio were tied: he could do
nothing forthem. Theiragent, Neto, languished in
prison; the majority of the cardinals, with P.
Caraffa (the future Pope Paul LV.) at their head,
sided with the king. The Neo-Christians, who had
nothing more to lose, then sent to Rome new agents
who bv large gifts succeeded in winning back many
cardinals to their cause. In order to refute the false
reports of the Portuguese court and its agents, they
in 1544 caused a comprehensive memorial to be pre-
599
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Inquisition
pared at Rome and given to the vice-chancellor,
Alexander Farnese, who was friendly to the Jews
and was at that time the most influential personage
in the Curia.
This memorial, provided with forty-four supple-
ments and containing an enumeration of all the
triais and persecutions that the Maranos had suffered
from their enforced baptism in 1493 up to the time
of the memorial, exists in manuscript (““Symuicta
Lusitania,” XxXxXi., xxxii.), in the Bibliotheca da
Ajuda and in the Borghesi library at Rome. Her-
culano, Ze. ii, 109 et seg., gives several extracts
from it.
The tribunals proceeded with the greatest cruelty
even before the Inquisition was sanctioned. The
court at Lisbon, to which all the other courts of the
couutry were subordinate, was presided over by the
inquisitor-general John of Mello, the most implaca-
ble enemy of the Neo-Christians. The
Cruelties unfortunates, who languished in un-
Perpe- derground dungeons, had their limbs
trated at wrenched off; they were bastinadoed;
Lisbon. the soles of their feet were cut open,
the cuts were smeared with butter;
and their bodies were then held over the flames. The
inquisitor in Coimbra was the former bishop of 8.
Thomas, a Dominican who hated the Neo-Christians
with inhuman hatred; and his nephew, a lad of six-
teen who could not even write, was his secretary.
A rich Marano from Porto, Stmon Alvares, who had
settled in Coimbra with his wife and children, was
imprisoned by the Inquisition after nine years’ rest-
dence in the city. His little daughter, scarcely ten
years old, was placed in front of a brazier of glow-
ing coals and was told that if she did not at once
confess that her parents had struck a crucifix in
Porto, her hands would be burned off immediately.
In her utter fright the innocent child confessed,
Alvares and his wife were burned.
The activity of the Inquisition in Coimbra quickly
spread over the province of Beira. It sent itsagents
to Trancoso, of which the richest inhabitants were
Neo-Christians, most of whom fled to the mountains.
Thirty-five persons, the old and sick, who had been
unable to escape, were arrested and thrown into the
prisons of the Inquisition. The first inquisitor in
Evora was Pedro Alvares de Paredes, a Castilian
who had been inquisitor in Llerena, but had been
dismissed on account of various irregularities. He
possessed a rare faculty for extorting avowals from
the accused. He forged letters and read forged de-
cisions to the prisoners, and by this means forced his
victims to admit what he demanded of them. In La-
mego, the home of many Maranos, the Inquisition
was introduced toward the end of 1542, to the inde-
scribable joy of the populace. At the sight of the of-
ficers of the Inquisition the Neo-Christians were filled
with such terror that most of them fled to Tras-os-
Montes, but they were brought back to Lamego. A
little later Porto also received a tribunal. The bishop
of the diocese, Balthasar Limpo, a Carmelite, was the
inquisitor, and he waged a war of complete exter-
mination against the Neo-Christians. Criminals and
prostitutes were hired to testify against them. A
veritable monster was @ certain Francisco Gil, who
went about his business of capturing Maranos very
craftily. The number of imprisoned Neo-Christians
became so large that the jails of the Inquisition
could not hold them. In Lisbon the Estaés, situated
on the Rocio place, and several public buildings
were utilized as prisons. Seven or cight girls and
women were often stretched on the rack in one day.
The description which the above-mentioned memo.
rial of the Neo-Christians gives of the cruel proce-
dure of the Portuguese Iuquisition in the early years
of its unnatural existence wholly agrees with the
account of 8. Usque in his “Consolacam,” p. 202a.
But the efforts of the Neo-Christians finally proved
effective. Paul III, once more opposed the deeds of
violence and excesses of the Portuguese Inquisition.
In place of the weak Lippomano heappointed a new
nuncio, Cardinal Ricci de Monte Policiano. King
John, however, allowed the new nuncio to enter
Lisbon only after a long interchange
Bull of communications between the Por-
of Aug. 22, tuguese court and the Curia (Sept.,
1546. 1545). The decisiveness of Ricci, who
sternly rebuked the Cardinal-Infante,
the king, and the prelates for the inhuman proce-
dure of the inquisitors, caused the fight between
Jobn and the Curia to be renewed, and fresh cause
for strife was furnished by the bull of Aug. 22, 1546,
which prolonged that of May 238, 1536, for a twelve-
month and prohibited the confiscation of the prop-
erty of Neo-Christians for ten more years. The
king, although at first not a little angered over this
bull, became in the end more submissive. Four of
the most prominent Maranos were entrusted by him
with a commission to define the conditions under
which their fellow believers and sufferers would
submit to a religious tribunal. They prepared a
document, presented to the king in Jan., 1547, in
which they demanded that the long-decreed pardon
should be put into effect; that the severe proccdure
of the Inquisition should be mitigated; and that the
names of accusers and witnesses should be commu-
nicated to the accused.
“If we should be granted peace,” it says, ‘‘ all Neo-Christians
who are now in the country would stay here and those also who
are wandering in Galicia and Castile, and many
Memorial of those who have already settled in Flanders,
of the Neo- Italy, and other lands would return; they
Christians, would establish business houses and resuscitate
Jan., 1547. the commerce, which igs now prostrate... .
The severity of the Spanish Inquisition ought
not to be taken as a model. The Portuguese resolve to leave
home nore guickly ; it would be in vain to forbid them to emi-
grate. Experience has shown how readily they abandon prop-
erty and everything else and with what fearlessness they defy
every danger in order to escape from their birthplace. Without
moderation and tulerance few of us will remain in the country.
Even in Castile we are not ill treated until we have been found
guilty of some crime. ... To this extent our fellow believers
exposed themselves to the dangers of the Inquisition and never-
theless how many escaped from Spain’ At present those who
fiee from Portugal are hospitably received in the different
Christian states and are protected with especial privileges,
whieh we formerly did not dare to expect. This, Sire, is our
attitude.”
This plan proposed by the Neo-Christians was
laid before the inquisitors for approval; but they
would hear of noconcessions. In order to bring the
question to a final settlement the Curia resolved to
proclaim a general pardon for all Maranos who
should publicly confess their adherence to Judaism,
and at the same time to order the king to grant them
Inquisition
a@ vear in which to take their free departure from
the kingdom. But to these proposals John would
not agree on any conditions. The pope, unable to
hold out any longer, finally submitted, although
with a heavy heart. Ugolino, a nephew of Cardi-
nal Santiquatro, was sent as commissioner extraor-
dinary to transmit three bulls—(1) for the institution
of the Inquisition, (2) the one of pardon (May 15,
1547), and (8) that suspending the privileges granted
—to the king and, according to his
Submission instructions, tothe “chefes da nacido,”
of the representatives of the Neo-Chris-
the Curia. tians. (Allof these bulls—dated before
July, 1547—are preserved in manu-
scriptin the national archivesat Lisbon.) This ended
the twenty years’ struggle. The Inquisition in Por-
tugal had been held in check by the expeuditure of
enormous sunis by the Neo-Christians; and the king
finally boughtit from Rome by means of still greater
sums. Asa reward for the cardinals’ efforts, several
of them received rich preferments and considerable
pensions. Cardinal Farnese, the Jast to be won over
by the king, received the bishopric of Viseu, which
was taken away from Miguel da Silva; and Santi-
quatro was given an annual pension of 1,500 cru-
sados.
On July 10, 1548, the pardon was published in the
Cathedral of Lisbon, and soon afterward the general
recantation of the Neo-Christians took place in front
of the Church of the Hospitalers. The prisons of
the tribunals in Lisbon, Evora, and Coimbra were
emptied fora time; and the activity
Recanta- of the tribunals of Porto, Lamego,
tion of Neo- and Thomar came to an end forever.
Christians, About 1,800 persons were set free
1548. (Herculano, “Da Origem,” iii. 804 e¢
seg.; “ Historia da Inquisicéo,” p. 5;
Aboab, é.c, p. 293; “ Miinchener Gelehrt. Anzeigen,”
1847, No. 79).
After a few years the Inquisition resumed its oper-
ations. The Neo-Christians were remorselessly ar-
rested and stretched upon the rack. They enjoyed
a short respite during the reign of Sebastian, who
allowed them, in return for the enormous sum of
225,000 ducats, to leave the country, and released
them for ten years from confiscation of their prop-
erty. Much more cruel was the procedure of the
Cardinal-Infante Henrique, who caused many Ma-
ranos to be burned to death. Under his rule they
were so sorely oppressed that they complained to
the pope, although in vain.
After the death of D. Henrique, Portugal fell
under Spanish rule, and the Inquisition celebrated
its greatest triumphs. On Aug. 3, 1603, a grand
auto da fé was held on the Praca Ribeiro in Lisbon,
in presence of the viceroy. The Franciscan Di-
ego de la Assencion, who had been convinced of
the truths of Judaism by reading the Bible, was
burned, together with Thomar Barocas and other
persons who sacrificed themselves for
General their faith. A year later Philip III,
Pardon of in return for the payment of a large
1604. sum, interceded with Pope Clement
VIII. in behalf of the Maranos; and in
a bull dated Aug. 28, 1604, the pope granted a
general pardon. As soon as the bull reached Lis-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
600
bon an auto da fé of 155 persons was arranged;
but the accused acknowledged their fault, and
were set free (Jan. 16, 1605). Under Philip IV.,
Lisbon, Evora, and Coimbra bad at least one auto da
fé every year. At one which was celebrated in Lis-
bon May 5, 1624, the deacon (“diaconus”) Antonio
Homem, who had led divine service and preached
in a synagogue in Lisbon, was burned. After an
auto da fé had been held in Evora on April 1, and
one in Lisbon on Sept. 2, 1629, a law was passed
(Nov. 17 of that year) permitting Neo-Christians to
emigrate without hindrance.
King John [V., of the house of Braganza, after
the liberation of Portugal from Spanish rule, had,
it was claimed, the earnest intention of granting
liberty to the Maranos and of stopping the In-
quisition (1640); but he was prevented from so
doing by the grand inquisitor Francisco da Costa.
According to another opinion, the Neo-Christians
offered the king a large sum of money
Renewed if he would suspend the tribunal; but
Activity he decided in the negative. However
Under —_ this may have been, the Maranos con-
John IV. tinued to be tortured, garroted, or
burned. On April 2, 1642, two very
rich Neo-Christians accused of professing Judaism
were burned in the presence of the queen; and on
Dec. 15 (22), 1647, Isaac de Castro Tartas, a philos-
opher, was also burned with four other Neo-Chris-
tians, while 60 were condemned to lifelong impris-
onment or other punishments. On Dec. 1, 1652,
the Portuguese consul-general and author Manuel
Fernandes de Villa-Real suffered death by fire in
Lisbon, and on Dec. 15, 1658, 90 Neo-Christians ap-
peared at an auto da fé, of whom 6 were burned
because they kept the Jewish festivals and would
not eat swine’s flesh. But, as the English consul
Maynard wrote to Thurloe, the secretary of state in
London, “their greatest crime was the possession of
wealth” (“Collection of State Papers,” vii. 567).
Two years later (Oct. 17, 1660), at an auto da fé in
Lisbon, many Neo-Christians were burned at the
stake; andon Oct. 26, 1664, no less than 2387 persons
appeared at an auto in Coimbra. An attempt to
break the power of the tribunal was made at this
time by the learned Jesuit Antonio
Attempt to Vicira, who was employed in the state
Restrain service under John LY., and who ex-
the ercised great influence over King Pe-
Tribunal. dro,whosetutorhe was. Forsome un-
known reason Vieira was degraded by
the Inquisition in Coimbra and condemned to prison.
Set free after six months’ imprisonment, he went to
Rome (1669) with the intention of revenging him.
self on the tribunal. The Jesuit provincial of Mala
bar, Balthasar da Costa, during his stay in Lisbon
undertook to pave the way for Vieira. In a con-
ference with the prince regent Da Costa suggested
the means by which Portugal might reconquer
India. He advised the prince regent to obtain
a general pardon for the Neo-Christians, who
would then gladly give him the sums_neces-
sary for carrying on the war. The Neo-Christians
also were not idle. They put themselves in com-
munication with Manuel Fernandes, the father con-
fessor of Pedro, and came to an agreement witu
601
him, of which the chief point was that the Inquisi-
tion should no longer keep them in prison nor con-
demn them, On the advice of Manuel Fernandes,
in order to give the matter more authority, the opin-
ions of theologians and of the Jesuits at the Univer-
sity of Coimbra and other colleges were obtained
(1673). All spoke in favor of the Neo-Christians.
Thereupon, Manuel Fernandes, at the desire of the
prince regent, placed the matter before the pope in
a document composed by himself; and the Neo-
Christians, In accordance with the pontiff’s wish,
sent @ representative to Rome, where Vicira was dis-
playing great activity in their behalf. Their repre-
sentative was Francisco de Azevedo, who placed
abundant means at the dis-
posal of the Jesuits and
truthfully described the
inhuman procedure of the
——————
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
|
|
|
:
|
Inquisition
In Lisbon, Evora, and Coimbra there were autos in
1701, 1704, and in the following years. At one held
in Lisbon Sept. 6, 1705, 60 persons appeared as pro-
fessors of Judaism, and the Bishop of Cranganor
made a speech in which he shamefully attacked
Judaism. His accusations were refuted by David
Nieto, haham of London. On June 30, 1706, six
Judaizers were burned in Lisbon; and
In the on July 9, 1713, an auto da fé was cel-
Eighteenth ebrated in that city, at which the in-
Century. quisitor Francisco Pedroso, ina speech
which appeared in print, launched
forth into a dogmatic admonition against Jewish
faithlessness. At the same time the condemnation
of a nun who was accused
of being a secret Jewess
was the occasion of a veri-
table revolt among the
‘|
———
Clement X. issued a bull
Oct. 8, 1674, which sus-
Inquisition, In the light uf
of these events, Pope Ey
=;
Il
ee
pended the activity of =
the Portuguese Inquisition =4
and strictly prohibited =7)
every condemnation or =
confiscation of property.
Searcely had this bull
become known through
the papal nuncio in Lis-
bon, when the inquisitors
and a considerable portion
of the Cortes, which had
just assembled, urged
Pedro to repress the pre-
tensions of the Neo-Chris-
tians; and the regent in-
sisted that everything
should be restored to “its
former state.” To this,
however, the nuncio could
SIN
e
t
«yt 4)
UHURU LIFT A A A
il
EN
Vee Sh boats
=
wy
UAT CTO
Saas
at ite A vd
SS
rm
ine
iinet
nuns. The tribunal in
Coimbra organized anauto
da fé June 17, 1718, at
which more than 60 Mara-
nos, all of them from Bra-
ganza, were condemned,
and some of them, ¢.9.,
Manuel Rodriguez de Car-
valho and Isabela Mendes,
accused of desecrating the
host, were strangled and
then burned (Ross, “ Dis-
sertatio Philos. Qua Inqui-
sitionis Iniquitas Evinci-
tur,” Marburg, 1737). An
apothecary from Bragan-
za, Francisco Diaz, met
a like fate in Coimbra
March 14, 1723. OnSept.
1,1739,4 menand8 women -
were condemned to death
by burning, and 35 Juda-
izers were condemned to
TT TUT Tie
MIELE LAS SESE SLM,
7?
<=
=
=
=
=
iz
=
=
=
ie
IMAL
att
MSOESS,
HUT
! iA
not and would not agree.
imprisonment for life.
Dissensions again arose
between the Portuguese
court and the Curia. The
new inquisitor-general Ve-
rissimo da Alemcastro, appointed by Innocent XI.,
Clement’s successor, refused to obey the papal com-
mand. Thereupon, the pope ordered the nuncio to
proclaim again the bull of Oct. 3, 1674, and com-
manded the inquisitor-general to hand over to the
nuncio within ten days all the documents of the
tribunals, After long negotiations the Inquisition
resumed its activity on the strength of the bull of
Aug. 22, 1681; and on May 10, 1682, an auto da fe
was held in Lisbon, the first of the new series, and
the largest and most horrible in the whole history of
the Portuguese Inquisition. The cruelty of the In-
quisition is shown by a law of Aug. 5, 1688, accord-
ing to which children of seven years and upward
were to be taken away from all those who had once
been placed before a tribunal (Manuel Thomaz, “ Leis
Extravagantes do Reinode Portugal,” p. 188; Kayser-
ling, “Gesch. der Juden in Portugal,” pp. 355 e¢ seq.).
Even in the eighteenth century backsliding Neo-
Christians were burned at the stake in Portugal.
The Banner of the Inquisition at Goa,
(After Picart.)
The power of the Inqui-
sition was broken by King
Joseph. In 1751 he is-
sued a decree to the effect
that before trial the prosecutors of the tribunal must
inform the accused of the charge against him, and
of the names of the witnesses, that the accused
should be free to choose his own counsel, that no
verdict should be rendered without the approval of
the government, and that no further auto should be
held. During the great earthquake which destroyed
Lisbon (Nov. 1, 1755), the building in which the
proceedings of the Inquisition took place fell to the
ground, A theater now occupies the site. The Inqui-
sition was completely abolished on March 31, 1821.
The Portuguese carried the Inquisition to their
transoceanic possessions. The wealth acquired by
the many Maranos who sought pro-
In the tection there opened up a new field for
Portuguese its activity, and as early as 1555 the
Colonies. Jesuit Belchior Carneiro tried to crush
such colonists. Its chief seat was at
Goa, in South India, and its first grand inquisitor,
the archbishop Gaspar de Lead, who issued a proc-
Inquisition THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 602
Insanity
lumation “to the people of Israel” Sept. 29, 1565, | the power which became so fateful to the Roman
In Brazil the Inquisition raged more fiercely than | Jews by the bull * Turbato Corde,” issued by Pope
the famine or the plague. A trace of Jewish blood Clement IV. July 26, 1267, and con-
was considered the greatest crime. <All Maranos who At Rome. firmed by Gregory X., Nicolas IL,
were found in the Portuguese colonies or on ships and Nicolas TV. It was directed chiefly
bound thither had to be sent back te Portugal; | against the neophytes who returned to Judaism, and
and if no ship was returning at the time, they | also against those Jews who had seduced the neo-
were taken to Goa and held captive there until a ves- | phytes and confirmed them in their purpose. In 1299
sel set sail for Portugal. At the auto da fé held at | the Jews of Rome complained to Pope Boniface VIII.
Lisbon on Dec, 15, 1649, 5 Judaizers of Pernambueo | that the inquisitors concealed from them the names
were burned. At Rio de Janeiro the Inquisition be- | of their accusers and of the witnesses; and the pope
gan its persecution of the Maranos in 1702, when | thereupon protected the Jews, being uuwilling that
Bishop Francisco da $. Jeronimo of Evora was made | they should besubjected to injustice and oppression.
governor. From Rio shiploads of Maranos were The later Inquisition began under Pope Paul IIL,
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PROCESSION OF THE INQUISITION AT GOA.
(After Picart.)
who at the beginning of his reign had protected the
sent every year to Lisbon and handed over to the
Spanish and Portuguese Maranosand had permitted
Inquisition, or the reverse was the case, and Mara-
nos in Portugal were sentenced to several years’ | them free sojourn in Rome. In April, 1542, he in-
exile in Brazil. Among those who suffered death at | stituted the “Congregatio Sancti Ofticti,” consisting
the stake were Therese Paes de Jesus (1720), seventy- | of six cardinals; and on Sept. 4o0f the same year the
five years old, wife of Francisco Mendes Simoés; | Franciscan Cornelio of Montalcino, who had em-
Manuel Lopez de Carvalho of Bahia (1726); John | braced Judaism, was burned at Rome by the pontiff’s
Thomas de Castro (1729); and the wife of Francisco ; order. The inflexible Pietro Caraffa, Pope Paul
Pereira (1731), Many Maranos born at Rio de Ja- | IV., who lived only for the Holy Office, made the
neiro and living there, among them Joseph Gomez | Italian Inquisition the pecr of the Spanish in cruelty.
de Paredes, an “estudiante de gramatica,” twenty- | On April 30, 1556, he decreed that all Jews or
four years of age, together with his elder brother | Maranos arriving from Portugal should be imme-
and his sister, twenty years old, were sentenced to | diately burned; and in the following May, 24 per-
imprisonment for life at the auto da fé held at Lis- | sons, among them seven old men—Simon ibn Mena-
bon Oct. 10, 1728. hem, Joseph Oheb, Joseph Papo, Abraham Cohen,
At Rome the Inquisition was first invested with | Samuel Guascon, Abraham Falcon, and Abraham
603
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Inquisition
Insanity
d’Espaiia — together with Solomon Yahya, Jacob
Mozo, Moses Pazo, Solomon Pinto, Solomon Agua-
des, Abraham Lobo, David Reuben, and the pious
Donna Majora were publicly burned at Ancona (Jo-
seph ha-Kohen, “‘Emek ha-Bakah,” pp. 116 e¢ seq. ;
“RE. J.” xxxi, 222 et seq.). After the death of Paul
IV. there was a riot in Rome, during which the tribu-
nal of the Inquisition was stormed, the officials mal-
treated, the documents burned, and the prisons forci-
bly opened. Pius V. strengthened the tribunal; and
Gregory XIIT. gave to it new powers over the Jews.
On Feb. 9, 1088, Rome witnessed the burning of a
Jew, the Marano Joseph Saralbo, born in Portugal,
who Openly confessed Judaism at Ferrara. The
Inquisition likewise had unlimited power under
Paul V., Gregory XV., and Clement XI., although
the Jews did not suffer from it then.
In France, the Inquisition, which had been abol-
ished, was again instituted by Pius VIL. (Aug., 1814),
though against Jewish books and not against Jews.
In Sicily the Inquisition at an carly date directed
its activity chiefly against the Jews. Emperor
Frederick IL., who was not friendly
to them, although he gathered Jew-
ish scholars at his court, granted the
Inquisition in Sicily in 1224 one-third of the prop-
erty confiscated from the Jews. Pope Clemeut VI.
gave orders in 1344 to his legate in Naples to punish
all Jewish apostates severely; and in 1355 Innocent
VI. exhorted Francisco da Messina to perform his
dutics rigorously. The Jews, persecuted by the
Inquisition and deprived of their property, appealed
jn 1375 to the king, who thereupon commanded the
inguisitors to keep the captives in the royal prisons
only, to require civil judges to take part in the
prosecution, and to grant to the condemned the
right toappeal. In 1449 Pope Nicolas V. appointed
Matteo da Reggio inquisitor, directing him to put
to death Jews guilty of apostasy after baptism
—then of very frequent occurrence. In 1451 Curio
Lugardi, inquisitor of Palermo, compelled the Jews,
by virtue of the decree promulgated by Frederick
II. in 1224, to provide once a vear for the service of
the inquisitor and for his official traveling expenses.
Even before the introduction of the Inquisition into
Spain the above-mentioned law of 1224 was con-
firmed, at the request of the Sicilian inquisitor,
Philip de Barbieri, by Isabella the Catholic at Seville
(Sept. 2, 1477)and by Ferdinand of Aragon at Jerez
de la Frontera (Oct. 18, 1477). The Inquisition in
Sicily, having its chief seat at Palermo, was under
the jurisdiction of the inquisitor-general of Spain,
and was modeled after the Holy Office in that coun-
try. During its existence more than 200 persons
were burned alive, and 279 in effigy, while more
than 300 individuals were subjected to various lesser
punishments. On March 30, 1782, Ferdinand IV.,
amid the great rejoicing of the Jewish population,
abolished the institution.
In Sicily.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: There is as yet no history of tbe Inqufsitton
having especial reference to Judaizers; such a work, which
would be highly desirable, could be prepared only after a
thorough examination of the records of the Inquisition. These
are to be found at Madrid, Simancas, Seville, and Cordova,
at Lisbon, Coimbra, and Evora. In addition to the sources
mentioned in the text and in the article AUTO Da FE, see Ja-
vier G. Rodrigo, Historia Verdadera de la Inquisicion,
Madrid, 1876 et seq.; R. E. J. xv. 263, xviii. 231 et seq., xiii.
$e.
126 et seq.; E. N. Adler, in J.
Bethencourt, ib. xv. 251 ef seq., xvi. 185 et seq.
SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
G. M. K.
INSANITY: Mental disease. Among the Jews
the proportion of insane has been observed to be very
large. From statistics collected by Buschan he con-
cludes that they are four to six times more liable
to mental disease than are non-Jews. Lombroso
quotes Servi (“ Gli Israeliti di Europa,” 1872) to the
effect that in Italy there is one insane among 391
Jews, nearly four times as many as among the
Catholic population of that country. Verga (“ Ar-
chivio di Statistico,” 1880) shows that in 1870 there
was one insane among 1,775 Catholicsin Italy, while
with the Jews it reached the alarming proportion
of one insane in 884 of population. A similar phe-
nomenon has been observed in other countries. In
the various provinces of Germany and also in Den-
mark the percentage of Jewish insane is very large,
us is seen from the figures in the appended table:
Q. R. xiv. 698; Cardozo de
See also
| any Insane to 10,000.
Country. | z | ———___________________|_ Authority.
ii Christians. (Jews, |
/ »,| 4 Catholics ...8.84 1 ~ | ** Preussische
Prussia ........ 18v1 ( Protestants .8.47 § | 16.79 see, gt
883, xxx. 187.
a > \ Catholics : ba ye ) | aq |
erat 1880 i Protestants.24.2 | | 38.9
: seq| $ Catholics .-.14.0¢ | y«
Berlin ere eee reve L880 } Protestants. 18.1 i" 13.9 | ; 65
| ) Catholics ...13.81 | 49; wb. 3, D.
PORED is scosges }1880 } Protestants .17.5 § 19.3 | ¢ xii,
5 ‘ eS \ Catho] ics biena 19.3 { 6
Silesia ......... 1880) 1 protestants.22.1 {| 2%!
- lagoon! $ Catholics ...80.8 14 p
Hanover. c.s08 /1880) ) Protestants .29.2 { 52.9
otas Oona ‘: 1863) UTA. q BaF wee
Wirttemberg .. 1863) 4.8 6.4 ae S
Bavaria ovecces L863} 10.6 | 19.2 ~ 824
a diac (1871 98 (852 hf" et
re gree 188] 9.0 | 28.6 a28
tee Ree 1883 16.9 | 31.5 rae
co ttt e eee! fees 17.0 : 37.3 ae aS
Shree 885 16.4 | 27.19 ORD
Denmark....... 1863 §.8 | 33.4 ssst
A ess Gene ews ee 5.8 | 39.0 rea)
In this table the proportion of Jewish insane is
in nearly all places very large, in some cases more
than double that of the non-Jewish population.
Maximoff and Sikorsky have shown that similar
conditions prevail in Russia. Among the troops in
Kicv they found the following proportions of insane:
Russians: ¢ojasvadeshcecsieaes .....0.91 per cent insane.
POlES. 42.2440 duureah oh MOweeees seeea0O2 ~~ * _
Mohammedans........0066. erie ee 1.06 ef sid
JOWS osetia bs ed pale Soka wk see we 219. se
(*' Proceedings of the Twelfth International Medical Con-
gress,” vol. iv., part i., p. 661.)
There are similar statistics for other parts of Rus-
sia (see M. A. Ryazanski, “ Vrachebnaia Gazeta,”
1902, ix. 438-442).
In Vienna A. Pilcz has recently shown that the
Jews have a proportionally larger number of in-
sane than the Gentiles. The figures taken from the
records of the First Psychiatric Clinic in that city
show that from Jan. 1, 1898, to Aug.,
In Vienna. 1901, 1,219 patients (723 men and 496
women) were treated for insanity at
that institution. Of these 134 (10.99 per cent) were
Jews. As tosex, 81 (64.9 per cent) were men and
Insanity
Insects
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 604
58 (80.1 per cent) women. The population of Vi-
enna, according to the census of 1900, was 1,648, 335,
of which 146,113 (8.86 per cent) were Jews. Among
the 723 non-Jewish male insane 173 were found to be
affected with alcoholic insanity; among the 496
female patients, 22. As not one Jew or Jewess
was affected with alcoholism, Pilez remarks that
when the cascs of alcoholism are deducted the rela-
tive percentage of Jewish insanity is perceptibly
increased.
In New York city Frank G. Hyde has collected
the statistics of the admission of Jewish insane to
the asylums during the period extending from Dec.
18, 1871, to Nov. 30,1900. He found that of 17,185
males, the total number of cases recorded, 1,722
(10.05 per cent) were Jews, While the percentage
of Jews in Greater New York is at the present time
(1903) estimated to be about 18 per cent, it must be
recalled that up to 1882 there were comparatively
fewer Jews there, and that this indicates a higher
proportion than 10.05 per cent for the 29 years.
Indeed, an analysis of the figures given by Hyde
for the five years ending Nov. 380, 1900, shows that
the proportion of Jewish insane in New York city
is perceptibly larger. During these five years 3,710
insane were admitted to the asylums of the city;
573 (15.44 per cent) of these were Jews.
C. F. Beadles, who has investigated the subject
in the Colney Hatch Asylum in London, shows that
there appears to be a great preponderance of general
paralysis among Jewish males, over 21 per cent of
all the male Jews admitted being subjects of that
disease, while the proportion of cases of general par-
alysis among all the males admitted to the hospitals
for the insane in England and Wales is only 13 per
cent. “It is evident,” says Mr. Beadles, “that
among the Jewish males, admissions for general
paralysis are 60 per cent more frequent than among
the non-Jewish English and Welsh.” No such dis-
parity has been observed in the case of Jewesses.
The frequency of general paralysis in Jews ob-
served by Beadles is confirmed by Hirschl, who
found among 200 of his paretic pa-
General tients 40 Jews, 7.6, 20 per cent
Paralysis. (Hirschl, “Zur Aetiologic der Progr.
aralysis,” in “Jahrbuch fiir Psychi-
atrie,” xiv. 449). Pilez also found a large propor-
tion of paretics among the Jews in Vienna: 18.75
per cent of all cases, though this is about the same
proportion as among his non-Jewish patients—18. 07
per cent. Te adds that the Jews’ acute struggle for
existence, and their peculiar occupations as mer-
chants, speculators, stockbrokers, etc., are etiolog-
ical factors,
On the other hand, Minor of Moscow has found that
general paralysis has been six times more frequent
among his Gentile patients than among his Jewish
patients. He also cites statistics from the practise
of Kajewnikoff and WKorsakoff to the effect that
among the 2,403 cases of nervous diseases, including
347 Jews, noted by the former he found 48 affected
with general paralysis. Only three of the 347 Jewish
patients were affected with this disease. Heexplains
this by the fact that 65 per cent of the paretics gave
a history of previous syphilis, whileamong the Jews
syphilis was very rare. Among the 2,610 of Korsa-
koff's patients were 89 Jews. Of these patients 69
were affected with general paralysis, including one
Jew, This observer also attributes the infrequency
of paresis among Jews to the rarity of syphilisamong
them, and he shows that in 72 per cent of his par-
eties could be discerned syphilitic antecedents. Mi-
nor summarizes as follows:
In 4,700 Christian patients 124 cases of general paralysis = 2.6
per cent.
In 696 Jewish patients 6 cases of general paralysis = 0.8 per
cent,
It thus appears that the whole question resolves
itself into the relative infrequency of syphilis among
Jews. “In my experience,” says George H. Savage
of London, “there has been very little general paral-
ysis eitheramong the [Jewish] menor women. Just
as other races are affected, general paralytics among
Jews have nearly all some history of syphilitic de-
generation” (“Jour. of Meutal Science,” 1900, xlvi,
Td).
The infrequency of syphilis among Jewish insane,
as among the Jews generally, has been observed re-
peatedly. Iu the insane asylums of New York city,
as Hyde reports, among the 1,722 Jewish insane only
72 (4.18 per cent) had syphilitic antecedents, which
proportion is very low.
In parallel lines it may be mentioned here that
alcoholic insanity is only rarely found among Jews.
Among 205 patients suffering from alcoholic insanity
at the iusane asylum in Vienna, Pilez did not find a
single Jew. In the New York city insane asylum
Hyde records only 5.51 per cent of alcoholics among
the Jewish patients. A similar low proportion is re-
ported by Minor, Korsakoff, Kajewnikoff, and others
to be the case in Russia.
According to the observations of Pilez, Jews are
more liable to the acute psychoses of early age than
are Gentiles, and moral insanity is rare among
them. In London, Beadles observed that insanity
following childbirth is more commou among Jewish
women than among women of other races, being
found in 15 per cent of all the Jewish women ad-
mitted to the Colney Hatch Asylum, as compared
with 6.18 per cent among non-Jewish patients. It
was also found by Beadles that insanity appears
earlier in Jews of both sexes than in non-Jews: at
thirty-seven years of age in Jews as compared with
forty-three years in Christians. Relapses occur
twice as frequently in Jewish patients discharged
from insane asylums as in other patients. Melan-
cholia is said to occur in Jewish patients more
often than mania.
The causes of the great frequency of insanity
among Jews are differently interpreted by different
authorities. Some, like Buschan, see in it a racial
characteristic. They show that there
Suggested is evidence in the Bible that the an-
Causes. cient Hebrews were already great suf-
ferers from mental alienation. They
point out that many passages in the Bible indicate
that mental alienation was not unknown in Biblical
times (see particularly Wilhelm Ebstein, “Die Me-
dizin im Alten Testament,” pp. 114-117; also the
references to persons “ possessed with devils,” “]una-
tics,” “men of unclean spirits,” etc., in Matt. viii.
16, ix. 82, xii. 22, xvii. 15; Mark v. 2; Luke viii. 27,
605
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Insanity
Insects
xii. 1, and in many other places in the New Testa-
ment).
AS is the case with all the physical, mental, and
intellectual traits of the Jews, consanguineous mar-
riages have been considered a cause of a great part
of the insanity among them. The Jews, it is well
known, are very neurotic, as is manifested by the
frequency of various nervous affections among them
(see Nervous DISEASES); and the marriage of rela-
tives who are affected by a neurotic taint has been
positively proved to be detrimental to the succeed-
ing generation. In one generation the neuropathy
may manifest itself as hysteria; in another, assome
organic or functional nervous affection, then as in-
sanity, etc. The chances of thus perpetuating the
nervous strain in families by consanguineous mar-
riages are therefore greatcr among Jews than among
peoples in whom nervous diseases are less frequeut.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Beadles, The Insane Jew, in Jour. of
Mental Science, xxvi. 731-737; M. Benedict, The Insane
Jew, ib. xxvii. 503-509; G. Buschan, Hinfluss der Rasse auf
die Form und Hiifigheit Pathologischer Verdinderungen,
in Globus, Ixvii. “1, 43, 60, 76; idem, Einfluss der Rasse auf
die Hdufigkeit und die Formen der Geistes- und Nerven-
krankhetien, in Aug. Medizinal_Centralzeitung, 1897, No.
9; Hugo Hoppe, Krankheiten u. Sterblichkeit bei Juden u.
Nichtjuden, Berlin, 1903; Frank G. Hyde, Nutes on the He-
brew Insane, in Am. Jour. of Insanity, lwiii. 469-471; C.
Lombroso, The Man of Genius, London, 1893; Georg Mayr,
Die Verbreitung der Blindheit, der Taubstummen, des
Blédsinns und des Irrsinns in Bayern, 1879: L. S. Minor,
Contribution a V ktude de VU Etiologie du Tabes, in Archives
de Neurologic, xvii. 183, 362; A. Pilez, Ueber Periodische
Geistesstorungen, Jena, 1901; idem, Geistesstérungen bei
Juden, in Wiener Klinische Rundschau, 1901, Nos. 47, 48;
M. A. Ryazanski, O Sabolevayemosti Hereew Voobshche «0
Chastole Sredi Nikh Dushevnikh i Nervnikh Bolesnei v
Chastnosti, in Vrachebnaia Gazeta, ix. 438-442.
J. M. Fy.
—Legal Status: The deaf-mute (“heresh ”), the
insane (“shoteh ”), and the minor (“katan”) are ugu-
ally classed together in the Talmud as far as their
legal standing is concerned. From the rabbinical
legal standpoint, not only the confirmed maniac is
regarded as insane, but also the idiot or imbecile
that shows signs of derangement, as one who per-
sists in unnecessarily exposing himself to danger,
or one who destroys his garments for no reason
whatsoever. When the derangement is temporary
or periodic, the person so stricken is not regarded
as totally irresponsible, but is accountable for ac-
tious committed in lucid intervals (Hag. 3b). A per-
son intoxicated to the degree of unconsciousness is
also classed with the insane as regards legal respon-
sibility (“Er. 65a).
The insane person is not capable of “willing”; as
the Rabbis express it, he “has action, but no
thought” (Maksh. iii. 8), and therefore can enter
into no transaction which requires consent (Yeb.
31a). He is not responsible for his actions; he can
bear no testimony, and the court can
Insane pay no attention to claims instituted
Not by him or against him, In all civil
Respon- and ritual matters he is placed in the
sible. same category as the deaf-mute (see
DEAF AND Dumb IN JEwIsH Law).
The court must act as trustee, or appoint a trustee,
for the insane, as it does in the case of minors (Ket.
48a).
The marriage of insane persons is not valid, since
the consent of both parties is absolutely necessary.
A man who becomes insane after marriage can not
give a bill of divorce to his wife, nor can he order
others to do so(Yeb. 112b).. A woman who becomes
insane after marriage can, according to the Mosaic
law, be divorced, for no consent is necessary on her
part (see Divorce). But the Rabbis forbade divorce
in such a case, because, if left without a protector,
she might become the victim of the lust of wicked
people (2b. 113b). Her husband, however, is per-
mitted to marry again, even since polygamy has
been prohibited. Ata later period the Rabbis en-
deavored to put all possible obstacles in the way of
his remarriage, and even demanded the signatures of
one hundred rabbis of three different countries before
granting him permission tomarry again. Rabbis are
warned to investigate very carefully before signing
sucha permission (Shulhau ‘Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer, 1,
10, Isserles’ gloss; “ Pithe Teshubah,” ad loc.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bloch, Der Vertrag, Budapest, 1892; Mendel-
sobn. Criminal Jurisprudence of the Anetent Hebreics,
Baltimore, 1891; Mielziner, The Jewish Law of Marriage
and Divorce, Cincinnati, 8st; Amram, The Jewish Law of
Divorce, Philadelphia, 1896,
J. H. G.
S. 8,
INSCRIPTIONS, GREEK, HEBREW, and
LATIN. See PALEOGR PHY.
INSECTS: Under this head are treated the spe-
cies not described in separate articles under their
individual names, as Ant; BEE; BEETLE; Fiy; Lo-
cusi,; efe.
Centiped: The words “marbeh raglayim ” (Lev.
xi. 42), rendered by the Revised Version “ whatso-
ever hath many feet,” are taken in Hul. 67b as the
designation of an insect called “nadal,” on which
Rashi comments: “It is called the hundred-foot”
“me’ah raglayim”). In ‘Er. 8b Rashi explains the
same phrase as “a creeping thing that has many
feet” (L. Lewysohn, “Z. T.” p. 822).
Flea (“par‘osh”): This insect is mentioned in I
Sam. xxiv. 15 and xxvi. 20 in a comparison refer-
ring to its Insignificance. The meaning of the He-
brew word is not only assured by the authority of
the old versions—LAX. yizsaoc; Vulgate, “pulex ”
—butisalso confirmed by the dialects: Arabic, “ bur-
ghuth”; Syriac, “purta‘ana” (transposed from
“puratana”). R.V. margin to Ex. viii. 12(A4. V. 16)
suggests “fleas” as rendering of the Hebrew “ kin-
nim,” which is more correctly translated “lice.”
In the Talmud the par‘osh is counted among
the animals that propagate by copulation and are
therefore not to be killed on the Sabbath-day (Shab.
107b). Tosef., Shab. 12a describes it as a “hopping
louse ” (“ kinnah kofezet ”), in contrast to the “ creep-
ing louse ”(“kinnah roheshet ”). Al-Harizi’s humor-
ous “makamah” on the flea need only be mentioned
here (Tristram, “Nat. Hist.” p. 805; L. Lewysohn,
de. p. 827
Gnat: This word, in the plural form, is suggested
by the R. V. margin to Isa. li. 6, reading “kinnim ”
for “ken” of the Masoretic text; but in this case
“lice” would be the more nearly correct rendering.
In the Talmud the “yattush,” which is the most
common term for the gnat, is called a “tiny crea-
ture” (“biryah kallah”) having a mouth wherewith
to take in food, but no opening for evacuation (Git.
d6b), It is enumerated among the weak that cast
terror on the strong, its victim being the elephant,
Insects |
Inspiration
whose trunk it ecters (Shab. 77b). From Sanh. 77a
it appears that gnats in mass could torture a fettered
und therefore defenseless man to death; and at times
they would become such a plague, entering the eyes
aud nose of man, that public pravers were instituted
for their extermination (Ta‘an. 14a), Insignificant
as the gnat is, it admonishes man to humility, hav-
ing preceded him in being created (Sanh. 38a). For
the legend of the gnat as tormentor of Titus see Git.
d6a (LL. Lewysohn, @.¢. p. 815).
Grasshopper. Sce Locust.
Hornet: Rendering in the English version of
the Hebrew “zir‘ah.” The hornet is mentioned as
an instrument in God's hand for the punishment and
expulsion of the Canaanites (Ex. xxiii. 29; Deut.
vil. 26; Josh. xxiv. 12). Some assume that the hor-
net In these passages is used, like the “estrus,” or
gadfly, in Greek and Latin, figuratively for panic
or terror. There are at present four species of hor-
net in Palestine, the most common being Vespa orten-
talis. The frequency of hornets in Palestine in
former times is perhaps indicated by the local name
“Zoreah ” (Josh. xv. 83; R. V. “ Zorah”).
In the Talmud the hornet (“zir‘ah,” “zibura,”
““ar‘ita”) is usually referred to as a dangerous ani-
mal, with the scorpion, serpent, etc. The dread of
its sting gave rise to the proverb: “Neither thy
sting nor thy honey!” (Tan., Balak, 6). Public
prayers for its destruction were sometimes ordered
(Ta‘an. l4a). Its sting brings death to an infant of
one year, unless moss of a palm-tree pounded in
water is administered (Ket, 50a); and even an adult
has been known to die from a hornct’s sting in the
forehead (Shab. 80b). As the most atrocious act of
cruelty perpetrated by the inhabitants of Sodom is
related the treatment to which they subjected a girl
who had given bread to a poor man; she was be-
smeared with honey and exposed to the stings of
hornets (Sanh. 109b). To cure the sting of the hor-
net bruised flies were laid on the wound (Shab. 77b);
or the urine of a forty-day-old infant was applied
(2b. 109b). The patient must be guarded against
cold (Ab. Zarah 28b). The swallowing of a hornet
results in certain death; aud the drinking of very
strong vinegar will keep the patient alive only long
enough for him to make his will (4. 12b). The hornet
of Nineveh was considered particularly dangerous
(Shab, 121b, alluding to Isa. vii. 18; Tristram, ¢.c.
p. 822; Lewysohn, é.c. p. 803).
Horse-Leech (A. V. “horseleach ”): The English
translation of the Hebrew “‘alukah” in Prov. xxx.
15, where itis symbolically used for insatiable greed.
This traditional rendering of the word is not only sup-
ported by the old versions—LXX, 86é27; Vulgate,
“ganguisuga ”— but also by the Arabic “‘alak”(comp.
Targ. to Ps. xii. 8). The bloodthirstiness of the leech
and the tenacity of its hold are proverbial in all
languages. Both the horse-leech, Zlemopsis sangut-
suga, and the medicinal leech, Ztrudoe medictnalis, are
common in Palestine. Some take “‘alukah” to be
intended for some vampire-like demon, comparing
the Arabic “‘aluk,” which is explained in “Kamus ”
by “ ghul,” a female blood-sucking monster.
The Talmud, besides “‘alukah,” “‘alka,” or
“‘arka” (Bek. 44b), has “beni de-maya” (= “cater-
pillar of the water”; Git. 69b) and “nima shel
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
606
mayim ” (= “thread of the water”; ‘Ab. Zarah 12b)
for “leech.” The swallowing of a leech is very
dangerous, and it is therefore permitted in such a
case to prepare a warm potion on the Sabbath-day
(2b. 12b). Yer. Ber. 18¢ mentions the bedbug as a
cure; 2.e., the inhaling by the patient of the smell
of burned bedbugs causes the swallowed /eech to
come out through the mouth (comp. Harduin, Not,
et Emendat. to Pliny, “Hist. Nat.” xxix. 17). On
the other hand, roasted leeches taken in wine are
a cure for enlargement of the spleen (Git. 69b).
In ‘Ab. Zarah iva “‘alukul” in the passage from
Prov. xxx. 15is interpreted to mean “Gehenna”; its
“two daughters,” the secular government (“ reshut ”)
and heresy (“minut”), In this sense also “‘alak” is
used in the piyyut Wy psx of the Hanukkah Sab-
bath. Rabbenu Tam considers it asthe name of one
of the wise men, like “Ithiel,” etc. (comp. Tosef.,
‘Ab. Zarah, Iva, and ‘Er. 19a; Tristram, @.c. p. 299;
Lewysohn, Zc. p. 886).
Lice (Hebr. “kinnim”): Lice are mentioned as
the third plague inflicted on the Egyptians (EX. viii.
12 [A. V. 16]; Ps. cv. 31 [R. V. margin suggests
“flea” or “sand-fly”; and to Isa. li. 6, “ gnats ”)).
The Greek equivalent for “lice” is also found in
Josephus (* Ant.” ii, 14, § 8).
The Talmud distinguishes between lice of the head
and those of the body, 2.e., of the garments: the
former have red blood; the latter, white (Niddah
19b). Both are produced not by copulation, but by
uncleanliness; and cleanliness is therefore the best
means of getting rid of them (Shab. 107b; Ber. 51b;
comp. Bezah 32b). The Medes were especially af-
flicted with them (Kid. 49b). It is sinfui to killa
louse in the presence of other people on account
of the disgust thus caused (Jag. 5a). For the me-
dicinal use of lice see Git. 69b (Tristram, U.c. p. 314;
Lewysohn, l.c. p. 324).
Moth (Hebr. “sas” and “‘ash”): The moth is
mentioned in the Old Testament as being destructive
to clothes and as illustrating in itsown great frailty
the perishableness of earthly things (Isa. li. 8; Job
iv. 19, xiii. 28, xxvil. 18; the passages evidently refer
tosome species of the 7inerde, or clothes-moths).
The Talmud distinguishes, according to the ma-
terial attacked by the insect, silk-, fur-, clothes-, and
tapestry-moths (Shab. 75a, 90a; Ber. 56a; B, M.
78b; Hul. 28a, 85b). They are driven away by
sprinkling the blood of animals or birds on the ma-
terial (ul. 28a; Tristram, é.¢. p. 326; Lewysohn,
Zc. p, 321).
Spider (Hebr. “‘akkabish”): The spider’s web
(“threads,” or “house of the spider”) is twice re-
ferred to in the Old Testament as an emblem of
useless doings and vain hopes (Isa, lix. 5; Job vili.
14), “Semamit” (Prov. xxx. 28) is more correctly
rendered by “gecko” (see Lizarp). The species of
spiders in Palestine number hundreds.
The Talmud likewise uses the cobweb in a compati-
son: “ Passion is at first like the web [thread ”] of
the spider [“kubya”], but afterward it grows as
strong as the ropes of a wagon” (Suk. 52a and par-
allels). Bahya ibn Pakuda, in his “ Hobot ha-Leba-
bot” (ed. Firstenthal, p. 240, 2), gives this compari-
son another turn: “As the cobweb obstructs the
light of the sun, so does passion the light of reason.”
607
The spider is the creature most hated of man (Yalkut
Shimoni, ii. 140c; Tristram, .¢. p. 803; Lewysohn,
i.c. p. 299).
E, G. H, IM. C.
INSPIRATION: The state of being prompted
by or filled with the spirit of God. Bezaleel
was “filled with the spirit of God” (Ex. xxxi. 8,
xxxv, 31); that is, he planned the work of the Tab-
ernacle by inspiration. Inspiration is essential to
all prophetic utterances; “the Spirit of God came
upon Balaam” to make him prophesy (Num. xxiv.
2); upon the seventy men selected by Moses (Num.
xi. 17, 25, 26); upon Saul and Saul’s messengers
(I Sam. x. 6,10; xi. 6; xix. 20, 23); upon Elisha as
heir and successor to Elijah (II Kings ii. 15); upon
Amasai (I Chron. xii. 18); upon Jahaziel the Levite
(11 Chron. xx. 14). Inspiration empowered Micah
to “tell Jacob his transgression ” (Micah iii. 8). The
prophet, therefore, is called “the man of the spirit,”
that is, the inspired one (Hosea ix. 7
Of Persons. [A. V., incorrectly, “spiritual man ”]).
All true prophets have their visions
by divine inspiration (Isa. xxix. 10, xxx. 1; Zech.
vil. 12; Neh. ix. 30).
Ezekiel very frequently describes the working of
the power of inspiration (Ezek. ii. 2; iii. 12, 24; viii.
3; xi. 1, 24; xxxvi. 1). Therefore he is compared
to a man from the country who is demonstrative in
his description of the king; whereas Isaiah is com-
pared to a man of the city who is accustomed to see-
ing the king (Hag. 18b). The seer of the Exile also
describes the mode of his inspiration (Isa. xlviii.
16, lxi. 1).
In the future all men will come under the influ-
ence of inspiration and prophecy, says Joel (ii. 28 e¢
seqg., lil. 1 et seg.; comp. Isa. xtiv. 8, lix. 19). Dan-
iel also was inspired; “the holy spirit of God was in
him” (Dan. iv. 6, 8, 15; v. 11 (A. V. and R. V., in-
correctly, “the spirit of the holy gods”]) and ena-
bled him to interpret the dream correctly, as it did
Joseph also (Gen. xli. 88). David, too, sang under the
power of inspiration (I Sam. xvi. 18; comp. IT
Sam. xxiii. 2); and the Psalmist prays for in-
spiration (Ps. li. 12-14 [A. V. 11-138]). Othniel,
Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson judged and led
Israel under the power of inspiration (Judges iii.
10, vi. 84, xi. 29, xiii, 23 ef seg.). Inspiration was
occasionally brought upon the prophet by the
power of music (II Kingsiv. 15). According to the
Book of Jubilees the Patriarchs were inspired when
they blessed their children ov grandchildren (xxv.
14, xxxi. 12). Ben Sirasays of Isaiah that his visions
of the future were inspired (Eeclus. xlviii, 24; re-
garding Daniel, see Susanna 45 [{Theodoticn] and
Ascensio Isaiw, v. 14). The great festivity of the
drawing of water on Sukkot (“Simhat bet ha-Sho’e-
bah”) brought about the inspiration of the saints
and miracle-workers (“hasidim we-anshe ma‘asch,”
Suk. v. 4), and occasioned a pouring out of songs
and of other manifestations of spiritual rejoicing
(Yer. Suk. v. 55a; Suk. 50-51, “the pouring out of
the Holy Spirit,” with reference to Isa. xii. 3).
Similarly the people of Israel at the Red Sea were
inspired when they sang their song, faith having
caused the Holy Spirit to rest upon them (Mek.,
Beshallah ; comp. Ps. R. iv. 6). .
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Insects |
Inspiration
[nspiration, in rabbinical theology, is the influence
of the Holy Spirit which prompted the Patriarchs,
the Prophets, and the sacred writers (Sifre, Deut.
176; Tosef., Sotah, xii. 5, xiii. 2; Seder ‘Olam xx.-
xxi.), the Holy Spirit and the spirit of prophecy be-
ing considered as identical (Yer. Meg. 1. 70a; Targ.
to Ps. li. 18, Isa. xl. 18, and I Sam, xxiii. 8). Eber
was regarded as having been inspired (Gen. x. 25;
Gen. R. xxxv.; Seder ‘Olam R. i.): so also were Sa-
rah (Meg. lda; Gen. TR. Ixxii.), Isaae and Rebekah
(Gen. R. Ixxv.), Jacob (Gen. R. xeviii.), Joseph (Gen.
R. xciii.; Pirke R. El. xxxix.), King Solomon (Tan.,
Hukkat, ed. Buber, p. 11), Balaam (Tan., Balak, ed.
Buber, pp. 11, 1%), and Job and his four friends (B.
B. 15b; Lev. R.i.; Seder ‘Olam R. xxi.). Often (not
always in the later Haggadah, as Zunz contends in
“G. V.” pp. 2, 188, 191, 255, 260, 266, 275, 277 et seq.,
326, 365) the prophetical and hagicgraphal pas-
sages are quoted as having been uttered by the
Holy Spirit through Solomon, David, Amos, Ezekiel,
Elisha, the sons of Korah, etc. (Pesik. R. vi., vii., x.,
xi., xx.; Gen. R. xiv., Ixxv., cxlii.; Pes. 87b; e¢ a/.).
The high priest, too, when giving the answer of
the Urim and Thuminim was believed to be inspired
(Yoma 78b; comp. Josephus, “Ant.” iv. 8 § 14,
who speaks of the prophet together with the high
priest). See HoLy Sprrir.
Whatever book has been included in the Bible
canon must necessarily have been inspired or writ-
ten by the Holy Spirit (Meg. Ta; Tosef., Yad. ii.
14). Often the words of Scripture are
Of the Holy taken to be exclamations of the Holy
Scriptures. Spirit intercepting the speaker, and,
therefore, also the work of inspiration
(Sotah ix. 7; Tosef., Sotah, ix. 2-9; Ab. R. N. 14;
Pes. 117a; Gen. R. Isiii., Ixxxv.; Num. R. xvii.;
Deut. R. xi.). According to IV Esd. xiv. 88, Ezra
and his coworkers reproduced from memory the
lost twenty-four holy books, as well as the seventy
apocryphal books, by the power of the Holy Spirit.
The prevailing opinion is that with the last of the
Prophets, Waggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, inspira-
tion ceased (Tosef., Sotah, xiii. 2; Seder ‘Olam R.
xx.: Sanh. lla; I Macc. iv. 46).
The Targum, as the recognized traditional inter-
pretation of the Prophets, was regarded as having
been written by Jonathan ben Uzziel under the in-
spiration of the last prophets (Meg. 3a). Similarly
the Septuagint translation of the Pentateuch was
regarded as the work of the Holy Spirit, or as hav-
ing been inspired (Philo, “ Vita Moysis,” ii. 7;
comp. Masseket Soferim i.8; Aristeas Letter, $8 305-
317). Necessarily, Inspiration was claimed for the
translation of Holv Scripture as well as for the orig-
inal text; while the Essenes made the same claim
for their apocryphal writings (Wisdom vii. 27; IV.
Esd. xiv. 388; sce EscoaToLoGy; Essengs). It ap-
pears from Tosef., Shab. xiii. 1; Shab. 115a; and
Masseket Soferim i. 7 that the earlier view regarding
the inspired character of the Targum and the Sep-
tuagint was later discarded by the Rabbis, though
it was maintained in Alexandria, where the apocry-
phal writings ranked with the canonical literature.
The traditional view is that the Pentateuch in its
entirety emanated from God, every verse and letter
being consequently inspired; hence the tannaitic
Inspiration :
Institutum Judaicum
statement that “he who says the Torah is not from
Heaven is a heretic, a despiser of the Word of God,
one who has no share in the world to
Traditional come” (Sanh. xi.1; 7. Babli, 99a) ig
View. cxpressly explained to include any
one that says the whole Torah ema-
nates from God with the exception of one verse,
which Moses added on his own responsibility, or any
one that finds verses like Gen. xxxvi. 12 and 22 too
trivial to assign to them a divine origin (Shab. 99a,
b). The Pentateuch passages are quoted in the
schools as the sayings of God (“amar Rahmana” =
“the Merciful One has said,” B. M. 3b, and often).
Moses wrote the whole Pentateuch at God’s dicta-
tion, even, according to R. Simeon, the last eight
verses, relating to his own death (B. B. 14b). On the
other hand, some held that the curses in Lev. xxvi.
were pronounced by “the mouth of the Divine Pow-
er,” whereas those in Deut. xxviii., by Moses, were
of his own prompting (Meg. 3ib; but see Tosafot,
“this does not exclude divine inspiration”). Every
letter of the Torah was fixed by the Masorah and
counted by the Soferim (Kid. 30a), and on each parti-
cle, such as “et,” “we,” “gam,” “af” (“and” or
“also ”), were based important laws (Pes. 22b; Sanh.
70a); even the Masoretie signs formed the basis for
halakic or haggadic interpretations in Akiba’s sys-
tem (see AKIBA). The division of the Pentateuch
into verses was ascribed to Moses (Meg. 22a). The
final letters, also (JD¥319), were fixed by the Proph-
ets, and were therefore inspired (Shab. 104a; Yer.
Meg. i. 71d; Gen. R. i.). R. Ishmael said to R.
Meir while the latter was occupied with the pro-
fessional work of a scribe, “Be on thy guard con-
cerning thy sacred task, for if thou omittest or
addest one single letter to the Law thou destroyest
the whole world” (‘Er. 12b). This whole view of
plenary inspiration was in the main (though the
passage regarding the counting of the letters by the
Soferim, Kid. 30a, includes the Prophets and Hagiog-
rapha) strictly held only in regard to the five books
of Moses—the Torah. Upon the absolute complete-
ness of the Torah: rested the fundamental rabbinical
principle, “ No prophet after Moses was allowed to
change anything in the Law” (Shab. 104a; Yoma
80a; Meg. 2b; based upon Lev. xxvii. 34 or Num.
xxxXvi. 18). Whatever is written in the other holy
writings must therefore, somewhere or somehow,
have been alluded to in the Torah (Ta‘an. 9a). To
the Pentateuch or Torah a higher degree of divine in-
spiration is accordingly ascribed than to the Prophets
and Hagiographa, which are often called “ dibre kab-
balah” = “words of tradition” (see Zunz, “G. V.”
p. 44), or simply “sefarim ” = “books” (Meg. i. 8,
iii. 1), or “ketubim” (see BrsLe& Canon), All the
canonical books are “kitbe kodesh” = “holy wri-
tings” (Shab. xvi. 1), and were read at divine serv-
ice as the divinely inspired Word (“Mikra ” = “the
recited Word of God”). The prophetical and hagio-
graphic books are implicitly included in the Torah
(Tan., Re’eh, ed. Buber, p. 1), but the Torah is the
standard by which their value or holiness is judged
and gaged (see Shab. 18b, 30b; Meg. 7a; Ab. R.
N.i.; Tos. Meg. iv. 19; Yer. Meg. iv. 73d). The
final composition as well as the writing of the Hagi-
ographa was ascribed to the “men of the Great Syn-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
608
agogue,” who also were regarded as working under
the influence of the Holy, or prophetic, Spirit, hav- —
ing among them the last of the Prophets (B. B. 15a;
see SYNAGOGUE, GREAT),
As to the distinction between the plenary inspira-
tion of the Pentateuch and the more general inspira-
tion of the other sacred writings, a definite statement
is nowhere to be found in Talmudic literature,
Judah ha-Levi, in the “Cuzari” (iii. 32-89), distin-
guishes the books of Moses and of
Degrees of the other prophets from those that
In- were only influenced by the divine
Spiration. power, claiming divine origin for
every vowel or sign of the Pentateuch
as having been given to Moses on Sinai; on the
other hand, he places the inspired man, whether
prophet, “nazir” like Samson, high priest, or king,
above the category of common men, seeing in him
one lifted to the rank of angels (iv. 15). The latter
view is shared by Maimonides (“ Yad,” Yesode ha-
Torah, vii. t-6; “ Moreh,” it, 82-35; see PROPHECY).
How far the view that certain passages in the Pen-
tateuch are emendations of the scribes (“tikkune
soferim,” Mek., Beshallah, Shirah, 6; comp. with
Tan., Yelammedenn, Beshallah; Gen. R. xlix.; Lev.;
R. xi.; Num. R. iii.) is compatible with the idea of
plenary inspiration is discussed by Albo (“ ‘Ikkarim,”
iii, 22). In fact, the expression in Mek, U.c., “kinnah
ha-katub ” (Holy Writ has used a euphemistic form),
is such as does not impugn the divine character of
any part of the book (see I. H. Weiss in note i. 47 of
his Mekilta edition, and Geiger, “Urschrift,” pp.
308 et seq.).
According to Philo, whose idea of inspiration was
more or less influenced by the Platonic conception
of the ecstatic or God-intoxicated seer, the prophet
spoke and wrote in an ecstatic state (“Quis Rerum
Divinarum Heres Sit,” $8 51-52). Josephus (“Con-
tra Ap.” 1., $7) writes: “The Prophets have written
the original and earliest accounts of things as they
learned them of God Himself by inspiration.” This
view regarding the inspiration of the Bibleasa whole
is expressed also in IT Tim. iii. 16: “ All Scripture is
given by inspiration of God ” (Geomvevoros, “ given by
the spirit of God,” the same as the Hebrew “be-
ruah ha-kodesh”). Maimonides (“ Moreh,” ii. 45),
enumerating the various degrees of prophecy, as-
cribes different degrees of inspiration to the Pen-
tateuch, to the Prophets, and to the writers of the
third class of Scripture—the Hagiographa. The
view regarding the plenary inspiration of the Pen-
tateuch maintained by the Rabbis and the philoso-
phers of the Middle Ages, such as Saadia, Maimon-
ides, and others, did not prevent them from resorting
to allegorical interpretation when the literal meaning
seemed opposed to human reason (Saadia, “ Emunot
we-De‘ot,” ii. 44, ix. 188; Maimonides, “Moreh,” ii.
29, 47).
Modern Jewish theology of the Reform school,
after making full allowance for the human origin
of the Holy Scriptures, and recognizing
that the matter recorded is sometimes
in contradiction to the proved results
of modern historical, physical, and
psychological research, arrives at the following con-
clusion: While the ancient view of a literal dic-
Modern
Views.
609
tation by God must be surrendered, and while
the seers and writers of Judea must be regarded as
men With human failings, each with his own pecu-
liarity of style and sentiment, the Spirit of God was
nevertheless manifested in them. The Holy Scrip-
tures still have the power of inspiration for each
devout soul that reads or hears them. They speak
to each generation with a divine authority such as
no other book or literature possesses. The inspira-
tion of the Bible is different from the inspiration
under which the great literary and artistic master-
works of later eras were produced. The religious
enthusiasm of the Jewish genius leavens the whole,
and the truth uttered therein, whatever be the form
it is clothed in, seizes men now as it did when
prophet, psalmist, or lawgiver first uttered it, them-
selves carried away by the power of the Divine
Spirit. This view of modern theology, compatible
with Biblical science and modern research, which
analyzes the thoughts and the forms of Scripture
and traces them to their various sources, finds that
prophet and sacred writer were under the influence
of the Divine Spirit while revealing, by word or
pen, new religious ideas. But the human ele-
ment in them was not extinguished, and conse-
quently, in regard to their statements, their know]-
edge, and the form of their communication, they
could only have acted as children of their age.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hauck'’s Real Eneyclopddie, s.v.; Bacher,
Die Aelteste Terminologie der Jtidischen Schriftausle-
gung, 1899, pp. 88-93, 117, 154, 168, 180.
K.
INSTALLATION. See OrprInarion.
INSTITUT ZUR FORDERUNG DER IS-
RAELITISCHEN LITERATUR: Society,
founded by Ludwig PuiLirpson, for the promotion
of Jewish literature. The books published by the so-
ciety were issued from Leipsic. On Feb. 12, 1855, an
article by Philippson appeared in the “Allg. Zeit.
des Jud.,” proposing the creation of a Jewish publi-
cation society. On May 1 following, the society be-
gan its active existence with a membership of twelve
hundred subscribers, which increased to two thou-
sand during the year. The annual subscription of
two thalers entitled each member to the works pub-
lished within the year. A committee of three, Lud-
wig Philppson of Magdeburg, Adolph Jellinek of
Leipsic, and Isaac Markus Jost of Frankfort-on-
the-Main, selected the works for publication and
awarded honoraria to the authors. In 1856, when
Jellinek was called to Vienna, he was succeeded by
M. A. Goldschmidt. On the death of Jost (1860) I.
Herzfeld of Brunswick became a member of the
committee. In 1855 the Austrian government issued
a prohibition against joining the society (Frankl-
Grin, “Gesch. der Juden in Kremsier,” ii. 28), and
Philippson was expelled from Austrian territory
when he was ona tourin Milan, 1858 (“ Allg. Zeit. des
Jud.” 1868, p. 428). The society existed for eighteen
years, chiefly through the untiring efforts of its
founder; and its membership reached a total of about
three thousand. It published, in German, about
eighty works of Jewish history, science, poetry, fic-
tion, and biography, including the following:
Grace Aguilar: ‘* Henriquez Morales.”
** Amerikanische Skizzen”’’ (anonymous).
VIL—39
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Inspiration ;
Institutum Judaicum
Bernhard Beer: “Das Leben Abraham’s und das Leben Moses’
nach Jtidischen Legenden.””
* Bibliothek der Griechisehen und Rémischen Schriftsteller
uber Judenthum und Juden.”’
Boxberger: “ Bar Cochba.”’
David Cassel: ‘* Gesch. der Jiidisechen Literatur.”
Erckmann-Chatrian: ‘ Die Blokade von Pfalzburg.””
Benjamin Disraeli: “ Alroy.”’
L. A. Frankl: ‘Reise nach Jerusalem’’; ‘Der Primator*’;
* Die Abnenbilder.”’
Frankolm (pseudonym, “Rispart’’): **Die Juden und die Kreuz-
fabrer Unter Richard.”
Frey: “ Erzahlungen.’’
Julius Fiirst: ** Gesch. des Karderthums.”’
A. Geiger: ‘Divan Gabirol’s”; ‘* Parschandatha”;
dische Dichtungen.”
H. Gratz; “‘Gesch. der Juden”’ (vols. iii., y.-x.).
J. Hamburger: *‘ Geist der Hagada.”
L. Herzfeld: **Gesch. des Volkes Israel’? (2 vols.); ** Metro-
logische Untersuchungen ” and “ Ueber die Kunst bei den He-
bréern.”’
Honigmann: ‘Das Grab zu Sabioneta.”
“Jahrbuch ftir Gesch. des Judenthums und der Juden.””
Josephus: “ Kleinere Schriften.”
I. M. Jost: **Gesch. des Judenthums und Seiner Sekten.”’
M. Kayserling: ‘*Gesch. der Juden in Portugal’’; ‘* Moses
Mengdelssohn.”’
Julius Kossarski: ** Titus.”
E. Kulke: ‘* Jiidische Geschichten.”
Antoine Levy: *‘ Die Exegese bei den Franzosen.”
M. A. Levy: °**Gesch. der Jiidischen Minzen.”’
L. M. Lewysohn: ‘** Das Jiidische Kalenderwesen.”
Leopold Low: ** Zur Jiidischen Alterthumskunde.”
S. Munk: “* Palistina’’ (translated by M. A. Levy).
A. Neubauer: “Aus der Petersburger Bibliothek.”
Oelsner: *“*Sabbathai Bassista.”’
Ludwig Philippson: “‘Saron”; ‘Sepphoris und Rom’:
**Jacob Tirado’’; ““An den Strémen’’; ‘‘ Die Entthronten”’;
** Ausfiihriiche Darstellung der Israelitischen Religionstehre”’;
** Weltbewegende Fragen’; * Reden Wider den Unglauben”’;
**Die Entwickelung der Religiésen [dee im Judenthume, Chris-
tenthume, und Islam”: ‘‘ Die Religion der Gesellschaft’; ** Is-
raelitisches Gebetbuch.”’
Phébus Philippson : ** Biographische Skizzen’’; ** Der Unbe-
kanute Rabbi’; ** Die Marannen”’: ** Veilchen Jacob”; ** Ra-
chel”’; “In Banden Frei.”
Philo: Part of his writings in vol. iv. of “* Bibliothek der
Griechischen und Roémischen Schriftsteller.”’
'L. Seligmann: ‘‘ Giuseppe Levi's Parabeln aus Talmud und
Midrasch.”’
M. Wassermann: ‘‘ Judah Touro.’
M. Wiener: “* Emech Habacha.”’
I. Wiesner: ** Der Bann bei den Juden.”’
B. Willstédter: ‘* Ueber Jiidische Stiftungen.””
A. A. Wolff: ‘‘ Piutim.”
"Jil.
The society also contributed financially to the
publication of a number of works, among them
being: “Likkute Kadmoniyyot” (S. Pinsker);
“Zoologie des Talmuds” (L. Lewysohn); “Kerem
Hemed,” vol. ix. ; “ Vorlesungen tiber Offenbarungs-
lehre” (Steinheim); “Die Religiése Poeste der Ju-
den in Spanien” (Michael Sachs); “Der Gericht-
liche Beweis nach Mosaisch-Talmudischem Rechte ”
(Z. Frankel) ; “ Beitrige zur Literaturgesch.” (Zunz).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1855-73.
D. S. MAn.
INSTITUTIONS. See TaxKanot.
INSTITUTUM JUDAICUM: A special aca-
demic course for Protestant theologians who desire
to prepare themselves for missionary work among
Jews. The first of its kind was founded at the Uni-
versity of Halle by Professor Callenberg in 1724.
The great interest which Franz Delitzsch took in the
conversion of the Jews to Christianity prompted him
to establish a similar course at the University of Leip-
sic in 1886, and another was founded by Prof. H. L.
Instrument
Intermarriage
Strack in Berlin the same year. The institutes of
Leipsic and Berlin have courses in New Testament
theology with reference to the Messianic passages
in the Old Testament, and they also give instruction
in rabbinic literature; they further publish works
helpful to their cause, as biographies of famous con-
verts, controversial pamphlets, autobiographies of
converted Jews, and occasionally scientific tracts.
The Berlin institute has published Strack’s “Intro-
duction to the Talmud,” his editions of some tractates
of the Mishnah, and a monograph on the blood ac-
cusation. A special feature of its publications is
the New Testament in Hebrew and Yiddish transla-
tions. The present head of the Leipsic Institutum
Judaicum is Professor Dalman, who is assisted in his
literary work by a Jew, J. J. Kahan (sce Misston).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Herzog-Hauck, Real-Eneyc.s.v. Mission Un-
ter den Juden; the periodicals Nathanael (Berlin) and Saat
auf Hoffnung (Leipsic), and the publications of the two in-
stitutes. D
INSTRUMENT. Sce Deep.
INSTRUMENT. Sce Music anp Musica In-
STRUMENTS,
INSURANCE. Sce Expectation or LIFE.
INTELLIGENCERS: Persons who supply
intelligence or secret information; Stuart English
for “spies.” A number of crypt6-Jews in London
supplied Cromwell with “intelligence” in counec-
tion with foreign and colonial affairs. In 1655,
during the discussion of Manassch ben Israel’s plea
for the readmission of the Jews, a writer to the
“Mercurius Politicus” living in Amsterdam sug-
gested that the government could make good use of
the Jews for obtaining p@itical information, and
that for this reason they should be propitiated. The
suggestion was seized upon by Thurloe, the secre-
tary of state, and by Dr. Dorislaus, a secret agent of
the foreign office. This is seen froma remark in
Gilbert Burnet’s “ History of His Own Times,” and in
the Parliamentary Diary of Thomas Burton (1658),
who speaks of the Protector’s having used the
Jews, “those able and general intelligencers” (see
CARVAJAL),
Chief among these intelligencers were agents of
Antonio Fernandez Carvajal, fourteen of whose
despatches (now in the Clarendon Collection) are
supposed by Wolf to have been obtained for Thur
loe, They are said to have enabled Cromwell “to
take measures for the defeat of the projected inva-
sion of England concerted at Brussels early in 1656
between Charles II. and the Spanish government.”
Of a similar kind were the services of Manuel Mar-
tinez Dormido (.e., David Abravanel), who sub-
mitted to Thurloe extracts of letters from his Marano
correspondents in Amsterdam. These services are
supposed to have been rewarded by Cromwell in
1656 by his giving permission for the resettlement
of Jews in England.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lucien Wolf, Cromwell’s Jewish Intelli-
yencers, in Jewish Chronicle, May 15, 1891 et seq.; reprinted
in pamphlet form, London, 1891; idem, American Elements
in the Re-Settlement, Documents vi.~ix. in Transactions
Jew. Hist, Soc. Eng. 1899, pp. 95 et seqg.; idem, Menasseh
ben Israel’s Mission to Oliver Cromwell, pp. xxxvi., lii., Lon-
don, 1901: Max J. Kohler, Manasseh ben Israel and Some
aoe Pages of American History, p. 9, New York,
J. G.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
610
INTENTION: An intelligent purpose to doa
certain act. In criminal cases wrongful intent must
accompany the wrongful act in order to make the cul-
prit punishable by law. While in the common law,
when any wrongful act has been committed, it is
inferred conclusively that the act was intentionally
committed, in Talmudic law the intention must be
clearly established, as well as theactitsclf. An inno
cent intention will excuse a wrongful act (see I¢no-
RANCE OF THE LAw), and a wrongful intention that
failed of consummation, even though another crime
was accidentally committed at the same time, is not
punishable. For instance, one who intended to kill
a certain man, and by mistake killed another, could
not be criminally prosecuted (Sanh. 79a; Maimon-
ides, “ Yad,” Rozeah, iv. 12). Similarly, if one,
with the intention of killing a certain man, aimed a
stone ata part of his body where a mortal wound
could not be inflicted, and the stone struck a more
delicate part, and caused death, the one that threw
tlie stone was free from punishment (.), The right
of AsyLuM, however, was afforded only to one
who had had no intention of killing; in the cases
mentioned above the homicide was not admitted
to the cities of refuge, and the avenger of blood
(“go’el”) could kill him without being liable to
punishment.
In civil cases, the law disregards the intention,
and considers only the injury done by the act. One
who injures another's person or property, even
without intention, must make full restitution for the
damage (B. K. 26a, b; “Yad,” Hobel, i. 11-14, vi.
1); one necd not, however, compensate him for the
pain suffered (“Za‘ar”), or for the services of a phy-
sician (“rippui”), or for the time lost (“shebet”), or
for incident indignities (“boshet”). See DamaGn,
An ox that gored a man unintentionally, and caused
his death, was not killed; but if the ox was known
to have gored others (“mu‘ad”), its owner was
compelled to make compensation (“kofer”) to the
victim’s heirs. For unintentional, non-fatal injuries
committed by an animal upon any person or prop-
etty, its master must make compensation equal to
half the damage done (B. K. 48a, 44b; “ Yad,” Nizke
Mamon, x. 9, 13; xi. 6). See BrQursT; CoNnsENtT;
DEvoTION: Gorinec Ox; Harra’an; KAWWANAH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 378, 421;
Mielziner, Legat Maxims, etc., Cincinnati, 1898; Mendel-
sohn, Criminal Jurisprudence of the Ancient Hebrews,
Baltimore, 1891.
Ss. S. J. H. G.
INTEREST. See Usury.
INTERMARRIAGE: Marriage between per-
sons of different races or tribes. A prohibition to
intermarry with the Canaanites is found in Deut.
vii. 8, where it is said: “Neither shalt thou make
matriages with them [any of the seven nations of
the land of Canaan]; thy daughter thou shalt nof
give unto his son, nor his daughter shalt thou take
unto thy son.” The reason stated for this prohibi-
tion is: “For they will turn away thy son from fol-.
lowing me, that they may serve other gods” (¢d. vil.
4); and, inasmuch as this reason holds good as re-
gards intermarriage with any idolatrous nation, all
Gentiles are included in the prohibition (R. Simeon,
in ‘Ab. Zarah 86b;, comp. Kid. 68b; the other rabbis
61t
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Instrument
Intermarriage
regard the prohibition as rabbinic only). At any
rate, from Ezra onward this prohibition was ex-
tended to all Gentiles (Ezra ix. 1-2, x. 10-11; Neh.
x. 31), and accordingly the Law was thus interpreted
and codified by Maimonides (“ Yad,” Issure Biah,
xii. 1; comp. Shuthan ‘Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer, 16, 1;
Aaron ha-Levi, “Sefer ha-Hinnuk,” exxvii.). Older,
however, than the Deuteronomic law is the patri-
archal law forbidding the descendants of Abraham
to intermarry with the Canaanites (Gen. xxiv. 8,
XXv1. 34, xxvii. 46, xxviii. 8, xxxiv. 14). Never-
theless the Israelites during the pre-exilic period did
intermarry with the Gentiles, and the consequence
was that they were led to adopt idolatrous
practises (Judges iti. 6; comp. I Kings xi. 1 et seq.).
It is singular that Moses was the first to be censured,
and that by his own sister and brother, for having
married an Ethiopian woman (Num. xii. 1), though
this expression is referred to Zipporah by the com.
mentaries ad loc, Intermarriage with Ammonites
and Moabites was especially forbidden, whereas the
offspring of intermarriages with the Idumeans and
Egyptians were to be admitted to the congregation
of the Lord in their third generation (Deut. xxiii,
4-7, 8-9). An exception to the prohi-
Biblical bition against intermarriage was the
Pro- case of a captive woman during time
hibition. of war (Deut. xxi. 10-13); but this
seems to have referred to warfare with
nations other than the Canaanites (see the commen-
taries of Dillmann and Driver ad loc.).
But, however stroug was the tendency to inter-
marry in pre-exilic Israel, during the Babylonian
captivity the Jews realized that they were to be “a
holy people unto the Lord their God” and were
therefore forbidden to intermarry with the Gentiles,
wherefore the princes of the new Judean colony
came to Ezra saying: “The people of Israel and the
priests and Levites have not separated themselves
from the people of the lands, doing according to
their abominations, even of the Canaanites, the Hit-
tites, the Perizzites, the Jebusites, the Ammonites,
the Moabites, the Egyptians, and the Idumeans
[LXX. and I Esd. viii. 68; Masoretic text incor-
rectly “Amorites”]; for they have taken of their
daughters for themselves and for their sons so that
the holy seed have mingled with the people of those
lands” (Ezra ix. 1-2). The prophet Malachi also
complains (Mal. ii. 11): “Judah hath profaned the
holiness of the Lord which he loved, and hath mar-
ried the daughter of a strange god.” It was the
fear of seduction to idolatry which induced Ezra and
the other leaders of the new colony to exclude from
the commonwealth foreign wives and such as in-
sisted upon keeping them (Ezra ix.-x.; Neh. x. 31,
xiii. 23).
One important factor, however, was introduced
afterward which essentially modified the prohibi-
tion of intermarriage, and that was the conversion of
Gentiles to Judaism. This was believed to be typi-
fied in Ruth when she says to Naomi, “Thy people
shall be my people, and thy God my God” (Ruth
i. 16; comp. Isa. xiv. 1; and see PROSELYTE). All
the Biblical passages referring to permitted inter-
marriages, as that of a captive woman in war-time
(Sifre, Deut. 218: “She shall bewail her father and
mother” being explained by R. Akiba to mean “She
shall bewail her ancestral religion”; Yeb. 48b), or
of the Ammonites and Moabites (Sifre,
Deut. 249, 258), or of Joseph (see
ASENATH), were therefore interpreted
by the Rabbis as having been con-
cluded after due conversion to Juda-
ism; whereas Esau's intermarriage was found blame-
worthy on account of the idolatrous practises of his
wives (Gen. R. Ixv.; comp. Jubilees, xxv.1). In re-
gard to King Solomon see Yeb. 76a and Maimonides,
“ Yad,” Issure Biah, xiii. 14-16.
In the Book of Jubilees intermarriage with all
Gentiles is prohibited, no allowance being made for
proselytes (Jubilees, xx. 4, xxii, 20, xxx. 11; comp.
Targ. Yer. to Lev. xviii. 21, “Thou shalt not give
any of thy seed to make them pass through the fire
of Moloch,” which is translated: “Thou shalt not
give a child in marriage to a Gentile by which the
offspring is turned over to idolatry ”—a translation
refuted in Meg. iv. 9, but comp. Sanh. ix. 6, 82a).
This hostility to all pagan nations seems to have been
the fruit of the reaction against the Hellenistic ex.
cesses (comp. I Macc. i. 15: “they joined themselves
to the heathen”; that is, “they intermarried ”; ‘Ab.
Zarah 86b; Sanh. 82b). Hence also the Rabbis
would not allow intermarriage with the Canaanites
even after conversion (‘Ab. Zarah 34b; Yeb. 76a;
comp. “ Yad,” Issure Biah, xii. 22). In regard to
the Ammonites and Moabites, the Rabbis discrimi-
nated between the men descended from them, who
were forbidden to marry Jewesses, and the women,
whom—at least from the third generation onward—
Jews were permitted to marry (Yeb. viii. 3; “ Yad,”
d.c. xii. 18). Altogether, however, the view pre-
vailed that the nations of Palestine not having re-
mained in the ancient state, the exclusion of Gen-
tiles after they had once embraced Judaism ought
no longer to be insisted upon (Yad. iv. 4; Tosef.,
Kid. v. 4; Ber. 28a; “Yad,” dc. xii. 25). Hence,
marriage with converted Gentiles was no longer re-
garded as intermarriage (see Shulhan ‘Aruk, l.c. iv.
10, where slight differences of opinion are stated).
Intermarriages between Jewsand Christians—~who
are not identified with Gentiles, but regarded as
“proselytes of the gates” (Isaac b. Sheshet, Re-
sponsa, No. 119)—were first prohibited by the Chris-
tian emperor Constantius in 339, under penalty of
death (“Codex Theodosianus,” xvi. 8, 6; comp,
“Codex Justinianus,” i. 9,7), then by the councils
of Agdes in 506, of Rheims in Gaul
Between in 6380, of Elvira (Gritz, “ Gesch.” iv.
Jews and 3863), of Toledo (ic. v. 359); and in
Christians. Hungary by King Ladislaus I. 1077,
and Andrew in 12388 (Gritz, le. 3d
ed., iv. 868; v. 45, 52, 59; vii. 27; L. Low, “Gesam-
melte Werke,” ii. 176).
The removal of the disabilities of the Jews did
away with these state interdictions. Moses of Coucy
Infiuence
of Con-
version.
_ in 1286 induced those Jews who had contracted
marriages with Christian or Mohammedan women to
dissolve them (“Sefer Mizwot ha-Gadol,” cxii.).
The Great Sanhedrin, convened by Napoleon in 1807,
declared that “marriages between Israelites and
Christians when concluded in accordance with the
civil code are valid, and though they can not be
Intermarriage
Iowa
eae
solemnized by the religious rites of Judaism, they
should not be subject to the herem” (rabbinical
anathema). With reference to this declaration of
the Sanhedrin, which was, however, incorrectly pre-
sented, the Rabbinical Conference of Brunswick, in
1844, declared: “The marriage of a Jew with a
Christian woman or with any adherent of a mono-
theistic religion is not prohibited if the children of
such issue are permitted by the state to be brought
up in the Israelitish religion.” Holdheim, in his
“ Autonomie der Rabbinen,” 1843, tries to prove that
the Biblical prohibition of intermarriage does not in-
clude monotheists; but his statements are not always
correct (see Frankel, “Zeitschrift,” 1844, p. 287).
Both Geiger and Aub, as members of the committee
appointed by the first Jewish Synod, held at Leipsic
in 1869, declared themselves against intermarriage
as being injurious to the peace of the home and to
the preservation of the Jewish faith, the faith of the
minority (“ Referate iiber die der Ersten Synode Ge-
steliten Antrige,” p. 193). Ludwig Philippson,
a member of the Brunswick Conference, changed
his view afterward and in his “Israelitische Reli-
gionslehre,” 1865, ili. 350, declared himself against
intermarriage. D. Einhorn, in “The Jewish Times,”
1870, No. 45, p. 11, declares marriages between Jews
and non-Jews to be prohibited from the standpoint
of Reform Judaism. On the other hand, in contra-
diction to Einhorn’s view, Samuel Hirsch, empha-
sizing the monotheistic faith of the Christians and
the monotheistic mission of Judaism, in Nos, 26-37
of “The Jewish Times” and 72. No. 47, defended
his opinion as former member of the Brunswick
Conference, that intermarriages are permitted by
Reform Judaism.
Regarding intermarriages with Karaites, see Ka-
RAITES; With Shabbethaians, see SIIABBETHAI ZEB.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Low, Gesammelte Schriften, 1893, tit. 108-163 ;
Mielziner, The Jewish Law of Marriage and Divorce, pp.
45-52, Cincinnati, 1884. K
It is very difficult to obtain any statistical infor-
mation as to the number of Jews who marry outside
their faith; but some of the Continental governments
have made inquiries on this point witb a view to
testing the tendency to assimilation in this regard.
During 1900 in Prussia there were
Statistics. 4,799 Jews who married Jewesses, and
474 Jews and Jewesses who married
outside their faith (“Zeitschrift fiir Preussische Sta-
tistik,” 1902, p. 216). In Bavaria during the year
1899, while 416 Jews married Jewesses, 31 Jews and
Jewesses married outside the faith (“ Zeitschrift des
Konigl. Bayer. Statistischen Bureaus,” 1900, p. 259).
Information of the same kind is obtainable for some
of the chief towns, as for Berlin, where in 1899 there
were 621 Jewish marriages as against 229 intermar-
riages (“Statistisches Jahrbuch,” 1902, p. 61). Simi-
larly in Budapest for 1898 there were 1,238 Jewish
marriages as against 146 intermarriages (“Statistikai
Evkényve,” 1901, p. 82). In Vienna in 1898 there
were 110 mixed marriages as against 847 purely Jew-
ish marriages; while in Prague there were only 6 as
against 354 (“Oesterreichisches Stidtebuch,” viii.
283, Vienna, 1900). Perhaps the most remarkable
case of allis that of New South Wales, which, accord-
JHE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
612
ing to the latest census, gives the number of persons
living in the married state, and not merely of mar.
riages ina year. Of these there were 781 who had
married Jews or Jewesses, as against 361 who had
married outside the faith (‘Census of New South
Wales 1901, Bulletin No. 14”).
In all of these cases it ig necessary to double the
number of purely Jewish marriages in order to deter-
mine the proportion of persons married within or
without the faith; for it is obvious that if any of
those who married outside had married another who
also married outside, this would form only one Jew-
ish marriage, whereas, under the present circum-
stances, they constitute two mixed marriages,
With this taken into consideration, all the figures
given above will work out as 9.3 per cent of mixed
marriages. But this would be very misleading if ap-
plied to all Jews, as those mentioned above are the
chief communities in which intermarriages occur.
In Russia and Austria mixed marriages are still very
rare, as, for instance, in Prague (see above),
In countries still under medieval conditions, inter-
marriages are still rarer. In Algeria between 1830
and 1837, in an average population of 25,000, there
were only 30 such marriages in all (Ricoux, “ Demo-
graphie de |l’Algérie,” p. 71, Paris, 1860).
Statistical inquiry has proved that the number of
children resulting from intermarriages is considera-
bly smaller than that from purely Jewish marriages,
averaging only about one child to a marriage com-
pared with an average of three or four from purely
Jewish marriages. Reasons have been given by
Rippin, in Conrad’s “ Jahrbiicher ” for 1902, to show
that the comparison is somewhat deceptive, as the
birth-rate is determined by dividing marriages by
births; and as mixed marriages are on the increase
there are fewer earlier marriages to raise the
quotient. This, however, does not explain the very
great contrast, which is probably due to the fact
that persons marry without the faith at more ad-
vanced ages than they marry within, and are of a
somewhat higher social standing, among which
classes children are generally fewer. See BrrTus.
J.
INTERMEDIATE DAYS. See Horny Days.
INTESTACY. See Acnates; INHERITANCE.
INVOCATION: A form of praise or blessing
greatly in vogue in medieval Hebrew literature. In
ancient times the invocation was an essential part of
the various forms of salutation, many instances of
which are found in Biblical, and especially in post-
Biblical, literature. They recognize the divine pres-
ence, invoke the divine benediction, and express the
wish that the object of the salutation may enjoy a
long and happy life and general prosperity. To
them belong also the special blessings invoked upon
arriving and departing travelers and upon the sick,
and those recited upon extraordinary occasions, joy-
ful or otherwise—upon drinking wine, upon sneez-
ing, and upon the completion of a written commu-
nication. See Asusa.
With the exception of a few formulas used when
mentioning the name of the Lord (wow JIN», FIN
s’apn Sy yw, m”apn pissin nS PA) Sy yn,
ADT DNIN wow JIN 7"api), invocations, as a rule,
613
refer to persons, and fall into two main groups, those
upon the living, and those upon the dead. In the
first group the oldest formula occurs frequently in
the Mishnah (2105 yD} = “ may he be remembered for
good!”), This formula, however, afterward came
to be invoked mainly upon the dead.
In- From geonic times are derived ex-
vocations pressionslike N95 yD ID and AMY
for [AYP] NM, abbreviated 49, "9;
the Living. the latter abbreviation, having gained
the signification of the term 493 (“his
light”), evolved into 3"~° 449. Later were added
My IMD, MY ww also with the addition
NU O'MEn p'e, ew, pow, ry, Pp.
The wish that the one saluted may enjoy a long
and happy life was conveyed in the formula p> nM,
ay mr; then, more fully, in p79 sand rary stay
pws oy, roy, with pray), or and sew
pw on (oy, with jor = x"Dosdy; with the fur-
ther addition 7 D=p'xpdy). The Spanish or Orien-
tal Jews write 319 13D ("b). In the case of promi-
nent men, particularly those that wielded worldly
power, non-Jewish rulers included, the formula
Nn Dy was, and still is, used (A; NIDSH NP isa
Biblical expression; see Dan. xi. 21; I Chron. xvi.
27, Xx1x, 25). Besides these special phrases, several
Bible verses, gencrally in abbreviated and altered
form, were employed, such as, for instance, those
from Ex. xviii. 4: "yn "ON moe (see Ps. exlvi.
5: ys apy Sxw); Deut. xxxiii. 24: pny ays ap
(N°); Isa. ii. 10: OO FAN Pap Aa Op with the
appended JON=N'™™}); Ps. xxii. 27: syd mm; xxiv. 5:
AND FDII NWO"); Xl 8s EM Aw 9";
Ixxii, 17: wow pe wow od odys ww on;
Prov. iii. 2: JS Dy oder pm maw DD TAN
(from which came: 15 YY DYN MW WN = YON
O'sn: or perhaps, in order to obtain this ingenious
abbreviation, the Jetter 4) of Nigyy; and the word obey
have been omitted, and the eulogy runs: Dp‘) JIN
1S yprpy Ov mw); Ezrai.3: yoy yabxem, ete. In
the case of women, from Judges v. 24 is recited: JA3Nn
p'v3p and Jaan Sawa ow (o"n, nap transposed
3’~N) were customary. On occasion of mention-
ing localities use was made of the eulogy formed
after Num. xxi, 27: 49"9°2 72 JNIN AIAN
Q'n 3"a1n, with jON=N"IAIN); so, likewise, the adap-
tations from Ps. xlvili. 9 and Ixxxvii. 5: s¥")y 701d"
(with jor = x"pr) and abo nbyy SY i199)5", were em-
ployed.
Eulogies upon the dead contain an expression of
the desire that the life of the departed may prove
to have been a blessing, that their earthly remains
may have peace, and that their souls have entered
the realms of bliss, are partaking there
of heavenly blessings and of the rap-
tures of Eden, and are face to face
with the glory of God. The utterance
of some of these eulogies, such as the
phrase won odpm nd mois wr
(briefly : ma. sD) was early enjoined upon
children when naming their deceased father, and
upon pupils when naming their deceased teacher.
The following forms of eulogy, each with its varia-
In-
vocations
for
the Dead.
Intermatlriage
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Towa
tions, have gradually developed: aod mor "Dp,
soi25 pysyy ar (Prov. x. 7, compare Ps. cxii. 6;
abbreviated 5°yn), asad wep ror (S’pn); in com-
bination these eulogies upon the dead occur in
numerous variations, among which wytp) Psy DT
xan odiyn end mails ca’ndsonyr and a’ndhyyn) is
the most complete formula; oben yy "D);
xoowh awe: WE IMD (939); IY wm? (ya): ana
Py pis [inws, we] (aa); Man PY pa yw
(M'pay; in transpositions y’an3, y'a3n; with pox =
N pan); WNMI IN PTY ja (ony), ete.
Besides these freely selected formulas, as in the
cease of eulogies upon the living, verses from the
Bible, more or less modified in form, have been
employed. These were largely taken from Ex.
xvi. 14: bom nasw byny (the resurrection is notably
associated with the dew, {AN Sy by): IT Sam. xxv.
29: DYNA WAV ANY IN WHI AM) (from among
the many variations the most customary is: (WEI ‘AN
DYAN WI. AY = AA’yon); Isa. xi. 10: [ANT]
Maa AMID ('p. Pon= N32 nm Wn); 2.
xxvii. 11: Mwy YOM; 2. Iii. 2: om oSw NID
inD2 Tn oMiaaw Sy; Lxiii. 14: q9M83n “J AN (com-
pare also Genesis ii. 15: PAY paannys; from the two
verses developed the formula sy yaa ysm3an “I AN
= yan); Hab. ii. 4: mo inapRa pyts[i] Cay);
Ps. xvii. 14: pn3 pon: 7b, XXV. 18: SOD Iw
PIN ET Iya 5m (x""naa; often only the first half,
n'n9); 2. xci. 1: pom wy Syn "wary; a. exvi. 9:
DYNA PSN Ys 1955 “bans (in the third person
bam, ete. =a’); Dan. xii. 18: q5oa5 snym
Pon yd; and many others. The merits of the de-
ceased who led a pious life were recited to the survi-
ving in expressions such as y9°>y }S) MDT (YD), NID?
wosnyn (o"np, way py yd umar (2p), ete.
It may naturally be assumed that the eulogies
found upon tombstones represent the eulogies in cur-
rent use at the time of inscription. Nor have the
poets in their acrostics neglected them (p}n, YON) DIN,
mom. mina Sa, ony owyon mina Sa; ys, r,
ns). The contractions of eulogy, as abbrevia-
tions in general, have greatly influenced the forma-
tion of family-names: compare, for example, names
such as Shalit (y"sSy), Jare (8°), and others.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. pp. 304 et seq.; Steinschneider,
pee Bibl. vii. 23; Kaufmann, in Monatsschrift, xxxvii. 121
et seq.
G. H. B.
IONIA. See Javan.
IOWA: One of the north-central states of the
American Union. <A partofthe Louisiana Purchase
(1803), it was incorporated successively in the terri-
tories of Louisiana, Missouri, Michigan, and Wiscon-
sin. In1888 it was organized as the Iowa Territory,
and in 1846 admitted to the Union. There are no
records of Jewish organizations, charitable or con-
gregational, prior to 1855. There were, however,
Jews living in the river towns as early as 1847-48,
especially at Dubuque and McGregor, the main
shipping and crossing points for the West, and small
unorganized Jewish communities existed at Daven-
port, Burlington, and Keokuk. From 1849 to 1879
the population shifted steadily toward the interior
of the state and the Missouri River.
Iowa
Ireland
Des Moines is the capital and the largest city of
Iowa; it was settled in 1846, incorporated in 1851,
and chartered as a city and made the capital of the
state in 1857. Its population (1903) is about 70,000,
of which, perhaps, 1,800 are Jews. The first con-
gregation in Des Moines was the B’nai Yeshurun,
organized in 1878, with conservative tendencies; its
temple was dedicated in 1887, and ministered to
by Rabbis Davidson, Freudenthal, Miller, Bottig-
heimer, and Sonneschein. It is now a Reform con-
gregation. Three other congregations, the youngest
of which was established in 1908, use the Orthodox
ritual.
Davenport, on the Mississippi, has (1903) a popu-
lation of 40,000, including about 300 Jews. Its one
congregation, B’nai Israel (Reform), was organized
in 1861. Thesynagogue Temple Emanuel was dedi-
cated in 1884. The pastorate has been held by Rab-
bis Freuder, Thorner, and Fineshriber. The com-
munity has a ladies’ aid society, a burial-ground
association, a B’nai B'rith lodge, anda branch of
the Jewish Woman’s Council.
Keokuk, on the Mississippi, and at the southeast-
ern extremity of the state, organized, in 1856, a
benevolent society, which, in 1863, was reorganized
into the Congregation B’nai Israel. A temple was
built, and the congregation flourished until 1898,
when the removal of many members compelled the
resignation of their minister. Since that time serv-
ices have been held only occasionally, and on holy
days. The total population is 15,000, of which not
more than 50 are Jews (1908).
Sioux City had its earliest Jewish organization,
the Hebrew Ladies’ Aid Society, in 1884; Mt. Sinai
congregation was organized in 1898. It has the
usual number of philanthropic societies. Rabbis
Ellinger, Leiser, and Mannheimer have successively
officiated since the organization of the congregation.
It has a total population of 35,000, of which 400 are
Jews (1903).
Burlington has one congregation, Anshe Yitz-
chak (Orthodox), founded in 1902. In the early sev-
enties a congregation existed under Rev. 8. Hecht,
but it lived only one year. B’nai B’rith Lodge No.
251 was organized in 1875. There are about 150
Jews, in a total population of 25,000.
Small congregations exist in Centerville, Coun-
cil Bluffs, Dubuque, and Waterloo. Cedar
Rapids, Clinton, Lake City, Ottumwa, and
Rock Island have very small communities without
organized congregations, though holding services on
holy days.
Moses Bloom of Iowa City was elected twice to
the state legislature, and in 1888 was chosen senator
of Johuson county.
The name of A. F. Slimmer of Waverly is con-
nected with many bequests to Jewish, Christian,
and non-sectarian institutions,
The entire Jewish population of Iowa does not
exceed 5,000.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: American Jewish Year-Book, 5661 (1900-01).
A. W. OH. EF.
IRELAND: An island west of Great Britain,
forming part of the United Kingdom of Great Brit-
ain and Ireland. The earliest mention of Jews in
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
614
Ireland appears toward the end of the eleventh cen-
tury, although, curiously enough, quite a number of
books have been written to identify the Irish with
the Lost Ten Tribes.
The first authentic mention of Jews in Ireland is a
record, dating from 1079, that “five Jews came over
the sea bearing gifts to Fairdelbach [Hua Brian], and
were sent back over the sea.” No further reference
is found until nearly a century later, in the reign of
Henry II. of England. That monarch, fearful lest
an independent kingdom should be established in
Ireland, prohibited a proposed expedition thither.
Strongbow, however, went in defiance of the king’s
orders; and, as a result, his estates were confiscated.
In his venture Strongbow seems to have been as-
sisted financially by a Jew; for under date of
1170 the following record occurs: “Josce Jew of
Gloucester owes 100 shillings for an amerciament
for the moneys which he lent to those who against
the king’s prohibition went over to Ireland ” (Jacobs,
“Jews of Angevin England,” p. 51).
Jewish names appear in the “Calendar of Docu-
ments Relating to Ireland,” between 1171, when Jo-
seph the Doctor is referred to, down to 1179. It ig
unlikely, however, that Jews settled in the island in
appreciable numbers at that period; for no further
record is found concerning them until several years
later. An entry dated 1225 shows that Roger Bacon
had borrowed considerable sums from English Jews
in connection with his mission on the king’s service
in Ireland.
By that date, however, there was probably a
Jewish community in Ireland; for under date
of July 28, 1232, appears a grant by King Henry
III. to Peter de Rivall, granting
Branch of him the office of treasurer and chan-
the Irish cellor of the Irish Exchequer, the
Exchequer. king’s ports and coast, and also “the
custody of the King’s Judaism in Ire-
land.” This grant contains the additional instruc-
tion that “all Jews in Ireland shall be intentive and
respondent to Peter as their keeper in all things
touching the king.” The Jews at this period prob-
ably resided in or near Dublin. In the Dublin
White Book, under date of 1241, appears a grant of
land containing various prohibitions against its sale
or disposition by the grantee. Part of the prohibi-
tion reads “ vel in Judaismo ponere.” Both this and
the preceding reference were common form.
The last mention of Jews in the “Calendar of
Documents Relating to Ireland” appears about
1286. When theexpulsion from England took place
(1290), the Irish Jews had doubtless to go as well.
At any rate, there is no further mention of them
until the period of the Commonwealth, when the
resettlement of the Jews in England under Crom
well led to resettlement in Ireland also. From in-
vestigations made by Lucien Wolf, it would appear,
however, that as early as 1620 one David Sollom, a
Jewish merchant, purchased some property in Meath
which is still in the possession of his descendants.
Jews are first heard of again in Dublin; and there
is reason to believe that they were among the Dis-
senters who came after Cromwell’s conquests. It is
even stated that some Portuguese Jews settled in
Dublin on Cromwell’s invitation, and that they
615
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Towa
Ireland
goon became opulent merchants. They established
a synagogue in Crane lane.
The Dublin congregation prospered, and seems to
have been in existence in the reigns of King Will-
iam IIT. and Queen Anne. In a work
Settlement published in the latter’s reign men-
in Dublin. tion is made of a visit to London by
a Rabbi Aaron Sophair of Dublin.
No record, however, is found of any Jewish set-
tlement outside of Dublin. As late as 1787 Cork
seems to have had no Jewish community, though
toward the middle of the century mention is made
of Jews residing there.
In 1728, or thereabout, Michael Phillips pre-
sented the Dublin Jews with a piece of freehold
ground at Ballybough Bridge for a cemetery; and
about the middle of the eightcenth century the
Bevis Marks Congregation of London assisted them
financially in erecting a wall round the _ burial-
ground. It should be mentioned that the Dublin
congregation at one time proposed to affiliate itself
with the Spanish and Portuguese congregation of
London. Dublin in 1745 contained about forty Jew-
ish families, comprising about 200 persons. Their
synagogue was at Marlborough Green, and their
cemetery in the center of the village of Ballybough.
In 1746 a bill was introduced in the Irish House of
Commons “for naturalizing persons professing the
Jewish religion in Ireland.” Another was intro-
duced in the following year, agreed to without
amendment, and presented to the lord lieutenant
to be transmitted to England; but it never received
the royal assent. These Irish bills, however, had
one very important result; namely, the formation
of the Committee of Diligence, which was organ-
ized by British Jews at this time to watch the prog-
ress Of the measure. This ultimately led to the
organization of the Board of Deputies, which im-
portant body has continued in existence to the pres-
ent time.
Jews were expressly excepted from the benefit of
the Irish Naturalization Act of 1788.
The Dublin congregation declined steadily toward
the end of the eighteenth century; and by the be-
ginning of the nineteenth the synagoguc was dis-
continued, and the borrowed scrolls were returned
to the Bevis Marks Congregation. About 1822,
however, the congregation was reorganized, and it
has prospered ever since. Its meeting-place was
for several years at 40 Stafford strect; a new syna-
gogue was built in Mary’s Abbey in 1885; and the
present place of worship is in Adelaide road.
The exceptions in the Naturalization Act of 1783,
referred to above, were abolished in 1846, In the
same year the obsolete statute “De Judaismo,”
which prescribed a special dress for Jews, was also
formally repealed. The Irish Marriage Act of 1844
expressly made provision for marriages according
to Jewish rites.
When the Irish famine was at its height in 1847,
the Jews of America took an active interest in re-
lieving the distress; and a notable mecting was or-
ganized by the Spanish and Portuguese congrega-
tion of New York, at which a fund was raised in aid
of the sufferers.
Toward the middle of the nineteenth century sev- |
eral families of German Jews settled in Ireland.
Conspicuous among these was the JAFFE family of
Belfast, which established the famous linen-house
bearing its name.
Jews have repeatedly held office in Ireland. A
Benjamin d’Isracli, or Disraeli, a public notary in
Dublin from 1788 to 1796, and later a prominent
member of the Dublin Stock Exchange, held the
office of sheriff for County Carlow in 1810. In all
likelihood, however, he was a Jew by origin only.
Ralph Bernal-Osborne, of Jewish extraction, was a
prominent land-owner in Ireland, and represented
Waterford in Parliament in 1870.
The first professing Israelite, however, to hold
office was Lewis Harris, alderman of the city of
Dublin. Hisson, Alfred Wormser Harris, succeeded
him as senior alderman, and in 1880 contested the
county of Kildare in the Liberal interest. Alfred
now (1903) holds commissions of the peace for the
city and county of Dublin.
The most prominent position ever held in Ireland
by a Jew was that of Lord Mayor of Belfast, held
by Sir Otto Jarre 1899-1900; he also
Prominent became high sheriff in1901. At pres-
Irish Jews. ent Sir Ovto is justice of the peace for
Belfast and also consul at that city for
the German government. Maurice EK. Solomons, jus-
tice of the peace for the city and county of Dublin, is
acting consul in that city for the Austro-Hungarian
empire.
Among the Jews graduated from Trinity College,
Dublin, may be mentioned: N. L. Benmohel, the
first professing Jew to enter the institution since its
foundation by Queen Elizabeth; John D. Rosenthal,
LL.D; Barrow Emanuel, J.P.; and Ernest W. Har-
ris, LL.D. The Rev. Alfred Philip Bender, J.P., a
native Irish Jew, has been government member of
the council of the University of the Cape of Good
Hope.
Ireland is the only portion of the British Isles that
has a religious census; and, consequently, figures
are more nearly correct there than elsewhere. The
Jewish population in 1871 was 258. By the census
of 1881 it did not exceed 458, mostly of English and
German extraction. Since that date, however, it
has increased considerably, doubtless owing to Rus-
sian immigration. In 1891 it was given as 1,779; in
1901 as 3,771. The bulk of this population resides
in Dublin, which contains about 2,200 Jews. Be-
sides the synagogue on Adelaide road, there are five
minor congregations, a board of guardians, and a
number of charitable and educational institutions.
Belfast has a Jewish population of about 450,
and contains several charitable organizations and
two synagogues, of one of which Sir Otto Jaffe is
president. The Jewish population of Cork is about
400. Limerick, Londonderry, and Waterford
have eacha synagogue and charitable organizations.
Zionist socicties also have been established in Ireland.
The Jewish population is distributed in the prov-
inces as follows: Connaught, 4; Leinster, 2,246;
Munster, 670; and Ulster, 851.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Calendar of Documents Relating to Ireland,
edited by H. S. Sweetman, i.~iv. London, 1875; John D’Alton,
History of the City of Dublin, pp. 54-57, Dublin, 1838; Whife-
head and Walsh, History of Dublin, pp. 845; Joseph Jacobs,
Jews of Angevin England, pp. 51, 255, New York, 1893;
Ir ha-Heres
Isaac
O'Conor, Annals of Tinisfallen, ii. 81; Moses Margoliouth,
History of the Jews in Great Britain, i. 174, ii. 63, London,
1851; James Picciotto, Sketches of Anylo-Jewish History, pp.
77, 114, 115, 121, 168, 225, London, 1875: Bloch’s Oesterreich-
ische Wochenschrift, May 9, 1902, p. 319; Lucien Wolf, The
Middle Age of Anglo-Jewish History, in Papers of the
Anglo-Jewish Historical Exhibition, p. 76; John Curry, An
Historical and Critical Review of the Civil Wars in Tre-
land, ii. 262, London, 1786; The Oecident (Phila.), 1847, v.
35-45: Jew. Chron, Jan. 4, Feb. & 1901; The Jewish Year
Book, London, 1902-03; Diet. Nat. Biog. iv. 373, xx. 117, New
York.
J. L. Hw.
IR HA-HERES. See HERES.
IRKUTSK. Sce SIBERIA.
IRON: The invention of the art of working in
brass and iron is ascribed to Tubal-cain (Gen. iv.
22), and thus placed in prehistoric times. The
Israelites, therefore, derived their knowledge of the
art from others. Further proof of this fact is fur-
nished by the undoubtedly trustworthy report that
Solomon brought Hiram, an artiticer, from Tyre to
make the brazen implements used in the Temple;
from this it is apparent that at that time the Jews
had not acquired the art. Indeed, as industrial pur-
suits in general among the Jews arose only after
the time of Solomon, it may be assumed that the
same was the case with the art of working in brass
andiron. Outsideof the cities the peasant continued
for a long time to make (as he still makes at the
present day, in some places) his own clothes and
his own simple tools, and to be his own car-
penter. As soon, however, as the Israelites began
to settle in larger towns, and especially as the Ca-
naanitish cities were opened to them, a division of
labor took place; then, for the first time, such occu-
pations as working in brass and iron began to de-
velop amongthem. Without doubt the use of brass
preceded that of iron: the kitchen utensils were of
brass (“nehoshet ”), as also were parts of the armor
—helmet, shield, cuirass, greaves, bow, and, per-
haps, sword (I Sam. xvii. 5 e¢ seg.; II Sam. xxii. 35).
Tron does not seem to have taken the place of
brass until a rather late date. Although the art of
working in iron is mentioned in the Hexateuch
(Num, xxxi. 22, xxxv. 16; Deut. iii. 11, xix. 5;
Josh. xxii. 8), these are generally considered com-
paratively late passages, and would therefore only
indicate something for the time in which they were
written, but nothing for the period to which they re-
fer. The same is claimed for I Sam. xvii. 7 and If
Kings vi. 5; these passages are said to
Period of belong to a considerably later period.
In- The oldest passage from this point of
troduction. view which presupposes the use of
iron is J] Sam. xii. 81, in which “harize
ha-barzel” are mentioned. In Amos “haruzot ha-
barzel,” used by the Arameans, are spoken of, It
may be inferred from II Sam, xii. 31 that the Israel-
ites of that time were also familiar with the metal.
Iron was used in a great many ways: for mann-
facturing axes and hatchets (Deut. xix. 5; IT Kings
vi. 5); sickles, knives, swords, and spears (I Sam.
xvii. 7); bolts, chains, and fetters (Ps. ev. 18; evii.
10, 16; Isa. xlv. 2); nails, hooks, and hilts (Jer.
xvil. 1; Job xix. 24). It was also used in making
plows, thrashing-carts, and thrashing-boards (Amos
i. 3; [Sam. xiii. 20; If Sam. xii. 31), as well as for
sheathing war-chariots. The Israelites found such
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
616
“iron chariots ” already in use among the Canaanites,
and were compelled to avoid encountering the
enemy in the open plain, where the latter could use
their chariots.
Iron lends itself readily to figurative usage. Thus
Egypt is called “ kur ha-barzel” (the iron furnace;
Deut. iv. 20); those who are sunk in misery are de-
scribed as “asire ‘oni u-barzel”” (bound in affliction
and iron; Ps. cvii. 10). A tyrannical ruler is char.
acterized as “shebet barzel” (Ps. ii. 9), or “ ‘ol bar.
zel” (Deut. xxvill. 48); an unbending neck is “ gid
barzel” (Isa. xlviii. 4). The teeth of the fourth
great beast which Daniel saw in his vision are of
iron (Dan. vii. 7; comp. II Macc. xi. 19; Ecclus.
[Sirach] xxii. 15).
E, @. H. W. ON.
IR-SHEMESH (wow “vy, “city of the sun”):
A city of Dan, mentioned with Shaalabbin and
Ajalon (Josh. xix. 41-42). Its parallel name in
Judges (i 35, Hebr.) is “ Har-Heres” (the mountain
of the sun). Some modern critics identify Ir-shemesh
with BeTH-SHEMESH, in Judah. See HERES.
E. G. H. M. SEL.
ISAAC.—Biblical Data: Second patriarch; son
of Abraham and Sarah. He was the child of a mir-
acle, for at the time of his birth his mother, hitherto
childless, was ninety years old, and his father a
hundred. By the command of God the child was
named “Jsaac” (pmy’; in poetical language pny?
= “lJanghter”), because Abraham had, covertly,
laughed in incredulity when, a year previously, he
had received the promise of God that a son would
be born to him by Sarah (Gen. xvii. 17); so also did
Sarah as, standing at the door of the tent, she heard
the promise reiterated by the angel (Gen. xviii. 12).
Isaac was circumcised when he was eight days old,
and at his weaning the parents manifested their joy
by giving a great feast. As a solicitous mother
Sarah urged Abraham to send away Ishmael, his son
by the servant-maid Hagar, whom she had seen
mocking Isaac. At first Abraham hesitated, but at
the command of God he complied with the wish of
his wife; Isaac was thus declared the sole heir of his
father.
A. critical event in Isaac’s life occurred when
God’s command came that he should be offered as
a sacrifice on a mountain in the Jand of Moriah (Gen.
xxii. 2). Isaac showed himself in this trial to be
worthy of his father. Without murmuring he suf-
fered himself to be bound and laid upon the altar.
But Abraham was prevented by God from consum-
mating the sacrifice, and a ram that happened to be
near was Offered instead. At the age of thirty-six
Tsaac lost his mother. Abraham then charged Elie-
zer, his steward, with the mission of selecting a
wife for Isaac from among his (Abraham’s) own
people. After a series of providential coincidences,
Eliezer returned with Rebekah, whom Isaac, then
forty, married (Gen. xxv. 20). For
Birth of twenty years they were childless; at
Jacob and last Isaac’s prayers were heard, and Re-
Esau. bekah gave birth to the twins Esau and
Jacob. Asthechildren grew the gentle
and good-natured Isaac came to prefer the boisterous
and adventurous Esau, who gratified his father with
617
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ir ha-Heres
Isaac
the choicest spoils of the chase, while the quiet and
Jess adventurous Jacob was an object of special re-
gard to Rebekah: a division of feeling which be-
came later a source of jealousy and hatred between
the two brothers.
A famine compelled Isaac to leave his abode “by
the well of Lahai-roi.” On this occasion he had his
first vision. God appeared to him in a dream and
warned him not to go down to Egypt, but to remain
within the boundaries of Palestine, promising him
great prosperity and numerous descendants. Isaac
therefore settled among the Philistines at Gerar,
where, fearing lest Rebekah’s beauty should tempt
the Philistines to kill him, he had recourse to a strat-
agem that had been used in similar circumstances by
his father; he pretended that she washissister. The
Philistine king, however, was not long in finding
out the truth, and, after rebuking Isaac for his de-
ceit, adopted stringent measures for the protection
of husband and wife,
In his new home Isaac devoted himself to hus-
_ bandry, and succeeded so well that he incurred the
envy of the Philistines. They commenced a petty
persecution against him, stopping up the wells which
his father had dug, and which Isaac's servants had re-
opened, The peace-loving Isaac submitted patiently
to these persecutions until Abimelech enjoined
him to remove from Gerar. Isaac then pitched
his tent in the valley of Gerar, shortly afterward
settling at Beer-sheba, where God appeared to him
for the second time and blessed him.
Persecuted An altar was built by Isaacon the spot
by Phi- where he had had the vision, and his
listines. servants dug a well. While living
there Isaac received a visit from Abim-
elech, king of the Philistines, and Phichol, the
chief captain of his army, who came to court his
alliance.
Isaac’s old age was not a happy one. He was as-
sailed by infirmities, and became totally blind. To
this was added the enmity between his two sons.
With prevision of his death, Isaac recommended his
son Esau to bring him some venison and receive his
blessing. At the instigation of Rebekah, Jacob,
profiting by the blindness of his father, presented
himself in Esau’s stead, and received the blessing
intended for the latter. This infuriated Esau to
such an extent that Jacob had to seek safety in
flight. Isaac died at Hebron, at the age of 180,
shortly after the return of Jacob and his family from
Mesopotamia, and was buried by his two sons in the
cave of Machpelah, beside Abraham and Sarah.
—In Rabbinical Literature: According to the
Rabbis, Isaac was born in the month of Nisan, at
noon, when the spring sun was shining in all its
glory (Rosh ha-Shanah 10b; Gen. R. liii.). At that
hour the sick were restored to health, the blind re-
covered their sight, and the deaf their hearing; the
brightuess of the sun and of the moon was intensi-
fied (Tan., Gen. 87); a spirit of justice began to
prevail in the world: hence the name pny’, a com-
pound of xy’ and pin (= “Law was issued”). In
the numerical value of each letter of the name there
is an allusion: thus, the » (= 10) alludes to the Deca-
logue; the ¥ (= 90), and the p (=100), to the re-
spective ages of Sarah and Abraham at the birth of
Isaac; the m (= 8) refers to the day of circumcision
(Gen. R. liii.). Notwithstanding, there were slan-
derers who maintained that Abraham and Sarah had
picked up a foundling, or, according to another
haggadah, had taken a son of Hagar and pretended
that he was their son. ‘To silence these slanderers
Abraham prepared a great feast on the occasion of
the weaning of Isaac, whercat, by a miracle, Sarah
wasenabled to nurse all the sucklings that had been
brought by the women invited to the feast. As
there was no longer any doubt as to Sarah’s mater-
nity, theslanderers questioned Abraham’s paternity.
Then God imprinted on the face of Isaac the fea-
tures of Abraham, and the likeness between father
and son became so great that one was often mis-
taken for the other (B. M. 8%a; Yalk., Gen. 98).
According to some Ishmael committed the crime of
attracting Isaac to the fields and there casting at
him arrows and balls under the pretext of play
(pry), but in reality to get rid of him (Gen. R. hii):
for this reason Sarah insisted on Ishmael and _ his
mother being dismissed.
A fertile subject in the Haggadah is the attempted
sacrifice of Isaac, know 1. as the “ ‘akedah.’’ Accord-
ing to Jose ben Zimra, the idea of
The tempting Abraham was suggested by
Sacrifice of Satan, who said: “Lord of the Uni-
Isaac. verse! Here isa man whom thou hast
blessed with a son at the age of one
hundred years, and yet, amidst all his feasts, he did
not offer thee a single dove or young pigeon fora
sacrifice” (Sanh. 87b; Gen. R. lv.). In Jose ben
Zimra’s opinion, the ‘akedah took place inimediately
after Isaac’s weaning. This, however, is not the
general opinion. According to the Rabbis, the
‘akedah not only coincided with, but was the cause
of, the death of Sarah, who was informed of Abra.
ham’s intention while he and Isaac were on the way
to Mount Moriah. Therefore Isaac must then have
been thirty-seven years old (Seder ‘Olam Rabbah,
ed. Ratner, p. 6; Pirke R. El. xxxi.; Tanna debe
Eliyahu R. xxvii.). Not only did he consent to
the sacrifice, but he himself suggested it in the course
of a discussion that arose between him and Ishmacl
concerning their respective merits. Ishmael asserted
his superiority to Isaac on account of his having
suffered himself to be circumcised at an age when
he could have objected to it, while Isaac underwent
the operation on the eighth day after his birth.
“Thou pridest thyself,” replied Isaac, “on having
given to God three drops of thy blood. I am now
thirty-seven years old, and would gladly give my
life if God wished it” (Sanh. 89b; Gen. R. lvi. 8).
While he was on the way to Mount Moriah Isaac
was addressed by Satan in the following terms:
“Unfortunate son of an unfortunate mother! How
many days did thy mother passin fasting and pray-
ing for thy birth! and now thy father, who has lost
his mind, is going to kill thee.” Isaac then endeav-
ored to awaken the pity of his father (Gen. R. lv.).
According to another haggadah Isaac rebuked
Satan and told him that he was not willing to op-
pose the wish of his Creator and the command of his
father (Tan., Gen. xlvi.). While Abraham was
building the altar Isaac hid himself, fearing lest
Satan should throw stones at him and render him
Isaac
Isaac ben Asher
unfit for a sacrifice. The same fear caused him to
ask to be bound on the altar; “for,” said he, “Iam
young and may tremble at the sight of the knife”
(Gen. R. lvi. 8).
The ‘akedah is especially prominent in the Jew-
ish liturgy. The remembrance of the incident by
God is believed to be a sure guaranty of His for-
giveness of the sins of Israel; hence the numerous
‘akedah prayers, a Specimen of which
The is found in the Mishnah. See ‘AKE-
‘Akedah pau. Isaac is presented in rabbinical
in Jewish literature as being the prototype of
Liturgy. martyrs (Esth. R.i). The great tract-
ability of his character is shown by his
conduct in the affair of the wells, which he aban-
doned without complaining of the injustice done
him (Sanh. 111a). More than other patriarchs he
pleads for Isracl. When Abraham and Jacob, says
the Talmud, were told that their children had
sinned, they answered, “Let them be blotted out
for the sanctification of Thy name”; but when God
said to Isaac, “Thy children have sinned,” Isaac
answered, “ Why are they my children more than
Thine? When they answered, ‘ We will do [all that
God shall command] and we will listen,’ Thou
calledst them ‘My first-born’, yet now they are
mine and not Thine! Moreover, how long can they
have sinned? The duration of man’s life is seventy
years. In the first twenty years he is not punished
[being irresponsible]; half of the remaining fifty is
passed in sleeping. Half of the remainder is spent
in praying, eating, etc. There remain only twelve
and a half years. If thou art willing to bear the
whole, it is for the better; if not, let half be borne
by me and the other half by Thee. But if Thou
insist upon my bearing the whole, I have already
sacrificed myself for Thee” (Shab. 89b).
To Isaac is attributed the institution of the “ Min-
hah” prayer (Ber. 26b). Like Abraham, he ob-
served all the commandments, and made prosclytes.
He was one of the three over whom the Angel of
Death had no power; one of the seven whose
buried bodies were not devoured by worms; one of
the three upon whom the “yezer ha-ra‘” (the se-
ducer) had no influence (B. B. 17b). He caused the
Shekinah to descend from the sixth to the fifth
heaven (Gen. R. Xix.).
8. I. Br.
ISAAC: Member of the embassy sent in 797 by
Charlemagne to Harun al-Rashid, calif at Bagdad,
probably as interpreter for tle ambassadors, who
were the noblemen Sigismund and Landfried. Both
died on their way back, and Isaac became the sole
bearer of the calif’s answer and presents, among
which latter wasa magnificent elephant. When the
empcror was informed of Isaac’s return to France,
he sent the notary Erchenbald to Liguria in order
to prepare for the transportation of the elephant and
the other presents. Isaacarrived at the port of Ven-
dres in Oct., 801; but, as the Alps were covered
with snow, he was obliged to pass the winter at Ver-
ceil. He reached Aix-la-Chapelle in the summer of
802, and the emperor received him in audience there.
Zinz (“G. 8.” i. 157) supposes that Isaac was the
means of establishing relations between the French
rabbis and the Geonim, as France is not mentioned
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
618
in the decisions of the latter before 850 (“Sha‘are
Zedek,” p. 12).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Eginhard, Annales, pp. 51, 52, in Guizot’s
Collection des Mémoires, vol. iii., Paris, 1824; Gritz, Gesch.,
3a ed., v. 184-185; Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, p. 81;
Aronius, Regesten, No. 68.
G. M. SEL.
ISAAC B. ABBA MARI: French codifier;
born in Provence about 1122; died after 1198 (in
Marseilles ?). Isaac’s father, a great rabbinical au-
thority, who wrote commentaries on the Talmud
(“ ‘Ittur,” i. 17, ed. Warsaw, section “ Kinyan ”), and
responsa (/.c. p. 49, section “Shemat Ba‘alim ”), was
his teacher. In his “‘Ittur” Isaac often mentions as
another of his teachers his uncle, who, according toa
manuscript note (see Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr.
MSS.” No, 2356), was a pupil of Alfasi. Isaac
carried on a friendly correspondence with Jacob
Tam, whom he was in the habit of consulting on
doubtful questions, though not asa pupil consults
a teacher. Abraham b. Nathan of Lunel and Abra-
ham b. Isaac (RABaD I.) were related to him,
while the son-in-law of the latter, Abraham b. David
of Posquiéres, frequently consulted him on scien-
tific questions. Isaac began his literary activity at
the age of seventeen, when, at his father’s sugges-
tion, he wrote “Shehitah u-Terefot,” rules for the
slaughtering of animals and the eating of their flesh.
At about the same time he wrote a small work on
the precepts concerning zizit, at the request of
Sheshet Benveniste “ha-Nasi” of Barcelona. Both
works form a part of the legal codex “‘Ittur,” or
“‘TIttur Soferim,” which occupied Isaac about
twenty-three years (from 1170 to 1193). Until modern
times only the first part of this work was known
(Venice, 1608); the whole codex was published first
by Schénblum (Lemberg, 1860), and included Isaac’s
““Aseret ha-Dibrot,” which is really only a special
name for a part of the “‘Ittur.” The “‘Ittur” con-
tains, in three parts, almost a complete code of laws,
and is divided as follows: part i., jurisprudence, in-
cluding the laws of marriage and divorce; part ii.,
rules concerning the slaughter of cattle, and con-
cerning meat which it is permissible to eat; concern-
ing circumcision, zizit, tefillin, marriage ceremonies;
part ili,, “ ‘Aseret ha-Dibrot,” embracing a considera-
tion of therules governing the following ten subjects:
(1) the Feast of Tabernacles; (2) lulab; (8) hallel;
(4) shofar; (5) Yom Kippur; (6) megillah; (7 Ha-
nukkah; (8) prohibition of leavened bread on the
Passover; (9) the commandment concerning mazgzah
and mara; (10) general laws for feast-days.
The book belongs to the classic productions of rab-
binical literature in France. Isaac shows in this
work a knowledge of the two Talmuds such as al-
most no other person of his time possessed. With
works on the Geonim, among them many responsa
and treatises which are otherwise unknown to-day,
he shows the same familiarity as with the produc-
tions of the northern French Talmudists. At the
same time he proceeds independently in his criticism,
without regard to the age or reputation of former
authorities, and spares not even the Geonim and
Alfasi, though he admired them greatly.
While Spanish and German Talmudists, up to the
time of the “Tur,” often mentioned the “ ‘Ittur,”
and authorities like Solomon ibn Adret, Asher b.
619
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Isaac
Isaac ben Asher
Jehiel, Mordecai b. Hillel, and several others refer
to this work, after the appearance and wide circula-
tion of the “Tur” it soon shared the
fate of many other codices (as, for ex-
ample, Abraham b. Isaac’s “ Eshkol”),
and fell intodisuse. Joseph Caro was
the first who, after a long interval,
made use of the “‘Ittur” (for his “Bet Yosef”; see
the introduction), but even he does not appear to
have had the whole work before him (comp, “Bet
Yosef,” Orah Hayyim, 671).
At the end of the seventeenth century Jacob b.
Israel Sason wrote a commentary to a part of the
“‘Ittur,” under the title “ Bene Ya‘akob ” (Constanti-
nople, 1704). In the eighteenth century the follow-
ing authors wrote commentaries to the work: Eliezer
b. Jacob (“Nahum”; not published); Abraham
Giron (“ Tikkun Soferim u-Mikra Soferim ” (Constan-
tinople, 1756, with text); Jacob b. Abraham de
Boton gives fragments of his commentary to the
“‘Ittur” in his collection of responsa, “‘Edut be-
Ya‘akob” (Salonica, 1720); while a similar work by
Solomon al-Gazi was lost during its author’s lifetime.
Samuel Schénblum published an edition of the “ ‘It-
tur” annotated by himself. Meir Jonah b. Samuel
wrote a very exhaustive and learned commentary
(with text; parts li, and iii., Wilna, 1874; parti., in
two sections, Warsaw, 1883 and 1885). Isaac wrote
also marginal notes to Alfasi’s “Halakot,” with the
title “ Me’ah She‘arim,” which appeared for the first
time in a Wilna edition of Alfasi (1881-97). No
trace has been preserved of his commentary to
Ketubot, which he quotes (“‘Ittur,” i. 15, section
“Zeman ”).
Spread
of the
‘6 Ittur.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: AzZulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, ti. 108; Gross,
Gallia Judaica, pp. 372-3873; Neubauer, in Monatsschrift,
xx. 173-176; idem, Les Rabbins Francais, pp. 520-521;
idem, Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS. No. 2356; Meir Jonah b. Sam-
uel, in the introduction to his edition of the ‘Jttur; Stein-
schneider, Cat. Boal. cols. 1066-1067; Michael, Or ha-Hay-
yim, No. 1072; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus.; Fuenn,
Keneset Yisrael, pp. 582-583; for the father of Isaac, comp.
Abba Mari b. Isaac.
8. 8. L. G.
ISAAC ABENDANA. See ABENDANA, Isaac,
ISAAC BEN ABRAHAM ANCONA AL-
KUSTANTINI: Italian Talmudist; lived at An-
cona in the first half of the eighteenth century. He
carried on a scientific correspondence with Isaac
Lampronti, who frequently mentions him in his
“Pahad Yizhak.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Mortara, Indice, p. 2.
K. I. Br.
ISAAC BEN ABRAHAM HA-GORNI: Pro-
vencal poet; lived at Luc in the second half of the
thirteenth century. He is known in Hebrew litera-
ture under the surname of “ Gorni,” which, as Stein-
schneider first pointed out, is the Hebrew equiva-
lent of “Aire” (=f09). Isaac is represented by
Abraham Bedersi in his diwan as a venal itinerant
poet, selling his praises to the highest bidder. How-
ever, judging from some fragments in the library
of Munich (Steinschneider, “ Cat. Munich,” No. 128),
extracts from which were published in “ Monats-
schrift” (1882, p. 510), Isaac possessed a poetical
talent far above that of his antagonist Bedersi. In
addition to the fragments mentioned, a diwan of |
which Isaac was the author is still extant in manu-
script (St. Petersburg).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, in Hotam Toknit, pp. 1-13;
Neubauer, in Arch. des Missions Scientifiques, 3d series, i.
571; Renan-Neubauer, Les Rabbins Francais, pp. 719 et xeq.:
NORA SCn Us 1882, pp. 510-823; Gross, Gallia Judaica,
p. 49.
G I. Br.
ISAAC BEN ABRAHAM OF NEUSTADT:
Dutch cabalist; lived at Amsterdam in the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries. He was an assist-
ant rabbi at Amsterdam, where he devoted himself
to the editing of cabalistic works. In 1701 he pub-
lished, from a manuscript he had in his possession,
the “Sefer Raziel ha-Gadol” of Eleazar of Worms,
in the preface to which Isaac expresses his firm be-
lief that the book possesses the virtue of protecting
from fire the house in which it, or a copy of it, is kept.
He reedited the cabalistic treatises “Sefer ha-Mal-
bush,” “Sefer Noah,” “Sefer ha-Mazzalot,” “Shi‘ur
Komah,” “Tefillot,” and ‘“ Ma‘asech Bereshit.” In
the same year he edited and published “Zohar he-
Hadash,” “Midrash ha-Ne‘elam,” “Sitre Torah,”
“Tikkunim,” “ Likkutim,” and the Zohar on the Five
Scrolls. His son Léh added to the “Zohar he-
Hadash” a vocabulary to the two Zohars, extracted
from the “Imre Binah” of Issachar Biir.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. i.. No. 1147; Jellinek, in
Orient, Lit. vii. 254; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1074.
K. I. Br.
ISAAC BEN ABRAHAM OF POSEN: Po-
lish rabbi and author; died in Posen 1685. He was
the pupil of R. Jonah Teomim, author of “ Kikayon
de- Yonah,” and colleague of R. Moses Zacuto; later
he became rabbi of Lutzk, Volhynia, whence he
went to Grodno. In 1664 he was called to Wilna to
succeed R. Moses, author of “ Helkat Mehokek ”;
thence he went (1667) to the rabbinate of Posen.
He was called “Rabbi Isaac the Great” because of
his extensive knowledge in Talmud and Cabala.
He gave his approbation to many books at the meet-
ings of the Polish rabbis. He is mentioned in
“Magen Abraham,” on Orah Hayyim, Nos. 1, 32;
and his responsa are found in “ Ge’on Zebi,” “ Bet
Ya‘akob,” and “ Eben ha-Shoham.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Eisenstadt-Wiener, Da‘at Kedoshim, pp. 41,
43; Dembitzer, Kelilat Yofi, 70b, 122a; Perles, Gesch. der
Juden in Posen, in Monatsschrift, 1865, No. 14.
N. T. L.
8. 8.
ISAAC OF ACCO. See IsAaAc BEN SAMUEL OF
ACRE.
ISAAC BEN ASHER II.: Tosafist. appar-
ently of the beginning of the thirteenth century.
He is quoted by Mordecai b. Hillel (M. K. No. 504),
who adds that Isaac b. Asher died a martyr, The
same passage is also found in “Haggahot Maimu-
niyyot” (“Semahot,” No. 78), where it is simply
said that he was killed. He isalso quoted in “ Da‘at
Zekenim ” (to Ex. vii. 25), where it is said that he
was born on the same day that the tosafist Isaac B.
ASHER 11A-LEvI died. This statement makes Zunz
suppose (“Z. G.” p. 32) that Isaac b. Asher IT. was
the latter’s grandson. Zunz also says that Isaac b.
Asher II. was killed at Wiirzburg, which is against
probability.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 595; Kobn, Mor.
dochat b. Hillel, p, 120,
8. M. Seu.
Isaac ben Asher
Isaac ben Hayyim
ISAAC BEN ASHER HA-LEVI (RIBA):
Tosafist; lived at Speyer in the eleventh century ;
son-in-law of Eliakim ben Meshullam and pupil of
Rashi. His are the earliest known tosafot, and are
mentioned, under the name of “Tosafot Riba,” in
the “Temim De‘im,” in the printed tosafot (Sotah
17b), and in the “Tosafot Yeshanim”(Yoma 15a).
They are frequentiy quoted without the name of
their author. Isaac ben Asher also wrote a com-
mentary on the Pentateuch, which is no longer in
existence. It is cited in the “Minhat Yehudah,”
and Jacob Tam made use of it in his “Sefer ha-
Yashar” (p. 282).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim; Zunz, Z. G. p. 31;
Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, p. 501, No. 1074.
8. 8. I. Br.
ISAAC (ABU JACOB) BAR BAHLUL:
Karaite scholar; lived at the end of the eleventh, or
at the beginning of the twelfth, century. Two
decisions of his have been preserved by Hadassi.
The first of these (“Eshkol ha-Kofer,” alphabet
197) refers to the eating; of quail in the wilderness,
which, according to his calculation, began on the
24th of Lyyar in the second year after the Exodus,
and ended on the 24th of Siwan (Num. x. 11, 83; xi.
18, 19). The second decision (“ Eshkol ha-Kofer,”
ulphabet 236) refers to the conditions under which
it was allowable to sacrifice outside the sanctuary.
Isaac is also quoted by Jacob Tamani and the author
of “Hilluk.” Nothing is known of his literary
activity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pinsker, Likkute Kadmontyyot, p. 166 (where
his name is erroneously given as ** Gahlul’’; comp. also pp.
82, 86, 106, 193); First, Gesch. des Kardert. ti. 48; Stein-
schneider, Hebr. Bibl. v. ; J. Q. RK. x. 1d4,
K, Se. iP:
ISAAC IBN BARUN, ABU IBRAHIM. S&ce
Inn Barun, ABU [BRAHIM ISHAK.
ISAAC THE BLIND (4175,830; ISAAC
BEN ABRAHAM OF POSQUIERES): French
cabalist; flourished in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries. Isaac is considered the founder of the
Cabala; or, rather, he transmuted the mysticism of
the Geonim into the present form of the Cabala.
He is therefore called by Bahya b. Asher “ Father
of the Cabala” (Commentary on the Pentateuch,
section Wayishlah). Joseph GIKAaTILLA (Commen-
tary to the Pesah Haggadah), speaking of the “ Ma-
‘aseh Merkabah,” says that cabalistic science was
handed down from Mount Sinai from person to per-
son until it reached Isaac the Blind. Other caba-
lists, like Shem-Tob ibn Gaon, Isaac of Acre, and
Recanati, expressed themselves similarly. Among
Isaac’s pupils was AZRIEL (EZRA) BEN MENAHEM of
Gerona. It was Isaac who gave names to the ten
Sefirot, and who first adopted the idea of metemp-
sychosis. Recanati (Commentary on the Pentateuch,
section Wayesheb) declares that Isaac the Blind
could tell whether a man’s soul was new or old.
He is generally supposed to have been the author of
a commentary on the “Sefer Yezirah” (Neubauer,
“Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 2456, 12). Later
scholars attribute to him the authorship of the
BaBIR.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., vil. 60 and note 3; Jelli-
nek, Auswahl Kabbalistischer Mystik, i. 14; Landauer, in
Orient, Lit. vi. 215; Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 450.
K. M. Sgt.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
620
—
ISAAC DE CASTRO. See Castro.
ISAAC BEN ELEAZAR HA-LEVI (sur-
named Segan Lewiyah): German Talmudist and
liturgical poet; flourished at Worms; died, ac-
cording to Abraham Zacuto (“ Yuhasin ha-Shalem,”
p. 217), in 1070, Zunz says (“ Literaturgesch.” p.
155) that he died between 1070 and 1096. He wasa
pupil of R. Gershom “ Me’or ha-Golah” and one of
the teachers of Rashi; the latter mentions him often
in his commentary on the Talmud (e.g., to Yoma
39a; Suk. 35b; Meg. 26a), and twice in his com-
mentary on the Bible (to I Sam. i. 24 and Prov. xix.
24). Conforte (“Kore ha-Dorot,” p. 8a) confounds
Isaac b. Eleazar ha-Levi with another teacher of
Rashi, Isaac b. Judah, while Abraham Zacuto (/.c.)
calls him “Isaac b. Asher ha-Levi.” He was one of
the “scholars of Lorraine” (* Ha-Pardes,” p. 83a;
“ Asufot,” p. 150a, Halberstam MSS.); Isaac b.
Moses relates (“Or Zarua‘,” ii. 75b) that Meir of
Ramerupt sent a responsum, signed by his father-
in-law and teacher Rashi, to Isaac ha-Levi of Lorraine.
The occurrence of “Vitry” as the birthplace of
Isaac ha-Levi in Asheri to EHul. iv. is, according to
Gross (“Galha Judaica,” p. 197), a mistake for
“Lotar” (Lorraine). Itisstated in the Mahzor Vitry
(quoted by Zunz, “Literaturgesch.” p. 626) that
Jacob b. Yakar, Isaac ha-Levi, and Isaac b. Judah,
all three teachers of Rashi, directed the yeshibah of
Paris.
Isaac ha-Levi had four sons, all great Talmudic
scholars: Asher, the father of the tosafist Isaac b.
Asher (“ Ha-Pardes,” p. 19a); Eliezer; Jacob, known
under the name of “ Ya‘bez ” (Mordecai to Meg. 3);
and Samuel (“ Ha-Pardes,” pp. 16b, 18b, 45c). He was
the author of four wedding piyyutim: “ Yozer,”
in a double alphabet and signed “Isaac ben R. Elea-
zar Hazak”; “Ofan,” alphabetically arranged;
“Zulat,” in tashrak order; “ Reshut,” in four parts,
the first riming in 7, and the other three in 9), the
whole giving the acrostic “Isaac ben R. Eleazar ha-
Levi.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, pp. 8a, 17a; Abraham
Zacuto, Yuhasin, p. 217, London, 1857; Azulai, Shem ha-Ge-
dolim, i.; Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 507; Zunz, Litera-
turgesch. pp. 155-157, 626; idem, Z. G. pp. 68, 192, 326, 404,
566, 567; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, pp. 627-628; Weiss, Dor,
iv. 317-320.
G. M. Set.
ISAAC BEN ELIAKIM OF POSEN: Ger-
man moralist and author; lived in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries. He was the author of “ Leb
Tob” (Prague, 1620), an ethical work in Judeo-Ger-
man in twenty chapters. Its popularity may be
judged from the fact that it was reprinted many
times. Criticisms on it are to be found in the anony-
mous “ Hassagot,” Amsterdam (?), c. 1707.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. Nos. 3473, 5844;
First, Bibl. Jud. ii. 110; extracts are given in Winter and
Wiinsche, Die Jtidische Litteratur, iii. 541.
G. M. SEL.
ISAAC BEN ELIEZER: Ethical writer at
Worms; flourished from 1460 to 1480. He attended
the lectures of Moses ben Eliezer ha-Darshan (Zunz,
“Z. G.” p. 105), whom he praises in high terms.
Isaac wrote in German an ethical and ascetic trea-
tise under the title “Sefer ha-Gan ” (Cracow, about
1580). Itis divided into seven parts, one for each
day in the week. Translated into Hebrew by Moses
621
Saertels, it was subsequently printed, together with
Johanan Luria’s “Sefer ha-Derakah.” in Prague
(1597, 1612) and Amsterdam (1663, 1713). The He-
brew translation has been twice rendered into Ger-
man (“Das Hochgelobte Sefer ha-Gan,” Hanau,
about 1620; “Das Ist der Teutsch Sefer ha-Gan,”
Firth, 1692).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 98; Fiirst,
Bibl. Jud, ii. 141: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1107: idem,
Jewish Literature, p. 102; Zunz, Z. G. pp. 180, 268, 279, 288.
s, M. Sc.
ISAAC BEN ELEAZAR HA-LEVI: Spanish
grammarian of the fourteenth century. He was the
author of “Scfer ha-Rikmah,” a grammatical trea-
tise still extant in manuscript (Paris, Bibliothéque
Nationale, Hebr. MSS., Ancien Fonds, No. 510). As
stated in the introduction to this work, it was com-
posed for a Babylonian scholar named Aaron ben
Abraham, for whom Isaac had previously written
a grammar entitled “Sefat Yeter.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Revue Orientale, 1. 273; Benjacob, Ozar ha-
Sefarim, p. 551. °
G. I. Br.
ISAAC BEN ELIJAH SHENI (SHANI):
Turkish rabbi; lived at Constantinople in the first
half of the sixteenth century. The name “Sheni”
is followed by the letters M5y¥3, which Stein-
schneider (“Cat. Bodl.” col. 1155) suggests should
be read as 7293, the initials of the eulogy “Nafsho
Zerurah bi-Zeror ha-Hayyim.” Isaac wrote a work
called “Me‘ah She‘arim,” a double commentary,
simple and cabalistic, on one hundred of the six
hundred and thirteen commandments (Salonica, 1548).
He also revised and edited Menahem Recanati’s
“Ta‘ame ha-Mizwot” (Salonica, 1544). He is, per-
haps, identical with Isaac ibn Farhi (Steinschneider,
d.¢.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. i., No. 1162; iii., No. 1162;
Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, ii. 74; Zunz, Z. G. p. 453; Stein-
schneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1153; First, Bild. Jud. i. 276.
S. 8. M. SEU.
ISAAC OF EVREUX: French rabbinical
scholar and Biblical commentator; flourished in the
thirteenth century. His authority was invoked by
Mordecai (Git. iv., No. 884; Ber. vi.), and by R.
Perez in his glosses on the “Semak ” (No. 293). He
is mentioned as a Biblical commentator in “ Da‘at
Zckenim ” (p. 83b), and as an author of responsa in
“Sha‘are Dura” (12a, 25b, 46a). He is also men-
tioned in “Kol Bo” (No, 114)as having corresponded
with R. Nathanael. Gross (“Galha Judaica,” p. 41)
identifies Isaac of Evreux with the tosafist Isaac
ben Shencor (Tem. 18a), who was the master of Jsaac
of Corbeil (*Semak,” No. 153; “Orhot Hayyim,” i.
doa).
a cece ae Zunz, Z. G. p. 50; Gross, Gallia Judaica, p.
8. 8. M. SE.
ISAAC IBN GAEBBAI. See Gaspar.
ISAAC IBN HALFON, ABU IBRAHIM:
Spanish poet of the eleventh century. According
to Moses ibn Ezra’s treatise on poetry (Neubauer,
“Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 1974, fol. 316), his
father had emigrated from Africa to Andalusia.
Tsaac was acquainted with Jacob ibn Jaso, at whose
house in Cordova he was a frequent guest (see Abu
al-Walid, “Ha-Rikmah,” ed. Goldberg, p. 122;
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Isaac ben Asher
Isaac ben Hayyim
Derenbourg, “ Opuscules et Traitésd’Aboti 1-Walid,”
p. vii). Abu al-Walid (/.e. p. 186) complains that
one of the very few poems that he had written in
his early youth had been copied by certain jealous
persons and circulated among some people of Toledo
with the name of Isaac ibn Halfon asits author: and
that when some of his pupils noticed this and as-
serted Abu al-Walid’s authorship, they were disbe-
lieved. Isaac ibn Haifon is quoted as “the poet”
(“ha-meshorer ”) by Moses ibn Ezra in several pas-
sages in his above-cited treatise (see Schreiner, “ Le
Kitab al-Mouhadara,” etc., in “R. E. J.” xxii. 244).
According to Al-Harizi (“Tahkemoni,” xviii., ed.
“ Ahiasaf,” p. 181, Warsaw, 1899), it seems that
{saac introduced new (perhaps Arabic) meters into
Hebrew poetry, which were used by succeeding
poets.
Though he doubtless wrote a number of poems,
only two may be ascribed to him with any degree
of certainty. These are one beginning R3AX& nbin,
metrically translated and published by Michael
Sachs, in “Die Religiése Poesie der Juden in Spa-
nien” (Hebrew part, p. 89; German part, p. 107;
comp. also p. 216); an“ one beginning ANN DIF (see
Steinschneider, “Die Handschriften-Verzeichnisse
der Ké6niglichen Bibliothek zu Berlin,” i. 126,
No. 142). If the first-mentioned poem, which has
the acrostic npbn, is really genuine, it is probable
that mpbn isa more correct form of Isaac’s name
than “nbs, though both of them seem to be the He-
brew transliteration of the Arabic “khalfun” (=
“banker,” “money-changer”). According to Sachs
(J.c. p. 289), Isaac ibn Halfon is to be identified with
Halfon ha-Levi Abu Sa‘id, who lived in Damietta.
That acute critic Al-Harizi (/.c.), in passing judg-
ment upon the value of Isaac’s poetry, said that
only a few of his poems were beautiful like the
fruit of goodly trees (comp. Lev. xxiii. 40), most of
them being thorns and thistles. However, among
the numerous poets of his age he was “anointed
king” (comp. “'Tahkemoni,” tii. 39).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, in Z. D. M. G. xxxvi. 401; Stein-
schneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 835; idem, Die Handschriften-
Verzeichnisse der Konigl. Bibl. zu Berlin, ti. 29a; idem,
ae Bibl. xii. 66; Zunz, Literaturgesch. Supplement,
Pp. ow.
g. M. Sc.
ISAAC BEN HAYYIM BEN ABRAHAM
HA-KOHEN : Italian exegete; lived successively
at Bologna, Jesi, Recanati, and Rome, in the fif-
teenth and sixteenth centuries. He was the author
of the following works: (1) a commentary on the
Song of Songs, on Lamentations, and on the Say-
ings of the Fathers, extant in manuscript (“ Al-
manzi,” p. 71); (2) a commentary on Esther, men-
tioned by Alkabiz in “Monot ha-Levi”; (8) sermons
and a series of didactic verses, fragments of which
have been preserved (“ Almanzi,” p. 71).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mortara, Indice, p. 15: Steinschneider, Hebr.
Bibl. iv. 122; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in
Rom, ii. 92.
S. 8. I. Br.
ISAAC BEN HAYYIM OF VOLOZHIN:
Russian Talmudist; born at Volozhin, government
of Wilna; died at Ivenitz, government of Minsk,
June 16, 1849. Isaac was adistinguished Talmudist,
owing to which fact he succeeded his father as head
Isaac ben Isaac
Isaac Joshua
of the yeshibah of Volozhin. In 1844 he was called
to St. Petersburg asa member of the rabbinical com-
mission appointed by the emperor to consider a
proposal to found rabbinical seminaries and schools
for Jewish children. Isaac was the author of a
work entitled “ Mille de-Abot” (n.p.; n.d.), consist-
ing of novelle on Pirke Abot.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Wenesct Yisrael, p. 601.
8. 8. M. SEL.
ISAAC BEN ISAAC: French tosafist of the
second half of the thirteenth century ; mentioned in
Tos. Naz. 16b; identical, according to Gross and
Zunz, with Isaac of Chinon, whose glosses are
found in Shittah Mekubbezet to Naz. 68a. He is also
referred to in Solomon ben Adret’s responsa, where
he is described as “chief of the French yeshibot.”
According to these responsa Isaac corresponded with
Isaac ben Joseph of Marseilles, exhorting him to
moderation in his dispute with a certain Nathan, one
of Isaac of Chinon’s own relatives. Isaac corre-
sponded also with the above-mentioned Nathan, as
well as with David ben Levi, author of the ritual
work “Miktam,” and with Mordecai ben Isaac
Kimhi.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 4unz, Literaturgesch, p. 331; idem, Z. G. p.
50; Gross, Gallia Judaica: p. 580: R. B.S. xii. 80-81.
Ss. 8S. A. PR.
ISAAC ISRAELI. See Israeui, ISAAc BEN
SOLOMON.
ISAAC (ISACHOK), JACOB: Court physician
to King Sigismund I. of Poland; son of Abraham of
Jerusalem; died at Kazimierz, a suburb of Cracow,
about 1510. He was recommended in 1504 to King |
Alexander Jagellons by Archbishop Andreas of
Gnesen, whose court pliysician he had been. On
the archbishop’s recommendation, the king permit-
ted Isaac to purchase from the heirs of Frederick
of Olmiitz, formerly surgeon to King John Albert,
the right to the taxes of the Jews ot Cracow, which
amounted to one hundred Hungarian florins per an-
num. For this privilege Isaac paid the heirs the
sum of three hundred florins. In order to disprove
the taunts of the Jews of Kazimierz, who had
ascribed to him a humble origin, Isaac persuaded
two Polish noblemen, Jacob Wagorzowski and
Thomas Czarnycki, who were setting out to visit
the Holy Sepulcher at Jerusalem, to secure his
pedigree (“yihus”) from his sister Sarah, resi-
dent in that city, as written evidence of his de-
scent from a family of undoubted antiquity. His
friends accordingly returned to Isaac with the re-
quired documents. King Sigismund evinced great
interest in the matter, as appears from a decree
dated Cracow, May 12, 1507, embodying the facts in
regard to Isaac’s lineage. Isaac’s difficulties with
the Jewish community continued nevertheless, as is
evidenced by a second decree, dated June 14, 1509,
affirming the fact that the taxes of the Jews of
Cracow had been made payable to the “king’s phy-
sician, the Spanish Jew Dr. Isaac, during his life.”
Isaac must have died before June, 1510, as by a
decree dated June 18 in that year it appears that,
as a reward for Isaac’s services, the king granted the
Jewess Barsaba (Isaac’s widow), together with her
children, all the privileges which had been enjoyed
by her husband. Whether Isaac was a Sephardic
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
622
Jew from Palestine or a Spanish exile is difficult
to determine. The Russian historian Bershadski,
referring to the Polish sobriquet “JerosolimsKa
Schlachta” (noblemen of Jerusalem), declares it as
his belief that the term arose out of Isaac’s efforts to
establish his noble birth.
aa bas ae Metrika Koronnaya, 1504, No. 21, fol. 95, v.;
No. 21, fol. 116, v.; ib. 1505-06, No. 22, fol. 149, v.; ib. 1508,
No. 24, fol. 124, Ve No. 24, fol. 283 (published in Russko-Yev-
reiski “Arkhiv, vol. iit., St. Petersburg, 1903) ; Bershadski, in
Voskhod, 1893, i. 79 (with errors in dates). WR
ISAAC (EISAK) BEN JACOB HABER:
Rabbi at Tikotzyn and Suwalki, Poland; lived in
the first half of the nineteenth century. He wrote:
“Bet Yizhak,” a ritualistic work, the first part of
which bore the title “Sha‘ar ha-Kabua‘,” the second,
“Sha‘ar ha-Sefekut ” (Sudzilkow, 1886); “Seder Ze-
manim,” on the precepts to be observed on certain
dates (Warsaw, 1844); “ Yad Hazakah,” a commen-
tary on the haggadah of Passover, with annotations
by his son Joseph, under the general title “ Yad
Mizrayim” (7b. .1844); “Magen we-Zinnah,” a de-
fense of the Cabala against the attacks of Judah de
Modena in “ Ari Nohem ” (n.p., n.d.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1126; Benja-
cob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p . 126, No. 50; p. 298, No. 510.
Ss. S. I. Br.
ISAAC BEN JACOB HA-LABAN: Tosafist
and liturgical poet; flourished at Prague in the
twelfth century; the brother of the traveler Petha-
hiah of Regensburg. He was among the earliest of
the tosafists (“ba‘ale tosafot yeshanim”), a con-
temporary of R. Eleazar of Metz, and a pupil of
R. Tam (“Sefer ha-Yashar,” § 704; Solomon Luria,
Responsa, No. 29). According to Recanati (Re-
sponsa, No, 168), Isaac directed the yeshibah of Rat-
isbon. He also lived at Worms fora time (“ Agur,”
71b). Isaac is mentioned in the Tosafot (Yeb. 5a,
T1la; Ket. 38b; Zeb. 738b; and frequently elsewhere),
and Isaac ben Moses, in his “Or Zarua‘,” No. 739,
quotes Isaac ben Jacob’s commentary on Ketubot,
a manuscript of which exists in the Munich Library
(No. 317). He is also mentioned in a commentary
to the Pentateuch written in the first half of the
thirteenth century (Zunz, “Z. G.” p. 80). There is
a piyyut signed “Isaac b. Jacob,” whom Zunz (“ Lit-
eraturgesch.” p. 313) supposes to be Isaac ben Jacob
ha-Laban.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i.; Michael, Or ha-
Hayyim, p. 507: Zunz, Z. G. pp. 33, 42, 43, : Gritz, Gesch.
3d ed., vi. 236; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 627.
8. 8. M. Skt.
ISAAC BEN JACOB THE LEVITE (ob7 9:
abbreviated 7"1p'): Rabbiand cantor at Venice; born
in 1621. He was the son of a cabalist and a grand-
son of Judah de Modena, whose “Bet Yehudah”
(on haggadie Talmudical passages) Isaac set up in
type when only fourteen years old. Isaac had many
persistent personal enemies in Venice, whose perse-
cutions he described in his autobiography, a manu-
script copy of which was known to Ghirondi. Ac-
cording to Ghirondi, Isaac wrote: (1) a short
compendium of Moses Cordovero’s “Pardes Rim-
monim”; (2) several poems, some of which are
printed in Yom-Tob Valvason’s “ Hed Urim” (Ven-
ice, 1661); (8) “ Ma‘ase Hakamim ” (Venice, 1647), 4
summary of occurrences in the lives of the teachers
623
of the Talmud, taken from Jacob ibn Habib’s “‘En
Ya‘akob ” (which Isaac cites as *‘En Yisrael”) and
from Judah de Modena’s “Bet Yehudah.” The
narratives follow the order of the Talmudical trea-
tises, and each is closed with a moral sentence.
Isaac was both author and printer of this book.
He also supplied notes to several of the works of
other authors.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 254; Fiirst,
Bibl. Jud. ti. 148; Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, p. 256;
idem, Cat. Bodl. col. 1183; Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole
Yisrael, p. 176.
s. M. Sc.
ISAAC IBN JASOS IBN SAKTAR (more
correctly Abu Ibrahim Isaac ibn Yashush
[yne"]; also called Yizhaki): Spanish gramma-
rian; born 982; diedat Toledo about 1057-58. He
is identified by Steinschneider with the physician
Ishak ibn Kastar or, as Moses ibn Ezra calls him,
Ishak ibn Saktar (“Z. D. M. G.” viii. 551, ix.
838). According to Ibn Abi Usaibi‘a (“‘Uyun
al-Anba’,” ii. 50), he was the physician in ordinary of
Muwaffak Mujahid al-‘Amiri and of his son Ikbal
al-Daulah, kings of Denia. He was well trained in
logic, Hebrew grammar, and Jewish law, and was
conversant with the opinions of the phiosophers.
Moses ibn Ezra (/.c.) called him and Abu al-Walid
the two sheiks of Hebrew grammar.
He wrote in Arabic “Sefer ha-Zerufim” (the
Arabic title of which was, probably, “ Kitab al-
Tasarif”; Neubauer, in “Journal Asiatique,” 1862,
it. 249), on inflection. It is known only from refer-
ences to it by Abraham ibn Ezra, who, in his com-
mentary on the Bible, often condemns Isaac’s exege-
sis because of its too bold historical criticism. Thus,
Isaac ibn Jasos holds that Gen. xxxvi., in which the
genealogy of the kings of Edom is given, was not
written earlier than the time of King Jehoshaphat.
He also identified the “ Hadad” of Gen. xxxvi. 85
with “Hadad the Edomite” of I Kings xi. 14; the
“ Mehetabel” of Gen. xxxvi. 39 with the “sister of
Tahpenes ” of I Kings xi. 19; Jobab ben Zerah with
Job; the prophet Hosea ben Beeri with Hosea ben
Elah, the last king of Israel (see Ibn Ezra on Hosea
i. 1, and comp. Isa. xv. 8, where both seem to be
mentioned in the word “ Beer-elim ”). .
Such opinions, seemingly drawn from Moses ibn
Gikatilla, caused Ibn Ezra to declare that Isaac ibn
Jasos’ book deserved to be burned as the work of a
“prattler [“mahbil”] of vain things” (see Ibn Ezra
on Job xiii. 16and Gen. xxxvi. 82). Isaac may like-
wise be the “mahbil” whom Ibn Ezra opposes be-
cause he desired to alter words or expressions in
more than 200 passages in the Bible (“Safah Beru-
rah,” ed. Lippmann, p. 9b, Furth, 1839; “Zahhut,”
ed. Lippmann, p. 72a, 2b. 1834). This system of
substitution had been used for the first time by
Abu al-Walid.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Carmoly, in Zion, i. 46; Neubauer, in Jowr-
nal Asiatique, 1862, ii. 257; Steinschneider, Die Arabische
Litteratur der Juden, p. 185; compare also Wolf, Bibl.
Hebr. i. 662; Geiger, Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift, 1. 20;
Gratz, Gesch. vi. 42; Winter and Wiinsche, Die Jiidische
Litteratur, ii. 183, 262, 385; Poznanski, Mose ibn Chigi-
talla, pp. 54, 1386, Leipsic, 1895.
G. M. Sc.
ISAAC, JOHANN LEVITA: German profes-
sor of Hebrew; born 1515; died at Cologne 1577.
At first a rabbi at Wetzlar, he was baptized as a
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Isaac ben Isaac
Isaac Joshua
Protestant in 1546, but embraced the Roman Catho-
lic faith when called to Cologne as professor of
Hebrew, in which office he remained until his death.
In 1556 he wrote a popular Hebrew grammar, the
last of the five editions of which was published at
Antwerp in 1570. He also edited Maimonides’
work on astrology (Cologne, 1555) and Moses ibn
Tibbon’s commentary on Aristotle’s “Physics” (2d.
1555; Bartolocei, “ Bibliotheca Magna Rabbinica,”
iii. 912).
Isaac’s son, Stephan (b. 1542), was at first edu-
cated as a physician, but was called as an assistant
to his father in 1565, when he became a priest of
the Roman Catholic Church. He created great ex-
citement by openly denouncing Catholicism as idola-
try from his pulpit (Oct. 5, 1583). In 1586 he
wrote an “Apologia,” and went over to Calvinism.
He was, however, accused of having reverted to
Judaism, and reports were current that he had been
seen acting as a Levite in the priestly benediction at
Deutz.
BIBLIOGRAPITY : Von Mering, Zur Geseh. der Stadt Cotn, tii.
234; Weber and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, vi. 988-939,
D.
ISAAC BEN JOSEPH OF CORBEIL (also
known as pon by9 = “the man with the nose”):
French ritualist; flourished in the second half of the
thirteenth century. He was the son-in-law of R.
Jehiel ben Joseph of Paris, whose school he at-
tended, and the pupil of the “Great Men of Evreux,”
notably of Samuel, whom he calls “the Prince” ((w)
of Evreux. Isaac’s conspicuous piety drew toward
him many disciples, the best known of whom were
Perez ben Elijah of Corbeil, Baruch Hayyim ben
Menahem of Niort, and his fellow citizen Joseph
ben Abraham. He was induced by his pupils to
publish in 1277 an abridgment of Moses ben Jacob
of Coucy’s “Sefer Mizwot Gadol” (called “Semag ”
from its initials 5"pp), under the title “ ‘Ammude ha-
Golah” or “Sefer Mizwot Katan” (generally called
“Semak” from the initials p'pp). This work was
most favorably received by the communities of
France and Germany, and has often been edited and
annotated. Isaac also published “ Likkutim ” (collec-
tanea), and several small compilations containing his
ritual decisions. The “Kol Bo” (No. 128) contains
a long fragment of a Talmudic work of R. Isaac,
with this superscription: by Dm? 7A D3" AYP.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Carmoly, Biographies des Israélites de
France, p. 45; Rev. Et. Juives, iv. 218, vi. 168; Gross, Gal-
lia Judaica, pp. 563-565. g k
L. G.
ISAAC (EISAK) BEN JOSHUA BEN
ABRAHAM OF PRAGUE: Physician and par-
nas of Prague in the sixteenth century. He was
the author of “‘Olat Yizhak,” a collection of ritual
laws arranged after the Arba‘ Turim of Jacob ben
Asher. They are in the form of 848 problems or
riddles, in one hundred chapters (Prague, 1606).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benjacob, Ogar ha-Sefarim, p. 482; First,
Bibl. Jud. ii. 142; Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, p.
217; idem, Cat. Bodl. col. 1129; Zunz, Z. G. p. 2838.
S. 8. M. Sc.
ISAAC JOSHUA BEN IMMANUEL DE
LATTES: Italian Talmudist and publisher; born
at Rome at the end of the fifteenth century; died at
Ferrara about 1570. He was the grandson of the
Isaac ben Judah
Isaac ben Melchizedek
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
624
well-known physician and astronomer Immanuel
Boneto. Isaac occupied, about 1580, the position
of rabbi at Avignon (Neubauer, in * R. E. J.” x. 80
et seg.). In 1536 he was at Mantua, where he pub-
lished the Zchar. Thence, for some unexplained
reason, he had to flee to Bologna, leaving his books
behind him. In 1546 he was manager of the He-
brew printing-office in Rome, and in this capacity
rendered many services to Hebrew literature. Fam-
ily affairs called him again to Avignon in 1558, On
his return to Bologna he found himself in very
straitened @rcumstances. In a letter addressed to
one of his friends he complains of his poverty,
which prevented him from going to Piedmont or
to Lombardy, where Hebrew books were not liable
to confiscation, and where he might have founded
a Talmudical schoo] and thus secured a livelihood.
His chief regret was that he did not possess the 300
sendi he had promised as dowry to his daughter
Dolcetta, who was engaged to Laudadio di Sienna,
Later, Isaac lived at Ancona and afterward at Cesena,
whence he was called to Ferrara by Isaac Abravanel
as tutor to his sons.
Isaac wrote a collection of responsa, published by
Friedlander (Vienna, 1860), and a commentary on
the “Behinat ‘Olam” of Jedaiah Bedersi, still ex-
tant in manuscript (Vienna MS. No. 84).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, p. 227;
Orient, Lit. 1847, pp. 818 et seq.: Ozar Nehmad, ii. 60; Vo-
gelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, il. 99.
S. 8. I. Br.
ISAAC BEN JUDAH: Talmudist of the
twelfth century; teacher of Solomon ben Isaac
(Rashi). Hewasa native of Lorraine (“ Ha-Pardes,”
352), but settled early in life in Germany, where he
studied under Eleazar ha-Gadol. Isaac occupied
successively the positions of head of the rabbinical
schools of Mayence and Worms; it was in the latter
place that he became the teacher of Rashi. Isaac
was one of the greatest Talmudic authorities of his
time, and his name is frequently mentioned in rab-
binical literature. He was the author of commen-
taries on the Talmud, some of which are cited by
Rashi (Ber. 39a, 57a; R. H. 28a); and his responsa
are scattered in the “ Pardes ha-Gadol,” the “ Likkute
Pardes,” the “Or Zarua‘,” the “Shibbole ha-Leket,”
the “ Mordekai,” and the responsa of Meir of Roth-
enberg. Ina French Mahzor manuscript quoted by
Zunz (“Z. G.” p. 622), Isaac is mentioned as having
been at one time head of the rabbinical school of
Paris; this, however, is highly improbable.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Weiss, Dor, iv. 319; Michael, Or ha-Hayyim,
p. 502; Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 295, 507.
8. 5. I. Br.
ISAAC BEN JUDAH HA-LEVI: French
exegete and tosafist; lived at Sens, probably, in the
second half of the thirteenth century. He was the
pupil of Hayyim of Falaise, whom Gross identifies
with Hayyim Paltiel. Isaac compiled, under the title
“Pa‘aneah Raza,” a commentary on the Pentateuch,
in which literal interpretations (“ peshat”) are fre-
quently intermingled with “notarikon” and “ gemat-
riot.” The authorities quoted by Isaac are Joseph
Kara, Joseph Bekor Shor, Judah he-Hasid, Eleazar
of Worms, Hayyim of Falaise, and many other tosa-
fists. The “Pa‘aneah Raza” was first published at
Prague in 1607, from an incomplete manuscript, by
Isaac Cohen, the son-in-law of Jacob Mélin. Com.
plete copies of the work, with a postscript, and a
poem containing the name of the compiler in acros-
tic, are extant in manuscript in the Bodleian and
other European libraries. Isaac wrote tosafot to
the Talmud, and is called “ Ba‘al Tosafot mi-Shanz ”
(= “The Tosafist of Sens”).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. p. 92: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl,
col. 1127; Neubauer, in Ha-Magyid, 1870, Nos, 28,29; Renan-
Neubauer, Les Rabbins Francais, p. 437; Gross, Gallia
Judaica, p. 481.
8. I. Br.
ISAAC BEN JUDAH LOB: Rabbi at Offen-
bach in the first half of the eighteenth century.
He wrote “Be’er Yizhak,” a commentary on the
Haftarot, with the text (1729); “Me‘irat ‘Enayim,”
on the 618 Biblical precepts according to Maimon.-
ides (Firth, 1730). In the preface to the latter work
he mentions his “ Be’er Yizhak,” which is otherwise
unknown.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinsehneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1127,
D. S. MAN.
ISAAC BEN JUDAH BEN NATHANAEL
OF BEAUCAIRE (surnamed Ha-Sheniri): Li-
turgic poet of the early part of the thirteenth cen-
tury. Zunzcredits him with thirty -cight synagogal
hymns, most of them to be found in the rituals of
Carpentras, Avignon, and Tripoli. They are dated
between 1205 and 1220. The author asserts that he
was Officiating as minister, and that he lived in
sav dain or mys Stan, swan. Cassel believes
that ow designates Montauban, while Gross thinks
it refers to Mont Ventoux, at the foot of which Ma-
laucene (1¥3519) is situated. Al-Harizi (‘Tah kemoni,”
ch. xlvi.) speaks in praise of this poct, “ whose songs
make the stars turn pale.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz. Literaturgesch. p. 4712; idem, S. P. pp,
110-290: idem, Z. G. pp. 316, 466, 469, 475; Landshuth, “Am-
mude ha-"Abodah, p. 118; Renan-Neubauer, Les Rabbins
Francais, p. 715; Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 360. LI
Ss. S. . da
ISAAC HA-KOHEN OF MANOSQUE:
French Talmudist of the first half of the fourteenth
century; rabbi at Manosque, in the department of
Basses-Alpes. He is praised asa great Talmudist
by his contemporaries, although he does not seem
to have written anything. He had a controversy
with one of his pupils by the name of Baruch, which
terminated in the excommunication of the latter.
Baruch, supported by many rabbis, protested vehe-
mently ; Solomon ben Adret, however, confirmed the
excommunication. Beyond this, nothing is known
of Isaac. Gross identifies him with Isaac b. Judah
ha-Kohen, who addressed a responsum to Isaac ben
Mordecai called “ Moshe Petit de Nimes.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gross, in Monatsschrift, xxviii. 423; idem,
Gallia Judaica, p. 362.
Ss. 8S. A. PR.
ISAAC HA-KOHEN OF NARBONNE:
French Talmudist; lived in the twelfth and thir-
teenth centuries; a disciple of Abraham ben David
of Posquiéres. He was the author of a commeD-
tary, no longer extant, on various treatises of the
Jerusalem Talmud. This commentary is mentioned
by Isaac de Lattes and Menahem Me’iri. Gross
625
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Isaac ben Judah
Isaac ben Melchizedek
identifies him with the Isaac ha-Kohen whose au-
thority on ritual matters is frequently invoked by
Aaron ha-Kohen in his “ Orhot Hayyim.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 420,
8. 8. IL. BR.
ISAAC HA-KOHEN OF OSTROG: Talmud-
ist; rabbi; lived in the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-
turies. He was the author of “Mattenot “Ani,” or
“ Kizzur Mizrahi,” acompendium of Elijah Mizrahi’s
commentary on Rashi, with notes (Prague, 1604-09).
See Isaac BEN SAMSON HA-KOUEN.
te me a ae es n 143; Steinschneider, Cat.
S. 8. M. SEL.
ISAAC DE LEON: One of the last rabbis of
Castile; lived at Toledo. He was a native of Leon,
and a pupil of Isaac Campanton, and, like Moses de
Leon, a cabalist and a believer in miracles. Joseph
Caro and others honored him with the title of “the
great teacher.” He was more than scventy years
of age at his death, which occurred some years be-
fore the expulsion of the Jews from Spain; he was
mourned by many pupils. The work ascribed to
him, “ Megillat Ester,” an answer to Nahmanides’
criticism of Maimonides’ “Sefer ha-Mizwot,” has
been proved by Azulai to belong to Isaac Leon
ibn Zur, a later writer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, p. 28a; Zacuto,
Yuhasin, p. 226; Joseph Cohen, ‘mek ha-Bakah, p. 833
Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 1053 Gritz, Gesch. viii. 225.
G. M. K.
ISAAC LEON BEN ELIEZER IBN ZUR
SEFARDI: Rabbi at Ancona in the first half of
the sixteenth century. He belonged to a Spanish
family which settled in Italy after the expulsion
of the, Jews from Spain. Isaac was the author of
“ Megillat Ester,” in which he defends the “Sefer ha-
Mizwot” of Maimonides against the criticisms of
Nahmanides (Venice, 1592; Amsterdam, i660;
Berlin, 1733), IJsaac’s name occurs in connection
with a halakic decision which he rendered in 1546
conjointly with Jacob Israel Finzi, rabbi of Reca-
nati, the occasion being a lawsuit between Aslhicr
ben Solomon of Monte de Lulo and Jacob Catelano.
This decision was reversed by the bet din of Rome.
Both the decision and the reversal were published
at Rome in 1546, under the title “ Pesak.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, p. 105; Nepi-Ghi-
rondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 134; Steinschneider, Cat.
Boal. col. 1159; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in
Rom, ii. 98.
8. 8. I. Br.
ISAAC BEN LEVI OF PROVENCE: French
liturgical poet; flourished in the twelfth century.
Among the piyyutim for New-Year’s Day con-
tained in the Mahzor of Provence are some which in-
dicate Isaac b. Levi as their author. Zunz (*Z. G.”
p. 466) supposes that Isaac is identical with the
Ben Levi quoted by Abrabam Bedersi in his “ Hered
ha-Mithappeket.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, p. 164.
a. M. SEL.
ISAAC BEN LEVI BEN SAUL OF LU-
CENA: Spanish grammarian and liturgical poet;
flourished in the first half of the eleventh century ;
a contemporary of Isaac Gikatilla and Isaac ibn
VI.—40
Halfon. Isaac is quoted under the name of “ Isaac b,
Saul” by Ibn Janahin “ Ha-Rikmah ” (p. 122), where
some of his verses are given; in “Sefer ha-Shora-
shim” (s.¢. Wy); in “Sefer ha-KKerub weha-Yesher ”;
by Moses ibn Ezra (see Wolf, “Bibl. Hebr.” iii. 4);
and by Abraham ibn Ezra in his commentary to
the Bible (Deut. xxxii. 17; Isa. xxvii. 5) and in his
“Sefat Yeter” (No. 68). The metrical poem begin-
ning “ Elohai al-tedineni” is attributed to Isaac b.
Levi, while the one beginning “Ifa-kol yifhadu”
gives the acrostic “Yizhak bar Lewi ben Mar
Sha’ul Alisani.” There also exist a selihah for the
seventeenth of Tammuz and a poem for the seventh
day of Passover, which both give the acrostic
“Yizhak bar Lewi”; this, according to Zunz (“ Li.
teraturgesch.” p, 217), may designate Isaac ben Levi
b. Saul.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Dukes, Litteratur-Historische Mittheil-
unger, p. 168; idem, Nahal Kedumim, p. 9; idem, Orient,
Lit. viii. 8362; Zunz, Literaturgesch. pp. 187, 216; Carmoly, in
Jost’s Annalen, ii. 309; Munk, Abw’l-Walid, pp. 78, 79;
Landshuth, “Ammude ha-‘Abodah, p. 127.
G. M. SEt.
ISAAC HA-LEVI OF WORMS. Sce Isaac
B. ELEAZAR WA-LEVI.
ISAAC, MARC JACOB: French educationist
and writer; born March 10, 1828, at Niederhomburg,
near Saargemiind, Lorraine. After attending the
teachers’ seminary at Colmar (1844-47), he taught
in several Jewish schools in Alsace, and later in
Paris. Heisthe author of “Le Crime du Déicide
et les Juifs” (1894), “De Dieu et Ame” (1894),
and “La Foi Aveugle et les Curés” (1902), and is a
contributor to the “ Archives Israélites.”
8. | S. Man.
ISAAC B. MEIR OF DUEREN.
DUEREN, Isaac B. MEXR.
ISAAC BEN MEIR OF NARBONNE:
French liturgical poet of the first half of the twelfth
century. He is mentioned as a liturgical poet by
Joseph Kara in his commentary to Job. He was
probably the author of the following five poems:
“Yomam ‘Enenu,” pizmon, in which the poet be-
wails the condition of the Jews in his time, and ex-
presses a longing for the “holy places”; “ Yosheb
Kedem Ebharenu,” a pizmon in nine verses; “Om-
nam ‘Awinu u-Pasha‘nu,” a prayer in twelve verses,
with a refrain; “ Ye‘teru Haberim,” a prayer in nine
verses; “Tafkidam Mebakkeshim,” a prayer for the
Festival of Gedaliah. It is not certain, however,
that Isaac wrote the third and fifth. AJI these
poems are distinguished by vivid coloring and
facility of expression.
See
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Monatsschrift, v. 472; Kerem Hemed, v. 67;
Zunz, S, P. p. 199; idem, Literaturgesch. p. 254; Gross,
Gallia Judaica, p. 412.
A. PE.
S. 8.
ISAAC BEN MELCHIZEDEK OF SI-
PONTO: Italian rabbi and Talmudist; lived about
1110-70; born in Siponto, a seaport of Apulia and
an ancient seat of Jewish learning. His father was
known there as an erudite Talmudist and was con-
nected with the bet ha-midrash; Isaac has sometimes
been confounded with him (see Neubauer in “ Ha-
Maggid,” 1874, No. 5; Zunz, “Literaturgesch.” p.
163). For unknown reasons Isaac removed to Sa
Isaac ben Melchizedek
Isaac ben Moses
lerno, where he met the traveler Benjamin of Tu-
dela, who subsequently referred to him as “the
great rabbi” (saan a9; “Itinerary” of Benjamin
of Tudela, ed. Asher, i. 13 [Hebr. part, ii. 29]). Isaac
addressed a legal question to his contemporary R.
Tam, which the latter answered in a responsum (see
“Or Zarua‘,” ii., $52). He wrote also a letter to the
rabbis of Rome 16 get an explanation of an obscure
wishnah (R. Tam, “Sefer ha-Yashar,” &$ 548-549;
comp. Berliner, “Peletat Soferim,” pp. 8, 46). It
is improbable that the Greek Talmudist whom
Abraham ibn Ezra derided on account of his defi-
cient knowledge of Hebrew was identical with Isaac
ben Melchizedek of Siponto, as Gritz suggests
(“Gesch.” vi, 872). His son Shiloh is mentioned in
“Sefer ha-‘Ittur” (ed. Lemberg, i. 145).
Isaac, one of the earliest Talmudists of lower
Italy, wrote a commentary on the Mishnah, proba-
bly on the whole of the Mishnah, though only the
part on Seder Zera‘im has been preserved (Neu-
bauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr, MSS.” No. 892); this part
has been printed in the new (1890) Wilna edition
of the Talmud; Bik. ii. 4 to the end was printed
long before as an addition to Simson of Sens’s com-
mentary. Isaac’s commentary on Seder Tohorot is
often quoted (see Azulai, “Shem ha-Gedolim,” i.
106), especially by Simson of Sens. Fragments of
it are to be found in R. Tam’s “Sefer ha-Yashar”
(1.c.)and ina Rashi and RaSHbaM manuscript de-
scribed by <A. Berliner (“ Monatsschrift,” xiii. 217,
223). His methods of explanation are concise and
clear and similar to Rashi’s. Most of his explana-
tious are original, and some of them are based upon
Greek, Arabic, and Italian linguistic analogies; fan-
tastic explanations, of course, are not wanting, He
quotes the two Talmudim, the Sifre and the lost
Sifre Zuta, the Targum, the Seder ‘Olam, the
““Aruk” of Nathan ben Jehiel of Rome, Hai’s com-
mentary on Zera‘im and Tohorot, and R. Nissim’s
“ Mafteah.”
Isaac’s merit consists in having paved the way for
the study of the Talmud in Italy. He did for that
country what Rashi had done for Germany and north-
ern France, though to a slighter extent, being a man
of lessauthority. His commentary soon became well
known not only in Italy, but also in Spain, France,
Germany, and Austria; great halakists like Isaac
ben Moses of Vienna, Meir Rothenburg, and Jacob
ben Asher referred to him, as did the tosafists and
others; but in the end their commentaries displaced
his.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gross, in Berliner’s Magazin, 1875, il. 21 et
seq.; Giidemann, Gesch. ii. 65; Steinschneider, Cat. odl.
col. "1187 : Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom,
i. 224, 368: Zunz, notes in Benjamin of Tudela’s Itinerary,
ed. Asher, ii, 28, 29; Frankel, Darke ha-Mishnah, p. 381;
Gratz, Gesch, vi. 172.
8. M. Sc.
ISAAC B. MENAHEM THE GREAT:
French Talmudist; flourished in the second half of
the eleventh century. Isaac, who lived at Orléans,
was a pupil of Eliezer the Great of Mayence, and
the teacher of Eliezer ben Judah of Chalons (Gross,
“Gallia Judaica,” p. 591), as well as of Rashi, who
quotes him five times (B. M. 7b, 23b; Shab. 67a;
Suk. 40a; Tem. 4a). He is twice quoted in the
Tosafot (Git. 21b; Mer. 5a) under the name of
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
626
“Tsaac of Orléans.” Gross also identifies him, con-
trary to Zunz, with the Isaac of Orléans mentioned
in Nathan ben Jehiel’s “‘Aruk.” According toa
quotation in Mordecai to Baba Mezi‘a iv., Isaac ben
Joseph was personally acquainted with Tob Elem,
though Gross thinks the passage is corrupt.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Literaturgesch. p.127: idem, Z. G. pp.
47, 50, 192; Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 32, 591.
8. S. Ac. PE:
ISAAC BEN MERWAN HA-LEVI: French
Talmudist; flourished in the first third of the twelfth
century; elder son of Merwan of Narbonne. As
highly respected in the community as his father, he
was elected rabbiof Narbonne. He isoften quoted,
his Talmudic decisions being regarded as decisive.
He directed the yeshibah, and several of his pupils
achieved distinction, among them being his nephew
Moses ben Joseph, Moses ben Jacob ha-Nasi, and
Abraham. ben Isaac, “ab bet din” of Narbonne.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 418.
A. PE.
ISAAC BEN MORDECAI GERSHON: Tal-
mudist of the fifteenth century. He wasthe author
of “Shelom Ester,” a commentary on the scroll of
Esther (Constantinople, 15th cent.). Steinschnei-
der, in Benjacob’s “Ozar ha-Sefarim” (p. 588, No.
679), attributes to the same author the following
three works: “Ketem Paz,” a commentary on Can-
ticles; “Mebakkesh Adonai,” a commentary on the
Pentateuch; “ Mor Deror,” a commentary on Esther.
But the first two of these three works belong to
Tsaac Gershon, the press-corrector of Venice. Fuenn
(“Keneset Yisrael,” p. 612) erroneously considers
these two authors to be identical.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Rossi, Dizionario, p. 126; Steinschneider,
Cat. Bodl. col. 1118.
8. 8. M. SEu.
ISAAC BEN MORDECAI HA-LEVI: Rabbi
of Lemberg; died in Cracow 1799. His father was
chief of the yeshibah at Lemberg, and Isaac himself
officiated as rabbi first in Leshnow, Galicia, after-
ward in Chelm, Poland. In 1776 he left the last-
named place for the rabbinate of Cracow, where he re-
mained until his death. Of his writings, only two
responsa are known, and these are incorporated in the
“Bet Ya‘akob” and the “Peri Tebu’ah.” In “Keter
Kehunnah ” allusion is made to a responsum which
he wrote for the author of that work. He is also
known from his approbations to various works of his
time.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Buber, Anshe Shem, pp. 121-122.
S. 8. N. T. I.
ISAAC BEN MOSES ELI (Ha-Sofardi):
Spanish mathematician of the fifteenth century;
born at Oriola, Aragon. According to Steinschnei-
der, he may have been one of the Spanish exiles of
1492; he probably went to Constantinople. His
brother was possibly the Judah ben Moses Eli of
Lisbon mentioned in the Paris manuscript No. 292.
He wrote a mathematical work entitled (according to
Steinschneider) “ Meleket ha-Mispar,” probably the
first two words of the book (Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl.
Hebr. MSS.” Nos. 1297, 2, 2065, 11; Paris MSS. Nos.
1029, 4, 1095; Leyden MS. No. 66, 8; on the MS. at
the Sofia Rabbinical Seminary see Griinwald in
627
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Isaac ben Melchizedek
Isaac ben Moses
Rahmer's “Jtid. Litt.-Blatt.” 1894, p. 176). The
book is divided into three parts: (1) a theory of
numbers, dealing with the first four rules and the
extraction of square roots; (2) proportion, etc. ;
(3) elementary geometry. The book is an introduc:
tion to Euclid, and begins with a definition of the
science of figures. The Sofia manuscript was copied
for Mordecai Kumtiano (about 1460).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Bibliotheca Mathematica,
1901, p. 14; idem, Jewish Literature, p. 192
8. M. Sc.
ISAAC BEN MOSES OF VIENNA (also
called Isaac Or Zarua‘): German halakist, a de-
scendant of a learned family; probably born in Bo-
hemia; lived about 1200-70. He mentions as his
teachers two Bohemian scholars, Jacob ha-Laban
and Isaac ben Jacob ha-Laban (author of “‘Arugat
ha-Bosem”). Led bya thirst for Talmudical knowl-
edge, he undertook in his youth extensive jour-
neys to the prominent yeshibot of Germany and
France. According to Gross he went to Ratisbon
first; but S. N. Bernstein conjectures that previ-
ously he stopped for a long time at Vienna, and
became closely identified with the city, as he is
usually quoted as “Tsaac of Vienna.” From among
the many scholars at Ratisbon he selected for his
guide the mystic Judah ben Samuel he-Hasid (d.
1217). About 1217 he went to Paris, where the
great Talmudist Judah ben Isaac Sir Leon (d. 1244)
became his chief teacher. He also visited for a
short time the yeshibah of Jacob ben Meir in Pro-
vins (see Gross, “Gallia Judaica,” p. 495). Then he
returned to Germany, and studied under the mystic
Eleazar ben Judah at Worms, and, at Speyer, under
Simhah ben Samuel, his intimate friend, and Eliezer
ben Joel ha-Levi, author of “Abi ha-‘Ezri” and
“Abi’asaf” (see Zunz, “Z, G.” p. 36). At Wirz-
burg, where Meir Rothenburg was his pupil (e.
1230), he became “rosh yeshibah.” Later on Isaac
returned to Ratisbon, and then settled for some time
in Vienna, where he held the position of “ab bet din ”
and rosh yeshibah. Finally, he went to Saxony and
Bohemia.
Isaac lived a long but unsteady and troubled life,
the facts of which are gathered from his “Or
Zarua‘,” the only source of information. He saw
the law compelling Jews to wear the yellow badge
put into force in France, and he deplored the massa-
cres of the Jewsin Frankfort-on-the-Mgin (1241) and
the extortions practised upon them by the nobles of
Austria. His son-in-law was Samuel ben Shabbe-
thai of Leipsic; his son Hayyim Eliezer, called
“Or Zarua‘,” like him a scholar, carried on a com-
prehensive halakic correspondence, a part of which
(251 responsa) was printed under the title “Sefer
She’elot u-Teshubot ” (Leipsic, 1860).
Toward the end of his life, about 1260, Isaac com-
posed his ritual work “Or Zarua‘.” He is usually
quoted as “Isaac Or Zarua‘.” It was
printed from the Amsterdam manu-
script (incomplete) by Lipa and Hé-
schel in Jitomir, 1862 (parts i. and ii.);
other manuscripts are at Oxford (Neubauer, “ Cat.
Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 650) and in the Jewish
Theological Seminary of America, New York (MS.
Halberstam No. 454). In the edition of Lipa and
His ‘‘ Or
Zarua‘.”
Héschel Seder Nezikin is wanting; most of the rest
of the work was afterward printed at Jerusalem by
J. M. Hirschensohn (part iti., 1887; part iv., 1890)
(Harkavy, “Hadashim gam Yeshanim,” No. 10;
Gritz, “Gesch.” v. 20, Hebr. ed.).
The “ Or Zarua‘” comprises the whole ritual, and
is arranged according to the Talmudical treatises,
while at the same time the halakot are kept to-
gether. The author, unlike Maimonides in his
“Yad,” does not confine himself to giving the hala-
kic decisions, but gives also the passage of the Tal-
mud, explains the subject-matter, and develops the
“din” from it. Thus the “Or Zarua‘” is at the
same time a ritual code and a Talmudic commen-
tary. As it contains, in addition, explanations of
some passages inthe Bible, the author isalso quoted
as a Bible commentator. Moreover, the book con-
tains a part of the halakic correspondence which the
author carried on with Talmudical scholars of Italy,
France, and Austria. Older collections of halakic
decisions (D°)1p9) which the author had gathered
together during his lifetime scem also to be em-
bodied in the work. Isaac explains unknown words
in Bohemian (j35 nw), his mother tongue (see
Harkavy, “ Die ‘J uden und die Slavischen Sprachen,”
pp. 53 et seg.), and cites the Talmud of Jerusalem,
to which he ascribes great authority in halakic deci-
sions. The work isintroduced by a treatise couched
in words to whose meanings mystical significance is
attached. It is an imitation of the Alphabet of
Akiba ben Joseph, and was composed at the order of
Isaac’s teacher Eleazar ben Judah of Worms, Isaac’s
son Hayyim Eliezer arranged a compendium of this
work which exists in several manuscripts.
The “Or Zarua‘ ” succeeded in displacing all the
older ritual works. It is very important also for the
“Culturgeschichte ” of the German Jews in the Mid-
die Ages (see, for instance, Berliner, “ Aus dem Leben
der Juden im Mittelalter,” on almost every page).
According to Gross, Isaac’s chief importance rests
upon the fact that he introduced among the Slavs
the study of the Talmud from France and the west
of Germany.
Isaac was of a mild and peace-loving character,
and it was for this reason, perhaps, that he did not
participate in the struggle against the study of
secular sciences, though an incorrect ritual decision
would rouse him to indignant energy. He carried
on a controversy with several rabbis concerning the
legal status of a betrothed girl who had been forced
by circumstances to adopt Christianity and had after-
ward returned to Judaism. His anxiety for correct
observance led him to counsel the more difficult
rather than the easier ritual practise. His mystical
studies account for his belief in miracles. He was held
in high regard by his pupils, and, like other teach-
ers of the time, was given the title “ Ha-Kadosb ”
(the holy; Asheri, Ta‘an. iv.), His contemporary
Isaiah di Trani described him as “the wonder of
the age” (“Or Zarua‘,” 1. 226).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : 8. N. Bernstein. in Ha-Zefirah, 1902, Nos. 229,
231, ; Gratz, Gesch. vii. 101; Gross, in Monatsschrift,
1871, pp. "248 et seq. (whom the present writer has mainly fol-
lowed) : Giidemann, Gesceh. i. 114, 152, 158; Zunz, Z. G. In-
dex: idem, in Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl. 1865, pp. 1 ef seq.;
idem, G. S. iii. 128 et seq.; Weiss, Dor, v. 73.
8. M. Sc.
Isaac Nathan
Isaac ben Samuel
ISAAC NATHAN BEN KALONYMUS:
French philosopher and controversialist; lived at
Arles, perhaps at Avignon also, and in other places,
in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Ife be-
longed to the well-known Nathan family, which
claimed its descent from David; he was probably
the grandson of the translator Maestro Bougodas
Judah Nathan. According to the statement of
Isaac himself, in the introduction to his concordance
(see below), he was completely ignorant of the Bible
until his fifteenth year, his studies having been re-
stricted to the Talmud and to religious philosophy.
Later he took up other branches of learning, and
owing to his frequent association with Christians
and to the numerous anti-Jewish writings of Jewish
apostates that appeared at that time, he tumed his
attention to religious controversy. Isaac was the
author of the following works (some are still ex-
tant, and some are known only through citations): a
refutation of the arguments contained in the epistle
of the fictitious Samuel of Moreeco, who endeav-
Jui ASIN
ane
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
628
from the Bible, as was often the case with Geronimo
de Santa Fé. The “Meir Netib,” with its complete
introduction, was first; published at Venice (errone-
ously under the name of Mordecai Nathan) in 1528;
in 1556 it was published at Basel by Buxtorf, but
with only a part of the introduction.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Rossi, Dizionario, p. 77; 1.8. Reggio, Tg-
yerot, i. 71: Schorr, in He- Aatug, i. 29, note 6; Stemschnei-
der, Cat. Bodl. col. 1141; Renan- Neubauer, Lea Ecrivains
Juifs Francais, p. 582; Griitz, Geseh, viii. 1625 Gross, in
Monatssehrift, xxix. 518 et seq.3 idem, Gallia Judaica, p.
89; Zunz, G. S. iii. 190,
s, I. Br.
ISAAC BEN NOAH COHEN SHAPIRA:
Polish rabbi; lived in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries; grandson of Hirsh and teacher of Joel
Sirkes. He received his Talmudical training in the
yeshibah of Hayyim ben Samuel of Kremenetz, and
after filling the position of rabbi at Gorodnitza and
at Beresnitza was called to Meseritz (Mezhirechye).
Isaac was the author of “ Sefer Zikkaron,” containing
all the paragraphs of the Shulhan ‘Aruk arranged
TsaAaC OF NORWICH DEPICTED IN A CONTEMPORARY CARICATURE.
(in the Record Office, London.)
ored to demonstrate from the Bible the Messiahship
of Jesus (introduction to Nathan’s concordance);
“Tokahat Mat‘eh,” against Joshua Lorki (Geronimo
de Santa Fé after baptism; De Rossi, “ Bibliotheca
Antichristiana,” pp. 76-77); “ Mibzar Yizhak,” anti-
Christian polemics (De Rossi, é.c.); “Me’ah De-
barim,” for the instruction of youth, twenty-one
essays on various topics, the Biblical names of God
forming one, another being on the Masorah (collec-
tion of IS. Reggio and Schorr) ; “ Me’amimez Koah,”
on virtue and vice, in three parts (Neubauer, “Cat.
Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 2282); “Meir Netib,” a Bib-
lical coneordance upon which the author worked
from 1487 to 1447, with a philosophico-exegetical
introduction (“ Petihat Meir Netib ”).
The “Meir Netib” was the first Bible concordance
in Hebrew, and was distinguished from the similar
Latin work of Arlotus of Prato in that its vocabu-
lary was arranged in the order of the roots. In the
introduction the author says that his work aimed to
facilitate the study of Biblical exegesis and to pre-
vent Jewish converts to Christianity from making,
in their religious controversies, incorrect quotations
in alphabetical order and rimed as an aid to memory.
It was published at Cracow or at Prague, in the
seventeenth century. To this was appended “ Peti-
hat ha-Leb,” an abridgment of a more extensive
work of his entitled “ Harhabat ha-Leb,” containing
sermons arranged in the order of the Sabbatical sec-
tions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. p. 299: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl.
col. 1144; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 157, No, 127; Car-
Moly: in Ha-Karmel, vi. 301; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p.
H. RR. I. Br.
ISAAC OF NORWICH (Isaac b. Eliab):
English financier of the twelfth and thirteenth cen-
turies. He was among the Jews imprisoned by
King John in 1210 (“Select Pleas of the Jewish Ex-
chequer,” ed. Riggs, p. 3). It is possible that at
this time a house of his in London fell into the hands
of the king and was afterward (1214) transferred to
the Earl of Derby (“ Rotuli Cartarum,” p. 3, Lon-
don, 1887). Hewas by far the most important Jew-
ish money-lender at Norwich in the early years of
Henry III., the majority of the items of a day-book of
that place now preserved at Westminster Abbey re-
629
—
ferring to his transactions (Jacobs and Wolf, “ Bibl.
Anglo-Jud.” p. xviii.). In the “Shetarot” Isaac
is referred to as “Nadib” or “ Maecenas” (Davis,
“Shetarot,” Nos, 1-2); he appears to have died be-
fore 1247 @b. No. 11). A caricature of him appears
in an issue of the Exchequer, 17, Hen. JII. (1288),
which represents him as being tortured by a demon
and expresses the contemporary Christian view of his
rapaciousness(F. Devon, “ Issues of the Exchequer,”
frontispiece, and p. 506, London, 1887).
The accompanying caricature represents Isaac as
three-faced, probably in allusion to the wide extent
of his dealings. He is crowned with a coronet, and
surveys a scene in which another Jew, Mosse Mok,
and a Jewess named Abigail, are being tortured by
demons, seemingly under his direction. The scene
appears to be taken froma miracle-play, the drapery
representing the stage, and the architectural adorn-
ment the cloister of a church, such plays generally
being performed in churches.
.7 ay
ISAAC PULGAR. Sce IBN PULGAR (PoLGaR,
PoLKAR), ISAAC BEN JOSEPH.
ISAAC B. REUBEN ALBARGELONI
(ALBARCELONI): Spanish Talmudist and litur-
gical poet; born at Barcelona in 1048. He was a
judge in the important community of Denia, where
he became connected, probably as son-in-law, with
Ibn Alhatosh. Among his later descendants was
Moses b. Nahman (Nahmanides); Judah Albargeloni
is said to have been Isaac’s pupil. He was one of
five prominent contemporaneous scholars of the name
of “Isaac,” and the regard in which he was held by
his own and succeeding generations is indicated by
the fact that he is simply designated “ Ha-Rab Al-
bargeloni.” He wrote commentaries on various sec-
tions of the treatise Ketubot, and at the age of
thirty-five (1078) translated, from the Arabic into
Hebrew, Iai Gaon’s “ Ha-Mikkah weha-Mimkar,”
on buying and selling (Venice, 1602, and frequently
afterward with commentaries). Noteworthy among
his liturgical poems are his AzHARov, included in
the rituals of Constantine, Tlemc¢en, Tunis, Morocco,
Algeria, and Oran (see Jew. Encyc. ii. 871).
Of the 145 strophes in the poem each consists
of three verses, ending with a Biblical quotation.
Isaac’s use of Biblical verses indicates great skill.
Al-Harizi remarked: “He has put the religious
laws into rime, and has fitted them so well to Bib-
lical passages that it almost seems as if the work
had been inspired by a higher power.” Isaac cop-
ies faithfully the division of the laws and interdic-
tions of the “Halakot Gedolot”; at times even fol-
lowing its wording, while he also takes into account
the regulations of traditional literature referring
to Biblical prescriptions. The following poems of
Isaac are also included in the “Azharot”: “‘Alah
Mosheh le-Rosh Har Sinai” (introduction); “ Yom
Zeh Horid” (pizmon preceding the commands);
“Yahid Nora ‘Alilah” (pizmon between the com-
mands and interdictions), Isaac also wrote: “Pa-
hadti mi-Yozeri” and “Yom Zeh Mekapper le-Sha-
bim,” both in three-line strophes, the latter with
signature and alphabet. Rapoport further assigns
to Isaac “ Ayumati Yonah,” “ahabah” for the Sab-
bath before the Feast of Weeks; and “ Yakush be-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Isaac Nathan
Isaac ben Samuel
‘Onyo,” “geullah” for the fifth Sabbath after
Pesah; but other scholars do not agree with Rapo-
port on this point.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rapoport’s biography of Hai Gaon in Bikkure
ha-‘Ittim, 1829, x. 91; Delitzsch, Zur Gesch, der Jiidischen
Poesie, pp. 46, 168; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 1149 et
seqg.; idem, Hebr. Uebers. p. 910; Michael, Or ha-Hayyim,
p. 510; Geiger, Jiidische Dichtungen, pp. 9 et seq. (Hebr,
part, pp. 4 et seqg.); Landshuth, “Ammude ha-’Ahodah, p.
126; Zunz, Literaturgesch. pp. 201, 673; Gratz, Gesch. 3d
ed., vi. 62 ef seq.; Weiss, Dor, iv. 281; Halberstam, introduc-
tion to Judah Albargeloni’s commentary on the Sefer Yezirah,
pp. XVii.-xviii.; comp. Ozar Nehmad, ii. 188 et seq.
G. H. B.
ISAAC BEN SAMSON HA-KOHEN: Bohe-
mian Talmudist; died May 30, 1624, in Prague.
He was assistant rabbi and magistrate of the com-
munity, and was son-in-law of the chief rabbi of
Prague, Lewa ben Bezaleel, and the father of Hay-
yim ha-Kohen (rabbi at Frankfort-on-the-Main and
at Posen) and Naphtali ha-Kohen (rabbi at Lublin).
Isaac was in the habit of writing acrostic introduc-
tions to his own and other works. He wrote: a
supplement to “Hatan Damim,” a commentary on
the Pentateuch by Samuel Runkel (Prague, 1605);
glosses to “ Pa'neah Raza,” a small cabalistic work
by Isaac ben Judah ha-Levi (¢b. 1602); a commen-
tary on the Pentateuch, in German (zd. 1608); notes
on Midrash Tehillim (7d. 1618); “ Kizzur Mizrahi,”
a commentary on Rashi to Genesis. Isaac, accord-
ing toastatement in one of his glosses, was occupied
for some time in the composition of a cabalistic
work entitled “Sidre Bereshit.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gal ‘Ed, No. 84; Zunz, Z. G. pp. 285, 402, 882.
s. S. A. PE.
ISAAC, SAMUEL: Promoter of the Mersey
Tunnel, near Liverpool, England; born at Chatham,
England, 1812; died in London Nov, 22, 1886. He
went to London as a young man, and carried on a
large business as an army contractor in Jermyn
street, under the firm name of Isaac, Campbell &
Co. During the Civil war in America this firm was
the largest European supporter of the Southern
States, and its ships, laden with military stores
and freighted home with cotton, were the most en-
terprising of blockade-runners; it ultimately failed
on the fall of the Confederacy.
After a time Isaac acquired the rights of the pro-
moters of the Mersey Railway, a project which had
obtained the sanction of Parliament, but had re-
mained in abeyance owing to the disinclination of
capitalists to venture on the task of tunneling the
bed of the Mersey. Isaac pushed the scheme into
practical development. He himself undertook to
build the tunnel, and enlisted the aid of an influen-
tial directorate. Fresh powers were obtained from
Parliament, money was raised in bonds and shares,
and the tunnel was duly opened under the auspices
of the Prince of Wales. Isaac’s brother Saul Isaac
(born at Chatham 1823; died at London Oct. 6, 1908)
was connected with him in his commissariat business,
and became M.P. for Nottingham from 1874 to 1880.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Times (London), Nov. 23, 1886; Jew.
Chron. and Jew. World, Nov. 26, 1886; Oct. 9, 1903; Dict.
Nat. Biog. s.v.
J: G. L.
ISAAC BEN SAMUEL OF ACRE: Palestin-
ian cabalist; flourished in the thirteenth and four-
teenth centuries. According to Azulai (“Shem ha-
Isaac ben Samuel
Isaac ben Sheshet
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
630
Gedolim,” 8.v.), he was a pupil of Nahmanides. He
was at Acre when that town was taken by Al-
Malik al-Ashraf, and was thrown into prison with
many of his coreligionists; but he escaped the mas-
sacre, and in 1805 went to Spain. Abraham Zacuto
states, in his “ Yuhasin,” that Moses of Leon dis-
covered the Zohar in the time of Isaac of Acre. But
Isaac doubted the authenticity of the Zohar, not
having heard of it in the Holy Land, and made in-
quiries about it of Nahmanides’ pupils, without,
however, any satisfactory result. When he met
Moses of Leon at Valladolid, the latter took an oath
that he had in his house at Avila a copy of the
Zohar, written by Simeon b. Yohai himself. But
Moses of Leon died before he could return to Avila,
and Isaac, more than ever desirous of obtaining the
truth, consulted at Avila a certain David Rafan.
The last-named told Isaac that Moses of Leon’s wife
and daughter had revealed to the wife of acertain R.
Joseph the fact that Moses of Leon had written the
book himself. Gratz (“Gesch.” vii. 211) takes this
story as historical, but Landauer (in “Orient, Lit.”
vi. 710-718) shows it to be apocryphal, and demon-
strates that the Zohar was discovered much later.
Isaac of Acre is frequently quoted by Elijah de
Vidas in his “ Reshit Hokmah,” and by R. Hayyim
Vital in his “Megillat Setarim.” Ue was an expert
in composing the sacred names (“zerufim ”), by the
power of which angels were forced to reveal to him
the great mysteries (Azulai, ¢.c.). According to
Azulai he wrote many cabalistic works. Those that
are known are: “ Me’irat ‘Enayim,” a cabalistic com-
mentary on Nahmanides’ commentary to the Penta-
teuch; “Sefer ha-Sodot,” mentioned in the “ Nobelot
Hokmah” of Joseph Solomon Delmedigo; “ Ketem
Paz,” acabalistic work mentioned by Moses Botarel
in his commentary to the “Sefer Yezirah,” and the
author of which he calls “Isaac ben Samuel,” identi-
fied by Michael (“Or ha-Hayyim,” No. 1088) with
Isaac b. Samuel of Acre; “ Likkute Shoshanim,”
possibly a compendium of the “Sefer ha-Sodot.”
It appears from the “ Reshit Hokmah ” that Isaac of
Acre wrote also a book on ethics. A specimen of
the “Me’irat ‘Enayim” was published by Jellinek
in his “ Beitrige ”; the remainder of Isaac’s works
are still in manuscript. -
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Me’irat ‘Enayim; Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., vii.
186, 211, 427-428; Abraham Zacuto, Puhasin, ed. Filipowski,
pp. 95, 96, London, 1857; Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, p. 543
Jellinek, Beitrdge, ii., xitii.; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col.
2523; Landauer, in Orient, Lit. vi. 182, 224, 509; Michael, Or
ha-Hayyim, p. 518, No. 1088,
K. M. SEL.
ISAAC BEN SAMUEL HA-LEVI: Polish
rabbi; born at Vladimir, government of Volhynia,
Russia, about 1580; died before 1646. He was the
elder brother and teacher of David b. Samuel ha-
Levi, author of the “Ture Zahab.” Asa young man
he became rabbi of Chelm, Russian Poland; later
he lived at Lemberg. He was the author of an im-
portant work in two parts; the first part, consisting
of responsa, is entitled “She’elot u-Teshubot R.
Yizhak ha-Lewi”; the second, consisting of novelle,
is entitled “Hiddushe Halakot.” The work was
published at Neuwied in 1736. Other responsa by
him are found in his brother’s “Ture Zahab ” (ch.
xxv., on Orah Hayyim; ch. xxvii., on Yoreh De‘ah),
and in the “She’elot u-Teshubot Geone Batra‘e”
(No, 20),
David b. Samuel ha-Levi's grandson Isaiah b.
Abraham, in the preface to his “ Be’er Heteb Yashan,”
said that Isaac had written a work entitled “ Pahad
Yizhak,” a commentary on the Yoreh De‘ah, and
another entitled “Korban Yizhak.” Isaac is identi-
fied by Fuenn (“ Keneset Yisrael,” p. 628) and by
Buber (“Anshe Shem,” p. 114) with the Isaac b.
Samuel ha-Levi of Posen who wrote a work en-
titled “Siah Yizhak,” a Hebrew grammar based on
phonetic laws (Prague, 1628). Both Fuenn and
Buber assert that Isaac b. Samuel ha-Levi went from
Lemberg to Posen, where he became the head of the
yeshibah. They attribute to him the authorship
of the “Shir Ge’ulah,” a piyyut written in 1609
on the occasion of the reacquisition by the Jews of
Lemberg of the synagogue which the Jesuits had
seized five years previously. This piyyut, found at
the end of the Mahzor (ed. Prague), is recited by
the Jews of Lemberg on the Sabbath after Purim.
The author of the “Siah Yizhak ” says in his preface
that he also wrote a commentary on the compound
words of the Bible, entitled “ Berit ha-Lewi.” This
work is also mentioned in the text of the “Siah
Yizhak,” with another work, by the same author,
entitled “Eleh Toledot Yizhak,” a commentary on
Rashi.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr.i. and iii., No. 1279; Stein-
schneider, Cat. Bodl. cols, 1153, 1154; idem, Jewish Litera-
ture, p. 240; Dembitzer, Kelilat Yofi, i. 50a, b.
Ss. S. M. SE.
ISAAC BEN SAMUEL OF NARBONNE:
French scholar; flourished in the first half of the
twelfth century. He is quoted in an anonymous
commentary to Chronicles, written at Narbonne
before 1140, as having given the author verbal ex-
planations of various verses—I Chron. ix. 39; xviii.
3, 5; IT Chron. xxiv. 14 (see Zunz, “Z. G.” p. 78).
Zunz (“Literaturgesch.” p. 168) identifies Isaac b.
Samuel of Narbonne with the liturgical poet who
composed a number of piyyutim and selihot with
the acrostic “Isaac b. Samuel.” Zunz (/.c.) sup-
poses him to have been also the author of the four-
teen calendar tables known under the same name.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 416; Zunz, Z. G. p.
73; idem, Literaturgesch. pp. 168, 169, 262; Landsberg. in
ae uals xiii. 37; Landshuth, “Ammude ha-*Abodah,
p
Gq. M. SEL.
ISAAC BEN SAMUEL HA-SEFARDI:
Spanish Biblical exegete; Hourished in the eleventh
and twelfth centuries. From hiscommentary, which
is written in Arabic, it seems that Isaac b. Samuel
lived in Palestine; Steinschneider (“ Hebr. Bibl.” vi.
114) concluded that he lived at Aleppo, Isaac b.
Samuel is regarded as the successor in Biblical ex-
egesis of Judah ibn Balaam and Moses ibn Gikatilla.
The authorities he quotes are the geonim Saadia,
Sherira, and Hai, and Judah ibn Kuraish, Judah ibn
Balaam, Nathan ben Jehiel, and Moses ibn Gikatilla.
Tn turn, Isaac’s commentary is frequently quoted
by the exegete Abraham b. Solomon (Steinschneider,
“Hebr. Bibl.” xx. 10). His commentary to the sec-
ond book of Samuel is found in the British Museum
(Or, 2888),
631
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Isaac ben Samuel
Isaac ben Sheshet
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Margoliouth, in J. Q. R. x. 385-403 ; Bacher,
ib. x. 729; Joseph Derenbourg, in R. BE. J. v. 189: Stein-
M. SEv.
schneider, Hebr. Bibl. vi. 114; xx. 10, 11,
S. S.
ISAAC BEN SAMUEL HA-ZAKEN:
French tosafist and Biblical commentator; flour-
ished at Ramerupt and Dampierre in the twelfth
century. He died, according to Gritz (“Gesch.”
vi, 210), about 1200; according to Gross (“ Gallia Ju-
daica,” p. 161,and “R. E. J.” vii. 76), between 1185
and 1195; and as heis known to have reached an
advanced age, Gross supposes that he was not born
later than 1115. On the other hand, Michael (“Or
ha-Hayyim,” p. 512) says that as Isaac b. Samuel
was spoken of as “the sainted master” (“Sefer ha-
Terumah,” §§ 131, 161; Tos., Zeb. 12b. 59b), a
term generally given to martyrs, he may have been
killed at the same time as his son Ethanan (1184).
On his father’s side Isaac was a grandson of R.
Simhah of Vitry, author of the Mahzor Vitry; on
his mother’s side he was a nephew of R. Tam, of
Rashbam, and of Isaac b. Meir (RiBaM), a great-
grandson of Rashi, anda relative of R. Eleazar of
Worms. He was surnamed “ha-Zaken ” (the elder)
to distinguish him from another tosafist of the same
name, Isaac b. Abraham, surnamed “ha-Bahur ” (the
younger). He is often quoted as R. Isaac of Dam-
pierre (“Maimuniyyot,” Ma’akalot Asurot, No. 5;
“Shibbole ha-Leket,” ii., No. 40), but it seems that he
lived first at Ramerupt, where his maternal grand-
father resided (“Sefer ha-Nayyar,” p. 162; “Mai-
muniyyot,” é.¢c.). It was also at Ramerupt that he
studied under his uncle R. Tam (Luria, Responsa,
No. 29); after the latter had gone to Troyes, Isaac
b. Samuel directed his school. Isaac settled at Dam-
pierre later, and founded there a flourishing and
well-attended school (“ Or Zarua‘,” i. 126). It is said
that he had sixty pupils, each of whom, besides
being generally well grounded in Talmud, knew an
entire treatise by heart, so that the whole Talmud
was stored in the memories of his pupils (Menahem,
“Zedah la-Derek,” Introduction). As he lived under
Philip Augustus, at whose hands the Jews suffered
much, Isaac prohibited the buying of confiscated
Jewish property, and ordered that any so bought
be restored to its original owner. A particular
interest attaches to one of his responsa, in which
he relies on the oral testimony of his aunt, the wife
of R. Isaac b. Meir, and on that of the wife of R.
Eleazar of Worms, a great-granddaughter of Rashi
(“Sefer ha-Nayyar,” p. 167a).
Isaac’s tosafot completed the commentary of
Rashi on the Talmud (Romm of Wilna included in
his edition of the Talmud Isaac ben Samuel’s to-
safot on Kiddushin). He also compiled and edited
with great erudition all the preceding explanations
to Rashi’s commentary. His first collection was en-
titled “Tosefot Yeshanim,” which, however, was
afterward revised and developed. He is quoted on
almost every page of the Tosafot, and in various
works, especially in the “Sefer ha-Terumah ” of his
pupil Baruch b. Isaac of Worms, and in the “Or
Zarua‘” of Isaac b. Moses.
Isaac is mentioned as a Biblical commentator
by Judah b. Eliezer (“ MinhatYehudah,” p. 8b), who
quotes alsoa work of Isaac’s entitled “ Yalkute Mid-
rash” (7b, p. 22a); by Isaac ha-Levi; by Hezekiah
b, Manoah in his “Hazzekuni”; and in two other
commentaries (see “ Kerem Hemed,” vii. 68). Isaac
b. Samuel is supposed to be the author also of sev-
eral liturgical poems, of a piyyut to the Haftarah
(Landshuth, “‘Ammude ha-‘Abodah,” p. 108), and of
a piyyut for Purim (Mahzor Vitry, No. 255; comp.
Luzzatto in Berliner’s “ Magazin,” v. 27, Hebr. part).
The authorship of these piyyutim may, however,
belong to the liturgical writer Isaac b. Samuel of
Narbonne.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i.; Michael, Or ha-
Hayyim, pp. 511-513; Weiss, Dor, iv. 286, 342, 349; Gratz,
Gesch. 8d ed., vi. 210, 211, 214; Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp.
161-168, 638; idem,in R. H. J. vii. 76; Neubauer, ib. xvii.
67; Zunz, Z. G. p. 33, passim.
8. 8. M. SEL.
ISAAC BEN SHESHET BARFAT
(RiBaSH): Spanish Talmudic authority; born at
Valencia in 13826; died at Algiers in 1408. He settled
early in life at Barcelona, where he studied under
Perez ha-Kohen, under Hasdai ben Judah, and espe-
cially under R. Nissim ben Reuben (RaN), for whom
he professed throughout his life the greatest vener-
ation. Although Isaa- acquired while still young a
world-wide reputation as a Talmudic suthority, and
halakic inquiries were addressed to him from all
quarters, he led a private hfe, carning his livelihood
in commerce until he was about fifty years old,
when he was compelled to accept a position as rabbi.
Together with six other prominent men of Barce-
lona, among whom was his younger brother Judah
ben Sheshet and his teacher Nissim ben Reuben,
he was thrown into prison on a false accusation.
After his acquittal he accepted the rabbinate of Sara-
gossa; but troubles still awaited him. To the grief
caused by the death of his brother Judah and of his
son-in-law was added that due to dis-
sensions in the community, stirred up
by the dayyan Joseph ben David.
Isaac in consequence accepted the
less important rabbinate of Calatayud; but when
he was on the point of leaving Saragossa the leaders
of that community induced him tostay. The peace,
however, did not remain long undisturbed, and Isaac
settled at Valencia, where he directed a Talmudical
school.
In 1391 occurred the great persecutions of the
Jews of Spain in consequence of the preaching of
Fernandes Martinez. Isaac saved himself by flight.
After sojourning a certain time at Milianah he set-
tled at Algiers, where he was received with great
honor. Fate, however, had decided that he should
not find peace. A certain Spanish refugee who had
settled at Algiers before him aspired to become the
leader of the community, and, seeing in Isaac a
rival, began to persecute him. To give to Isaac the
power necessary to act against this man, Saul ha-
Kohen Astruc persuaded the governmert to appoint
Isaac rabbi of Algiers. But this won for him a still
more powerful enemy in the person of Simon ben
Zemah Duran, who disapproved of any intervention
on the part of the government in the affairs of the
rabbinate,
Notwithstanding these events, Isaac ben Sheshet
was greatly vencrated by the Algerian Jews, and
pilgrimages to his tomb are still made on the anni-
Becomes
Rabbi.
Tsaac ben Sheshet THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 632
Isaacs, Abram
versary of his death. His tombstone was restored | ben Gershon and that of Abraham ben David of
by the community of Algiers in 1862. It bears a Posquiéres (RABaD) on free will, and gives his own
Hebrew elegy, composed by Abba Mari ibn Caspi, | views on that complicated subject. He shows him-
and the following French inscription: “Ce mon- | self a decided adversary of the Cabala. His teacher
ument a été restauré par la communauté Israélite | says Isaac never spoke of the Sefirot, and Isaac cites
d’Alger en Vhonneur du Rabbin Isaac bar Chi- i the words of a certain philosopher who reproaches
chat, né en Espagne, décédé A Alger en 1408, dans | the cabalists with believing in the “Ten” (Sefirot)
sa 82 année. Alger le 11 aoft, 1862.” The accuracy | as the Christians belicve In the Trinity (No. 159).
of the date of his death given in thisepitaph is, how- Isaac’s responsa were first published, under the
ever, questioned by some scholars, who claim with | title “She’elot u-Teshubot,” at Constantinople in
some authority that Isaac died at least one year | 1546-47. A new collection of the responsa was pub-
later. lished recently under the title “She’elot u-Teshu-
Isaac was the author of 417 responsa, to which | bot ha-Ribash ha-Hadashot” by David Frenkl at
great halakic value is attached by men like Joseph | Munkécs. In addition to these, he wrote novell
TOMB OF RABBI [SAAC BEN SHESHET AT ALGIERS.
(After the painting by Wilhelm Gentz.)
Caro, Berab, and many others. They are also of | on the Talmud which are no longer in existence.
great historical importance as reflecting the condi- | They are mentioned by him in his responsa (No.
tions of Jewish life in the fourteentk | 106), and some of them, on the treatise Ketubot,
His Works. century. In some of them are tobe | are cited by Bezaleel Ashkenazi in the “Shittah
found details of the author’s life; but | Mekubbezet.” Azulai says that he has scen a man-
unfortunately it is impossible to trace these chrono- | uscript containing a commentary on the Pentateuch
logically, the original order of the responsa having | by Isaac ben Sheshoet.
been altered by the editors. BIBLIOGRAPHY [ Conforte,, Kore ha, Dorot. p. 26a; ; Azulai,
' : ; : 7 Shem ha-Gedolim, i. ; Rossi, Dizionario, p. >; ZAunz,
_Although Isaac was very strict in his halakic de Zeitschrift, p. 182: Gritz, Gesch. viii. 34; Schorr, in He-Ha-
cisions, he was far from being narrow-minded. He luz, i. 28: Steinschneider. Cat. Bodl. col. 1155; Heinrich
has nothing to say a gainst secular knowledge; he Jaulus, in Monatsschrift, 1875, p. 820; Atlas, in Ha-Kerem,
: ‘ i. 1-26; Bloch,in R. HE. J. viii. 288; Kaufmann, in Monats-
disapproves the study of Aristotle only because the schrift, 1882, p. 86; 1883, p. 190; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael.s.v.
latter professed belief in the eternity of matter and 8. 8. I. Br.
denied God’s providence. Isaac’s responsa evidence ISAAC IBN SID (ZAG; GAG): Spanish
a profound knowledge of the philosophical wri- | astronomer; flourished at Toledo in the second half
tings of his time. In one of them (No. 118) he ex- | of the thirteenth century. From the surname “ha-
plains the difference between the opinion of Levi | Hazzan,” given him by Isaac Israeli (“ Yesod
633
‘Olam,” iv. 30), it may be inferred that he was pre-
centor at the synagogue. Isaac ibn Sid took a lead-
ing part in the compilation of the ALFONSINE
TABLES. Isaac Isracli (¢d.) states that he saw re-
corded in Isaac ibn Sid’s own handwriting three
observations of moon-eclipses made by him at the
order of Alfonso. In official documents (De Castro,
“Bibliotheca,” i, 184b) Isaac ibn Sid is termed by
Alfonso “our learned Rabbi Cag.” In 1277 Isaac
translated from the Arabic a work on the quadrant.
His name is also connected with the invention of
various instruments (De Castro, I.c. i. 144a, 156a,
157).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. vii. 115; Steinschneider, Hebr.
Uchers. pp. 617 et seq.
G. I. Br.
ISAAC BEN SOLOMON: Liturgical poet;
lived in Germany in the first half of the fourteenth
century; author of the selihah “ Ani hu ha-Geber,”
on the martyrs of the persecutions of 1837, which
Isaac had witnessed. The signature to this selihah
includes the words “ Yifrah Samak,” which, accord-
ing to Zunz, form a part of the poet’s name.
BIBLIOGRAPITY: Zunz, Literaturgesch. p. 368; idem, S. P. p.
368; Revue Orientatle, i. 279; Landshuth, ‘Ammude ha-
‘Abodah, p. 127; text and transl. of ‘‘ Ani hu ha-Geber’’ in
Salfeld, Martyrologium, p. 347 (comp. p. 287).
G. I. Br.
ISAAC BEN SOLOMON HA-KOHEN : Bib-
lical commentator; lived at Constantinople in the
middle of the sixteenth century. He was the author
of a commentary on Job, published, with the text,
at Constantinople in 1545. He wrote also a com-
mentary on Pirke Abot, still extant in manuscript.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. p. 426; Steinschneider, Jewish
Literature, p. 2382; idem, Cat. Bodl. col. 1153; First, Bibl.
Jud. ii. 141,
G. I. Br,
ISAAC BEN TODROS: Spanish rabbiand Tal-
mudist toward the end of the thirteenth century.
He was the teacher of Shem-Tob ibn Gaon and
Nathan b. Judah, and the friend of Bahya ben
Asher, who mentions him in his Pentateuch com-
mentary (§ Beshallah). He is mentioned also by
Mordecai ben Hillel (d. 1810); and was still living in
1805, on July 26 of which year he subscribed, with
others, the excommunication launched by Solomon
ben Adret against the study of metaphysics by any
one before attaining the age of thirty. He was
probably one of the rabbis of Barcelona. He wrotea
commentary on the Mahzor (Lonsano,“ Shete Yadot,”
62a), and a halakiccommentary to the “ Azharot” of
Gabirol (Paris, Bibliothéque Nationale, No. 278, 2).
It is not probable that he is to be identified with the
Todros ben Isaac of Gerona (Brill) who is praised by
Kalonymus (1823) at the end of his “Eben Bohan,”
and who wrote novelle on Nazir (Neubauer, “Cat.
Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 448, 1).
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Cat. Boal. col. 2522 ; Conforte,
Kore ha-Dorot, p. 180; Solomon ben Adret, Responsa, No.
mt Dukes, in Orient, Lit. 1847, p. 405; Briill’s Jahrb. viii.
G.
ISAAC B. TODROS: French physician at
Avignon during the second half of the fourteenth
century. In 1873 he was the pupil of the astron-
omer Immanuel b. Jacob of Tarascon and Orange,
the author of the “Shesh Kenafayim.” Isaac was
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Isaac ben Sheshet
Isaacs, Abram
well read in rabbinical literature and philosophy as
wellasin medicine and medical literature, <A plavue
had devastated southern France, the Jews being the
first to be attacked. On this account he wrote in
1377 a short treatise, “ Be’er Lehai,” on the origin
of plagues and the methods to be used in combating
them. He was an eye-witness of the cures per-
formed by John of Tornamira, the body-physician of
Pope Gregory XI., of whom he speaks well, perhaps
influenced by that ecclesiast’s favorable attitude
toward Jewish physicians. Isaaccites Hippocrates,
Ibn Sina, Ibn Roshd, Razi, [bn Zuhr (although Isaac
does not seem to have known Arabic), Galen, John
Giacomo, chancellor of Montpellier, and the follow-
ing Jews: R. Judah Nathan, Isaac Israeli, Moses
Narboni, and Immanuel b. Jacob. His data in re-
gard to the effect of the plague upon the Jews in
Avignon are substantiated by Chalin de Vinarios
(Honiger, “ Der Schwartze Tod,” p. 172). The trea.
tise has been published from his unique manuscript
by David Ginzburg in the “Zunz Jubelschrift ”
(Hebrew part, pp. 91 eé seg.) Among the Oxford
manuscripts (No. 2142, folio 258b; Neubauer,
“Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.*) there is another medical
treatise by Isaac, on DIDNT Nyy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. Kaufmann, in Géttingische Gelehrte An-
zeigen, June, 1885, No. 11, p. 451; Briall’s Jahrb. viii. 87
Kaufmann and Brill offer many emendations of the text as
published by Ginzburg. G
ISAAC TYRNAU: Hungarian rabbi and rit-
ualist; flourished in the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries. He was a pupil of Abraham Klausner of
Vienna and of R. Shalom of Neustadt; one of his
schoolfellows was Jacob Mdlin (MaHaRiL). Gratz
concluded that Isaac Tyrnau died before 1427, but
David Gans’s “Zemah Dawid” (p. 65) cites him as
living in 1460. Like his teachers and his school-
fellow Molin, Isaac Tyrnau described (in his “ Minha-
gim le-Kol ha-Shanah,” Venice, 1616) the customs
of different communities using the Ashkenazic rite.
The book was translated into German by Simon L.
Ginzburg (ed. princeps, Mantua, 1590, and often re-
printed). The author has attached to it his treatise
on morals entitled “Orhot Hayyim,” in 132 sections.
Isaac Tyrnau is quoted by Mordecai Jaffa at the end
of his “ Lebush” on Orah Hayyim. Gabriel Polak
and Israel B6éhmer published (KGnigsberg, 1857)
an anonymous story entitled “Ezba‘ Elohim,” the
- heroes of which are Isaac Tyrnau and his beau-
tiful daughter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., viii. 11,12: Azulai, Shem
ha-Gedolim, i.; Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. i., Nos. 214, 1194; David
Gans, Zemal Dawid, p. 65, Warsaw, 1890; Steinschneider,
Cat. Bodl. col. 909; First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 456.
GQ. M. Seu.
ISAACS, ABRAM SAMUEL: American rab-
bi, professor, and editor; born in New York city
Aug. 30, 1852. He was educated at New York Uni-
versity (B.A. 1871, M.A. 1873, Ph.D. 1878) and at the
University of Breslau. Isaacs held professorships
of Hebrew and of German language and literature
at New York University from 1886 to 1895, and has
been professor of German literature in New York
University Graduate Seminary since 1895. He was
preacher to the East 86th Street Synagogue, New
York, in 1886-87, and since 1896 has been rabbi of
Isaacs, Sir Henry
Isaiah
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
634
the B’nai Jeshurun congregation of Paterson, N. J.
From 1878 to 1908 Isaacs edited the “Jewish Mes-
senger,” published in New York city. He has con-
tributed articles on educational, literary, and Jewish
subjects to leading periodicals for overa quarter of a
century, and is the author of “ Moses Chaim Luz-
zatto” (1878) and “Stories from the Rabbis” (1894).
A
ISAACS, SIR HENRY AARON: Former
Lord Mayor of London; born in that city Aug. 15,
1830. For a quarter of a century he labored in the
best interests of the city of London. He agitated
for improving the dwellings of the poor, and was
mainly instrumental in bringing about much-needed
reforms in the finance committee of the corporation.
In 1869 he was appointed to the chairmanship of the
City Lands Committee. Some years later, as head
of the Markets Committee, he gave valuable evi-
dence before the House of Commons; and the Tower
Bridge owed its existence, in a great measure, to his
persistence. Upon the oral system of teaching deaf-
mutes, nis brochure “Sounds Versus Signs” is a rec-
ognized authority. In 1887 Isaacs became sheriff
of London and Middlesex, and was knighted in the
same year. In 1889 he was elected Lord Mayor of
London. He published ‘‘ Memoirs of My Mayor-
alty.”’ He died August 2, 1909.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jewish Chronicle, Sept., 1889.
J. G. L.
ISAACS, ISAAC A.: Australian statesman and
jurist; born at Melbourne, Victoria, Aug. 6, 1855;
educated at Melbourne University, and admitted to
the Victorian bar in 1880. From 1892 to 1901 he
was a member of the Legislative Assembly, after
which period he became a member of the Federal
House of Representatives. He became solicitor-
general in 1893 and attorney-general in 1894, and was
reappointed to the latter office in 1900. He retired
in 1901, on ceasing to represent his state in Parlia-
ment. He was amember of the Australian Federal
Convention which framed the Commonwealth Con-
stitution in 1897, and became a Q.C. in 1899. He
died Oct. 12, 1908.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who’s W ho, 1908.
ae V. E.
ISAACS, JACOB: American inventor of the
colonial and revolutionary period; died 1798. He
was residentin Newport in 1755 (“ Publications Am.
Jew. Hist. Soc.” v. 199), and on Feb. 17, 1758, he car-
ried a law-case before the king in council, securing
a favorable judgment. His family is mentioned as
including five souls in 1760 (¢d. x. 8); in 1762 he is
mentioned by Ezra Stiles as being the owner ofa
brig (¢b. viii. 124). In 1790 he presented to Wash-
ington, on the occasion of the president’s visit to
Newport, a bottle of water “extracted from ocean
water, so free from saline matter as to answer for all
the common and culinary purposes of fountain or
river water”; and “the president was pleased to ex-
press himself highly satisfied therewith” (Max J.
Kohler, in 7. vi. 78). A detailed account of his at-
tempts to extract fresh from salt water is furnished
by H. Friedenwald (¢d. ii. 111 e¢ seqg.); it shows that
Isaacs presented a petition to the House of Represent-
atives in 1791, offering to convey the rights in his
discovery to the United States for proper remunera-
tion. The matter was referred to Thomas Jefferson,
who communicated on the subject with well-known
men of science. Jefferson’s memorandum was favor-
able to Isaacs, but Congress took no action in the
matter. A.
ISAACS, MYER SAMUEL: American law-
yer; son of 8, M. Isaacs; born in New York city
May 8, 1841; died there, May 24, 1904; educated at
the University of New York. He was admitted to
the bar of New York in 1862, and in 1880 became a
judge of the Marine Court of New York. Isaacs
was identified with municipal affairs as member of
the Committee on Reform Legislation for New York
in 1884, and of the Republican Club committee
which, in 1894, proposed amendments to the state
constitution. Asa member of the Outdoor Recrea-
tion League he assisted in establishing Seward Park,
on the East Side of New York city, and the Roof-
Playground of the Hebrew Institute. He took an
active part in the movement for improved dwellings
for the poor, and assisted in the organization of the
Citizens’ Union in 1897. During the years 1886 to
1890 he was a director and vice-president of the
Real Estate Exchange.
Isaacs was equally prominent in Jewish affairs.
One of the founders of the Board of Delegates of
the American Israelites (1859), of the Hebrew Free
School Association (1864), and of the Educational
Alliance (1889), he took the initiative in organizing
the United Hebrew Charities (1873). He was one
of the founders of the Montefiore Home; a mem-
ber of the executive committee of the Alliance
Israélite Universelle (1881); president of the Baron
de Hirsch Fund (1890). In December, 1881, he
called a meeting to consider the action to be taken
for the relief of the Russian exiles. Isaacs took an
active part in the establishment of the agricultura)
school at Woodbine, N. J.
Isaacs was connected with the “Jewish Messen-
ger” from 1859 to 1884.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Markens, The Hebrews in America, p. 219;
Nat. Cyc. Biog. vi. 87; Lamb, Biog. Dict. of the United
States. ‘
ISAACS, NATHANIEL: African traveler;
born in England 1808; died after 1840. He left
England in 1822 for St. Helena, where his uncle was
consul for France and Holland. In 1825 he accom-
panied Lieut. King, R.N., to the Cape of Good Hope
and thence to the east coast of Africa on an expedi-
tion to Natal. For seven years he traveled through
the Zulu and Fumos countries, besides paying a short
visit to the Comoro Islands. The expedition was
undertaken for the relief, if necessary, of Farwell and
his party and also for commercial and industrial
purposes. King and Isaacs found Farwell; had in-
terviews with Chaka, the Zulu king; took the coast
natives under their protection; and established fer-
tile farms, which the Zulus afterward laid waste.
King died of disease in Natal, and Isaacs was
wounded in fighting for King Chaka with his Euro-
pean weapons, which terrified the hostile blacks. In
return for his services he was created Chief of Natal
and was granted a tract of country from the River
Umslutee to the River Umlass, embracing twenty-
635
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Isaacs, Sir Henry
Isaiah
five miles of seacoast and one hundred miles of in-
land territory, with the exclusive right of trading
with the people settled there.
Isaacs afterward traded on the West Coast, and in
1885 petitioned the government against French in-
terference with his commerce at Portendie. He
complained of the conduct of two French brigs-of-
war toward the English brig “Eliza,” trading from
Sierra Leone and belonging to G. C. Redman of
London, for whom Isaacs was acting as agent and
together with whom he was part owner of two mer-
chant vessels.
Isaacs published in 1836 his “Travels and Adven-
tures in Eastern Africa,” descriptive of the Zulus,
with a sketch of Natal. In this work is given for
the first time a topographical view of the interior
of the colonies through which he passed, and an
account of the manners and customs of the natives.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. July 26, 1895; Isaacs, Travels in
>
Eastern Africa, 1836
J. G. L.
ISAACS, REBECCA: English actress and
singer; born in London June 26, 1828; died there
April 21, 1877. Her father, John Isaacs, an actor
and singer of Covent Garden Theater, trained her
for the stage, on which she first appeared March 17,
1835. She took the chief réles in the English opera
season at Drury Lane Theater in 1846, and often ap-
peared in concerts and operas with Sims Reeves.
She produced a series of operas at the Strand Theater
in 1852-55, and created the réle of Letla in the opera
“Satanella,” at Covent Garden Theater, in 1858.
Her voice was a soprano of great compass and
sweetness.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Players, iii. 279-280, 289, London, 1860;
Ke, Era (London), April 29, 1877; Bose, Modern English
J.
ISAACS, SAMUEL HILLEL: American cal-
endarer; born 1825 at Raczek, Poland; educated
under Judah Bacharach, Moses Leib of Kutna, and
others; emigrated to New York on June 380, 1847.
During 1886 and 1887 he was principal of the Tal-
mud Torahin New York. Isaacs has contributed arti-
cles to the American Jewish press, and also a number
of articles of a Talmudical nature to the “ Torah me-
Ziyyon,” a monthly periodical published at Jerusa-
lem, two of which articles, “Hadshe ha-Shanah ” and
“ Petah ‘Inim,” have been reprinted in pamphlet form
(1901-02),
Isaacs is the compiler of an “ Artificial Perpetual
Calendar” and of a “Civil and Ecclesiastical Per-
petual Calendar ” (New York, 1891).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For a description of Isaacs’ perpetual calendars
see Seminary, March, 1894, pp. 77, 91; The Sun (New York),
Sept. 14, 1893; The Scientific American, May 7, 1892.
A. I. G. D.
ISAACS, SAMUEL MYER: Rabbi and jour-
nalist; born at Leeuwarden, Holland, Jan. 4, 1804;
diced in New York city May 19, 1878. His father,
on the approach of the French army of occupation,
removed with his family to London. For a time
Isaacs was principal of the old Neweh Zedek, now
the Jews’ Hospital and Orphan Asylum, West Nor-
wood, London, but he left England to accept the
ministry of the Congregation B’nai Jeshurun, then in
Elm street, New York city (1889). Regularsermons
in English in the synagogue, such as he delivered,
were a novelty, Isaac Leeser of Philadelphia being
the only other rabbi in the country preaching in
English. In 1847 he was chosen minister of the
Congregation Shaaray Tefilla, whose members had
withdrawn from the Elm Street Synagogue; with
that congregation he remained until his death.
Isaacs contributed to the “ Asmonean” and the
“ Occident”; in 1857 he founded the “Jewish Mes-
senger ” as an organ of conservative Judaism, which
he edited until the close of his life. To him was
largely due the institution of the Board of Del-
egates of American Israelites, the Hebrew Free
School Association, and the United Hebrew Chari-
ties, while he was one of the founders and first vice:
president of the Jews’ (now Mt. Sinai) Hospital.
Isaacs took a leading part in the establishment of
Maimonides College, Philadelphia, and, while iden-
tified with the cause of Conservatism, he was cou-
rageous cnough to issue, in 1875, a call for ritual re-
form on the lines suggested by Sabato Morais; his
views, however, met with no support.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Morais, Eminent Israetites of the Nineteenth
Century; Jewish Messenge Supplement, Jan. 6, 1882; Mag-
azine of American History, March, 1891; The Memorial
History of New York, iv.
A.
ISABELLA TI. See FERDINAND AND ISABELLA.
ISAIAH.—Biblical Data: The greatest of the
Hebrew prophets of whom literary monuments re-
main. He resided at Jerusalem, and so contrasts with
Micah, the prophet of the country districts. He was
married (Isa. viii. 8), and had children (vii. 3, viii. 3).
His bearing indicates that he could maintain his dig-
nity in the highest society, as is shown by his free-
dom toward Ahaz (vii.) and his acquaintance with
Uriah, the chief priest (viii. 2). The heading in Isa.
i. lt refers to Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah
as the kings under whom he prophesied. This and
similar headings, however, have no historical au-
thority, being the work of later writers whose state-
ments had no documentary basis and were purely
inferential. It is true, moreover, that no prophecy
can be shown to be as early as Uzziah’s time, except
indeed the kernel of ch. vi, “Inthe year that King
Uzziah died I saw the Lord,” etc. (vi. 1, R. V.),
seems to come from a cycle of prophetic narratives,
some of which (comp. viii. 1-3, 5; ii. 16), rightly or
wrongly, claimed the authorship of Isaiah. Cer-
tainly the whole man is reflected in the grand vision
of ch. vi. No personal consideration holds him back
(contrast Jeremiah) from offering himself as the
Lord’s spokesman, and though assured that no ex-
hortation will affect the callous consciences of his
hearers, he still goes in and out among his people as
if hope existed; and perhaps (human nature is in-
consistent) hope still persisted even when reason
altogether denied its right.
The story of him who “by vileness made the great
refusal” (to apply Dante’s well-known words), who
might have led his people to social and personal ref-
ormation, by the wise counsel of the prophet, is re-
corded in ch. vii. Isaiah was no statesman, and yet
the advice which he gave the king was as good from
a political as from a religious point of view. For
why should Ahaz pay Assyria for doing work which
Isaiah
an enlightened regard for its own interest. would
certainly impel it to perform? Why should he take
the silver and gold in the Temple and in the palace,
and send it as tribute to the Assyrian king?
It is to be noted that inch. viii. Isaiah’s wife is called
“the prophetess.” By her solidarity with her hus-
band she is detached from the unholy people among
whom she dwells, and made, as it were, sacrosanct.
His children, too, are “signs and omens” of divine
appointment; and one may conjecture that if Isaiah
ever pictured the worst disaster coming to Jeru-
salem, he saw himself and his family, like Lot of
old, departing in safety (for some work reserved for
them by God) from the doomed city. Ch. xx. de-
scribes the strange procedure by which Isaiah, as it
were, “gave an acted prediction ” of the fate in store
for Mizraim and Cush (Egypt and Ethiopia), or, as
others think, for Mizrim and Cush (North Arabia),
on which the peoples of Palestine had counted so
much as allies. From ch. xxxvi.-xxxix., perhaps,
much assistance can not be expected in the biography
of Isatah, for in their present form they are certainly
rather Jate. No more can be said of Isaiah from
direct documentary information. His words are his
true biography. In them is seen the stern, unbend-
ing nature of the man, who loved his people much,
but his God more.
Isaiah has all the characteristics of a classic writer
—terseness, picturesqueness, and originality. But
was he also a poet? It is hard to think so. Could
such a man condescend to the arts necessary to the
very existence of poetry? Isa. xxxvii. 22-29 is as-
signed to him. But the narration in which it is
placed is thought by many critics to be late, and the
phraseology of the poem itself seems to point away
from Isaiah. On the late tradition of the martyr-
dom of Isaiah in the reign of Manasseh see ISAIAH,
ASCENSION OF,
E.G. HW. T. K. C.
——-In Rabbinical Literature: According to the
Rabbis Isaiah was a descendant of Judahand Tamar
(Sotah 10b). His father was a prophet and the
brother of King Amaziah (Meg. 15a). While Isaiah,
says the Midrash, was walking up and down in his
study he heard God saying, “ Whorn shall I send?”
Then Isaiah said, “Here am I; send me!” There-
upon God said to him, “My children are trouble-
some and sensitive; if thou art ready to be insulted
and even beaten by them, thou mayest accept My
message; if not, thou wouldst better renounce it”
(Lev. R. x.). Isaiah accepted the mission, and was
the most forbearing, as well as the most ardent
patriot, among the Prophets, always defending Is-
rael and imploring forgiveness for its sins. He was
therefore distinguished from all other prophets in
that he received his communications directly from
God and not through an intermediary (.). When
Isaiah said, “I dwell in the midst of a people of un-
clean lips” (vi. 5) he was rebuked by God for speak-
ing in such terms of His people (Cant. R. i. 6).
In the order of greatness Isaiah is placed immedi-
ately after Moses by the Rabbis; in some respects
Isaiah surpasses even Moses, for he reduced the
commandments to six: honesty in dealing; sincerity
in speech; refusal of illicit gain; absence of corrup-
tion; aversion for bloody deeds; contempt for evil
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
636
(Mak. 24a). Later he reduced the six to two—jus-
tice and charity (70.). The chief merit of Isaiah’s
prophecies is their consoling character, for while
Moses said, “Thou shalt perish in the midst of the
nation,” Isaiah announced deliverance. Ezekiel’s
consoling addresses compared with Isaiah’s are as the
utterances of a villager to the speech of a courtier
(Hag. 14a). Therefore consolation is awaiting him
who sees Isaiah in a dream (Ber. 57b).
It isrelated in the Talmud that Rabbi Simeon ben
‘Azzai found in Jerusalem an account wherein it
was written that Manasseh killed Isaiah. Manasseh
said to Isaiah, “Moses, thy master, said, ‘There
shall no man see God and live’ [Ex. xxxiil. 20,
Hebr.}]; but thou hast said, ‘I saw the Lord seated
upon his throne’ ” (Isa. vi. 1, Hebr.); and went on
to point out other contradictions—as between Deut.
iv. 7and Isa. lv. 6; between Ex. xxxiii. 26 and IT
Kings xx. 6. Isaiah thought: “J know that he will
not accept my explanations; why should I increase
his guilt?” He then uttered the Unpronounceable
Name, a cedar-tree opened, and Isaiah disappeared
within it. Then Manasseh ordered the cedar to be
sawn asunder, and when the saw reached his mouth
Isaiah died; thus was he punished for having said,
“JT dwell in the midst of a people of unclean lips”
(Yeb. 49b). A somewhat different version cf this
legend is given in the Yerushalmi (Sanhedrin x.),
According to that version Isaiah, fearing Manasseh,
hid himself in a cedar-tree, but his presence was be-
trayed by the fringes of his garment, and Mauassch
caused the tree tobesawnin half. A passage of the
Targum to Isaiah quoted by Jolowicz (“ Die Him-
melfahrt und Vision des Prophets Jesajas,” p. 8)
states that when Isaiah fled from his pursuers and
took refuge in the tree, and the tree wassawn in half,
the prophet’s blood spurted forth. From Talmudical
circles the legend of Isaiah’s martyrdom was trans-
mitted to the Arabs (“ Ta’rikh,” ed. De Gocje, i. 644),
8. I. Br.
ISAIAH, BOOK OF: The chief note of the
Book of Isaiah is variety—variety of tone, of style,
of thought, and of historical background. The
first step in the study of Isaiah is to realize this
variety by taking a survey of the contents. The
heading (i. 1) prepares the reader to expect a col-
lection of closely related prophecies (hence called
a “vision,” in the singular) concerning Judah and
its capital. It is plain, therefore, that ch. xiii.-
xxiii. were only inserted as an afterthought; for,
with the exception of ch. xxil., they all relate to
foreign nations; ch. xiv. 24-27, xvil. 12-14, xxii.
1-14, and 15-25 (which relate to Judah or Jerusa-
lem) may be regarded as fragments which would
have perished if an editor had not thought of insert-
ing them inthis group. Ch. xxiv.-xXxvii, also, can
only have been admitted through an extension of
the original plan, for they speak primarily of a
judgment upon the earth at large, and when they
do digress to Israel] it is in obscure language, which
the men of “Judah and Jerusalem” could not gen-
erally have understood. Similarly, ch. xxxiv.-
xxxv. can have formed no part of the original
vision, for the larger part (xxxiv.) is concerned, not
with Judah, but with Edom. Ch. xxxvi.-xxxix.
speak of Isaiah in the third person, and largely co-
ILLUMINATED PAGE OF IsAlAH FROM A MANUSCRIPT BIBLE, SAID TO BE OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY.
(Lately in the possession of Henriques de Castro, Amsterdam.)
Isaiah
incide with II Kings xviii. 18-xx. 19. Ch. xL.-Ixvi.
have for their background, at any rate to a consid-
erable extent, Jerusalem In ruins and her people in
captivity. In following, therefore, that instinct of
order, which is, of course, not the same thing as
criticism, but is at least one element in it, the first
impressions of Isaiah must be obtained from ch. i.-
xii. and xXviii.-xxxlii.
Ch. i.: One of the finest specimens of prophetic
rhetoric known. It is in its present form a gen-
eral prophecy, full of edification for all periods of
Israel’s history, though the prominence given in
verses 29, 30 to the heathen worship practised in the
recesses of gardens would not have seemed perfectly
natural in the later period of strict religious purity.
There are four leading ideas: Israel’s ingratitude to
its God; the false repentance of oblations; the true
repentance vfa changed life; purification from with-
out, failing purification from within.
Ch. ii.-iv.: A series of denunciations of the na-
tional corruption enclosed between two pictures of
the ideal age. Here Isaiah goes into greater detail,
both as to the nature of Judah’s sin and as to the
inevitable punishment. Like a thunder-storm the
wrath of God will overthrow the proud, and sweep
away the heathenish luxury of the grandees of the
land; all classes will be disturbed from their pleas-
ant security; the ablest citizens will go into captiv-
ity, for theirs is the greatest guilt; nor shall the
women of Jerusalem escape (comp. Amos iv. 1-8).
Ch, v.: A briefer utterance with similar scope.
It begins with a bright parable on the vineyard of
God, the moral of which is the danger of Judah’s
ingratitude; then follows a series of “wos” on the
chief national sins, and a weird, mysterious an-
nouncement of terrible invaders.
Ch. vi.: This chapter might well have stood at
the head of the whole book. It describes the call
of the prophet. A vision, such as all
The Call prophets may expect to have (though
of the abundance of visions is no proof of
Prophet. the goodness of a “man of God”),
came to Isaiah, and in this vision—the
sum of which was the glorified and idealized Tem-
ple—God and Isaiah interchanged these words:
“Whom shall I send?” “Send me.” No passage
is so important as is this one for the true biography
of Isaiah.
Ch. vii.-ix. 7: Partly historical, partly prophet-
ical. It is unfortunate that this precedent is not fol-
lowed more frequently. Itisnow known that Isaiah
sought to influence Ahaz, but was repelled by the
king. Judah was in sore peril from the invaders
Pekah and Rezin (not the invaders to whom he
pointed so mysteriously in v. 26 e¢ seg.), and there
was a conflict between the two principles—reliance
on outside human help and implicit trust in Israel’s
God. Ahazstood for the first, Isaiah for the second.
One result there was which Ahaz could never have
anticipated: the sign of Immanuel has supplied
material for controversy to the present hour. It
might be thought that it was a promise of safety.
But Isaiah could not “speak peace when there was
no peace.” It is desolation, and not deliverance,
which the unbelief of Ahaz will ultimately bring
on his unhappy country (vii. 17-25). In ch. viii.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
638
1-4 Isaiah reaffirms his declaration (vii. 7-9) of a
judgment swiftly coming to Damascus and Samaria.
But will Judah escape? No, but the kernel of the
nation will escape. Judgment will bring about
purification. A detiverer already exists in the coun-
sels of God, and he will restore the kingdom of
David in an idealized form (ix. 1-7).
Ch. ix. 8-x. 4: A highly poetical picture of the
approaching ruin of the Northern Kingdom, though
there are also glances at Judah. The rivalry of fac-
tions in the state and the fall of the incompetent
rulers on the field of battle are graphically described.
Ch. x. 5-xij. 6: There is more religious thought,
however, in the discourses contained in these chap-
ters. The variety of imagery, too, is highly remark-
able. Assyria (that is, its king; comp. the use of
“France” and “England” in Shakespeare) is the
staff or the ax in God’shand. Its
Reliance on army is like a forest. Assyria’s lust
Assyria. of conquest is like the sport of bird-
nesting. See the astonishingly rapid
march of the armed hosts! Some with their leader
“shake their hands” at the sacred mountain. The
Davidic kingdom will, as it seems, be cut down.
But so, too, Assyria will be cut down; and while a
“shoot” (R. V.) will “come forth out of the stock
of Jesse,” no such prospect is held out for Assyria.
Not to Babylon, but to Jerusalem, will the nations
repair. Not in Assyria, but in the land of Israel,
will the peace of paradise be exemplified. Thither
will all Israel’s exiles be brought back, singing
psalms of devout and grateful joy.
Ch, xxviii.-xxxili.: These chapters also are full
of variety. From the first the prophet alternates
between judgment and salvation. The proud crown
of the drunkards (princely drunkards!) of Ephraim
is trodden down; for the residue there is a crown of
glory (Samaria fell 722 n.c.). But there are drunk-
ards (priestly drunkards!) in Judah too, trusting in
a “refuge of lies” instead of in the “sure foundation”
stone (xxviii. 15-17). At another time the teacher
seems to have adopted a different tone. A few, per-
haps, became dejected by Isaiah's frequent reference
to destruction. Would this plowing and thrashing
go on forever? No; an earthly husbandman is too
wise for that; and the heavenly husbandman knows
best of all that destruction is justified only by the
object of sowing some useful plant when the soil
has been prepared (xxviii. 23-29).
It is true, as ch. xxix. shows, the great majority
were quite otherwise impressed by [saiah’s preach-
ing. A deep lethargy clouded the senses of the
rulers (verses 10-12), But the crash of thunder will
awaken them. Within a year Jerusalem will be
besieged, and in the midst of the siege God Himself
will fall upon Jerusalem and punish her (1-4, 6).
But fear not; the foe will suffer most; God will not
permit the nations to destroy Mount Zion (5, 7, 8).
Wo to the formalists and to the unbelieving politi-
cians of Judah! (13-15). But all the best blessings
are to the poor and the meek.
The cause of Isaiah’s wrath against the politi-
cians was an alliance with Egypt which was being
planned in secret. This is shown by ch. xxx.
Isaiah predicts the disappointment which awaits
the ambassadors, and the terrible results which will
639
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Isaiah
follow from this short-sighted statecraft. But here
again the usual contrast is introduced. Storm and
sunshine compete with each other.
Alliance The Golden Age will yet come; Nature
with will participate in the happiness of
Egypt. regenerate Judah. Assyria will be
crushed, and meantime the Jews
will sing, as in the night of the feast-day (the vigil
of the Passover; comp. Ex. xii. 42). In ch. xxxi.-
xxxil. 8 the prophet still hovers about the same
theme, while in xxNii. 9-20 the careless security of
the women is chastised (comp. iii. 16 e¢ seq.), the des-
olation soon to be wrought by the invader is de-
scribed, and, as a chcering contrast, the future trans-
formation of the national character and of the
physical conditions of life are once more confidently
announced. Ch, xxxili. is one of the most singular
of the extant specimens of prophetic writing. There
is no apparent arrangement, and some of the verses
seem to be quite isolated. It is a kind of vision
which is described. The land is being laid waste.
O Lord, help! But see! the hostile hordes suddenly
disappear; Zion’s God is her security. Alas! not
yet. The highwaysstill lie waste. The whole coun-
try from Lebanon to Sharon mourns. Yes, it is
God’s time to arise. He has, in fact, arisen, and the
“godless” (the converted Jews) tremble, while the
righteous are assured of salvation. How happy
will the retrospect of their past troubles make them!
(verse 18). Then, too, it will be plain that Zion’s
load of guilt has been removed.
The idea which pervades the first of the five lesser
books (ch. xiii.-xxiii., xxiv.-xxvii., xxxiv.-xxxv.,
XXXVi,-xxxix., and xl.-lxvi.) which still await con-
sideration may be expressed in Isaiah’s own words
(they are taken here provisionally to be Isaiah’s):
“This is the purpose that is purposed upon the whole
earth: and this is the hand that is stretched out upon
all the nations” (xiv. 26). It is, in fact, a Book of
Judgments on the nations, except that
Book four passages have found admission
of Judg- into it which relate, not to the world
ments. outside, but to the little people which,
as Isaiah may have thought, out-
weighed in the eyes of God all the other nations
put together. These four passages are as follows:
Ch. xiv. 24-27 isa short prophecy declaring the pur-
pose of Israel’s God to tread Assyria under foot upon
the “mountains” of Judah, to which is appended a
solemn declaration, part of which is quoted above
(verses 26, 27). In ch. xvii. 12-14 there is a graphic
prophecy of the destruction of the “many nations”
which attack Jerusalem (comp. viii. 9, 10; xxix. 7,
8); nospecial nationis singled out. In ch. xxii, 1-14
there is an indignant rebuke of the people of Jerusa-
lem, who are in no degree sobered by the danger, just
now removed, from the Assyrians; instead of exam-
ining into their ways, ceasing to do evil, and learn-
ing to do well, they indulge in wild revelry. In ch.
xxii. 15-25 an invective against the vizier of the day
(Shebna) is followed by a promise of his office to a
worthier man (Eliakim), to which an appendix is
attached announcing this second vizier’s fall.
Of the judgments upon definite nations, other
than the Jewish, the first (ch. xiii.) declares the doom
of Babylon, and to it is appended a fine, artistic ode
of triumph on the King of Babylon (xiv. 4b-21).
Observe that the prophet distinctly speaks as if the
Medes were already mustering for the march on
Babylon. Is it to besupposed that Isaiah was at the
time in an ecstasy? Ch. xiv. 22-23 is a prophecy,
summing up Babylon’s doom in more prosaic style.
Ch. xiv. 28-82 contains the doom of the Philis-
tines, Who are in premature exultation at the “ break-
ing” of some terrible “rod.” Ch. xv.-xvi. 12 are
highly dramatic; they begin with a picture of the
consternation of the Moabites at the havoc wrought
by an invader, describe the flight of the people in
much detail, mention how an appeal to Mount Zion
for help was rejected, make sympathetic references
to the lamentations of the Moabites over their ruined
vines, and then, without any apparent connection,
assert that no appeal to Chemosh for aid will be
effectual. To this is added (verses 13, 14) a solemn
declaration that the prophecy which had been deliv-
ered at some previous period shall be fulfilled within
three years.
Ch. xvii. 1-11 is directed against Damascus (that
is, Syria) and Ephraim (that is, Israel). These two
powers have set themse!ves against the true God,
and must suffer the same doom. However, the few
who are left in Israel will turn to the holy God, and
give up lower forms of worship.
Ch. xviii. was apparently intended to be an ad-
dressto Ethiopia. But already (verse 3) the prophet
turns to the world at large, and bids men take heed
of the signs of the divine approach. When the
power hostile to God is ripe for destruction, it will
be cut off. Then will the Ethiopians send presents
to Jerusalem. The doom, therefore, is really con-
fined to verses 4-6.
Ch. xix. describes the utter collapse of Egypt,
owing to its conquest by a “cruel lord” (verse 4).
The main interest, however, lies in verses 18-24,
which apparently contain circumstantial predictions
of the establishment of Jewish colonies in tive cities
of Egypt, including the “city of the sun”; of the
erection of a sanctuary in Egypt to Israel’s God; of
the deliverance of the Jews (?) in Egypt in their sore
distress; of the conversion of the Egyptians; and of
the providential discipline of Egypt, which hence-
forth will be a member of a sacred triad of closely
connected nations—Egypt, Assyria, and Israel.
The prophecy in ch. xx. gives a second judgment
upon Egypt, and a perfectly new judgment on
Ethiopia. It stands in marked contrast both to ch.
xviii, and toch. xix. Its possession of a historical
introduction would have led to its being grouped
with ch. vii-ix. 7 and ch. xXxxvi.-xxxix.; but
doubtless it was too short to stand alone.
Ch. xxi. contains three “burdens” (or oracles)—
that of the “ wilderness of the sea” (R. V.), relative
to the destruction of Babylon by Elam and Media
(contingents in the assailing army ?), that of Dumah
(that is, Edom), and that of the “Dedanites” (R.
V.), entitled by the early editors of the Hebrew
text “in Arabia,” words apparently derived from
the opening words “in the forest in Arabia.” The
oracles in ch. xxi. contain great textual difficulties.
The only remaining prophecy in this section is
that on Tyre. It has a strongly elegiac character,
and its reference is much disputed. Here, again,
Isaiah
textual problems have to be settled before any at-
tempts at exegesis. But it is clear that the stand-
point of verses {5-18 is not that of verses 1-14. It
is an epilogue, and expresses a much more hopeful
spirit than the original prophecy. Tyre will one
day be of importance to the people of Jerusalem ;
its prosperity is therefore to be desired. Here, then,
the note of variety or contrast is as strongly marked
asin any part of Isaiah.
Still more remarkable is the variety in the contents
of the second of the lesser books (ch. xxiv.—xx vil.).
It is observed by R. G. Moulton that, dramatic as this
fine passage is, one looks in vain for temporal suc-
cession, and finds instead “the pendulum movement
dear to Hebrew imagination, alternating between
judgment and salvation.” However, the parts of
this “rhapsody ” can not safely be distributed among
the dramatis personie, for it is no literary whole,
but a “rhapsody ” in a sense not intended by Moul-
ton, a collection of fragments, large or small,
stitched, as it were, together. It might also be
caHec a “mosaic,” and, since very little, if any, at-
tempt has been made to fuse the different elements,
one night, with much advantage, read this compos-
ite work in the following order:
(1) xxiv. 1-23: The Last Judgment.
(2) xxv. 6-8: The Feast of Initiation into communion with God,
spread not only for Israel, but for all peoples.
(3) xxvi. 20, 21: Summons to the Jews to shut themselves up,
while God carries out the awful doom of the wicked
(comp. EX. xii. 22b, 23).
(4) xxvii. 1, 12: Mystic prophecy of the Leviathan’s doom, and
the restoration of the entire body of dispersed Jews.
(5) xxvii. 7-11: Conditions of salvation for the Jews.
(6) xxvi. 1-19: Song of praise for the deliverance of the Right-
eous, Which passes into a meditative retrospect of recent
events, and closes with a prophecy of the resurrection of
those who have been faithful unto death.
(7) xxv. 1-5: Song of praise for the destruction of an insolent
city.
(8) XXv. O12: Praise for deliverance, and anticipations of the
downfall of Moab.
(9) xxvii. 2-5: Song concerning God's vineyard, Israel.
Ch. xxxiv.-xxxv. show the same oscillation be-
tween judgment and salvation which has been pre-
viously noted. The judgment upon al} nations (es-
pecially Edom) is depicted in lurid tints; upon
this, with no link of transition, follows a picture of
salvation and of the restoration of the Jewish exiles.
Ch. XXXVi.~XXXIX. are a mixture of narrative,
prophecy, and poetry. The great deliverance from
Assyria under Hezekiah, in which Isaiah plays an
important part, is related. An ode on the fall of
the King of Assyria (recalling xiv. 4b-21) shows
Isaiah (if if be Isaiah) to be a highly gifted poet
(xxxvii. 21b-29); and a kind of psalm (see xxxviii
20), ascribed to Hezekiah, tells how the speaker had
recovered from a severe illness, and recognized in
his recovery a proof of the complete forgiveness of
his sins. <A historical preface elucidates this. Both
the ode in ch. xxxvii. and the psalm in ch. xxxviii.
are accompanied with circumstantial prophecies, not
ina poetic style, addressed to Hezekiah. Ch. xxxix.
contains a prediction of a Babylonian captivity, also
addressed to Hezekiah, and a historical preface.
There still remain ch. xl.-lxvi., which follow
abruptly on ch. xxxvi.-xxxix., though a keen eye
may detect a preparation for “Comfort ye, comfort
ye,” in the announcement of the spoiling of Jeru-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
640
salem and the carrving away of Hezekiah’s sons to
Babylon in ch. xxxix. Ch. xl-Ixvi. are often called
“The Prophecy of Restoration,” and
The yet it requires no great cleverness to
Question of see that these twenty-seven chapters
Ch. are full of variety in tone and style
xl.-lxvi. and historical background. A sug-
gestion of this variety may be pre-
sented by giving a table of the contents. Alike
from a historical and froma religious point of view,
these chapters will reward the most careful study,
all the more so because controversy is rendered
less acute respecting these prophecies than respect-
ing the prophecies in ch. i.-xxxix. The word
“ prophecies,” however, has associations which may
mislead; they are better described as “unspoken
prophetic and poetical orations.” ,
(1) Good news for the Exiles (x1, 1-11).
(2) Reasoning with the mental diMculties of Israel (x1. 12-81),
(3) The Lord, the only true God, proved to be so by the proph-
ecy concerning Cyrus (xli. 20).
(4) Dispute between the true God and the false deities (xli.
21-29).
(5) Contrast between the ideal and the actual Israel, with
lofty promises (xlii. 1-xliii. 7).
(6) How Israel, biind as it is, must bear witness for the true
God, who is the God of prophecy: the argument from prophecy
is repeatedly referred to (xii. 8-18).
(7) The fall of Babylon and the second Exodus (xliii. 14-21).
(8) The Lord pleads with careless Israel (xliii. 22-xliv. 5).
(9) Once more, the argument for the true God from prophecy,
together with a sarcastic description of the fabrication of idols
(xliv. 6-23).
(10) ‘The true object of the victories of Cyrus—Israel's deliv-
erance (xliv. 24-xlv. 25),
(11) The deities of Babylon contrasted with the God of Israel
(xlvi. 1-18).
(12) A song of derision concerning Babylon (xIvii, 1-15).
(13) The old prophecies (those on Cyrus’ victories) were great;
the new ones (those on Israel’s resturation) are greater (xlviii.).
(14) Israel and Zion, now that they are (virtually) restored, are
the central figures in the divine work (xlix. 1-13).
(15) Consolations for Zion and her children (xlix. 14-1. 3).
(16) The true servant of the Lord, at once confessor and mar-
tyr, soliloquizes (1. 4-11).
(17) Exbortation and comfort, with a fervid ejaculatory
prayer (li. 1-16).
(18) Words of cheer to prostrate Zion (lf. 17%-1ii. 12).
(19) The martyrdom of the true servant of the Lord, and his
subsequent exaltation (li. 1J-liii. 12).
(20) Further consolations for Zion, who is onee more the
Lord’s bride, under a new and everlasting covenant (liv.).
(21) An invitation to the Jews of the Dispersion to appropri-
ate the blessings of the new covenant, followed by more prophe-
cies of deliverance (lvy.).
(22) Promises to proselytes and to believing eunuchs (vi. 1-8).
(23) An invective against the bad rulers of Jerusalem and
against the evil courses of heretical or mishelieving persons,
with promises to humble-minded penitents (Ivi. 9-Ivii. 21).
(24) Practical discourse on fasting and Sabbath-observance
(lviii.).
(25) Partly denunciation of immorality, partly confession of
sins (lix. 1-l5a).
(26) A vision of deliverance, with a promise of the perma-
nence of regenerate Israel’s mission (lix. 15b-21).
(27) A poetic description of glorified Zion (Lx.).
(28) The true servant of the Lord, or, perhaps, the prophetic
writer, soliloquizes concerning the gracious message entrusted
to him, and the Lord confirms his word (xi. 1-12).
(29) Vision of the divine warrior returning from Edom (xiil.
1-6).
(30) Exhausted and almost despairing, Israel complains to the
Lord (lxiii. 7-lxiv. 12).
(31) ‘Threatenings to the heretical and misbelieving faction,
and promises to the faithful (Ixv.).
(32) Polemic against those who would erect a rival temple to
that of Jerusalem (lxvi. 1-4).
(33) The fates of Jerusalem and all her opponents contrastee
(Lxvi. 5-24).
641
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Isaiah
The reader who has not shrunk from the trouble
of the orderly perusal of Isaiah which is here recom-
mended will be in a position to judge to some extent
between the two parties into which, as it may strike
one who is not an expert, the theological world is
divided. The study of criticism, as it is commonly
called, apart from exegesis, is valueless; he is the
best critic of Isaiah who knows the exegetical prob-
lems best, and to come into touch with the best
critics the student must give his days and nights to
the study of the text of this book. An attempt will
now be made to give some idea of the main critical
problem. Many persons think that the question at
issue is whether ch. i.-xxxix. were (apart from
slight editorial insertions) written by Isaiah, and
ch. xl.-lxvi. by some other writer of
The a much laterage. This is a mistake.
Critical A scries of prophetic announcements
Problem. of decliverances from exile is inter-
spersed at intervals throughout the
first half of Isaiah, and the date of these announce-
ments has in each case to be investigated by the
same methods as those applied to the different parts
of Isa. xl.-Ixvi. The “parts” of Isa. xl.-Ixvi. are
referred to because here again there exists a widely
prevalent error. That the second part of Isaiah has
no literary unity will be obvious to any reader of
the preceding synopsis. To argue the question
whether the so-called Book of Isaiah has one or two
authors is to beat the air. If there was more than
one Isaiah, there must have been more than two, for
the same variety of idea, phraseology, and back-
ground which is by so many scholars taken to prove
that “Comfort ye, comfort ye my people, saith your
God” (xl. 1) was not written by Isaiah can be taken
to prove that “Cry aloud, spare not, lift up thy
voice like a trumpet, and declare unto my people
their transgressions” (lviii. 1, R. V.) was not writ-
ten by the author of “Comfort ye, comfort ye my
people.”
By “variety” is not, of course, meant total, abso-
lute difference. If stands to reason that a great
prophet like Isaiah would exert considerable influ-
ence on subsequent prophetic writers. There is no
justification, therefore, for arguing that because the
phrascs “the Holy One of Israel” and “the Mighty
One of Israel” occur in both halves of Isaiah (the
second phrase, however, is varied in Isa. xl. et seg.
by the substitution of “Jacob” for
The “Tsrael ”), the same prophet must have
‘‘Variety” written both portions. A correspond-
ofIsaiah. ence of isolated phrases which is not
even uniformly exact is of little value
as an argument, and may be counterbalanced by
many phrases peculiar to the disputed prophecies.
Still more unwise would it be to argue, from a cer-
tain general likeness between the idea of God in the
prophecies of the two parts of Isaiah, that the two
parts had the same prophetic author, especially now
that the extent of Isaiah’s contributions to the first
half of the book is being so keenly debated. Most
unwise of all would it be to attach any weight to a
tradition of Isaiah’s authorship of the whole book
which goes back only to Ecclesiasticus (Sirach)
Xlviii. 24, 25: “By a spirit of might he saw the end,
and comforted the mourners of Zion, forever he
ViI.—41
declared things that should be, and hidden things
before they came ” (Hebr.).
Two eminent Jewish rabbis, Abraham ibn Ezra
and Isaac Abravanel, were the first who showed a
tendency to disintegrate the Book of Isaiah, but
their subtle suggestion had noconsequences. Prac-
tically, the analytic criticism of Isaiah goes back to
Koppe, the author of the notes to the German edi-
tion of Bishop Lowth’s “Isaiah” (1779-81). The
chief names connected with this criticism in its first
phase are those of Hitzig, Ewald, and Dillmann;
anew phase, however, has for some time appeared,
the opening of which may perhaps be dated from
the article “ Isaiah” in “ Encyc. Brit.” (1881) and two
articles in “J. Q. R.” (July and Oct., 1891), all by
T. K. Cheyne; to which may be added the fruitful
hints of Stade in his “Gesch. des Volkes Israel”
(1889, vol. i.), and the condensed discussions of
Kuenen in the second edition of his “Investigations
into the Origin and Collection of the Books of the
Old Testament” (part ii., 2d ed., 1889). To these
add Duhm’s and Marti’s recent commentaries, and
the “Introduction” (1895) by T. K. Cheyne. Prof.
G. A. Smith’s two ve'umes on Isaiah reflect the
variations of opinion in a candid mind, influenced
at first, somewhat to excess, by the commentary of
Dillmann. Fora convenient summary of the pres-
ent state of criticism the reader may consult
Kautzsch’s “Outline of the History of the Litera-
ture of the Old Testament ” (1898), translated by John
Taylor, and “Isaiah,” in Cheyne-Black, “ Encyc.
Bibl.” (1901). The former work shows how much
light is thrown on the different parts of the Book of
Isaiah by reading them as monuments of definite
historical periods. Fora much less advanced posi-
tion Driver’s “Life and Times of Isaiah” (1st ed.,
1888) may be consulted; for an impartial sketch of
different theories consult the sixth edition of the
same writer’s “Introduction to the Literature of the
Old Testament.”
It must suffice here to give a few hints as to the
probable periods of the chicf prophecies. Three
great national crises called forth the most certainly
genuine prophecies of Isaiah—the Syro-Israelitish
invasion (734), the siege and fall of
Periods Samaria (722), and the campaign of
of the Sennacherib (701). Among the non-
Prophecy. Isaian prophecies, there are two ex-
ilic prophecies of the fall of Babylon
(xiii. 1-xiv. 23, and, as most suppose, xxi. 1-10);
a probably post-exilic prophecy, or elegy, on the
ruin of Moab (xv.-xvi.); prophecies on Egypt and
on Tyre, both post-exilic, and the former furnished
with a late appendix belonging to the Greek period.
The strange and difficult work here called a “ rhap-
sody” or a “mosaic” (ch. xxiv.-xxvii.) belongs at
earliest to the fall of the Persian and the rise of the
Greco-Macedonian empire, Ch. xxxiv.-xxxv. are
so weak that it is not worth while to dogmatize on
their date, which is certainly very late. The Proph-
ecy Of Restoration is, of course, a late exilic work;
it is disputed whether it closes properly at ch. xIviii.
or at ch. lv. The subsequent prophecies are addi-
tions, belonging presumably to the times of Nehe-
miah and Ezra. The latest editor of ch. xl.-Ixvi.
seems to have given a semblance of unity to the
Isaiah
Isaiah ben Abraham
various prophecies by dividing the entire mass into
three nearly equal books, the two former of which
close with nearly the same words (xl viii. 22, Ivii. 21).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: I. Commentaries, Translations, and Critical
Editions: G. D. Luzzatto, Il Profeta Isaia, Padua, 1855 Gew-
ish); R. Cowth, 7saiah, a new translation with preliminary
dissertation and notes, London, 1778; E. Henderson, Book of
the Prophet Isaiah, 2d ed. th, 1840; J. A. Alexander, Com-
mentary, Edinburgh, 4865; T. K. Cheyne, The Book of Isatah
Chronologically Arranged, London, 1870; idem, Prophecies
of Isaiah, a new translation, with commentary and appen-
Gixes, ib. 1880-82; G. A. Smith, fsaiah, in Hacpositor’s Bible,
ib. 1888-90; J. Skinner, Jsatah, in Cambridge Bible for
Schools and Colleges, Cambridge, 1896-98; H. G. Mitchell,
Isaiah, a Study of Chapters t-xvti. New York, 1897; 'T. K.
Cheyne, Isaiah, translation and notes, in S. B. O. T. New
York and London, 1898 (Hebrew ed. with notes, Leipsic, 1899);
Ed. Kénig, The E.ciles’ Book of Consolation, Edinburgh,
1899; Camp. Vitringa, Commentary, 2 vols., Leeuwarden, 1714-
1720; J.C. Dideriein, Hscaias (translation with notes), Nurem-
berg, 1789; E. Reuss, Les Prophetes, 1876; W. Gesenius,
Der Prophet Jesaja Uehersetzt: mit einem Vollstdndigen
Philologischen, Kritischen, und Historischen, Commentar,
Leipsie, 1820-21; F. Hitzig, Der Prophet Jesaja, Heidel-
berg, 1833; H. Ewald, Die Propheten des Alten Bundes,
Tiibingen, 1840-4] (2d ed. Gottingen, 1867-68; Eng. transl. by
J. F. Smith, 1875-81); A. Knobel, Der Prophet Jesaja, Leip-
sic, 1848 (8d ed. 1861); Franz Delitzsch, Biblischer Com-
mentar tiher das Buch Jesaja, Leipsic, 1866 (4th ed. entirely
recast, 1889; Eng. transl. 1892); C. J. Bredenkamp, Der Pro-
phet Jesaja Eviiitutert, Erlangen, 1887; Conrad von Orelli,
Die Propheten Jesaja und Jeremias, Nordlingen, 1887 (Eng.
transl. by Banks, 1889); Aug. Dillmann, Der Prophet Jesaja,
Leipsie, 1890; Duhm, Das Buch Jesaja, Géttingen, 1892;
Aug. Klostermann, Deuterojesaia, Munich, 1893 (a critical
edition of ch. x).-lxvi.); H. Guthe and V. Ryssel, Jesaja, in
Kautzsch, Die Heilige Schrift, vol. xv., Freiburg-im-Breisgau
pug Leipsic, 1894; K. Marti, Das Buch Jesaja, Titbingen,
00.
II. Wlustrative and Comprehensive Notes: S. R. Driver and
Ad, Neubauer, The 63a Chapter of lsaiah According to Jew-
ish Interpretations (with introduction by E. B, Pusey), Ox-
ford, 1876-77; G. Vance Smith, The Prophecies Relating to
Nineveh and the Assyrians, London, 1857; R. Payne Smith,
The Authenticity and Messianie Interpretation of the
Prophecies of Isaiah Vindicated, Oxford and London, 1862
(the lines of Jewish interpretations are Well sketched): Sir E.
Strachey, Jewish History and Politics in the Times of Sar-
gon and Sennacherib, 2d ed. London, 1874; T. K. Cheyne,
Introduction to the Book of Isaiah, ib. 1895; W. Robertson
Smith, The Prophets of Israel, Edinburgh, 1882 (2d ed. Lon-
don, 1896); A. H. Sayce, Life of Isaiah, London, 18838; C. H.
H. Wright, Pre-Christian Jewish Interpretations of Isaiuh
litt. in The Hxpositor (London), May, 1888; S. R. Driver,
Isaiah, His Life and Times, andthe Writings Which Bear
His Name, London, 1888; J. Kennedy, Argument for the
Unity of Isaiah, ib. 1891; C.H. H. Wright, Isaiah, in Smith’s
Diet. of the Bible, 20 ed. 1898; G. Douglas, Isaiah One and
His Book One, London, 1895; C. F. Kirkpatrick, Doctrine of
the Prophets, ib. 1892; Max L. Kellner, The Prophecies of
Tsaiah, an Outline Study in Connexion with the Assyrian-
Babylonian Records, Cambridge, Mass., 1895; J. F. McCurdy,
History, Prophecy, and the Monuments, New York and
London, 1894; F. H. Kriiger, Essai sur la Théologie a’ Esaie
rl.-lxevi. Paris, 1861; C. P. Caspari, Beitriige zur Hinlettung
in das Buch Jesaja, Berlin, 1848; idem, Ueber den Syrisch-
Ephraimit. Krieg Unter Jothamund Ahaz,Christiania,1849;
L. Seinecke, Der Hvangelist des Alten Testaments, Leipsic,
1870; H. Guthe, Das Zukunftshild des Jesaja, ib. 1885; Fr.
Giesebrecht, Beitrdige zur Jesaiakritik, Gottingen, 1890; M.
Sehian, Die Ehed-Jahiwe Lieder, Halle, 1895: H. Lane, Die
Ebed-Jahwe Lieder, Wittenherg, 1898; E. Sellin, Serubba-
bel, Leipsic, 1898; A. Bertholet, Zu Jesaja litt.: Hin Brkli-
rungsversuch, Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1899; H. Winckler, -Alt-
testamentliche Untersuchungen, Leipsic, 1897; idem, Alt-
orientalische Forschungen, ib. 1897; J. Meinhold, Jesaja
und Seine Zeit, Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1898; idem, Die Jesa-
jaerztihlungen, Jesaja xravi.-rexvix. Gottingen, 1898. See
also the various histories of Israel, introductions to the Old
Testament, and Old Testament theologies.
T. K. C.
E.G. H.
ISAIAH, ASCENSION OF: Apocryphal
book, consisting of three different parts, which seem
originally to have existed separately ; one is of Jew-
ish, two are of Christian, origin. The common
name of the book, “Ascension of Isaiah,” properly
covers only ch. vi.-xi., where Isaiah’s journey
through the seven heavens is described; Epiphanius
calls this part Té ’AvafSarcxdv ‘Hoaiov; Jerome calls it
“Ascensio Isaie”; elsewhere it is named ‘Opacic
‘Hoaiov (“ Visio Isaie”). Inch. i.-v. two parts are to
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 642
be distinguished: (1) the Martyrdom of Isaiah (Jew-
ish), referred to by Origen under the name ’Awék«pugov
‘Tloatov; (2) a Christian apocalypse,
probably the same as the Aca@yjay ’Ege-
xiov meutioned by Cedrenus. In the
Ethiopic version the whole work bears the title
“‘Ergata Isiytyas” (The Ascension of Isaiah), and
in modern times this name has been generally used;
whereas the single constituents are: (1) Martyrdom
of Isaiah; (2) Testament of Hezekiah (7); (8) Vision
of Isaiah.
It is generally supposed that the various parts
of this book were originally written in Greek. This
theory is undoubtedly correct as to the two Christian
parts, and it seems to hold true in the case of the
Martyrdom also; though the latter may have had a
Hebrew or Aramaic prototype. Now there are dif-
ferent parts or fragments of the Ascension in Greek,
Latin, and Slavonic, and an Ethiopic version of the
entire work. The relations among these fragments
and parts are very complicated, though the prob-
lems involved seem to have been solved by Charles
in his introduction to his edition and translation of
the Ascension. According to him the history of the
text may be constructed as follows:
The Vision of Isaiah (ch. vi.-xi.) was edited in
two different Greek recensions, G' and G?. From
G? a Latin (L?) and a Slavonic (8) translation were
made. G!' was united with the independent Greek
(G) texts of the Martyrdom and of the Testament,
and the whole of this composite work was done into
Ethiopic (E); parts of it are extant in a Latin ver-
sion (L'). The Greek original of G! is lost; a con-
siderable portion of it, however, may be restored
from a Greek “ Legend of Isaiah,” based on this re-
cension. Finally, there is another Greek fragment,
containing parts of the Martyrdom and of the Tes-
tament. Charles terms it G*®, with the understand-
ing that it is no deliberate and separate recension
like the G? of the Vision (ch. vi.-xi.), but that the
differences between EL) and this Greek fragment
are “due to the errors and variations incidental to
the process of transmission.” Following is an out-
Hne of the contents of the entire work:
Ch. i. 1-iii. 12.—Introduction and First Part
of the Martyrdom of Isaiah: Isaiah predicts, in
the presence of Hezekiah, his own death through
Manasseh; after Hezekiah’s death Isaiah, on account
of Manasseh’s evil doings, flees into the desert with
several other prophets; then, accused by Balkira, a
Samaritan, he is seized by Manasseh, in whose heart
Beliar (Belial) reigns. :
Ch. iii. 18-v. la.—The So-Called Testament
of Hezekiah: A Christian apocalypse, introduced
here by the Christian redactor of the whole work
in order to explain Beliar’s anger against Isaiah,
caused by the last-named’s prediction of the destruc.
tion of Sammael (Satan), the redemption of the
world by Jesus, the persecution of the Church by
Nero, and the final judgment.
Ch. v. 1b-14.—Conclusion of the Martyrdom
of Isaiah: In the presence of Balkira and of other
false prophets, Isaiah, refusing to recant, is sawn
asunder by means of a wooden saw.
Ch. vi.-xi.—Vision of Isaiah: In the twenti-
eth year of Hezekiah Isaiah has a vision, which he
Name.
6438 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
tells before the king and his assembly. Isaiah is
taken by an angel through the seven heavens; in
the seventh he beholds the departed righteous,
among them Abel and Enoch, and finally God Him-
self. Then he sees the whole history of Jesus. In
ch, xi. 41-48, an editorial addition, he is told that
“on account of these visions and prophecies Sam-
mael (Satan) sawed in sunder Isaiah the son of
Amos, the prophet, by the hand of Manasseh.”
The most important critical inquiries into the
structure of this book are those of Dillmann and
Charles. Dillmann’s conclusions, accepted by many
leading scholars, are as follows: (1) The Martyrdom
is contained in ch. ii. 1-iij. 12, v. 2-14. (2) The Vision
(Christian) is contained in ch. vi. 1-xi. 1, 23-40. (8)
They were united by a Christian redactor, who added
ch. i. (except verses 3 and 4a) and xi.
Com- 42~43. (4) Later additions are: ch, i.
position 3—4a; iii. 18-v. 1; v. 15-16; xi, 2-22,
and Date. 41. These results were somewhat
modified by Charles, who gives the
following analysis: (1) The Martyrdom consists of:
i. I-2a, Gb-18a; ii. 1-ifi. 12, v. Ib-14. (2) Ch. iii.
13b-iv. 18 are to be counted asa separate work, added
by the first editor of the entire work, probably be-
fore the “Greek Legend” and the Latin translation
were written. (38) The Vision comprises ch, vi. 1-xi.
40, ch. xi, 2-22 being thus an integral part of this
section, (4) Editorial additions are: ch. i. 2b-6a,
13b; ii. 9; iii. 18a; iv. la, 19-22; v. la, 15-16; xi.
41-48. With regard toch. i. Dillmann’s view seems
preferable, while Charles’s arguments concerning the
Testament of Hezckiah are very convincing.
From internal evidence, as well as from quota-
tions in writings of the second and following cen-
turies, it is safe to conclude that the three parts of
the book were written during the first century ¢c. E.
There are three main features in this book which
are paralicled in the Jewish literature: the legend of
Isaiah, the Beliar myth, and the idea of the seven
heavens. (1) The legend of Isaiah’s death under
Manasseh, based on II Kings xxi. 16, is attested
twice in the Babylonian Talmud and also in the
Jerusalem Tahnud (in a targum of Isaiah). In the
Babylonian Talmud it is further reported that
Isaiah took refuge in a cedar-tree and that Manassch
had the cedar sawn in two; this form of the legend
may explain why in the Ethiopic Ascension Isaiah
is sawn in sunder by means of a “wooden” saw.
(2) Beliar is, in post-Biblical times, identified with
Satan. HHeoccurs several times in apocryphal books;
for example, the Book of Jubilees, the Ethiopic
Book of Enoch, the Testaments of the Twelve Patri-
archs, and the Sibylline Books. In SibyHines iii.
63 he is said to have come from Samaria, which re-
calls Beliar’s association with Balkira the “Samari-
tan” in causing Isaiah’s death. The Beliar myth
shows unmistakable traces of the old Babylonian
dragon saga, and is probably a Jewish transforma-
tion of the latter (see Charles, “The Ascension of
Isaiah,” pp. lv. e¢ seg.) (8) The story of Isaiah’s
journey through the seven heavens was doubtlessly
influenced by the Enoch legend, and its appearance
in the Slavonic Book of Enoch tends to confirm this
view. The idea of the seven heavens is well known
in Jewish theology ; Charles has discussed it at length [
Isaiah
Isaiah ben Abraham
in his edition of the “Secrets of Enoch.” Even in
the third century, it is told of the Rabbi Joshua b,
Levi that he traveled through heaven and hell (Ab.
vi. 2b, ed. Strack). Inthe “Etudes Evangeliques,”
pp. 65-96 (Paris, 1908) J. Halévy has treated of
the parellels between the martyrdom of Isaiah and
temptation of Jesus.
EDITIONS: Laurence, Ascensio Isaire Vatis ... cum Ver-
sione Latina Anglicanaque, Oxford, 1819; Dillmann, Ascen-
sto Tratw <Aethiopice et Latine, Leipsie, 1877; Charles, The
Ascension of Isaiah, London, 1900 (in which all the Greek and
Latin fragments are published, together with a Latin transla-
tion by Bonwetsch of the Slavonic version of ch. vi.-xi.).
TRANSLATIONS: Laurence and Dillmann, in works cited
above; Laurenece’s Latin translation Was reprinted by Gfrérer
in Prophete: Veteres Pseucdepigraphi (1840), and given in
German by Jolowicz, Die Himmelfah7rt und Vision des Pro-
pheten Jesaja (1854). Basset translated Dillmann’s Ethiopic text
into French in Les Apocryphes Ethiopiens (iii. 1894). Beer
published a German transiation of ch. ii. J-iii, 12, v. 2-14.
Charles gives an English translation with a copious commentary
in his Ascension (see above).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For bibliography see Schiirer, Gesch. 3d ed.,
iii. 283-285; Charles, The Ascension of Isaiah; Schirer, in
Theologische Literaturzeitung, 1901, cols. 169-171.
T. i. Lr.
ISAIAH BEN ABBA MARI (also called
Astruc de Savoie): F-ench rabbi of the second
half of the fourteenth century ; famous for his con-
troversies and for the divisions he caused among the
communities of France. Armed with an order from
R. Meir ha-Levi of Vienna, conferring upon him
supreme rabbinical authority, he endeavored to bring
all the Jews in France within his jurisdiction, and
threatened with excommunication those who did not
submit to his authority. He compelled a certain R.
Simeon to give him his niece in marriage by threat-
ening him with the loss of his position; and Jieeven
attacked Johanan ben Mattithiah, grand rabbi of
France, the son of the preceding grand rabbi. Rely-
ing upon Meir ha-Levi’s order, he attempted to eject
Johanan from his office. Johanan, however, al-
though he had been officially recognized by the
crown, instead of appealing to the secular authori-
ties, preferred to carry his case before the rabbis of
Catalonia, and applied to Hasdai Crescas, and to
Sheshet and Moses Halawa. All three justified him
completely and severely censured Isaiah and the
illegal action of Meir ha-Levi. The result of the
dispute is not Known, but the expulsion of the
Jews from France, which followed soon after, prob-
ably put an end to these rivalries.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Israel Lévi, La Lutte Antre Isaie, Fils Vv Abba
Mari, et Yohanan, Fils de Matatia, pour le_Rabbinat de
Franee, a la Fin du XIVe Siécle,in R. BE. J. Xxxix. 85 et
seq.; Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 129, 534.
8. 5. I. 8.
ISAIAH BEN ABRAHAM: Polish rabbi of
the seventeenth century; author of “Be’er Heteb,”
a commentary on Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim,
based upon the later casuists (Amsterdam, 1708).
In the preface Isaiah asserts that he wrote a simi-
lar commentary to Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah.
Steinschneider (“Cat. Bodl.” col. 1884) and First
(“ Bibl. Jud.” ti. 57) say that Isaiah was the grand-
son of Davip B. SamvuEL HA-LEvri (TaZ). First
further says that Isaiah and his family were burned
to death, probably accidentally, in 1723, while they
were on their way to Palestine.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. tii., No. 1298b.
8, M. SEL.
Isaiah Berlin
Ise ben Judah
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
644
ISAIAH BERLIN. See BER.IN, ISAIAH B.
(JUDAH) LOEB.
ISAIAH MENAHEM BEN ISAAC (also
known as Rabbi Mendel, Rabbi Abigdors):
Rabbi of Cracow; died Aug. 16, 1599. At first
chief of the yeshibah of Szczebrscyn, government
of Lublin, Poland, he was later called to the rab-
binate of Vladimir, Volhynia. There he was one
of the rabbis who signed the protest against the
shameful selling of the rabbinate, a protest after-
ward renewed by Yom-Tob Lipmann Heller. From
Vladimir he was invited to the rabbinate of Cracow,
where he died. He was the first “ab bet din” or
chief rabbi of Cracow; previously the affairs of the
community had been decided by three dayyanim.
Isaiah was the author of: (1) “Sefer ‘Ammude
Golah,” notes on the “Sefer Mizwot Katon ” of Isaac
of Corbeil (Cracow, 1596); (2) a commentary on Rashi
to the Pentateuch, entitled “Ba-Urim Kabbedu
Adonai” (comp. Isa, xxiv. 15), the title being a play
on “ bi’urim” = “commentaries ” (Cracow, 1604); (8)
“ Tikkun Shetarot,” on contracts (2), n.d.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Friedberg, Luhot Zikkaron, p. 13; M. Zunz,
‘Ir ha-Zedek, pp. 45-49; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1388.
8. 8, M. SEL.
ISAIAH (BEN ELIJAH) DI TRANI (the
Younger): Italian Tahnudist and commentator;
lived in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. He
was the grandson, on his mother’s side, of Isaiah (ben
Mali) di Trani the Elder. He is usually quoted as
ren (= “RR. Isaiah Aharon, 6 ”), or XN’ (= “R.
Isaiah ben Elijah”). He wrote commentaries on the
books of Joshua (Leipsic, 1712), Judges and Samuel
(printed in the rabbinical Bible), Kings (I Kings iv.
4, 5, 19, and v. 17 only being included in the principal
editions of the rabbinical Bible), and Job (printed in
J. Schwarz, “Tikwat Enosh,” pp. 39 e¢ seq., Hebr.
Supplement; see Geiger, “Jiid. Zeit.” vii. 142).
MSS. Nos. 217--218, in the Bibliothégue Nationale,
Paris, contain commentaries by him on the prophet-
ical books and on Psalms; the Rome MSS. contain
a commentary on the five Megillot (Steinschneider,
“Webr. Bibl.” ix. 187). The last-named are sometimes
ascribed to his grandfather; but Giidemann advances
several reasons in support of Isaiah ben Elijah’s au-
thorship, the principal being their identity of style
with Isaiah’s acknowledged commentaries (Berlin-
er’s “Magazin,” i. 45 et seq.).
Isaiah’s commentaries are confined to simple,
concise, and rational exegesis. Their importance
lies in the fact that they were the first to be issued
in Italy that were free from allegorical interpreta-
tions. In them he quotes the Spanish grammarians
Ibn Janah, Ibn Hayyuj, and Abraham ibn Ezra.
More important, however, is his “ Pirke Halakot,”
a ritual code, the first produced in Italy (Halber-
stam MSS. and other incomplete MSS.; Paris MSS.
Nos. 395, 396; Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.”
Nos. 643-650; Parma, De Rossi, MSS. Nos. 7938, 934).
Extracts from itare printed in Joshua Boas’s “ Shilte
ha-Gibborim,” Sabbionetta, 1554, and in the editions
of Isaac Alfasi’s “ Halakot.” On the basis of the Tal-
mudical treatises and following their sequence the
“Halakot” are derived from the Mishnah rather than
from the Gemara, and are clearly arranged in a pre-
cise way. The author ascribes great authority to
the Jerusalem Talmud. Tle is independent in his
criticisms of older authorities, his grandfather not
excepted, whom he often quotes (with the abbrevi-
ation M"}~ = “Mori Zekeni ha-Rab”). Asa sort of
preliminary work to the “ Halakot ” he wrote a book,
“Kontres ha-Re’ayot,” which contained and dis-
cussed the proofs for his halakie decisions.
Isaiah also wrote a “ Tahanun ” prayer (Zunz, “ Li-
teraturgesch.” p. 363). Two other prayers, signed
merely “Isaiah ” (2d.), may be ascribed to him or to
his grandfather, who also was a liturgical poct (see
Landshuth, “‘Ammude ha-‘Abodah,” p. 184). Un-
like his grandfather, Isaiah was an opponent of
Aristotle and of the rest of the Greek philosophers
who “denied the Torah.” Religious conceptions
are, according to him, a matter of tradition more
than of individual meditation. He advised against
religious disputations with the Gentiles and against
teaching them the Torah. He endeavored to shield
the grotesque midrashim from derision on the part
of Christian theologians and baptized Jews by in-
terpreting them as symbolic or hyperbolic.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i.: Berliner, Ple-
tath Soferim, pp. 8, 18 et seq.; Gratz, Gesch. vii. 161; Giide-
mann, Gesch. ii. 189 et seqg., 390; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl.
col. 1892; Winter and Wiinsche, Die Jiidische Litteratur, ii.
332, 338, 483; Mortara, lndice, p. 66; Weiss, Dor, v. 95 et seq.
8. M. Sc.
ISAIAH (BEN MALI) DI TRANI (the
Elder; RID): Prominent Italian Talmudist; born
about 1180. He originated in Trani (Conforte,
“Kore ha-Dorot,” p. 15a), an ancient settlement of
Jewish scholarship, and lived probably in Venice.
He died about 1250. He carried on a correspond-
ence with Simhah of Speyer and with Simhah's two
pupils, Isaac ben Moses of Vienna (“Or Zarua‘,” i.
88, 218, 220) and Abigdor Colien of the same city.
Isaiah himself probably lived for some time in the
Orient. He lefta learned son, David, and a daugh-
ter, with whose son, Isaiah ben blijah di Trani, he
has often been confounded.
Isaiah wasa very prolific writer. He wrote: “Nim-
mukim” or “ Nimmuke Homesh,” a commentary on
the Pentateuch, consisting mainly of glosses on
Rashi which show him to have been, as Giidemann
says, an acute critic rather than a dispassionate exe-
gete. The work has been printed as an appendix
to Azulai’s “Pene Dawid ” (Leghorn, 1792); extracts
fromit have been published in Stern’s edition of the
Pentateuch (Vienna, 1851) under the title “Peture
Zizzim” (see also Berliner, “Rashi,” p. xii.); and
Zedekiah ben Abraham, author of “Shibbole ha-
Leket ” anda pupil of Isaiah, composed glosses on it
in 1297 (Leipsic MS. No. 15, p. 818). As regards other
Bible commentaries ascribed to him, see ISAIAH (BEN
ELIJAH) DI TRANI, THE YOUNGER. Isaiah also wrote
an introduction (“petihah”) to a “selihah” begin-
ning with ‘npw mAD°N (Mahzor Rome, ed. Luzzatto,
p. 82, Introduction), which has been metrically
translated into German by Zunz (“S. P.” p. 299;
see idem, “ Literaturgesch.” p. 336).
Isaiah’s chief importance, however, rests upon the
fact that he was the most prominent representative
of Talmudic scholarship in Italy. He wrote com-
mentaries on almost the whole Talmud, in the form
*
645
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Isaiah Berlin
Ise ben Judah
of “tosafot,” “hiddushim ” (novell), or “ pesakim ”
(decisions). Of his tosafot the following have been
printed: those to Kiddushin, in the Sabbionetta
(1558) edition of that treatise (see Steinschneider,
“Cat. Bodl.” No. 1718); on Ta‘anit and Kiddushin,
in Eleazar ben Aryeh Loéw’s “‘Ene ha-‘Edah”
(Prague, 1809); on Baba Batra, Baba Kamma,
Baba Mezi‘a, ‘Abodah Zarah, Hagigah, Shabbat,
Niddah, ‘Erubin, Rosh ha-Shanah, Yoma, Suk-
kah, Megillah, Mo‘ed Katan, Pesahim, Bezah, Ne-
darim, and Nazir, in the two collections “Tosafot R.
Yesha‘yahu ” (Lemberg, 1861, 1869). Someextracts
are also contained in Bezalecl Ashkenazi’s “Shittah
Mekubbezet.,”
Of his pesakim there have been printed those on
Rosh ha-Shanah, Hagigah, and Ta‘anit, in “Ohole
Yizhak ” (Leghorn, 1819); on Berakot in N. Coro-
nel’s “Bet Natan” (Vienna, 1854); on sukkah, te-
fillin, zizit, mezuzah, in “Sam Hayyim” (Leghorn,
1803); and some others exist in manuscript only
(MS. Vienna, No. xli., MS. Paris, Nos. 364, 365,
976, 2; Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” Nos.
334-3836; Steinschneider, “Hebr. Bibl.” iv. 54).
The author sometimes quotes the pesakim in his
tosafot, from which it would seem that he composed
the former earlier than the latter. As in many in-
stances the pesakim appear to have been inserted in
the tosafot by the copyists, they can not always be
distinguished. Of some of the tosafot [saiah made
two or more versions.
Isaiah also wrote, under the title “Ha-Makria‘,”
halakic discussions and decisions on ninety-two
halakic topics. The first edition of this work (Leg-
horn, 1779) contains also his tosafot (or hiddushim)
on Ta‘anit. Isaiah mentions other works of his;
é.9., &@ second commentary on the Sifra, “Kontres
ha-Zikronot,” “Sefer ha-Leket,” and some responsa,
a volume of which Azulai claims to have seen in
manuscript and which exist in the collection of
MSS. in Cambridge University.
Isaiah possessed a remarkable clarity of expression,
which enabled him to expound the most difficult
topics with ease and lucidity. The samesevere crit-
icism that he passed upon such respected authorities
as Rashi, Alfasi, Jacob Tam, Samuel ben Meir,
Jacob ben Samuel (RIJ), and others he applied
toward his own halakic decisions whenever he
changed his view. He was in favor of a more mod-
erate interpretation of the Law, and he condemned
the ritualistic rigor of the teachers of France and
Germany. According to Gitidemann, Isaiah as a
halakic authority had for Italy the same importance
that Maimonides had for the Orient and Jacob Tam
for the Jews of France and Germany. He was held
in very high esteem both by his contemporaries
and by the teachers of the following centuries; even
one so important as Isaac ben Moses of Vienna called
him and Eleazar ben Samuel of Verona “the two
kings of Israel” (“Or Zarua‘,” i, 755).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i; Berliner, Ple-
tath Soferim, pp. 8, 13 et seq.; Gidemann, Gesch. ii. 184 et
seq., 320 et seq. (the best monograph on the subject); Gratz,
Gesch. vii. 160; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 1389 et seq.:
Winter and Wiinsche, Die Jitdische Litteratur, ii. 483; Zunz,
Z. G. pp. 58 et seq., 101, 566; Mortara, Indice, p. 66; Lands-
huth, ‘Ammude ha-' Abodah, p. 184; Fuenn, Keneset Yis-
rael, p. 678; Schechter in J. Q. R. iv. 95. .
8. M. Sc.
‘SISAWITES. See IsHak BEN YA‘KUB OBa-
pIAH ABU ‘Isa AL-ISFAHANI.
ISCARIOT. See Jupas IscarRior,
ISCOVESCU, BARBU (JUDAH): Rumanian
painter; born 1816 at Bucharest; died Oct. 24, 1854,
at Constantinople. The son of a house-paintcr, he
served his apprenticeship in that calling under his
father, afterward going to Vienna and Paris, where
he devoted himself to drawing and painting. Re-
turning to Bucharest, he was, together with Rosen-
thal, one of the first painters to disseminate in
Rumapia the plastic arts.
Iscovescu became involved in the revolutionary
movement. During his sojourn at Paris he had
become acquainted with several young Wallachians
who subsequently initiated the Rumanian revolution
of 1848; on his return to Bucharest he became asso-
ciated with them and undertook several missions for
the revolutionary committee. When the Russians
entered Wallachia and suppressed the revolution,
Iscovescu, with others, was banished to Constanti-
nople. He died in exile, and, wishing to be united
in death with his companions in arms, was buried in
the Greek Orthodox cemetery, in the same grave
with Negulici and the preacher Atanasie Luzin, who
were exiled with him. Heliade Radulescu, kaima-
kam and a member of the revolutionary govern-
ment, and D. Balintineanu, one of the great poets
of Wallachia, composed his epitaph, in verse.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Schwarzfeld, Yehudah Barbu Iscovescu,
in Anuarul Pentru israeliti, viii. 118, Bucharest, 1884.
8. E. Sp.
ISE (ISI, JOSE) BEN JUDAH: Palestinian
tanna of the second century ; contemporary of Simeon
ben Yohai and of R. Meir. Bacher thinks it proba-
ble that Ise ben Judah is identical with both Jose
the Babylonian and Jose of the “Babylonian vil-
lage,” of whom the following maxim is quoted in
the “Sayings of the Fathers”: “He who learns from
the young, what is he like? Like one that eats
unripe grapes, and drinks wine from his vat. He
who learns from the old, what is he like? Like
one that eats ripe grapes, and drinks old wine”
(iv. 28). Ise ben Judah was distinguished by the
high esteem in which he held his colleagues, whose
learning and ability he characterized in the most
flattering terms (Git. 67a). Want of mutual respect
is, according to him, the sin which brings prema-
ture death to scholars (Ab. R. N. xxix., end). Con-
trary to the opinion of Jose ha-Gelili, Ise ben Judah
held that the commandment “Thou shalt rise up
before the hoary head” (Lev. xix, 82) is applicable
to any old man, and not only restricted to scholars
(Kid. 32b). He valued the respect of parents so
highly that, according to him, the personal fulfil-
ment of any precept that can be committed to an-
other must be abandoned, if that is necessary to
carry out a father’s order (7b.). Of Ise ben Judah’s
activity in Biblical exegesis evidence is given by his
remark that there are five passages in the Bible
each of which contains a word that can not be posi-
tively connected with either the preceding or the
following words. This remark was afterward in-
corporated in the Masorah, where it is noted that
“there are five passages in the Bible, each of which
Ishak
Ishmael
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
646
contains a word that has no balance” (Mek., Ex.
xvii. 9, and parallels), Ise ben Judah is often con-
founded with Jose ben Judah bar ‘Ilai.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Tan. p. 373; Zacuto, Yuhasin,
ed. Kénigsberg, p. 60a; Frankel, Darke ha-Mishnah, p. 203 ;
Mielziner, Introduction to the Talmud, p. 39. LB
8. 8. ‘ R.
ISHAK IBN ‘ALI IBN ISHAK: Karaite
scholar of the eleventh century. The “Chronicle”
of Ibn al-Hiti contains a warm eulogy of the schol-
arly attainments of Ishak ibn ‘Al, and cites two
works of his, one a polemic against Saadia in the
style of the “Sefer ha-Ma’or” by the Karaite Yusuf
al- Basir (a mistake for Yusuf al-Kirkisani); the
other, to judge from its title, “ I‘tidal ” (Moderation),
an ethical work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Quart. Rev. ix. 442 et seq.
K, I. Br.
ISHAK BEN YA‘KUB OBADIAH ABU
‘IISA AL-ISFAHANT (i.¢., “from Ispahan”;
surnamed ‘Obed Elohim): Persian founder of a
Jewish sect and “herald of the Messiah”; lived at
the time of the Ommiad calif ‘Abd al-Malik ibn
Marwan (684-705). He was of low origin, “a plain
tailor”; and his adherents relate that “though he
could neither read nor write, yet he wrote books
without any assistance” (“J. Q. R.” vii. 705).
Abu ‘Isa asserted that the coming of the Messiah
was to be preceded by five messengers, of whom he
himself was the last—the Messiah’s herald (“rasul ”),
summoner (“da‘i”), and prophet, whom the Lord
had sanctified. In a colloguy with the Lord, the
mission was entrusted to Abu ‘Isa (so he claimed)
of delivering the Jews from the rule of the Gentiles, .
and of making them politically independent. Ac-
cording to one source, he did not confine himself to
being the herald, but declared that he himself was
the Messiah. Probably he took this further step
only after he had gained followers in his position of
herald; and it is even possible that the claim to
Messiahship was not made by Abu ‘Isa, but was only
ascribed to him by later adherents.
In any case he found many followers among the
Jews of Persia, and raised a revolt against the calif;
so that the latter sent an army against him. The de-
cisive battle was fought at Rai(the ancient Rhage),
and resulted in the death of Abu ‘Isa and in the
complete defeat of his adherents. The surname
“ Al-Ra’i,” which Al-Biruni gives him, probably had
its origin in this event. One of Abu ‘Isa’s disciples
narrates that when the battle resulted so disastrously
Abu ‘Isa hid in a cave, and that his ultimate fate
was never known. An account of the battle which
other followers give ascribes a miraculous victory
to Abu‘Isa. It is said that he surrounded his camp
with a rope and assured his men that they would be
safe from the enemy’s swords so long as they did
not leave the enclosed space. The hostile army fled
from the rope, and Abu ‘Isa’s followers pursued
and completely destroyed the enemy. The prophet
himself then wandered into the desert, to announce
to the “bene Mosheh” the word of the Lord and his
prophetic mission.
Abu ‘Isa’s adherents laid particular stress upon
the fact that, in spite of his illiteracy, he wrote books,
and they claimed that this furnished the strongest
evidence of his divine inspiration. But history has
no record of any literary activity on his part.
Abu ‘Isa became the founder of the first Jewish
sect in the geonic period, the members of which
were called, after him, ‘Isawites, “ ‘Iswanites,” or
“‘Tsuyites.” Their divergences from rabbinic Ju-
daism as regards dogina and ritual are known only
through quotations in several Arabie sources and
in one Hebrew source, They abstained from wine
andanimal food. According to Harkavy, Abu ‘Isa,
in imposing these restrictions, was
Tenets of influenced less by the custom of the
the Rechabites (comp, Jer. xxxv. 2-10)
‘Isawites. than by the Pharisaic view (B. B. 60b)
that meat and wine ought not to be
indulged in by the Jews so long as they live in exile
(“galut”). Divorce was not allowed even in case
of adultery—a prohibition which was also observed
by the Sadducees and by the early Christians. A1-
luding to the passage in Ps. cxix, 164, “Seven times
a day do I praise thee,” Abu ‘Isa instituted seven
daily prayers in place of the three rabbinical ones.
In accordance with the rabbinical opinion, he de-
clared the “ Shemoneh ‘Esreh,” the “Shema‘,” and the
two benedictions before and one after the “Shema‘”
to be obligatory by divine order. Jesus and Mo-
hammed, whom, according to Makrizi, Abu ‘Isa had
seen in heaven, were recognized by the sect as
prophets, each of whom had been sent as a mission-
ary to his nation. Al-Kirkisani, the Karaite, held
that Abu ‘Isa took this attitude merely for diplo-
matic reasons; for had he not recognized the post-
Biblical prophets, his own claim to prophetic in-
spiration would not have been so readily accepted.
The ‘Isawites used the Rabbinite calendar, which
at that time was a very essential point; for upon the
strength of this the Rabbinites did not hesitate to
associate and even intermarry with the followers of
Abu ‘Isa. So Jacob ben Ephraim al-Shami an-
swered Al-Kirkisani, who objected to the friendly
attitude of the Rabbinites toward the ‘Isawites. Al-
together, therefore, Shahrastani’s judgment that the
customs of the ‘Isawites differed greatly in many
essential points from the laws of the Torah does not
seem to be well founded. At the time of Al-Kirki-
sani (about 980) the sect survived in Damascus only,
and numbered not more than twenty persons.
Abu ‘Isa and his disciple Yudghan greatly influ-
enced the founder of the Karaites, Anan, who lived
about seventy years later; for instance, Anan took
from Abu ‘Isa the rule of abstinence from meat and
wine.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Shahrastani, Kitab al-Milal, ed. Cureton, p.
168 (German transl. by Haarbriicker, i. 254); Judah Hadassi,
Eshkol ha-Kofer, § 97; Makrizi, in Sylvestre de Sacy, Chres-
tomathie Arabe, i. 807; Kirkisani, in Harkavy, Le-Korot
ha-Kittot be-Yisrael, in Graetz, Hist., Hebr. ed., iii. 501;
Harkavy, Likkute Kadmoniyyot, ii. 193; Bacher, in J. Q. R.
vii. 700; Weiss, Dor, iv. 62; Pinsker, Likkute Kadmoniyyot,
i. 10, 16, 25, 26; Gratz, Gesch. v. 156 et seq., 160, 408 et seq.
J. M. So.
ISH-BOSHETH (lit. “manof shame”): Fourth
and youngest son of Saul, and, as the sole male sur-
vivor in direct line of descent, his legitimate suc-
cessor to the throne (II Sam. ii. 8 et seg.). His orig-
inal name was “ Esh-baal (= “man of ba‘al” [then,
Yuwaui; see I Chron. viii. 33, ix. 39). But when
the developed religious consciousness of the Prophets
647
: a . I
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA kom
took exception to the identification of “Ba‘al” with
“YuHwuH” (comp. Hosea ii. 18, 19; ix. 10; Jer. iii.
24, xi. 13), names containing “ba‘al” were changed
(though not consistently), as in this case, by substi-
tuting for the objectionable element the significant
and contemptuous word “boshet” (comp. “Jerub-
boshet” for “Jerubba‘al” [see GipEoN, CRITICAL
View]; “ Mephi-boshet” for “Meribba‘al”), or, as in
I Sam. xiv. 49, by making some other substitution
(“Ishui” [Hebr. “Yishwi” =“Ishyo”] for “Ish-
ba‘al”). Under the protection of his uncle Abner,
Ish-bosheth became King in opposition to David, and
resided in fortified Mahanaim, east of the Jordan,
that place being secure against the Philistines, whose
power it was necessary to break before he could
think of taking up his residence west of the Jordan.
The skill and fidelity of Abner succeeded in securing
for Ish-bosheth the allegiance of all the tribes west
of the Jordan with the exception of that of Judah.
He is credited with having reigned two years (II
Sam. ii. 8-10); but they probably must be reck-
oned tocover only the period after the subjection of
the West Jordanic tribes, and not the preceding
longer term during which he was recognized as ruler
by the eastern section alone. Abner attempted to
reduce Judah, but failed (II Sam, ii, 12-82).
Thereafter David gradually but surely extended
his authority as against that of the “house of Saul”
(II Sam. iii. 1). Finally, Ish-bosheth lost the support
of Abner by accusing him of having intrigued with
Rizpah, one of Saul’s concubines (II Sam. iii. 8 et
seqg.), and of having thereby tacitly asserted a claim
to the succession. When Abner left him Ish-bosheth
lost all hope, and dared not refuse David’s demand
for the return of Michal, a demand which empha-
sized David’s claim to the throne of Saul (I Sam.
xxv. 44; II Sam. iii. 14 et seg.). The assassination
of Abner prompted two of his captains, Baanah and
Rechab, to slay Ish-bosheth. Entering the palace
under the pretext of getting wheat (according to the
Greek text they entered while the woman at the gate
was sleeping over her task of cleansing the wheat),
they slew him while he was onhis bed. But David,
to whom they carried the head of the unfortunate
king, far from rewarding them for their dastardly
deed, put them to an ignominious death (II Sam.
iv.).
2 G. H. M, SEL.
ISHMAEL (byynv).—Biblical Data: Eld-
est son of Abraham by his concubine Hagar; born
when Abraham was eighty-six years of age (Gen.
xvi, 15, 16). God promised Abraham that His bless-
ing should be upon Ishmael, who, He foretold, would
beget twelve princes and would become a great
nation (Gen. xvii. 18, 20). Ishmael was circumcised
at the age of thirteen (Gen. xvii. 23-26). When
Sarah saw Ishmael mocking her son Isaac, his
brother, younger by fourteen years, she insisted that
Abraham cast out Ishmael and his slave-mother.
Abraham reluctantly yielded, having provided
them with bread and a bottle of water. Ishmael
was about to die of thirst when an angel showed
his mother a well, repeating to her at the same time
that Ishmael would becomea great nation. Ishmael
dwelt in the wilderness, apparently, of Beer-sheba,
where he became a skilful archer; later he settled |
in the wilderness of Paran, where his mother took
him a wife from Egypt (Gen. xxi, 8-21). Both Ish-
mael and Isaac were present at the burial of their
father, Abraham. Ishmaeldied at the age of 1387.
He had twelve sons, ancestors of twelve tribes that
dwelt “from Havilah unto Shur, that is before
Egypt, as thou goest to Assyria” (Gen. xxv. 9-18).
——In Rabbinical Literature: The name of
Ishmael is an allusion to God's promise to hear
(Sxyrnw) the complaints of Israel whenever it
suffered at the hands of Ishmael (Gen. R. xlv. 11).
Abraham endeavored to bring up Ishmael in right-
eousness; to train him in the laws of hospitality
Abraham gave him the calf to prepare (Gen. R.
xiviii. 14; comp. Gen. xviii. 7). But according to
divine prediction Ishmael remained a savage. The
ambiguous expression PpMm¥ in Gen. xxi. 9 (see
HaGar) is interpreted by some rabbis as meaning
that Ishmael had been idolatrous; by others, that he
had turned his bowagainst Isaac. According to the
interpretation of Simeon b. Yohai, Ishmael mocked
those who maintained that Isaac would be Abra-
ham’s chief heir, and said that as he (Ishmael) was
the first-born son he wo. ld receive two-thirds of the
inheritance (Tosef., Sotah, v. 12, vi. 6; Pirke R. El.
xxx.; Gen. R. liii. 15). Upon secing the danger to
Isaac, Sarah, who had till then been attached to Ish-
mael (Josephus, “Ant.” i, 12, § 38), insisted that
Abraham cast out Ishmael. Abraham was obliged
to put him on Hagar’s shoulders, because he fell sick
under the spell of the evil eye cast upon him by
Sarah (Gen. R. hii. 17).
Ishmael, left under a shrub by his despairing
mother, prayed to God to take his soul and not per-
mit him to suffer the torments of a slow death
(comp. Targ. pseudo-Jonathan to Gen. xxi. 15).
God then commanded the angel to show Hagar the
well which was created on Friday in the week of Crea-
tion, in the twilight (comp. Ab. v. 6), and which
afterward accompanied the Israelites in the wilder-
ness (Pirke R. El. xxx.). But this was protested
against by the angels, who said: “ Why should Ish.
mael have water, since his descendants will destroy
the Israelites by thirst?” (comp. Yer. Ta‘an. iv. 8;
Lam. R. ii. 2). God replied: “But now he is inno.
cent, and I judge him according to what he is now”
(Pirke R. El. .e.; Gen. R. le. ; e¢al.). Ishmael mar-
ried a Moabitess named ‘Adishah or ‘Aishah (vari-
‘ants “ “Ashiyah ” and “ ‘Aifah,” Arabic names; Targ.
pseudo-Jonathan to Gen, xxi. 21; Pirke R. El. /.c.); or,
according to “Sefer ha- Yashar” (Wayera), an Egyp-
tian named Meribah or Merisah. He had four sonsand
one daughter. Ishmael meanwhile grew so skilfulin
archery that he became the master of all the bowmen
(Targ. pseudo-Jonathan to Gen. xxi. 20; Gen. R. hii.
20). Afterward Abraham went to see Ishmael, and,
according to his promise to Sarah, stopped at his son’s
tent without alighting from hiscamel. Ishmacl was
not within; his wife refused Abraham food, and
beat her children and cursed her husband within
Abraham’s hearing. Abraham thereupon asked her
to tell Ishmael when he returned that an old man had
asked that he change the peg of the tent. Ishmael
understood that it was his father, took the hint,
and drove away his wife. He then married another
woman, named Fatimah (Petimah; Targ. pseudo-
Ishmael b, Abraham
Ishmael b. Elisha
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
648
Jonathan /.c.), who, when three years later Abra-
ham came again to see his son, received him kindly ;
therefore Abraham asked her to tell Ishmael that the
peg was good.
Ishmael then went to Canaan and settled with
his father (Pirke R. El. @.c.; “Sefer ha-Yashar,” /.c.).
This statement agrees with that of Baba Batra (16a)
—that Ishmael became a penitent during the lifetime
of Abraham. He who sees Ishmael in a dream will
have his prayer answered by God (Ber. 56a),
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Beer, Leben Abraham’s nach Auffassung
der Jitdischen Sage, pp. 49 et seq., Leipsic, 1859.
s, M. SEL.
—In Arabic Literature: For the history of
Ishmael, according to Mohammedan legend, see
JEW. Encyc. i. 87, s.c. ABRAHAM IN MONAMMEDAN
LEGEND; and Hacar. It may be added here that
Ishmael is designated a prophet by Mohammed:
“Remember Ishmael in the Book, for he was true to
his promise, and was a messenger and a prophet”
(Koran, xix. 55). Ishmael is, therefore, in Moham-
medan tradition a prototype of faithfulness. He was
an arrow-maker, and a good hunter. Asa prophet,
he had the gift of performing miracles. He con-
verted many heathen to the worship of the One God.
He left twelve sons. His son Kedar is said to have
been an ancestor of Mohammed. Ishmacl is reputed
to have lived one hundred and thirty years; he was
buried near the Kaaba. His posterity, however,
became pagan, and remained so until they were
brought back to Islam by Mohammed.
G. H. Hr.
ISHMAEL B. ABRAHAM HA-KOHEN:
Talmudic scholar and author; chief rabbi of Mo-
dena; born 5484(= 1724); died 5571 (= 1811). He was
recognized as a profound dialectician, and many
casuistic questions were submitted to him. His re-
sponsa and novellze were collected under the title
“Zera’ Emet,” two volumes of which appeared in
his lifetime (vol. i., Leghorn, 1786; vol. ii., 2b. 1796),
comprising responsa in Orah Hayyim and Yorech
De‘ah.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael; Walden, Shem ha-
Gedolim he-Hadash, 3d ed., p. 36a, Warsaw, 1882.
S. S. M.
ISHMAEL OF AKBARA: Founder of the
Jewish sect of Akbarites; flourished in the time of
the calif Al-Mu‘tasim (833-841). He was a native
of Akbara, in Irak, ten parasangs from Bagdad. He
is reputed to have been very vain, and is said to
have directed that the words “ The chariot of Isreel
and the horsemen thereof” (II Kings ii. 12) should
be inscribed on his tombstone. Nothing is known
of the principles of his sect; and of his opinions
that differed from the traditional doctrine only a few
have been preserved. It is an interesting fact that
he essayed Biblical criticism; he held, for instance,
that in Gen. iv. 8 the words “ Arise, let us go to the
field” (ASW NY3 Dip) should be added after “and
Cain said to Abel his brother”; that 7b. xlvi, 15 the
copyists wrote “ thirty-three ” (wrdy poy) in place
of the original reading “thirty-two”; that in Ex.
xvi. 85 “and the children of Israel ate manna” was
originally “and the children of Israel shall eat
manna” (reading Sone instead of 55x, probably on |
the ground that otherwise the verse could not have
been written by Moses); that 7b. xx. 18 “and the
people saw [px] the thunderings” should be “and
the people heard [D*ynw] the thunderings.” The
first and last of these emendations are also found in
slightly different forms among the Samaritans, from
whom Kirkisani thought that Ishmael had borrowed
them. This assumption also explains the fact that
Hadassi, who got his information concerning Jewish
sects chiefly from Kirkisani, erroneously ascribed
(“Ha-Eshkol,” alphabet 97) Ishmael’s opinions to
the Samaritans, but did not quote the emendations
correctly. However, it is not yet certain that
Samaritans were at that time in Irak (see Biichler in
“R. E. J.” xliii. 67), or that Ishmael had access to
Samaritan texts, especially astwo of his readings do
not appear in the Samaritan at all, while the other
two, as mentioned above, appear in a different form
(7355 instead of NY) in Gen. iv. 8 and yoy instead
of pyrow in Ex. xx. 18).
It must be assumed that Ishmael did not hesitate,
in order to remove difficulties from the Bible, to at-
tack the Masoretic text; he furthermore preferred
the “ketib” to the “keri” in all cases, for which he
was attacked by Kirkisani in the second section of
his “ Kitab al-Anwar.” Ishmael, like most sectari-
ans, did not recognize the existing calendar, insisting
that the new month begins with the conjunction of
the sun and moon (or rather an hour later, when the
moon begins to move away from the sun), and that
then prayers and sacrifices for New Moon should
begin, even if the sun is about to set. He relaxed
the laws for the Sabbath (in contrast, for instance,
to the Karaites), and permitted on that day the
eating of food prepared by non-Jews. The owner
of a bath-house or a ship in continual use is en-
joined to divide with the poor the profits of the sev-
enth and the fiftieth days, just as was done with the
fruits of the earth in the seventh and the fiftieth
years; Ishmael relaxed the law on this point also.
However, he added an onerous restriction by forbid-
ding in the Diaspora the use of meat. He bases
this restriction on Deut. xii. 20-27, where the per-
mission to eat meat is, as it were, con-
ditioned upon the bringing of sacri-
fices; these having ceased, meat may
no jonger be eaten. Ishmael also at-
tacked Anan, whose opinions he characterized as
“stupid ” and “foolish”; his own opinions, in turn,
being attacked by Kirkisani as “injurious” and
“ignorant.” Hence it is wrong to class Ishmael
among the Karaites, as does Harkavy. As to the
sect of the Akbarites, nothing is known of its num-
bers or as to the precise period in which it flourished.
By the time of Kirkisani, in the first half of the
tenth century, it had ceased to exist. The sectary
Musa or TIFLIs was a pupil of Ishmael.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Harkavy, Kirkisani, section i., pp. 268-269,
284-285, 314, 317; Makrizi, in De Sacy, Chrestomathie Arabe,
2d ed., i. 116; Gratz, Gesch. v., note 18; Harkavy, in Vesk-
aig pp. 6-10, Feb., 1898; Poznanski, in R. FE. J. 1897, xxxiv.
K. S. P.
ISHMAEL B. ELISHA: Tanna of the first
A Vege-
tarian.
and second centuries (third tannaitic generation).
IIe was a descendant of a wealthy priestly family
in Upver Galilee (Tosef., Hal. i. 10; B. K. 80a;
649
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ishmael b. Abraham
Ishmael b. Elisha
comp. Rabbinovicz, “Dikduke Soferim,” ed loc. ;
Hul. 49a), and presumably the grandson of the high
priest of the samename. Asa youth he was carried
away by the Romans, but Joshua b. Hananiah, suc-
ceeding in purchasing his liberty, restored him to
Palestine, where he rapidly developed into an ac-
complished scholar (Tosef., Hor. ii. 5; Git. 58a). Of
his teachers, only Nechunya ben ha-Kanah is ex-
pressly mentioned (Sheb. 26a), but he doubtless
learned much from his benefactor, between whom
and himself grew up a close friendship; Joshua
called him “brother” (‘Ab. Zarah ii. 5; Tosef.,
Parah, x. [ix.] 3), a term by which he was after-
ward known to his colleagues (Yad. iv. 8; Sanh.
51b).
Ishmael’s teachings were calculated to promote
peace and good-will among all. “Be indulgent
with the hoary head,” he would say, “and be kind
to the black-haired [the young]; and meet every
man with a friendly mien” (AD, iii, 12). What he
taught he practised. Even toward strangers he
acted considerately. When a heathen greeted him,
he answered kindly, “Thy reward has been pre-
dicted”; when another abused him, he repeated
coolly, “ Thy reward has been predicted.” This ap-
parent inconsistency he explained to his puzzled
disciples by quoting Gen. xxvii. 29: “Cursed be
every one that curseth thee, and blessed be he that
blesseth thee” (Yer. Ber. viii. 12a; Gen. R. lxvi. 6).
He was fatherly to the indigent, par-
His Kindly ticularly to poor and plain maidens,
Dis- whom he clothed attractively and
position. provided with means, so that they
might obtain husbands (Ned. ix. 10;
66a). One Friday night, while absorbed in the study
of the Bible, he inadvertently turned the wick of a
lamp; and he vowed that when the Temple was
rebuilt he would offer there an expiatory sacrifice
(Shab. 12b).
He manifested the same spirit of hope in declining
to countenance the refusal of the ultra-patriotic to
beget children under the Roman sway (Tosef., Sotah,
xv. 10 [comp. ed. Zuckermandel]; B. B. 60b). Even
under the conditions then existing he recommended
early marriage. He said, “The Scripture tells us,
‘Thou shalt teach them [the things thou hast seen
at Horeb]| to thy sons and to thy sons’
Views on sons; and how may one live to teach
Marriage. his sons’ sons unless one marries
early ?” (Deut. iv. 9, Hebr.; Yer. Kid.
i. 29b; Kid. 61a; see Samuel Edels ad loc.),
Ishmael was one of the prominent members of the
Sanhedrin at Jabneh (‘Eduy. ii. 4), and when that
august body was forced by circumstances to move to
Usha, Ishmael attended its sessions there (B. B. 28b),
though his residence was at Kefar ‘Aziz, on the
borders of Idumea, where Joshua b. Hananiah once
visited him (Kil. vi. 4; Ket. v. 8). He gradually
developed a system of halakic exegesis which, while
running parallel with that of Akiba, is admitted to
be the more logical. Indeed, he established the
principles of the logical method by which laws may
be deduced from laws and important decisions
founded on the plain phraseology of the Scriptures.
Like Akiba, he opened up a wide field for halakic
induction, but, unlike Akiba, he required more than |
a mere jot ora letter asa basis for making important
rulings (comp. Sanh. 51b). He was of opinion that
the Torah was conveyed in the language of man (see
Yer. Yeb. vill. 8d; Yer. Ned. i. 36c), and that there-
fore a seemingly pleonastic word or syllable can not
be taken as a basis for new deductions. In discuss-
ing a supposititious case with Akiba, he once ex-
claimed, “ Wilt thou indeed decree death by fire on
the strength of a single letter?” (Sanh. 51b). The
plain sense of the Scriptural text, irrespective of its
verbal figures, was by him considered the only safe
guide.
To consistently carry out his views in this direc-
tion Ishmael drew up a set of thirteen hermencutic
rules by which he interpreted Scripture. Asa basis
for these rules he took the seven rules of Hillel, and
on them built up his own system, which he elabo-
rated and strengthened by illustrating them with
examples taken from the Scriptures (see BARAITA
oF R. ISHMAEL; TALMUD; comp. Gen.
Hermeneu- R. xcii.7). Even these rules he would
tic Rules. not permit toapply to important ques-
tions, such as capital cases in which
no express Scriptura) warrant for punishment ex-
isted; he would not consent to attach a sentence of
death, or even a fine, to a crime or misdemeanor on
the strength of a mere infcrence, however logical,
where nosuch punishment is clearly stated in Scrip-
ture (Yer. ‘Ab. Zarah v. 45b), or to draw a rule from
a law itself based on an inference (Yer. Kid. i. 59a).
His rules were universally adopted by his succes-
sors, tannaim as well as amoraim, although occa-
sionally he himself was forced to deviate from them
(see Sifre, Num. 32).
Thus his name became permanently associated
with the Halakah; but in the province of the Hag-
gadah also it occupies a prominent place (M. K.
28b). In answer to the question whether future
punishment will be limited to the spirit or to the
body, or whether in equity any punishment at all
should be inflicted on either, seeing that neither can
sin when separated from the other, Ishmael draws
this parallel: A king owning a beautiful orchard of
luscious fruit, and not knowing whom to trust in it,
appointed two invalids—one Jame and the other
blind. The lame one, however, tempted by the
precious fruit, suggested to his blind companion
that he ascend a tree and pluck some; but the latter
pointed to his sightless eyes. At last the blind
man raised his lame companion on his shoulders, and
thus enabled him to pluck someof the fruit. When
the king came, noticing that some fruit had disap-
peared, he inquired of them which was the thief.
Vehemently asserting his innocence, each pointed to
the defect which made it impossible for him to have
committed the theft. But the king guessed the
truth, and, placing the lame man on the shouiders
of the other, punished them together as if the two
formed one complete body. Thus, added Ishmael,
will it be hereafter: soul and body will be reunited
and punished together (Lev. R. iv. 5; comp. Sanh.
9la et seq.).
Ishmae] laid the foundation for the halakic midrash
on Exodus, the Mexku.Ta; and a considerable por-
tion of the similar midrash, the SIFRE on Numbers,
appears also to have originated with him or in his
{shmael b. Johanan
Islam
school, known as “Debe R. Ishmael.” Some sup-
pose that he was among the martyrs of Bethar (comp.
Ab, R. N. xxxviii. [ed. Schechter, p. 56b]); the more
generally received opinion, however, is that one of the
martyrs, ahigh priest, was a namesake (Ned. ix. 10).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, 4g. Tan. i. 240 et seq.; Brill, Mebo
ha-Mishnah, i. 103 et seq.; Frankel, Darke ha-Mishnah, pp.
105 et seqg.; Gratz, Gesch. iv. 60; Hamburger, R. B. 7. ii. 526
et séq.; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.; Hoffmann, Hinleituny
in die Halachischen Midraschim, pp. 5 et seg.; Weiss, Dor,
ii. 101 et seq.; idem. introduction to his edition of Mekilta, x.
et seq.; Zacuto, Yuhasin, ed. Filipowski, p. 29.
S. S. M.
ISHMAEL B. JOHANAN B. BAROKA:
Tanna of the second century (fourth tannaitic gen-
eration); contemporary of Simon b. Gamaliel IT.
These two rabbis are often quoted together, either
as opposing, or as agreeing with, each other (Tosef.,
‘Er, iv. [v.] 2; 2b. Yeb. xiii. 5). Joshua b. Karhah
also appears to have been of their circle, and the
trio joined in opinions on marital questions (Tosef.,,
Yeb. l.c.; Tosef., Ket. ix. 2; comp. Yeb. 42b, 75a;
see SANHEDRIN). Once Ishmael is cited as oppo-
sing his father, JonaANAN B. BAROKA, on a question
of civil law (B. K. x. 2; 7. p. 114b; comp. Alfasi
and Rosh ad loc.), While his name is connected with
about forty halakot, on dietary laws, sacrifices, and
Levitical cleanness, as well as on civil law, he is but
little known in the province of the Haggadah. He
says, “Whoso learns in order to teach is aided by
Heaven to learn and to teach; but whoso learns in
order the more fully to discharge his duties, him
Heaven enables to learn and teach and practise ”
(Ab. iv. 5). Elsewhere he points out that the pious
man must not live in the neighborhood of the
wicked, for when punishment providentially falls
upon the latter the former suffers also (Ab, R. N. ix.
[ed. Schechter, p. 20a; comp. p. 34b]).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Tan. ti. 369; Brill, Mebo ha-
Mishnah, i. 209; Frankel, Darke ha-Mishnah, p. 185; Weiss, |
Dor, ii, 167.
8. S. M.
ISHMAEL B. JOSE B. HALAFTA: Tanna
of the end of the second century. Ishinael
served as a Roman official together with Eliezer b.
Simon, and was instrumental in suppressing the
hordes of Jewish freebooters that had collected dur-
ing the war between Severus and Rescennius Niger
(193), His activity in this direction was greatly re-
sented by the Jews, who never forgave him for hand-
ing over fellow Jews to the Roman authorities for
execution (Meg. 84a). In halakic literature he is
known by his citations of his father’s sayings which
he transmitted to Judah I., with whom he read
Lamentations and the Psalms (Lam. Rab. ii. 420;
Midr. Teh. iii. 1). He had a wide knowledge of the
Scriptures, and could write down from memory the
whole of the Bible (Yer. Meg. 74d).
Ishmael b. Jose was not on good terms with the
Samaritans. On one occasion, when he was passing
through Neopolis on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the
Samaritans jeeringly invited him to pray on Mount
Gerizim instead of on “those ruins [Jerusalem] ”;
Ishmael retorted that the object of their veneration
was the idols hidden there by Jacob (Gen. R. 1xxxi.;
comp. Gen, xxxv.4). Sanh. 88b would indicate that
he also had occasional passages with Christians.
As a judge, Ishmael was noted for absolute integ-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
650
rity (Mak. 24a). His modest bearing called forth
high praise from hismaster. The treasures of Tyre
shall be “forthem that dwell before the Lord ” (Isa.
xxiii. 18) refers, said R. Judah, to Ishmael b. Jose
and to others who, like him, consider themselves as
of little account, but for whom some day a greater
glory waits (Eccl. R. i. 7). The following gives
an instance of his timely wit: Compelled to say
something agreeable about a very ugly woman, he
in vain sought ground for a compliment, until he
learned that her name was “ Lihluhit ” (the dirty one).
“Ah!” said he, “there is something beautiful about
her—her name, which suits her uncommonly well.”
His haggadic interpretation of 71D myond (Ps.
iii.) may be given as an example of his method
of exegesis. He explains it to mean “a psalm to
Him who causes man to conquer himself.” “Sing
a psalm 10 Him who feels a great joy in being con-
quered, Come and behold! God’s way is not man’s
way. One who is defeated is depressed, but God
rejoices in being conquered, as seen in Psalm cvi.
28, where the joy of the Lord is expressed at the
fact that Moses, His chosen one, was victorious in
his mediation for Israel” (Pes. 119a; see Rashi ad loc.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Weiss, Dor, 286; Bacher, Ag. Tan. ii. 407-411;
Graetz, Hist. ii. 4867-469.
8. 8. 8. Lev.
ISHMAEL BEN KIMHIT (KAMHIT
[n'nmpp]): High priest under Agrippa I.; probably
identical with Simon, son of Kéyi@oc (or Kéuy), men-
tioned by Josephus (“ Ant.” xx. 1, 8§ 3etseg.). Heis
known as having had a hand so large that it could
contain four cabs of flour (Yoma 47a). Once, while
talking with an Arab (or with the Arabian king),
the latter’s saliva fell on Ishmael’s garment and
made him unclean, so that his brother officiated in
his stead (2b.; Tosef., Yoma, iv. [iii.] 20). In Yer.
Yomai.1, Lev. R. xx. 7, and Tan., Ahare Mot, 9, this
story is related of Simeon ben Kimhit. According
to the Talmudic sources mentioned above, “ Kimhit”
was the name of the mother of Ishmael, or Simeon;
she had seven sons, all of whom became high priests.
esterase Derenbourg, Hist. p. 197, Paris, 1867: Gratz,
esch. 4th ed., iii., note 19 (pp. 738-789); idem, in Monats-
schrift, xxx. 53 et seq.
6. M. SEL.
ISHMAEL, SON OF NETHANIAH. S&ce
GEDALIAH.
ISHMAEL BEN PHABI (FIABI) II.: High
priest under Agrippa IT. ; not to be identified (as by
Gritz and Schiirer) with the high priest of the same
name who was appointed by Valerius Gratus and
who officiated during 15-16 of the common era.
Ishmael was a worthy successor of the high priest
Phinehas. He was appointed to the office by
Agrippa in the year 59, and enjoyed the sympathy
of the people. He was very rich; his mother made
him, for the Day of Atonement, a priestly robe which
cost 100 minz. Ishmael at first followed the Sad-
ducean method of burning the sacrificial red heifer,
but finally authorized the procedure according to
the Pharisaic teaching. Being one of the foremost
ten citizens of Jerusalem sent on an embassy to Em-
peror Nero, he was detained by the empress at
Rome as a hostage. He was beheaded in Cyrene
651
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ishmael b. Johanan
Islam
after the destruction of Jerusalem, and is glorified
by the Mishnah teachers (Parah iii. 5; Sotah ix. 15;
Pes. 57a; Yoma 85b).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Josephus, Ant. xx. 8, 88 8, 11; idem, B. J. vi.
2,82; Schiirer, Gesch. ii. 219; Ad. Biichler, Das Synedrion
im Jerusalem, pp. 67, 96, Vienna, 1902.
G. M. K.
ISIDOR, LAZARD: Chief rabbi of France;
grandson, on his mother’s side, of Hirsch Katzenellen-
bogen, chief rabbi of Upper Alsace; born at Lix-
heim, Lorraine, July 13, 1818; died at Montmorency
1888. At the age of fourteen he entered the rabbin-
ical school at Metz, which two years later became
the Ecole Centrale Rabbinique of France, under
government control. Isidor became rabbi of Pfalz-
burg, Lorraine, in 1888, where he attracted general
attention by questioning the validity of the oath
“more Judaico,” which he refused to take, consider-
ing it an insult to his coreligionists. As an incum-
bent of a government office he was arraigned before
the court though, defended by Crémieux, he ob-
tained a favorable verdict. In 1844 Isidor went to
Paris, where he was received with acclamation, and
in 1847, at the early age of thirty-three, became chief
rabbi of Paris, a position which he filled for twenty
years. Aschief rabbi Isidor achieved a great suc-
cess, to which his personal popularity contributed,
and he united the heterogeneous elements of the
community into one harmonious body, In 1867 he
became chief rabbi of France,
Isidor was conservative, and his enthusiasm for
unity led him to oppose the Reform party. He
was the creator of the rabbinical missions, and espe-
cially devoted himself to the task of assimilating
Algerian Judaism with that of France. Asan orator
Isidor was distinguished. His literary efforts in-
clude only pastoral letters, funcral orations, ser-
mons, etc. One of the finest of his funeral orations
is entitled “Paroles Prononcées sur la Tombe du
Commandant Franchetti.”
Ss. J. L.
ISIDORUS HISPALENSIS: Archbishop of
Seville; flourished in the sixth and seventh cen-
turies. He presided over the fourth Council of To-
ledo, called together by the Visigothic king Sise-
nand (683), and gave expression to the principle that
Jews ought not to be forced into the Christian
Church. To convert the Jews he wrote a book in
two volumes, “Contra Judzos,” in which he takes
care to maintain the claims of Christianity from the
Old Testament. Whether the Spanish Jews entered
into controversy with Isidorus, and, as Gritz be-
lieves, carried it on in Latin, is an open question.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. der Juden, v. 77 et av
J.
ISIS: Egyptian deity, at whose instigation, it
. was alleged, the Jews were forced to leave Egypt.
Cheremon, the enemy of the Jews, asserted that the
goddess Isis had appeared to the Egyptian king
Amenophis, and had censured him because her sanc-
tuary had been destroyed; whereupon the priest
Phritibantes told the king that the terrible vision
would not recur if he would purge Egypt of the
“foul people.” Then the departure of the Jews
from Egypt took place (Josephus, “Contra Ap.” i.
32). Tacitus has a different version, according to
which the Jews were natives of Egypt, and had
emigrated during the reign of Isis (“ Hist.” v. 2-3).
In the Epistle of Jeremiah (80-40) either the cult of
Isis or that of Cybele isdescribed. The violation of
the chaste Paulina in the Temple of Isis at Rome
was one of the reasons for the expulsion of the Jews
from that city by Tiberius (Josephus, “ Ant.” xviii.
3, 8 4; Hegisippus, “De Excidio Hieros.” ii. 4).
After the destruction of Jerusalem, Vespasian and
Titus celebrated their triumph in the Temple of Isis
at Rome (Josephus, “B. J.” vii. 5, § 4). Tiberius
Julius Alexander, a descendant of the apostate and
procurator (of Judea) of the same name, erected a
statue to Isis at Alexandria, in the 2ist year of
Antoninus Pius (Schiirer, “Gesch.” 3d ed., 1. 568,
note 9). The Greeks that lived in Palestine wor-
shiped, among other gods, the goddess Isis (2d. 11.
35). Hence it is not surprising that the Rabbis also
speak of the worship of Isis; they do not mention
her name, but refer to her as the “suckling” (“mie-
nikah”; ‘Ab. Zarah 48a; Tosef., ‘Ab. Zarah, v. 1);
she is often represented with the suckling Horus.
This specific application of “the suckling” has not
been recognized in -he Talmudic dictionaries of
Levy, Kohut, and Jastrow.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sachs, Beitrdge zur Sprach- und Altertums-
kunde, ii. 99, Berlin, 1854; 8. Krauss, in Kohut Memorial
Volume, p. 346, Berlin, 1897. .
G. S. Kr.
ISLAM: Arabic word denoting “submission to
God”; the name given to the religion of MOHAMMED
and to the practises connected therewith. This re-
ligion was preached first to Mohammed’s fellow citi-
zens in Mecca, then toall Arabia; and soon after his
death it was spread to distant lands by the might of
the sword. Its followers are called “ Moslems” (Ara-
bic, “Muslimin”). The word “Islam ” represents the
infinitive, the noun of action, of the factitive stem
of the Arabic root “salam,” and is rightly compared
(Zunz, “ Literaturgesch.” p. 641; comp. Steinschnei-
der, “ Polemische und Apologetische Literatur,” p.
266, note 56) with the use of the “ hif‘il” of “ shalam ”
in later Hebrew; e.g., Pesik. 125a (“mushlam”);
Tan., ed. Buber, Gen. p. 46 2. (where “hishlim ” is
used of proselytes).
The preaching of Mohammed as the messenger of
God (“rasul Allah” ; see MOHAMMED) owed its origin
to the prophet’s firm conviction of the approach of
the Day of Judgment (“ Yaum al-Din”) and to his
thorough beliefin monotheism. The former was pri-
marily a reaction against the conduct of the Meccan
aristocracy of his time, which in his
Motive eyes was sensual, avaricious, proud,
Principles. oppressive, and wholly indifferent to
thing's spiritual; the latter was a pro-
test against the polytheistic traditions of the Arabs.
Mohammed was led to both through Jewish and
Christian influences, to which he was subjected in
his immediate surroundings as well as during the
commercial journeys undertaken by him in his
youth. Only in the second period of his activity,
after the Hegira—the departure of himself and his
most faithful followers to Medina (formerly Yathrib)
in 622—did he undertake a practical organization of
his prophetic work, and, by making concrete laws,
give a definite form to the general religious feeling
Islam
which had been aroused by his preaching. These
laws dealt both with social relations and with relig-
ious worship. It was only then that the religious
tendency which had arisen out of a reaction against
the heathenism of Arabia took on the form of a real,
positive institution.
Mohammed’s conception of his own calling and
the fate which his efforts had to endure at the hands
of the infidels (“kafir” — “kofer”) appeared to his
mind as a reflection of the prophets of the Bible,
whose number he increased by a few characters (¢.9.,
Hud and Salih) borrowed from an old tradition (see
JUBILEES, Boox oF), The persecutions which were
suffered at the hands of their fellow citizens by
those whose work he had now taken up were re-
peated in his own career. There was the same
obstinate refusal, the same appeal to ancestral tra-
ditions, the resigning of which for the sake of a God-
sent message heathen nations had ever opposed.
In the conduct of the Meccans toward Mohammed
were repeated the actions of earlier peoples toward
the messengers and prophets sent from time to time
by Allah to mankind. Mohammed himself was the
last link in the prophetic chain; the conclusion, the
“seal of the prophets ” (“ khatam al-anbiya’ ” ; comp.
parallels in “J. Q. R.” xiv. 725, note 5).
In reality this confession or practise which he
sought to establish was nothing new: it was only a
restoration of the ancient religion of Ibrahim, to
which God had called him (Mohammed) through the
medium of Gabriel, the angel of revelation, whom he
identitied with the Holy Ghost. He claimed that he
was to continue the mission of the earlier prophets
from Adam to Jesus, and demanded for all of them
faith and recognition; he would have their revealed
books recognized as Holy Scriptures, viz., the Torah
(“ Taurat”), the Psalms (“Zabur”), and the Gospel
(“Injil”). In addition, certain other prophets had
written the will of God on rolls. As to his personal
valuation, he made the most modest demands: he
did not wish to be regarded as being
Relation to above the sphereof humanity; he was
Prede- only a man, of the same flesh and
cessors. blood as those to whom lis speech
was directed; and he even declined
with consistent firmness the suggestion to perform
miracles, the one and only miracle being God’s in-
imitable, unsurpassable word (“kur’an”), as the in-
strument of which he was called by God. Hence he
emphatically denied the claims which Christianity
made in regard to the character of its founder—a
character which he held to be in contradiction not
only to that of a prophet sent by God, but also to
that of the transcendental monotheism which he
(Mohammed) preached: “He is Allah, onealone; he
begets not, and is not born; and no one equals him
in power” (sura CxXii.).
Since he claimed to bea restorer of the ancient,
pure religion revealed to Abraham, he connected his
teaching with that of the Holy Scriptures of the
Jews and Christians, of whose contents, however,
he had in many particulars only a very imperfect
knowledge—his teachers having been monks or
half-educated Jews—and this knowledge he often
repeated in a confused and perverted fashion.
What he received from the Jews was mixed with |
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
652
haggadic elements current orally among Arabian
Jews or existing in written form |—probably pre-
served in Ethiopic translations of Hebrew pseudepi-
graphic writings.—K.]; and his conception of Chris-
tian teachings was sometimes that of the heretical
sects (Collyridians, Docetze) scattered throughout the
Orient, and not recognized in the canonical doctrines
of Christianity. As has recently been shown, Mo-
hammed himself not only borrowed from Jews and
Christians, but was influenced also by Parseeism,
with the professors of which (“majus,” “magian ”)
he came into direct contact (I. Goldziher, “Isla-
misme et Parsisme,” in “ Actes du ler Congrés Inter-
nat. d’Histoire des Religions,” i. 119-147, Paris,
1901).
The first and most ancient document of Islam is
naturally the Koran (“ Proclamation ”), which, con-
taining God’s revelations to Moham-
The Koran. med, forms the foundation of his re-
ligion. The doctrine of faith and
practise preached by Mohammed is unfolded grad-
ually with the succession of stages in the growth of
the Koran. In the first period of his activity (at
Mecca) he was occupied chiefly with his inspirations
in regard to the truths of the faith, the monotheistic
idea, the divine judgment, and his prophetic calling.
The monotheistic conception of God, which he op-
poses to Arabian heathendom, agrees in substance
with that of the Old Testament; he emphasizes,
however, as Néldeke has pointed out, “more the
universal power and the unhindered free will of
God than His holiness.” Mohammed connects the
idea of omnipotence with the attribute of niercy,
which forms an essential element in the exercise of
God’s omnipotence and which is expressed in the
name for God taken from the mother religion, “al-
Rahman” (“Rahmana”), usually joined with “al-
Rahim ” (=“ the Compassionate ”). The formulation
of the social and ritualistic laws was revealed to him
principally after the Hegira, during his sojourn in
Medina; while the most essential elements of the
ritual ordinances had been evolved during the Mec-
can period. In Medina he bad counted much on the
support of the influential Jews, by whom he ex-
pected to be regarded as the final messenger of God
promised in the Scriptures. He accordingly at first
made them various concessions. Fle pointed to Jeru-
salem as the direction (“kiblah ”) toward which they
should turn when praying, and he established the
tenth day of the first lunar month (‘ASHURA) as
the great annual fast-day. The prohibition against
eating swine’s flesh was also taken from Judaism,
and, like that against drinking wine, was accepted,
since it was difficult in those days for Arabs to
procure that beverage; whereas the adoption of
the Biblical prohibition against camel’s flesh would
have encountered great opposition, because such
meat formed an integral part of the national food
(Frinkel,“ Aramiische Fremd worter im Arabischen,”
iij.). CrrcumMcision, a custom preserved from old
Arabian heathendom, does not possess in Islam the
fundamental character peculiar to it among the
Jews.
In view, however, of the obstinate opposition
maintained by the Jews, Mohammed soon annulled
some of these concessions. The kiblah was directed
653
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Islam
toward Mecca (sura ii. 186); the month Ramadan
became the great period of fasting, in place of the
| tenth day of the first month; and in
Opposition other cascs also he opposed some of
to Judaism. the principal details of Jewish prac-
tise. He set aside the restrictions of
the dietary laws (retaining only those in regard to
swine’s flesh and animals which die a natural death
or are offered as heathen sacrifices); and he protested
against the Jewish conception and observation of
the Sabbath. Instead of the day of rest in com-
memoration of God’s resting, he appointed Friday
(“ Jum‘ah ”) as a day of assembly for divine worship
(“ Die Sabbath-Institution in Islam,” in “Kaufmann
Gedenkbuch,” pp. 86-101). In the abolition of such
Biblical ordinances he laid down the principle of
ABROGATION Which forms the basis of Islamic the-
ology. :
The fundamental obligations of Islam, called
“pillars of religion,” in their most complete system-
atic form are five in number: (1) The “shahadah,”
the confession of faith: “There is no God but Allah;
and Mohammed is his apostle.” This twofold con-
fession (“ kalimata al-shahadah ”) is amplified into the
following creed: “I believe in Allah,
Insti- in his angels, in his [revealed] Scrip-
tutions of tures, in his Prophets, in the future
Islam. life, inthe divine decree [in respect to]
the good as well as [to] the bad, and
in the resurrection of the dead.” (2) “Salat” (di-
vine worship), to be performed five times a day;
viz,, at noon (“Zubr”), in the afternoon (“ ‘asr”), in
the evening (“magbrib”), at the approach of night
(“ ‘isha’ ”), and in the morning between dawn and
sunrise (“subh”). The institution of these five
times of prayer developed gradually; to the three
daily prayers which Mohammed himself appointed
after the Jewish pattern were soon added the other
two, in imitation of the five “gah” of the Parsees.
(3) “ Zakat,” the levying of an annual property-tax
on all property, the sum coming into the state treas-
ury from this source to be used for the public and
humanitarian objects enumcrated in the Koran (sura
ix. 60). (4) “Al-sivyam” (= Hebr. “zom”), fasting
from morning till evening every day during the
month Ramadan (the severity of this law was light-
ened by certain indulgences). (5) “Al-hajj” (the
pilgrimage) to Mecca, imposed on every one for
whom the performance of this duty is possible.
The ceremonies incident to this pilgrimage Mo-
hammed preserved from the traditional practises
followed during the period of heathendom, although
he reformed and reinterpreted them in a monotheis-
tic sense (C. Snouck Hurgronje, “Het Mekkaansche
Feest,” Leyden, 1880). Dozy’s theory, based on I
Chron, iv. 89-48 (see his “ De Israelieten te Mekka,”
Haarlem, 1864; German transl., Leipsic, 1864), that
the pilgrimage ceremonies of olden times in Mecca
were instituted by Israelites, more particularly by
Simeonites who had been scattered thither, and that
even the nomenclature of the rites may be etymo-
logically explained from the Hebrew, has found little
favor (comp. Geiger, “Jtid. Zeit.” iv. 281; “Z. D.
M. G.” xix. 380).
In addition to the religious duties imposed upon
each individual professing Islam, the collective
duty of the “jihad” (= “fighting against infidels ”)
is imposed on the community, as represented by the
commander of the faithful. Mohammed claimed for
his religion that it was to be the common property
of all mankind, just as he himself, who at first ap-
peared as a prophet of the Arabs, ended by pro-
claiming himself the prophet of a universal religion,
the messenger of God to all humanity, or, as tradi-
tion has it, “ila al-ahmar wal-aswad” (to the red
and the black). For this reason unbelief must be
fought with the force of weapons, in order that
“God’s word may be raised to the highest place.”
Through the refusal to accept Islam, idolaters have
forfeited their lives. Those “who possess Scrip-
tures” (“ahl al-kitab”), in which category are in-
cluded Jews, Christians, Magians, and Sabians, may
be tolerated on their paying tribute (“jizyah ”) and
recognizing the political supremacy of Islam (sura
ix. 29). The state law of Islam has accordingly di-
vided the world into two categories: the territory
of Islam (“dar al-Islam”) and the territory of war
(“dar al-harb ”), 2.¢,, territory against which it is the
duty of the commander of the faithful (“amir al-
mu’minin ”) to lead .ue community in the jihad.
For the exercise of the ritual duties certain cere-
monies are appointed (¢.g., the preliminary ablutions
and the definite number of bows and prostrations
in the case of the salat), the forms of which were,
however, still variable during the first century of
Islam. The early dispersion of the Moslems into
distant lands, in which they conducted wars of con-
quest, made it difficult to establish a fixed practise.
The most varying opinions arose concerning the
regulations which the prophet had ordained in re-
gard to these forms and the manner in which he
had himself performed the ceremonies—in a word,
concerning what was the “sunna” (traditional cus-
tom) in these matters. The claim as to the validity
of each opinion was based on some alleged report
(“hadith ”) either of a decree or of a practise of the
prophet or of his companions (“ashab”). In regard
to these questions of detail, as indeed in regard to
questions of law in general—which latter embraces
both jurisprudence and matters of ritual—it was
only in the second century after the establishment of
Islam that fixed rules were adopted. These were
founded partly on what was recognized as tradition,
partly on speculative conclusions, and partly on
the generally acknowledged and authenticated con-
sensus of opinion in the community (“ijma‘ ”).
These legal regulations were worked up systemat-
ically, and furnished material for the activity of
those theological schools in which was developed
the Mohammedan law that to-day is still recognized
as authoritative.
The study of law is one of the most important of
Mohammedan sciences, “ fikh ” (lit. “reasonableness ”
=“ juris prudentia” ; Hebr. “hokmah”). Its students
are the “fukaha” (sing. “fakih”; 7.e., “ prudentes”
= “hakamim ”), Onthe development of this science
Roman and Talmudic law, especially the former,
has exercised a great influence. The studies of the
oldest Jaw schools have led to different results in
the regulation of many details of the law according
to the varying application of the data and of the
fundamental principles. Hence arose the differ-
Islam
ences in the ritualistic practises and in the verdicts
of the various legal sects (“madhahib”) of Islam.
Many of these sects have since disappeared; but the
Hanatfites, the Shafiites, the Malikites, and the Han-
falites have survived to the present day, and are
distributed over large tracts of the extensive Islamic
world.
By far the largest sect is that of the Hanafites,
founded in the school of the Imam Abu
Hanifah (d. 150 A.H. =767C.£.); it pre-
dominates in Turkey, in middle Asia,
and in India. The Shafiites, named after the Imam
Al-Shafi‘i (d. 204 = 819), prevail in Egypt, south-
ern Arabia, the Dutch colonies, and in German Kast-
African territory. The Malikites, named after Malik
ibn Anas, the great Imam of Medina (d. 179 = 795),
include those who profess Islam in northern Africa
and some in Upper Egypt. The Hanbalites, distin-
guished for their rigor and intolerance, and for a
strict adherence to tradition, are named after the
Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 241 = 855). This sect
suffered a serious decline after the fifteenth century ;
but it revived in the eighteenth century in the Waha-
bite movement of central Arabia, where the general
adoption of its point of view led to the foundation
of the Wahabitic dynasty. These four sects stand
on the common basis of the sunna.
The Mohammedan schismatic movement was in
origin not religious, but political. Its central point
is the question as to the rightful successor to
the prophet in the government of the Islamic com-
munity. While the Sunnites recognize the right
of election to the califate, the Shiites refuse to
accept the historical facts, and recognize as legiti-
mate rulers and successors (“khalifah”) to the
prophet only his direct blood relations and descend-
ants in the line of his daughter Fatima, the wife
of Ali. But they are again divided among them-
selves according to which branch of the prophet’s
descendants they recognize. The Shiitic High
Church, represented by the sect of the Ithna-
‘ashariy yah (=“ Twelvers ”), also called “ Imamites,”
derive the legitimate succession in the califate (they
prefer the term “Imam” to “ Khalifah”) from Ali,
and transmit it from father to son until the twelfth
Imam, Mohammed b. Hasan al-‘Askari. This Mo-
hammed is said to have disappeared mysteriously
in the year 266 A.H. (= 879 c.E.), when he was but
eight yearsold; and the “T'welvers” hold that since
then he has lived in concealment, and will appear
again at the last day as Imam Mahdi. Another
branch of the Shiites, the so-called “Isma‘iliyyah,”
known in history as “the Fatimites,” founded a dy-
nasty which was powerful for some time in North
Africa and in Egypt (909-1171 c.5.). As a result
of the veneration paid by the Shiites to the family
of Ali and Fatima (belief in the infallibility of the
Imams is obligatory on all Shiites), doctrines of in-
carnation have sprung up within these sects, which
join to the theory of the legitimate imamate the be-
lief that the possessor of this dignity becomes super-
human; and this belief is even carried to the point
of recognizing the existence of “ God-men.”
The Gnostic teachings that have developed in
Islam have exercised an influence on its cosmogonic
and emanational theories, plainly evidencing the ef-
Sects.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
654
fect of Babylonian and Parseeideas. To thisday the
stunted remains of these old tendencies survive in
the Druses, Nosairians, ancl the other sects scattered
through Persia and Syria; and the history of Islam
as well as a not inconsiderable literature bears testi-
mony to the extent of their influence (comp. Dus-
saud, “Histoire et Religion des Nosairis,” Paris,
1900; Seybold, “Die Drusenschrift ‘Das Buch der
Punkte und Kreise,’” Tiibingen, 1902). An ac-
quaintance with the dogmatic movement in Islam and
with the sects that have proceeded from it is of great
importance for the study of the history of religious
philosophy in Judaism, and of its expression in the
Jewish literature of the Middle Ages. As early as
the second century of Islam, through the influence
of Greek philosophy a rationalistic reaction took
place in Syria and Mesopotamia against a literal ac-
ceptance of several conceptions of orthodox belief.
This reaction touched especially upon
Liberal the definition of the attributes of God,
Movement thedoctrine of revelation, and the con-
inIslam. ceptions of free will and fatalism.
While the strictly orthodox party,
represented for the greater part by the followers of
Ibn Hanbal (see above), clung in all questions toa
literal interpretation of the Koran and tradition, the
Motazilites introduced a more reasonable religious
view, one more in keeping with the essence of mono-
theism (see ARABIC PHILOSOPHY).
Wholly without parallel in the history of the
world was the rapid and victorious spread of Islam,
within scarcely a century after the death of its
founder, beyond the boundaries of Arabia, over Asia
Minor, Syria, Persia, middle Asia to the borders of
China, the whole coast of North Africa (ancient
Mauritania and Numidia), and Europe
Its Spread. asfarasSpain. It subdued the Sudan
as well as India; it flooded the Malay-
an islands; and it has not yet finished ity propa-
ganda among the negroes of Africa, where it is stead-
ily gaining ground. Starting from Zanzibar, it has
spread to Mozambique, to the Portuguese colonies
on the coast, to the negro tribes of South Africa, and
it has even penetrated Madagascar. Islam is repre-
sented in America also, in some of the negroes who
have immigrated to the western hemisphere. The
slight Islamic propaganda of modern times among
the Christians of North America isa peculiar one. It
finds its expression in an English-Mohammedan serv-
ice, in an Islamic literature, as well as in a newspaper
(“The Moslem World”). In England, also, a Moham-
medan community has recently been founded (Quil-
liam; comp. “Islam in America,” New York, 1898).
The total number of professors of the Moham-
medan faith in the world has been variously estimated.
Two computations of modern times should especially
be mentioned: that of the Mohammedan scholar
Rouhi al-Khalidi, who gives the total number as
282,225,420 (“ Revue de l’Islam,” 1897, No. 21), and
that of Hubert Jansen (“ Verbreitung des Islams,”
etc., Friedrichshagen, 1897), whose estimate, in
round numbers, is 260,000,000.
Relation to Judaism: In connection with the
general sketch given above it is of especial impor
tance from the Jewish standpoint to note the relations
between Jews and Mohammedans.
655
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Islam
In the Koran many a harsh word is spoken against
the Jews, probably as the immediate effect of the
difficulties which people in Arabia offered to the
fulfilment of Mohammed’s hopes and of the obsti-
nate refusal with which they met his appeal to
them. They are characterized as those upon whom
“God’s anger rests” (suras v. 65, lviii. 15, and, ac-
cording to the traditional exegesis of Mohammedans,
i, 7). They are taxed with having a special hatred
for the faithful (v. 85); hence friendships with them
should not be formed (v. 56). This sentiment is
presupposed to a still greater degree in the old
hadith. It was a general conviction that the Jew
who seems to salute a Moslem with the usual salaam
greeting, instead of saying the word “salam”
(health) says “sam” (death), which has a similar
sound. One instance of this is related as having
taken place even as early as the time of the prophet
(Bukhari, “Isti’dhan,” No. 22; zdem, “Da‘awat,”
No. 56). “Never is a Jew alone with a Moslem
without planning how he may kill him” (Jahiz,
“Bayan,” i. 165). In this way a fanatical rage
against the Jews was infused into the minds of the
Mobammedans. On the last day the faithful will
battle with the Jews, whereupon the stones will say
to the believers: “Behind me lurks a Jew, oh Mos-
lem! Strike him dead!” (Musnad Ahmad, ii. 122,
131, 149; Bukhari, “ Jihad,” No. 98),
But, in spite of the continuance of this malevolent
disposition in single cases, one gathers from the old
literature of Islam the general impression that after
the foundation of the Mohammedan community a
milder sentiment in respect to the Jews was intro-
duced. Even Mohammed had already proclaimed
toleration of the “ Ahl al-Kitab” in consideration of
their paying a certain tax (“jizyah”) into the state
treasury ; although, to be sure, a certain humiliation
for the unbelievers attached to the collection of this
tax (sura ix, 29). Inthe following generation, under
the calif Omar, the details were fixed for the execu-
tion of this general law. Onemight say that side by
side with the harshness shown by Mo-
Treatment hammed and Omar toward the Jews
of Jews. settled in Arabia itself (they were, in
fact, all driven out), there existed a
more tolerant disposition toward those who were
brought under the Mohammedan yoke through the
extensive conquests of Islam. This disposition is
expressed in many old hadiths, of which the follow-
ing may serve as an illustration: “ Whoever wrongs
a Christian or a Jew, against him shall I myself ap-
pear as accuser on the Judgment Day.” A number
of current decrees emphasize the duties toward the
“mu‘ahad” (those with whom a compact has been
made to protect them), or the “dhimmi” (those rec-
ommended to protection) —such are the names given
to the professors of other faiths who are granted pro-
tection—and whenever mention is made of protection
of the “persecuted,” the commentators never omit
to add that this is obligatory in regard to Moslems
and also in regard to the “ahl al-dimmah.” It is
probable that the influence of the old Arabic con-
ception of the duty of caring for whomsoever the
tribe had taken under its protection is to be seen
here; according to that conception, difference in re-
ligion was not sufficient ground for making an ex-
ception (an example of this may be found in “ Kitab
al-‘Aghani,” xi. 91). In the instructions which Omar
gave to the generals as they set forth to spread the
supremacy of Islam by the power of the sword, and
to the officials to whom he entrusted the adminis-
tration of the conquered lands, the injunction to
respect and guard the religious institutions of the
inhabitants of such lands who profess other faiths
often occurs; ¢.g., in the directions given to Mu‘adh
ibn Jabal for Yemen, that no Jew be disturbed in
the exercise of his faith (“ Baladhuri,” ed. De Goeje,
p. 71). Omar likewise directed that some of the
money and food due to the poor from public rev-
enues be given to non-Moslems (2. p. 129). Char-
acteristic of this attitude toward the Jew is a story
—somewhat fabulous, it is true—told of a house in
Busrah. When Omar’s governor in this conquered
city desired to build a mosque, the site of a Jew’s
house appeared to him to be suitable for the purpose.
In spite of the objections of the owner, he had the
dwelling torn down, and built the mosque in its
place. The outraged Jew went to Medina to tell
his grievance to Omar, whom he found wandcring
among the graves, p< drly clad and lost in pious
meditation. When the calif had heard his com-
plaint, anxious to avoid delay and having no parch-
ment with him, he picked up the jaw-bone of an ass
and wrote on it an urgent command to the governor
to tear down his mosque and rebuild the house of
the Jew. This spot was still called “the house of
the Jew ” up to modern times (Porter,
Pact “Five Years in Damascus,” 2d ed., p.
of Omar. 235, London, 1870). To Omar, how-
ever, is likewise ascribed the origin of
a pact (“ ‘ahd ‘Omar ”; see OMAR) whose provisions
were very severe.
Whatever may be true as to the genuineness of
these “pacts” (see in this connection De Goeje,
“Mémoire sur la Conquéte de la Syrie,” p. 142, Ley-
den, 1900; T. W. Arnold, “The Preaching of Islam,”
p. 52), it is certain that not until the science of Mo-
hammedan law had reached its full development in
the Fikh school and the canonical Jaw had been
definitely codified after the second century of the
Hegira, was the interconfessional law definitely es-
tablished. A chapter dealing with the social and
legal position of those “ possessing Scriptures” may
be found in every Mohammedan legal code. There
is a regular gradation in respect to the degree of
tolerance granted by the various legal sects (“ma-
dhahib”). On the whole, the attempt was made in
these codes to adhere in theory to the original fun-
damental laws. The adherence was modified, how-
ever, by a certain amount of increased rigor, corre-
sponding to the public feeling of the age in which
the codes came into existence—that of the Abbassids.
The most intolerant were the followers of Ahmad
ibn Hanbal. The codification of the laws in ques-
tion has been given in detail by Goldziher in “ Mo-
natsschrift,” 1880, xxix. 802-308.
The different tendencies in the codifications are
shown in divergences in the decrees attributed to
the prophet. While one reads, “ Whoever does vio-
lence to a dhimmi who has paid his jizyah and evi-
denced his submission—his enemy I am” (“Usd ai-
Ghaba,” iii. 183), people with fanatical views have
Islam
put into the mouth of the prophet such words as
these: “ Whoever shows a friendly face to a dhimmi
is like one who deals me a blow in the side” (Ibn
Hajar al-Haitami, “Fatawi Hadithiyyah,” p. 118,
Cairo, 1307). Or: “The angel Gabriel met the
prophet on one occasion, whereupon the latter
wished to take his hand. Gabriel, however, drew
back, saying: ‘ Thou hast but just now touched the
hand of a Jew.’ The prophet was required to make
his ablutions before he was allowed to take the
angel’s hand” (Dhahabi, “ Mizan al-I‘tidal,” ii. 232,
275). These and similar sayings, however, were re-
pudiated by the Mohammedan hadith-
Anti- critics themselves as false and spu-
Jewish rious. They betray the fanatical spirit
Traditions. of the circle in which they originated.
Official Islam has even tried to turn
away from Jewsand Christians the point of whatever
malicious maxims have been handed down from
ancient times. An old saying in regard to infidels
reads: “If ye meet them in the way, speak not to
them and crowd them to the wall.” When Suhail,
who relates this saying of the prophet, was asked
whether Jews and Christians were intended, he an-
swered that this command referred to the heathen
(“mushrikin”; “Musnad Ahmad,” ii. 262).
Under the dominion of the Ommiads the follow-
ers of other religious faiths were little disturbed,
since it was not in keeping with the worldly policy
of those rulers to favor the tendencies of fanatical
zealots. Omar II. (717-720) was the only one of
this worldly-wise dynasty who trenched upon the
equal privileges of unbelievers; and he was under
the pietistic influence. Intolerance of infidels and a
limitation of their freedom were first made a part of
the law during the rule of the Abbassids (see AB-
BASSID CALIF¥F8), who, to bring about the ruin of their
predecessors, had supported theocratic views and
granted great influence to the representatives of in-
tolerant creeds (comp. “Z. D. M. G.” xxxviii. 679;
“R. KE. J.” xxx. 6). Under them also the law was
introduced compelling Jews to be distinguished by
their clothing (“ghiyar”; Abu Yusuf, “Kitab al-
Kharaj,” pp. 72-73, Bulak, 1802). Ata later period
such distinguishing marks became frequent in the
Mohammedan kingdoms, especially in North Africa,
where the badge was known as “shaklah ” (Fagnan,
“Chroniques des Almohades et des Hafcides At-
tribué 4 Zerkechi,” p. 19, Constantine, 1895).
The debt of Islam to Judaism is not limited to the
laws, institutions, doctrines, and traditions which
Mohammed himself borrowed from the Jews and
incorporated in his revelations (see KoRAN). For its
later development, also, Islam made
Influence of use of much material presented to its
Judaism teachers through direct association
on Islam. with Jews, through the influence of
converted Jews, and through contact
with the surrounding Jewish life. Many a Jewish
tradition has thus crept into Islam and taken an im-
portant place there. It is related that ‘Ayisha, the
wife of the prophet, owned to having received the
idea of the torments of the grave (“ ‘adhab al-kabr ”
= Hebr. “hibbut ha-keber”) from Jewish women,
and that Mohammed incorporated it in his teaching.
Other eschatological details of Judaism served to
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
656
embellish the original material, much of which goes
back to Parsee sources (eg., the leviathan and
“shor ha-bar” as food = preserved wine as a drink
in paradise; the “luz” = “‘ujb” out of which men’s
bodies will be reconstructed at the resurrection, etc. ;
see EscuaToLocy).. From the very beginning Jews
versed in the Scriptures (“habr” [plural, “ahbar”]
= Hebr. “haber”) became of great importance in
providing such details; and it was from the infor-
mation thus supplied that the meager skeleton of
the teachings of the Koran was built up and clothed.
These ahbar hold an important position also as
sources for information concerning Islam. It will
be sufficient here to refer to the many teachings in
the first two centuries of Islam which are recorded
under the names Ka‘b al-Ahbar (d. 654) and WaHB
IBN MUNABBIH (d. ci7ca 781). In the first place,
Islam owes to this source its elaborations of Biblical
legends; many of these elaborations are incorporated
in the canonical hadith works, and still more in the
historical books (e.g., Tabari, vol. i.); and they early
developed into an important special literature, a
compilation of which is found ina work by Tha‘labi
(d. 1086) dealing exhaustively with these subjects
and entitled “‘Ara’isal-Majalis ” (frequently printed
in Cairo). Here belong the many tales current in
Islamic legendary literature under the name “ Isra-
*iliyyat ” (= “Jewish narratives”; comp. “R. E. J.”
xliv. 63 e¢ seg.). According to the hypothesis of J.
Perles and Victor Chauvin, a large number of the
tales in the “ Thousand and One Nights” go back to
such Jewish sources (see ARABIAN NIGHTS).
The system of genealogy, so important among
the Arabs, connecting early Arabian history with
that of the Biblical patriarchs, also goes back to
Jewish sources, In particular a Jewish scholar of
Palmyra is mentioned who adapted the genealog-
ical tables of the Bible to the demands of Arabic
genealogy (comp. references in Goldziher, “ Mu-
hammedanische Studien,” i. 178, note 2). It was
likewise such Jewish converts who offered the ma-
terial for certain theories hostile to Judaism; for
example, the view, not generally accepted by Mo-
hammedans (26. i. 145), but which is nevertheless
very widely spread, that it was Ishmael, not Isaac,
who was consecrated as a sacrifice (“ dhabih ”)to God,
originates from the teaching of a crafty convert
who wished to ingratiate himself with his new asso-
ciates (Tabari, i. 299),
Islam in the course of its development borrowed
also a large number of legal precepts from the
Jewish Halakah. The importance attached to the
“niyyah” (= “intentio”) in the practise of law is at
first glance reminiscent of the rabbinical teaching
concerning “kawwanah,” even though
Influence of all the details do not coincide. The
Jewish on Mohammedan regulations appertain-
Moham- ing to slaughtering, those relating to
medan the personal qualifications of the
Law. “shohet” (Arabic, “dhabih ”) as well
as those in regard to the details of
slaughtering, show plainly the influence of the Jew-
ish Halakah, as a glance into the codes themselves
will prove. These are easily accessible, in the orig-
inal as well as in European translations (Nawawi,
“ Minhag al-Talibin,” ed. Van den Berg, iii. 297, Ba-
657
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Islam
tavia, 1882-84; “ Fath al-Karib,” edited by the same,
pp. 681 e¢ seg., Leyden, 1894; Tornaw, “Das Mus-
limische Recht,” p. 228, Leipsic, 1855), For ex-
ample, the Mohammedan law in regard to slaugh-
tering ordains expressly that the “hulkum ” (Hebr.
“kaneh”) and the “mari’” (Hebr. “weshet ”) must
be severed, and forbids killing in any other man-
ner. On the other hand, the law, peculiar to Is-
lam, that the slaughterer in the performance of his
duty must turn the animal toward the “kiblah,”
has given material for halakic reflections on the
part of Jews (Solomon ben Adret, Responsa, No. 345;
“Bet Yosef,” on Tur Yoreh De‘ah iv., end). The
rule that God’s mame be mentioned before slaugh-
tering is probably a reflection of the Jewish bene-
diction, as are also in general the eulogies ordained
by Islamic tradition at the appearance of certain
natural phenomena (Nawawi, “ Adhkar,” p. 79,
Cairo, 1812), which may be traced back to the influ-
ence of Jewish customs. Mohammedan law has
adopted literally the provision “ka-makhol ba-she-
poperet” in the case of the precept concerning adul-
tery, and it betrays its source through this charac-
teristic form of speech (“R. E. J.” xxviii. 79), which
is not the only one that teachers of Islam have taken
over from rabbinical linguistic usage (2b. xiii. 5).
Theattempt has been made by Alfred von Kremer
(“Culturgesch. des Orients Unter den Chalifen,”
i, 525, 585) to show by many examples that the cod-
ifiers of Mohammedan civil Jaw were influenced by
Talmudic-rabbinical law, There is, however, legit-
imate doubt in the case of many of such coincidences
whether Roman law, the influence of which on the
development of Mohammedan law is beyond ques-
tion, should not be considered as the direct source
from which Islamic teachers borrowed. Such a
question must arise froma consideration of the legal
principle of the “istishab” (= “ presumptio ”), the
ineaning and application of which coincide fully
with that of the rabbinical principle of the Apr
xnvwp (“ Wiener Zeitschrift fir die Kunde des Mor-
genlandes,” i. 239). Likewise the rules yeah 15 pS
man ypyw mp xox and th 1 xvi Pad TR,
and the fundamental principle of the odin ppn
(“istislah ”) are found literally among the cardinal
juridical principles of Islamic law (2d. p. 229; “ Mu-
hammedanische Studien,” ii. 82, No. 6). In spite of
the fact that it isa principle of Islamic tradition to
avoid all imitation of the usages and customs of the
ahl al-Kitab and that the disapproval of many
usages of religious as well as of secular life is spe-
cifically ascribed to such a cause (“R. B. J.” xxviil.
77), still many religious practises of Judaism have
been incorporated into Islam; for example, many de-
tails in the ceremony of burying the dead, as “ taha-
rah” (washing the dead), holy texts being recited
during the washing of the various parts of the body
(Al-‘Abdari, “Madkhal,” iii. 12, Alexandria, 1298).
Such intrusive customs are not seldom censured by
the purists of Islam as being “bid‘a” (unorthodox
innovations), in opposition to the “Sunnah ” (old or-
thodox usage). Those elements of Mohammedan
religious literature which correspond to the Jewish
Haggadah offer a large field for derivation; in this
connection see HADITH.
Islam is regarded by Mohammedans, as may be
VI.—42
easily conceived, not only as the final stage of the
divine revelation, but also as being quantitatively
richer than either Judaism or Christianity. More
ethical demands are made by it than by the older
religions, This idea found expression in an old
Ladith which even at a very early period was mis-
interpreted to read: “Judaism has 71, Christianity
72, and Islam 78 sects.” The word which was taken
to mean “sects” denotes literally “branches,” and
should be interpreted “religious demands,” “the
highest of whichis the acknowledgment of God and
Mohammed, and the lowest the removal of offense
from the way ” (on the original meaning of this say-
ing see Goldziher, “Le Dénombrement des Sectes
Mohamétanes,” in “Revue de |’Histoire des Reli-
gions,” xxvi, 129-187).
The theological relation of Islam to Judaism is
presented in an extensive polemical literature on the
part of Mohammedan scholars. The subject-matter
of this literature is closely related to the attacks and
accusations already directed against Judaism by the
Koran and the hadith. In the Koran (ix. 30) the
Jews are charged with worshiping
Ezra (“‘Uzair”) as the son of God—a
malevole..t metaphor for the great
respect which was paid by the Jews to the memory
of Ezra as the restorer of the Law, and from which
the Ezra legends of apocryphal literature (II Esd.
xxxiv. 37-49) originated (as to how they developed
in Mohammedan legends see Damiri, “Hayat al.
Hayawan,” i, 304-305). It is hard to bring into
harmony with this the fact, related by Jacob Saphir
(“Eben Sappir,” i. 99), that the Jews of South Ara-
bia have a pronounced aversion for the memory of
Ezra, and even exciude his name from their category
of proper names.
More clearly still does this literature bring for-
ward an accusation, founded on suras ii. 70, v. 15,
that the Jews had falsified certain portions of the
Holy Scriptures and concealed others (iii. 64, vi. 91).
Even in Mohammed’s time the rabbis were said to
have misrepresented to the prophet the law in re-
gard to adulterers (“R. E. J.” xxviii. 79). In later
times the details as to these falsifications were con-
tinually augmented. It was said, for example, that
in order to rob the Arabs of an honor done to their
ancestors the Jews wrongly inserted in the Penta-
teuch the choice of Isaac asthe child whose sacrifice
God demanded of Abraham and which the patriarch
was willing to make, whereas in reality it was Ish-
mael (comp. “Muhammedanische Studien,” i. 145,
note 5). But the accusation of misrepresentation
and concealment is most emphatic in connection
with those passages of the Pentateuch, the Prophets,
and the Psalms in which the adherents of Islam claim
that Mohammed’s name and attributes, his future
appearance as “seal of the prophets,” and his mis-
sion to all mankind were predicted.
Mohammedan theologians divide these charges
into twoclasses: they hold (1) that in some cases the
original text itself has been falsified, while (2) in
others it is the interpretation of a genuine text that
has been wilfully perverted. Whereas in the earlier
period of the controversy these accusations were
made against the “ahbar” as a class, who were rep-
resented as leading the Jewish people astray, later
Polemics.
Islam
Ispahan
on the personal nature of the charge was accen-
tuated, and the fault ascribed to Ezra “the writer”
(“al-warrak”), who in his restoration of the for-
gotten writings was said to have falsified them (“Z.
D. M. G.” xxxii. 370). Abraham ibn Daud (“ Emu-
nah Ramah,” p. 79) combats this accusation. As to
literary compilation, Ibn Kutaiba (d. 276 a.a. = 889
c.E.) was the first to bring together the Biblical pas-
sages supposed to refer to the sending of Mohammed.
His enumeration of them has been preserved in a
work by Ibn al-Jauzi (12th cent.), from which it
has been published in the Arabic text by Brockel-
maun (“Beitrige fiir Semitische Wortforschung,”
ili, 46-55; comp. Stade’s “Zeitschrift,” 1894, pp.
138-142). These passages recur with more or less
completeness in the works of all Moslem apologists
and controversialists (comp. the enumeration of the
Biblical names of the prophet and the Biblical verses
relating to him in “Z. D. M. G.” xxxil. 874-379),
and are usually combined with similar New Testa-
ment prophecies supposed to refer to him (Ilapd-
KAntoc, confused with Tepecduréc, is taken to mean
Mohammed). Of the Biblical names supposed to
allude to Mohammed, Jewish apologists have been
compelled most often to refute the identification of
IND IND with the name of the prophet of Islam.
With this portion of the polemic directed against
the Bible is often connected an exposition of the
contradictions and incongruities in the Biblical nar-
rative. Theftirst toenter this field was the Spaniard
Abu Mohammed ibn Hazm, a contemporary of Sam-
uel ha-Nagid, with whom he was personally ac-
quainted (see Bibliography below). He was the
first important systematizer of this Hterature; and
his attacks upon Judaism and its Scriptures are dis-
cussed by Solomon ben Adret in his “Ma’amar ‘al
Yishmael” (Schreiner, in “Z. D. M. G.” xl viii. 39).
One of the earliest points of controversy was the
contention of the Jews that, although Mohammed
was to beregarded as anational prophet, his mission
was to the Arabs only or in general to
Restriction peoples who had had as yet no re-
of Rec- vealed Scriptures (“ummiyin”; Ko-
ognition bak’s“ Jeschurun,” ix. 24). In opposi-
ofIslam. tion to this, Mohammedan theologians
and controversialists declared that
Mohammed’s divine mission was universal, hence
intended for the Jews also, Abu ‘Isa Obadiah al-
Isfahani, founder of the ‘Isawites (middle of the 8th
cent.), admitted that Mohammedanism as well as
Christianity was entitled to recognize its founder as
a prophet, whose mission was intended for “its
people”; he thus recognized the relative truth of
Islam in so far as its followers were concerned
(Kirkisani, ed. Harkavy, § 11).
The turning-point in this controversy was the
question of abrogation of the divine laws, inasmuch
as a general acceptance of Islam presupposed the
abolition of the earlier divine revelations. Other-
wise the abolition of the Sabbath law (see “ Kauf-
mann Gedenkbuch,” p. 100), of the dietary laws, and
of other Biblical precepts and regulations given by
God would lose all claim to validity. Consequently
the Mohammedans, while maintaining the authority
of the ancient prophets, had to demonstrate the pro-
visional and temporary nature of such of the earlier
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
658
divine laws abrogated by Mohammed as they did
not claim to be out-and-out inventions. So much
the more vigorously, therefore, did the Jewish dog-
matists (Saadia, “Emunot we-De‘ot,” book iil. ;
Abraham ibn Daud, “Emunah Ramah,” pp. 75 et
seg.) oppose from a philosophical standpoint this
view, which attacked the essential principles of the
Jewish religion,
The anti-Jewish controversialists of Islam assumed
as an established fact that the Jews were required
to hold an anthropomorphic, corporeal conception of
God (“tajsim,” “tashbih”). Judaism is even held
respousible for the anthropomorphic conceptions
found in other confessions (see “ Kaufmann Gedenk-
buch,” p. 100, note 1). The Biblical passages
brought forward as proof (among the earliest of
them is Gen. i. 26-27) are counted with those
which it is claimed were falsified by the Jews. LBe-
sides the Biblical passages, references from the Tal-
mud in which extremely anthropomorphic state-
ments are made concerning God (“God _ prays,
mourns,” etc.) are also brought forward to support
these charges. The material for the last-named class
of attacks was probably furnished by the Karaites,
who are treated respectfully by the Mohammedan
controversialists, are characterized as standing closer
to Islam, and in general are exalted at the expense
of the Rabbinites.
Ibn Hazm extends the attack against the Jews
to the rabbinical amplifications of the laws, to the
“bonds and chains” with which the Jews have, with
unjustifiable arbitrariness on the part of the Rabbis,
been bound. Since the time of the Jewish apostate
Samuel b. ‘Abbas, the polemic has taken the form of
satire, directed most often against the minutia of
the precepts on slaughtering and on the order of
procedure in connection with the “ bedikat ha-re’ah.”
The same controversialist also began to criticize
the text of certain prayers (which he cites in He-
brew) and to hold up the conduct of the Rabbis to
ridicule. Later Islamic controversialists have copied
extensively from this convert from Judaism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Lidzbarski, De Propheticis, Qua Dicun-
tur, Legendis Arabicis, Leipsic, 1893; G. Weil, Biblische
Legenden der Muselmdnner, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1845;
Vv. Chauvin, La Recension Egyptienne des Mille et Une
Nuits, in Bibliothéque de la Faculté de Philos. et Lettres
de Liege, Brussels, 1899,
Dozy, Het Islamisme, Haarlem, 1863 (French transl. by
Chauvin, entitled Hssci sur ? Histoire de V Islamisme, Paris,
1879); A. von Kremer, Gesch. der Herrsehenden Ideen des
Istams, Leipsic, 1868; idem, Culturgeschichtliche Stretfztige
auf dem Gebiele des Islams, ib. 1873; idem, Culturgesch. des
Orients Unter den Chalifen, Vienna, 1875-77; Hughes, 4
Dictionary of Islam, London, 1885; Sell, The Faith of
Islam, Madras, 1886; I. Goldziher, Die Zdhiriten, Thr Lehr-
system und Ihre Gesch.: Beitrag zur Gesch. der Muham-
medanischen Theologie, Leipsic, 1884; idem, Muhamme-
danische Studien, Halle, 1889-90; C. Snouck Hurgronje, De
Islam, in De Gids, 1886; Ndldeke, Der Islam, in Orien-
talisehe Skizzen, pp. 638-110, Berlin, 1892; Grimme, Mo-
hammed, part ii., Miumster, 1894; E. Moutet, La Propa-
gande Chrétienne et Ses Adversaires Musulmanes, Paris,
1890; T, W. Arnold, The Preaching of Istam, London, 1896;
Ruling, Beitrdge zur Eschatologie des Islams, Leipsic, 1895;
H. Preserved Smith, The Bible and Islam, or the Influence
of the Old and New Testament on the Religion of Mo-
hammed (Ely Lectures), London, 1898; Pautz, Muhammeds
Lehre von der Offenbarung, Leipsic, 1898; M. Steinsehnei-
der, Polemische und Apologetische Literatur in <Arabi-
scher Sprache Zwischen Muslimen, Christen, und Juden,
in Abhandlungen fiir die Kunde des Morgenlandes, vi., No.
3, iv. 1877; I. Goldziher, Ueber Muhammedanische Pole-
mik Gegen Ah al-Kitab, in Z. D. M. G. xxxii. 841-387;
M. Schreiner, Zur Gesch. der Polemilk Zwischen Juden
und Muhammedanern, ib. xiii. 591-675. :
Abdallah b. Isma‘il al-Hashimi, a polemic against Chris-
659
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Islam
Ispahan
tianity and its refutation by ‘Abd al-Masih b. Ishak al-Kindi
(commencement of Sth cent... London, 1880: comp. Al-
Kindi: The Apology Written at the Court of Al-Mamunin
Defense of Christianity Against Islam, with an Essay on
fts Age and Authorship, London Soc. for Promoting Chris-
tian Knowledge, 1887 (comp. Steinschneider in Z. D. M. G.
Xlix. 248, note 2); Ibn Kutaiba (d. 276 a.H. = 889 C.E.), ed.
Brockelmann; Al-Mawardi (d. 450 = 1058), ed. Schreiner, in
Kohut Memorial Volume, pp. 502-513; Ibn Hazm (d. 456 =
1064), Kitab al-Milal wal-Nihal, Cairo, 1319 = 1901; Samau’-
al b. Yahya al-Maghribi (Jewish apostate, wrote 1169), Ifham
al-Jahud (extracts therefrom revised and published by M.
Schreiner in Monatsschrift, xlii. 123-183, 170-180, 214-228,
293-261, 407-418, 457-465); Mohammed ibnZafar (a Sicilian; d.
565 = 1169), Khair al-Bushar bi-K hair al-Bashar, Cairo,
1280 = 1863; Ahmad b. Idris al-Simbaji al-Karafi (d. 684 =
1285), Al-Ajwibat al-Fakhirah ‘an al-As’ilat al-Fajirah, ib.
1320 = 1902; Sa‘id b. Hasan of Alexandria (Jewish apostate:
wrote 720 = 1320), Masalik al-Nazar (excerpts published by
I. Goldziher in R. BE. J. Xxx. 1-23); Mohammed ibu Kayyim
al-Jauziya (ad. 751 = 1351), Irshad al-Hajara min al-Yahuad
wal-Nasara, Cairo, 1320 = 1902 (for different title see Stein-
schneider, l.c. p. 108, No. 87) ; Abdallah al-Tarjumani (Chris-
tian apostate, wrote 823 = 1420), Tuhfat al-Arib fi al-Radd
‘Ala Ahl-al-Salib, Cairo, 1895 (transl. by Jean Spiroin Revue
de V Histoire des Religions, xii. 68-89, 179-201, 278-301, under
the title Le Présent de VUHomme Lettré pour Refuter les
Partisans de la Croix; Turkish transl. by Mohammed Dhini,
Constantinople, 1291 = 1874); Abu al-Fadl al-Maliki al-Su‘uadi
(wrote 942 = 1535), Disputatio pro Religione Mohammeda-
norum Adversus Christianos, ed. F. T. van den Ham, Ley-
den, 1890; Sayyid ‘Ali Mohammed (a Shiite), Zad Kalil (In-
dian lithograph, 1290 = 1878; the Biblical references are in-
serted in the Arabic text with Hebraic letters and Arabic
transcription); Proof of the Prophet Mohamet from the
Bible, No. 23 of the publications of the Mohammedan Tract
and Book Depot, Lahore, is wholly modern ; Al-Kanz al-Mau-
rud fina Bakiya ‘Alaina min Naks Shari‘at al-Yahud
(a Druse polemic against the Pentatetch: extracts from it
have been published by I. Goldziher in Geiger’s Jiid. Zeit. xi.
68-79); I. Goldziher, Proben Muhammedanischer Polemtk
Gegen den Talmud: i. dbn Hazgm) in Kobak’s Jeschurun,
viii. 76-104; ii. (ibn Kayyim al-Jauziya), ib. ix. 18-47
eka text with German trans].)—an especial anti-Talmudic
polemic.
K, I. G.
ISLAMI, ‘ABD AL-HAKK AK-: Jewish con-
vert to Islam; lived at Ceuta, Morocco, in the first
half of the fourteenth century. He wrote an Arabic
work against the Jews in which the passages that
he quotes from the Bible are given in Hebrew, trans-
literated in Arabic characters. Manuscripts of it
are in the British Museum.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Polemische Literatur, p. 125;
idem, Die Arabische Literatur der Juden, § 126.
G. M. SEL.
ISLER, MEYER: German philologist; born
Dec. 14, 1807, at Hamburg; died there Aug. 19,
1888; studied philology at the universities of Bonn
and Berlin (Ph.D. 1880). Appointed registrar of
the city library of Hamburg in 1882, he thencefor-
ward remained identified with that institution, being
appointed secretary in 1851, superintendent in 1873,
and director in 1878. The last-named post he held
until his retirement in 1883. He was actively inter-
ested in Jewish matters, and was one of the first to
advocate (in the “Allg. Zeit. des Jud.”) the estab-
lishment of rabbinical seminaries.
Isler was the author of “Questionum Hesiodiarum
Specimen,” Berlin, 1830; and he edited the folowing
works: B. G. Niebuhr’s “ Vortrige tiber Rémische
Gesch.” id. 1846-48; the same author’s “ Vortrige
tiber Alte Linder- und Voélkerkunde,” 2d. 1851; “ Ex-
cerpta ex P. Ovidii Nasonis Carminibus,” Edin-
burgh, 1851; “Ecloge Ovidianez,” Hamburg, 1853;
“Verhandlungen der Fiinfzehnten Versammlung
Deutscher Philologen, Schulminner, und Orienta-
listen zu Hamburg, 1-4 Oct., 1855,” Hamburg, 1856;
Gabriel Riesser’s “Gesammelte Schriften,” 4 vols.,
Frank fort-on-the-Main and Leipsic, 1867-68,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Schroder, Lexikon der Hamburgischen
Schriftsteller, iii., Hamburg, 1857; Hamburgischer Corre-
spondent, Aug. 21, 1888; Poke], Philologisches Schriftstel-
ler-Lexikon, 1882,
g, I. G. D.
ISPAHAN: City in the district of Jabal, Persia,
situated on the Zendarud. The Jews pretend to
have founded Ispahan, saying that it was built by
the captives whom Nebuchadnezzar transported
thither after he had taken Jerusalem. This tradi-
tion is related not only by Moses of Chorene (iii., ch.
xxxv.), but also by the Arabic geographers Ibn al-
Fakib (p. 261), Al-Istakhri (p. 198), Ibn Haukal (p.
261), Al-Mukaddasi (p. 388), Yakut (i. 295, iv. 1045),
and Abu al-Fida (p. 411), and by historians, e.g., Ibn
Khaldun (ed. Bulak, ii. 114). It is related that the
Jews took with them earth and water from Jeru-
salem; that wherever they went they
Traditional weighed the earth and the water of
Founding. the place. Arrived at Ispahan, they
encamped at a place which in Hebrew
means “Encamp!” and there they found that the
earth and the water weighed the same as those they
had brought with them from Jerusalem,
_This colony was fo. nded a mile or two east of
Jayy, and was called “ Al-Yahudiyyah”; the name
“Jayy” being changed to “Shahristan” (= “the
city”). Al-Yahudiyyah grew in importance and
became the modern Ispahan; being twice as large
as Shahristan (Al-Istakhri). Al-Mukaddasi speaks
in high terms of its merchants; and Mansur ibn
Badhan is reported to have said that the origin of all
the rich merchant families of Ispahan would be
found to be some idolater or Jew. The founding of
the Jewish colony may have occurred in the third
century under Sapor ILI.
Under Perozes (457-484) the Jewish community
of Ispaban was accused of having killed and flayed
two magi, and that monarch put to death half of
the Jews of that city. He also had the Jewish chil-
dren brought up in the temple of Horwom as fire-
worshipers. About the middle of the tenth cen-
tury the Buyyid king Rukn al-Daulah united the
two towns of Jayy and Al-Yahudiyyah and re-
sumed the ancient name of Ispahan.
During the first centuries after their establishment
at Ispahan the Jews prospered greatly. Benjamin
of Tudela (12th cent.) found in Ispahan about 15,000
Jews. Sar Shalom, rabbi of that city and of all
other towns of the Persian empire, was promoted to
that dignity by the prince of the captivity, who re-
sided at Bagdad. Afterward the Jews suffered great
violence at the hands of the viziers, especially uuder
the Sufi dynasty, whose kings made Ispahan their
residence. The Jews were the first upon whom the
Moslems vented their ire. They were in constant
terror, as the slightest incident served the vizier as a
pretext to compel them either to embrace Islam or
to leave the country. Chardin, who resided for
some time at the court of Shah Abbas II., describes
the misery in which the Jews of Ispahan lived.
They were obliged to wear a special mark on their
dress, to distinguish them from the believers. Their
caps had to be of a different color from the Moslems’ ;
and they were not allowed to wear cloth stockings.
The Jews had at Ispahan one principal synagogue
and several small ones. Chardin says that Shah
Ispahan
Israel
Abbas I. gave 400 francs to every Jewish male con-
vert to Islam and 300 francs to every female con-
vert. Shah Abbas II. repeated these
Per- offers. Babai (see HamapDaAn) de-
secution. scribes at great length the persecu-
tions which the Jews of Ispahan suf-
fered under Shah Abbas I. and his successors;
while Arakel of Tabriz, the Armenian historian, de-
votes a whole chapter to the persecutions under
Shah Abbas IT. Both Babai and Arakel narrate
the tortures which the grand vizier Mohammed
Bey inflicted upon the Jews.
Babai ascribes these persecutions to the theft of a
costly poniard belonging to Shah Abbas II., which
was stolen by his gardener and sold to two Jews.
The thief was caught, and he identified the two
Jews who had bought the jewels that had been re-
moved from the weapon. The Jews strenuously
denied their guilt; but Shah Abbas, being certain
that they lied, ordered a general massacre of the Jews
of the city. His vizier advised Shah Abbas to force
the Jews to embrace Islam instead of killing them;
the suggestion was adopted, and the vizier was au-
thorized to use all possible means to secure this
result.
Not succeeding by force, the vizier had recourse
to stratagem: he endeavored to secure converts from
Judaism by presents of money and other valuables.
The first convert was Obadiah, the chief of the com-
munity, who was followed by several of the elders
and by a great number of the poor, who were thus
helped out of their pecuniary difficulties. During
the civil wars at the beginning of the eighteenth
century, the Jews of Ispahan were the first to suffer
at the hands of the conquerors, But no persecution
equaled that which they suffered under Fath Ali
Shah (1798-1884). The Illiats (the Persian nomads)
made constant irruptions into the Jewish quarter,
violated the women, massacred the men, pillaged
the houses, and broke to pieces what they could not
carryaway. After Fath Ali Shah’s death new riots
broke out, in which about thirty Jews were killed
and many more were wounded. Among the vic-
tims were Abba Nasi, the richest Jew in the com-
munity; Mulley Agha Baba, chief rabbi of Ispahan ;
and a Jewess named Kiskia. Further persecutions
occurred under Nasr al-Din Shah.
Benjamin IT. found at Ispahan in 1850 about four
hundred Jewish families, three synagogues, and
eight rabbis or hakamim. He also made there the
acquaintance of the vizier Ishmael, a Jewish convert
to Islam, whose Hebrew name was Jekuthiel, and
who, a poor workman’s son, rose to high rank.
Babai records that the principal synagogue of
Ispahan was called “Serah bat Asher.” When the
other synagogues of Ispahan were sct on fire by
Mirza Mas‘udi under Shah Abbas II., Serah bat
Asherescaped. This synagogueis still held in great
veneration. The Jews make pilgrimages to it from
all parts of the Persian empire; for there is a tradi-
tion that Serah, the daughter of Asher, was buried
there. According to Confino, there are now in Ispa-
han about 6,500 Jews.
It was here that the false prophet Abu ‘Isa or
Mohammed ibn ‘Isa al-Ispahani was born, from whom
arose the Judso-Persian sect Al-Ispahaniyyah, who
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
660
are also called “ Al-‘Isawiy yah” or “ ‘lsawites ” (Bir-
uni, p. 15; Shahrastani, transl, Haarbrucker, 1. 204;
Schreiner, in “ Monatsschrift,” xxxiv. 140; ¢dem, in
“R. E. J.” xii. 259). It is curious to note that the
Mohammedans believed that Antichrist would arise
in this city, probably because of its large Jewish
population (Ibn al-Fakih, p. 268; Al-Mukaddasi,
p. 899; “Z, D. M. G.” xlii. 596).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Arakel, Livres d’ Histoire, ch. xxxiv. (French
transl. from the Armenian by Brosset); Babai, Diwan (He-
brew MSS. No. 1356, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris); Barbier
de Meynard, Dictionnaire de la Perse, s.v. Ispahan; Ben-
jamin of Tudela, Itinerary, ed. Asher, i.82; Chardin, Voyage
en Perse, ed. Amsterdam, 171], vi.; Edrisi_ (French transl.
by Jaubert, ii. 167); Confino, Revue des Ecoles de V Alliance
Tsraélite, No. 3, p. 183: No. 5, p. 339; Seligsohn, in R. B. J.
Xliv. 87-103, 244-259; Graetz, Hist. i. 591, 629; iii. 124, 434;
Benjamin I1., Mass‘e Yisrael, pp. 85-86.
M. SEL.—G.
ISRAEL. See Jacon.
ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF: In the article
People of Isrant the history of the Northern
Kingdom in its wider relations is briefly set forth;
here the details will be more fully sketched. The
history may be divided into four periods. The first
was a period of confusion and semianarchy; the
second, a time of national consolidation and heroic
self-defense; the third, a period marked by extremes
of misfortune and success; and the fourth, a term
of humiliation by the Assyrians, ending in national
extinction.
First Period.—Jeroboam I. to Omri (934-886
B.c.): The kingdom during this period was in the
formative stage: it was, in fact, continuing the
political experiences of the time of Saul. The ter-
ritory of Israel outside of Judah and southern Ben-
jamin had not been organized by David and Solo-
mon except for purposes of taxation and statute
labor. It was not a federation of tribes, but virtu-
ally a combination of districts, the region north of
Esdraelon being especially loose in its attachment.
The inhabitants of the territory called “Israel” had
not before acted together except in rebellion against
the house of David. The genius of David had
placed Judah half a century ahead of the rest of
the land, in both political and military affairs.
Accordingly in the inevitable wars with Judah,
Israel was at first at a disadvantage. Its reverses
increased the original confusion and
Dynastic discontent. The rule of Ephraim be-
Changes. came unpopular; and Jeroboam’s son
Nadab (913) was slain by a usurper,
Baasha of Issachar (911). The northern districts
needed especial protection; for the Arameans of Da-
mascus were beginning their fateful border attacks.
Baasha fixed his capital at Tirzah, nearer his own
home, and made a treaty with Damascus. His
measures of concentration enabled him to assert the
natural superiority of northern Israel and to establish
himself firmly on the borderofJudah. With costly
gifts King Asa of Judah induced the Arameans
to break with Baasha, and to invade the territory
of Israel. The result was the loss to Israel of fertile
lands northwest and west of the Sea of Galilee, and
the abandonment by Baasha of his southern vantage-
ground, The dynasty of Baasha was soon over-
thrown. His son Elah (888) was slain in a military
conspiracy ; and after the downfall of two pretend-
661
ers, Omri, the general of the army, was made king
by his soldiers.
Second Period.—Omri to Jehu (886-842):
Oniri chose a new capital, Samaria, the strongest
site for defense in central Palestine. Under him the
fratricidal war with Judah was changed to friend-
ship based on common interest; and
Policy and Judah became a stanch ally, almost
Success a vassal, of Israel. Alliance with
of Omri. Tyre was cemented by a marriage be-
tween Omri’s son Ahab and Jezebel,
the daughter of the Tyrian king. Gilead was held
with afirm hand against Damascus on the north and
against the Moabites on thesouth. But west of the
Jordan the Arameans were still predominant; and
Omri was forced to concede an open market to
them in Samaria (I Kings xx. 34). Israel, now nar-
rowing to Ephraim, Jezreel, and Gilead, was being
consolidated.
Ahab (875) carried out strenuously his father’s
policy. His association with Tyre was of material
but not of religious advantage to Israel. The cult
of the Phenician Baal and Astarte could not be
reconciled with the worship of Yuwu; besides, it
ministered to lust and luxury. Ahab and Jezebel
thus provoked the wrath of the prophet Elijah,
whose crusade against the house of Omri was fur-
ther inspired by Ahab’s spoliation and murder of a
freeholder of Jezreel. Yet Ahab was a valiant
defender of Israel against the growing power of
Damascus, with which he was almost constantly at
war. On the whole, he was successful; and by the
peace of Aphek (855) he revoked the concessions of
his father (I Kings xx.). Next year he was actually
to be found with Benhadad II. of Damascus as one
of many allies fighting against the Assyrians, who
under Shalmaneser II. were threatening Palestine
as well as Syria. But in 853 war with Damascus
broke out afresh. Ahab, who had Jehoshaphat of
Judah as an ally, was slain in battle at Ramoth in
Gilead.
Ahab’s son Ahaziah sickened and died soon after
his accession; and his place was taken by his brother
Joram (853). The war with Damascus was prose-
cuted vigorously. Ahab’s policy was
Fall of the continued, and Jezebel still promoted
House theworship of her Baal. The prophet
of Omri. Elisha, at the head of the partizans
of YHwH, now decided upon a coup
d’état; and at his instigation Jehu, an officer of the
army, rose against the royal house, put Joram and
Jezebel to death, and carried out on his own ac-
count a murderous proscription against all their
relatives as well as against the priests of the Baal.
Third Period.—Jehu to Menahem (842-
742): Jehu, having cleared the way to the throne,
found himself at once face to face with Hazael of Da-
mascus, whoa short while before had also made him-
self king by the assassination of his master. To secure
himself Jehu sent many rich presents to Shalmaneser
of Assyria. This, however, availed him nothing.
The Assyrians had made frequent expeditions
against Damascus, and thereby had greatly helped
Israel—perhaps, indeed, had saved it from utter de-
struction; but after 889 Shalmaneser appeared no
more in Syria, and Hazael had his way in Israel and
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ispahan
Israel
Judah. Jehu’s reign was thus made utterly inglori-
ous; and hisson Jehoahaz (815) was, if possible, still
further reduced by the power of Damascus, so that
the vassal state was allowed to maintain only a
nominal guard of chariots and horsemen,
But deliverance was granted when most sorely
needed. The Assyrians again came against Damas-
cus after the death of Hazael (803); and under Joash
(799), son of Jehoahaz, Israel gradually revived. In
797 Damascus was captured by the Assyrians, and
for two generations remained innocuous. The As-
syrians soon retired; and, freed from the double
danger, Israel still further revived, till Jeroboam II.
(783), son of Joash, brought it to a height of power
and prosperity never before known. Indeed, fora
time, the old ideal boundaries both east and west of
the Jordan were maintained. But the glory was exter-
nal and short-lived. The moral causes of decay are
shown in the prophecies of Amos and Hosea. Jero-
boam’s son Zachariah (742) had scarcely begun to
reign when a usurper, Shallum, put him to death,
he in his turn being summarily disposed of by an
army officer, Menahem.
Fourth Period.—ixvenahem to Hoshea (741-
722): In the time of Menahem, Israel had at last to
deal directly with the Assyrians, who under Tiglath-
pileser III. were now beginning their final era of
conquest. In 738 he bought them off for a thousand
talents of silver. His reign was brief, and his son
Pekahiah, after ruling little more than a year, was
slain by his general Pekah (735). In
Vassalage, 734 the Assyrians returned. To cope
Revolt, withthem Pekab made an alliance with
and Ruin. Damascus. The Assyrians annexed
Galilee and Damascus, dethroned Pe-
kah, and put an intriguer, Hoshea, in his place.
Over the central remnant Hoshea reigned as an As-
syrian vassal till in 724 he was incited to revolt by
Egypt under the Ethiopian dynasty. Samaria was
soon placed under siege, and at the end of 722 was
taken. Of the little kingdom 27,290 people were
deported, and it was made an Assyrian province.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : See ISRAEL.
E. G. H. J. F. McC.
ISRAEL, PEOPLE OF: In the Bible “Is-
rael” is the national name of the people who are
known racially as “Hebrews.” In the tribal condi-
tion no comprehensive name was historically applied
to the whole people. The story (Gen. xxxii. 24 et
seg.) of the change of name from “Jacob” to “Is-
racl” is in part a reflex of the historical fact of the
union of the tribes and of their final triumph over
the Canaanites.
I. Origin of the People: Whether regarded
politically or ethnologically, Israel must be consid-
ered a composite people. This appears both from
the genealogical statements of the Bible and from
recorded instances of racial amalga-
Ultimate mation. It is not, however, easy to
Babyloni- determine exactly all the racial ele-
an Origin. ments of Israel; and the beginnings
are involved in greatest obscurity. A
primary Babylonian contribution is at least proba-
ble. The tradition that Abram as the founder of
the race came from Ur of the Chaldees is meaning-
Israel
less if it isa mere geographical reference; and the
fact that the Hebrews shared with the Babylonians
their oldest literary reminiscences, such as charac-
teristic forms of the Creation and the Flood stories,
is apparently a confirmation of the tradition.
The more immediate Biblical tradition is to the
effect that Israel was fundamentally Aramean; and
this belief is not incompatible with partial Baby-
lonian descent. The course of the earliest history
was perhaps somewhat as follows: During the
Babylonian domination of the west country—not
later than about 1600 s.c.—a party of emigrants
from the lower Euphrates came to the region about
Charran, the seat of an old Babylonian colony.
After a time certain families of them went farther
to the west and south, settling in scattered bands
both east and west of the Jordan. From these the He-
braic peoples, including the Hebrews proper, the Mo-
abites, Ammonites, and Edomites, claimed descent.
By the ancestors of the Hebrews proper the old
affiliations were maintained for a time by Aramean
accessions, so that later it could be said of Israel,
“an Aramean nomad was thy father” (Deut. xxvi.
5, Hebr.).
II. Tribal History: There are thus given a few
sturdy clans, the most prominent being marked off
by their Aramean affiliations, forming settlements
for themselves in Palestine and never wholly aban-
doning them, till by superior moral and physica! en-
ergy they make good their claim to the possession of
most of the country. By putting in most probable
chronological order the substance of the patriarchal
and tribal traditions and genealogical tables, and
utilizing the scanty notices from outside sources,
the following tentative outline history may be con-
structed:
1. The Tribes Before the Exodus: Most, if not all, of
the tribes of Isracl had some kind of organic exist-
ence before 1200 B.c., the approximate date of the
Exodus from Egypt, though they may
Early not in all cases have then borne the
Existence names which have become historical.
of The scheme of the Twelve Tribes is a
the Tribes. later construction, based in part upon
genealogical data and in part upon
geographical boundaries; yet this scheme is stil! the
chief guide for determining the tribal distribution
in the period preceding the invasion.
The traditional classification of the tribes (Gen.
XXX.) into the sons of Leah, the sons of Rachel, and
the sons of their two maids is of essential historical
value. The eldest four were the first to make an
independent settlement in Canaan. Reuben was
the first leader; but he early lost his preeminence,
and made his permanent home across the Jordan.
Simeon and Levi were almost destroyed in a feud
with Canaanites of the region of Shechem, with
whom they had madeanalliance. The scattered rem-
nants of Simeon were later absorbed
Division by Judah. Whether Levi at length
and Distri- became rehabilitated in Israel as the
bution of priestly tribe is not quite certain (see
the Tribes. Lrevires). Judah in these early days
allied himself with Canaanites of the
districts of Adullam and Timnath, and maintained
his tribal existence in spite of many disasters (Gen.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
662
XXXvili.). Early and late Judah derived strength
from the absorption of outsiders.
Some sort of settlement was also probably made
by Issachar and Zebulun in the plain of Jezreel and
northward before the return from Egypt, which
would account for the prominerce of these tribes so
soon after that era (Judges v.)in those fertile and
much-coveted regions, Joseph and Benjamin are
of more relative consequence in Palestine after than
before the sojourn in Egypt. In the earlier time
the ambition and progress of the tribe of Joseph ex-
cited the jealousy of the other tribes, and it was
compelled to migrate into Egypt, as was the fash-
jon with many Asiatics during the eighteenth and
nineteenth dynasties. Benjamin as a tribe in Ca-
naan was perhaps non-existent till after the Egyp-
tian era. The historical location of Gad, Asher,
Dan, and Naphtali is suggestive of their predomi-
nantly foreign origin, which explains their being
accounted as the sons of the maids of Leah and
Rachel. As connected with Israel they were not
prominent till the time of the general settlement.
But in the Egyptian records of about 1300 B.c. a
people called “ Aseru” then occupied the territory
later ascribed to Asher.
The question of a federation of any of the tribes
is obscure. But there seems to have been an “ Israel”
in some sense in Canaan before the Exodus, for
Me(r)neptah, son of Rameses II., refers to hav-
ing devastated Israel inCanaan. No othersupposed
monumental allusion to Jacob or Joseph or the He-
brews can be used as yet for historical purposes.
2. The Egyptian Era and the Exodus: Meanwhile
the people of Joseph prospered so greatly in Egypt
that many families from kindred tribes migrated
thither. Buta change of policy under the kings of
the nineteenth dynasty brought about a sore op-
pression of the Hebrews, so that their life there be-
came intolerable. The great design of restoring
them to Canaan was cherished by Moses, a Hebrew
of Egyptian education, but at this time a fugitive
in the peninsula of Sinai in consequence of active
partizanship in the cause of his oppressed brethren.
There he adopted the religion of his hosts, the
Kenites, who were worshipers of YnwuH. He then
returned to Egypt, induced his people to migrate
with him, and effected a passage of an arm of
the Red Sea when hard pressed by the pursuing
Egyptians. After this deliverance it became easier
for the fugitives to make the worship of YHwH their
own; and the new religious bond was strengthened
by a prolonged visit to the seat of
Moses and Yuwu, Mount Sinai. Of this religion
Jahvism. Moses was the first priest, though
the ministry was subsequently trans-
ferred to other hands. As civil leader and priest in
one he was the supreme judge; and as the inter-
preter of the will of Yuwu he was the first and in
a sense the greatest of the prophets. Law and
justice, the rudiments of which were imparted
by Moses to his people, were also of the essence of
revelation.
3. The Occupation of Palestine: The tribesmen of
Joseph, now divided into two great clans, were nat-
urally the head and front of the movement upon
Palestine. Their main endeavor was to effect an
663
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Israel
entrance into “the hill country of Ephraim,” where
their kinsmen were most numerous. Attempts to
reach this goal by the west and south were found
to be hopeless; and after many long
Settlement delays a détour was made around the
East of land of Edom, a union being effected
the Jordan. with the Israclitish population already
east of the Jordan and their allies. The
chief foes of all the Hebraic peoples of this time
were the Amorites, who by the invasion of the
newcomers were driven out of Gilead and the north-
ern border of Moab, with the result that new Israel-
itish settlements were made in the region north and
south of the Jabbok. |
With these achievements the life and work of
Moses were finished. His place was taken by
Joshua, the representative of the dom-
Settlement inant tribe of Ephraim. Under the
in Canaan new leadership the Jordan was crossed
Proper. near Jericho (¢. 1160 B.c.); and with
the entrance into the central high-
lands, the old Israel already in Palestine and the
new immigrants, endowed with the spirit of a world-
conquering religion, made common cause in the
gradual occupation of the land of promise and the
realization of a national ideal. It is doubtful, how-
ever, whether there was any complete federation of
the tribes before the era of the kingdom, For more
than a century thesettlement extended itself, partly
through conquest, but chiefly through peaceful as-
similation of the Canaanitish communities. Mainly
because the Canaanites could maintain themselves
in fortified cities a complete and speedy conquest of
the whole country was out of the question (comp.
Judgesi.). Against the more numerous and wealthy
but divided Canaanites the main advantage pos-
sessed by the Hebrews was common action over an
extended area, inspired by land-hunger and by relig-
ious enthusiasm.
At first aggression was naturally the chief factor.
The occupation of the central hill country laid the
foundation of the great settlement of the people of
Joseph with Ephraim itself in the center, Manasseh
(Machir) in the north, and the new tribe of Benjamin
in the south. This territory was firmly held and
long remained the kernel and defense of Isracl. The
other tribes adjusted themselves gradually to this
primary condition. Those to the north, Issachar,
Zebulun, and Naphtali, strengthened their hold
upon the plain of Jezreel and beyond, and in an
early stage of the general occupation (c. 1130 B.c.),
by the help of Machir (Manasseh), Ephraim, and
Benjamin (Judges v.), made good their claim against
a desperate combination of northern
Fortunes of Canaanites. The southern tribes,
the Tribes. Judah, Simeon, and Dan, took little
part in the distinctive work of secur-
ing Canaan for Israel. Yet Judah, virile and enter-
prising, continually enlarged itself from well-chosen
centers, absorbing whoie clans of outsiders, such as
the Kenites and the Kenizzites, as well as the rem-
nant of Simeon. Dan held a part of the Shephela
by precarious tenure, first against the Canaanites,
and later against the Philistines, till it was forced to
migrate to the foot of Hermon, where it thenceforth
remained inactive in the common affairs of Israel.
In the northwest Asher was claimed for the people
of Yuwx (2). v. 17), but was never assimilated.
Gilead and Bashan became a home for emigrants,
especially from the overcrowded territory of Manas-
seh; and Gilead actually became synonymous with
Gad (28.).
4, Period of the Judges: After centuries of military
control Canaan had been relinquished by the Egyp-
tians (¢c. 1170 B.c.) to become in large measure the
possession of the Israelites. But the title of the
new occupants was not to be undisputed. Success-
ful raids, sometimes amounting to prolonged occu-
pations, were made by Arameans (who came in large
numbers over the Euphrates to replace the now
almost extinct Hittite communities), by Moabites,
by Midianites, and east of the Jordan by Ammon-
ites. Only a portion of the country was attacked
and despoiled by each of the invading hosts; and
on each occasion a leader was raised up to deliver
his people. The most serious incursion was that
made by the Midianites, who (c. 1090 B.c.) struck
into the center of Israel’s territory by way of the
possessions of Manasseh. After the repulse Gideon,
the leader or “judge,” was almost made a king by
his tribesmen; and the lack of a common leadership
was henceforth so strongly felt that it became only
a question of time when a kingdom of Israel should
be established.
The last and greatest of the judges was Samuel
(c. 10380 B.c.). He was the first legitimate successor
of Moses, as being an epoch-making
The priest, prophet, and judge in one.
National Moses had been the founder of Israel,
Spirit. in that he had imbucd his people with
the national spirit along with the re-
ligion of Yaw. But the idea of nationality was
being rapidly obliterated by the disintegrating ef-
fect of agriculture upon a people primarily no-
madic, by the establishment of individual families
and septs in their own several holdings and dis-
tricts, and by the inevitable adoption almost every-
where of Canaanitish customs, with separate city
government and the worship of local deities (see
Ba‘AL).
External influences seemed still more destructive.
Most pressing of allimmediate dangers was the grow-
ing power of the Philistines. They had (ec. 1040 B.c.)
repeatedly defeated the armies of Israel; they had
destroyed the sacred city of Shiloh with its shrine:
they had seized the chief strongholds of Ephraim
and Benjamin; and they were now holding central
Israel in vassalage.
III. The Kingdom.—1. The United Kingdom :
Samuel now perceived that only a king could re-
claim and unite Israel; and by him Saul, a wealthy
landholder of Gibeah in Benjamin, was consecra-
ted to the kingly office (c. 1080 B.c.). Saul's first
achievement was of happy omen. The town of
Jabesh in Gilead was under siege by the Ammonites,
and claimed the protection of the western tribes.
Saul fired the heart of Israel by proclaiming a holy
war in behalf of this town. The rescue which fol.
lowed gave heart to the despondent tributaries of
the Philistines; and a series of brilliant victories, in
which the crown prince, the noble Jonathan, took the
lead, served to make Israel strong and united. Saul
Israel
gathered about him men of force and promise, and
gave them the command of chosen bodies of militia.
Abner, the captain of the host, was a brave and
skilful leader; and among the officers was a youth
of genius, David, the son of Jesse of Beth-lehem in
Judah, the first of that tribe to take an active part
in the affairs of Isracl. Jonathanand David became
fast friends; and their alliance promised well for
the redemption of their country.
All went happily for a time. The Philistines,
driven out from central Palestine, were kept at bay;
and if Saul had been a statesman as well as a sol-
dier the state might have been saved under his
régime. But he Jacked the gift of administration
so essential to the building up of the nation. He
also became moody and melancholy, and suspected
a plot against him on the part of both David and
Jonathan. David was compelled to flee from the
court. He made himself the leader of a daring
band of outlaws. Though often pursued by Saul,
he would not retaliate. He became a nominal vas-
sal of the King of Gath, but helped the Philistines
as little, and his own men of Judah as much, as
possible. The Philistines, unable to penetrate the
western passes of Benjamin and Ephraim, marched
northward, and struck at Israel from the plain of
Jezreel. Ona slope of Mount Gilboa
Battle the fateful battle was fought, in which
of Gilboa. Saul and three of his sons, Jonathan,
Abinadab, and Melchishua, laid down
their lives; and the Israelites once more became
tributary to their terrible foes (¢. 1000 B.c.).
David had laid for himself the foundation of a
kingdom in his own separate tribe; and when Ish-
baal (Ishbosheth), a surviving son of Saul, was pro-
claimed King of Israel by Abner, he (David) took
upa royal residence in Hebron, where he reigned as
King of Judah for some years, probably on good
terms with his old allies the Philistines. The reign
of Ishbaal was very brief; and he never possessed
real authority west of the Jordan, his capital being
at Mahanaim in Gilead. He was dethroned by his
general after a quarrel; and Abner, when a few years
of anarchy had passed, handed the kingdom over to
David, who then received the allegiance of the elders
of Israel (c. 995 B.c.). .
David was the political creator of Israel. Before
him there had been national aspirations, but never
a united nation. He was the most commanding
public figure in the history of Israel. Surpassed in
the art of war by his general and near relative,
Joab, to whom he owed most of his military suc-
cess, he was unrivaled in his genius
for statesmanship. His eventual com-
parative failure as a ruler was due to
moral weaknesses and an overwrought
emotional temperament.
His early achievements as King of Israel were the
final expulsion of the Philistines from their garri-
sons in the central region; the capture of Jerusalem
from the Canaanitish Jebusites, which he made his
capital and the sacred city of Yuwu, thus securing
the alliance of the powerful and warlike Benjamin
and the religious allegiance of all Israel; his es-
tablishment of an organized administration with
permanent state officials; and the formation of a
King
David.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
"664
I .
regular body-guard of trained soldiers as the nu-
cleus of a standing army.
There soon began a period of forcign wars, which
ended in the subjugation of the Moabites, Edomites,
and Ammonites, besides the Arameans of southern
and central Syria. Israel’s suzerainty over all of
these except the Arameans lasted till well into the
reign of David’s successor.
The kingdom proper was, however, not fully
organized internally; and David’s own crimes and
follies came -nearly rending it into fragments,
Adultery with Bath-sheba, the wife of a faithful
officer, and the murder of the husband were fol-
lowed in the latter half of his reign by fatal dissen-
sions among the children of his many wives, and
finally by the open rebellion of Absalom, the heir to
the throne. Through the fidelity of a few devoted
friends David’s safety was secured, and through the
strategy of Joab, Absalom was defeated and slain.
Local dissensions were once more outwardly healed,
and the closing years of the great king’s reign were
passed in comparative tranquillity. A court intrigue
at the close of David’s days put an end to the preten-
sions and the life of the next heir, Adonijah, and
thereby Solomon, son of Bath-sheba, succeeded to
the throne (¢. 965 B.c.).
Solomon’s merits were fewer and his demerits
more numerous than those of his father. Te culti-
vated peace and friendship with his neighbors, de-
veloped trade and production, and organized the
kingdom into administrative districts; and by the
aid of workmen and materials brought from Phenicia,
he erected the great Temple on Moriah
along with a gorgeous palace for him-
self. On the other hand, he was sen-
sual in his habits, and without religious depth or
steadfastness. He impoverished the rest of the king-
dom to build up Judah and Jerusalem, to repay his
debts to the Phenicians, to maintain a splendid
court, and to gratify his own luxurious and extrava-
gant tastes. Before his reign was ended he had lost
the allegiance of all the vassal states, and provoked an
ominous discontent throughout northern Israel. His
reign was the first epoch of Hebrew literary his-
tory; for then was made the oldest collection of
epic ballads and of the traditions of tribal heroes.
2, The Divided Kingdom: At the death of Solomon
(984. B.c.) his son Rehoboam claimed kingship over
all Israel. But the discontent in the northern tribes
showed itself at once in a great “ folkmote” at She-
chem. There they chose as their king Jeroboam, an
Ephraimite who had been a fugitive in Egypt on ac-
count of an attempt at rebellion in the reign of Sol-
omon. Benjamin, in whose territory were Jerusalem
and the Temple, remained with Judah. Thus the
ideal of a united Israel was shattered forever. Thence-
forth for a time there were enmity and strife be-
tween north (Israel) and south (Judah); and though
there came at length a longer period of almost un-
broken peace, yet the hope of reunion was never
again cherished.
Despite the popularity of Jeroboam’s election,
northern Israel was kept in a state of partial or total
anarchy for half acentury. To compete with the
Temple at Jerusalem shrines were erected at Dan
and at Beth-el, and strong fortresses were built up
Solomon.
665
on both sides of the Jordan. But at first Israel was
at a disadvantage as compared with Judah. The
latter was small numerically, but it
The had a well-disciplined force of war-
Northern riors along with the legitimate seat of
Kingdom. government and worship. The real
founder of the Northern Kingdom
was Omri (886 B.c.), who built the strong fortress
Samaria and made it his capital. Under his dy-
nasty friendship was cultivated with both Judahites
and Phenicians, and east of the Jordan strenuous
war was waged with the rising power of Damascus.
His successor, Ahab (875), continued his policy, but
Joram, the son of Ahab, was overthrown and slain
by the usurper Jehu.
The new dynasty suffered terribly at the hands of
Damascus, but after that powerful state had been
crushed by the Assyrians (797) Israel revived, and
under Jeroboam IT. (783-742) attained to the height
of its power. Jeroboam’s successors, however,
had brief and unfortunate reigns until in 783 both
Damascus and Samaria were captured by the As-
syrians, who annexed the whole of Israel north of
Jezree]. Hoshea, the vassal king in Samaria, re-
belled in 724 at the instigation of the intriguing
Ethiopian dynasty in Egypt, and his capital was
taken after a siege lasting till the end of 722.
Many of the people of the kingdom were exiled, and
their places were taken by heathen colonists deported
thither from Babylonia. Of internal matters the
most important were the rise and influence of the
preaching prophet Elijah (e. 870) and his school,
and of the first great literary prophets, Amos (c. 760)
and Hosea (c. 740).
The kingdom of Judah, after its early successes
against Israel, played a subordinate réle for over a
century. Its fiercest struggles—of varying success
—were waged with the Edomites; and
it continued to grow by the naturali-
zation of outsiders to the south. Under
Uzziah (783-788) it reached the height
of its prosperity, having much of Phi-
listine and Edomite territory under tribute. But in
734, under Ahaz (735-719), it became tributary to
the Assyrians, who were then ravaging northern
Palestine. Ahaz’s son, Hezekiah (719-690), joined
in an important revolt against Assyria in 701, The
kingdom was laid waste; many inhabitants were
deported; and Jerusalem was saved from capture
only through the breaking out of a plague in the
Assyrian army near the border of Egypt. Thence-
forth almost till the fall of Nineveh (607) Judah
continued an Assyrian vassal.
In 608 Palestine was traversed by an Egyptian
force under Pharaoh-Necho; and the young king,
Josiah (639-608), having marched out to give him
battle, was defeated and slain. A brief Egyptian
régime was terminated in 604 by the great Nebu-
chadnezzar of Babylon, who had succeeded to the
fallen empire of Assyria. The Egyptians, expelled
from Palestine, still kept intriguing, and Judah under
Jehoiakim (608-597) was induced to rebel in 598.
The next year the newly ascended king Jehoiachin
was taken with his city and deported to Babylonia
with many of his subjects, including the prophet
Ezekiel. In 588 Judah again rebelled under Zede-
The
Southern
Kingdom.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Israel
kiah (598-586). In 586 Jerusalem was taken, the
king and many more of his people were deported,
and the kingdom was finally abolished.
IV. The Babylonian Régime: Over the Judah-
ites left in Palestine a governor of their own race,
Gedaliah, was appointed. In a few
The years he was assassinated by an apos-
Remnant tatenamed Ishmael. Asa punishment
in for the murder a third deportation
Palestine. was made to Babylonia, while a band
of fugitives, taking the aged prophet
Jeremiah with them, made their way to Egypt and
were heard ofnomore. A considerable number still
remained in Palestine.
The exiles, as a whole, fared well in Babylonia.
The bulk of the first or principal deportation was
placed beside the Canal Chebar, not far from Nippur
in central Babylonia. Here and elsewhere most of
the captives were employed on public works, and
many of all classes of the exiles eventually gained
their freedom and rose to influential positions,
Hence Babylonia furnished a strong moral and
financial support to Judaism for many centuries.
Here, also, the faith und religious devotion of Israel
were renewed; the literature of the kingdom was
studied, reedited, and adapted to the needs of the
reviving community ; and the hope of restoration to
Palestine was preached and cherished. About 545
this aspiration took more definite form. Cyrus,
King of Persia, had by that time attained to domin-
ion over the whole uplands of Asia as far as the
shores of the A“gean Sea, and it seemed to the seers
of Israel (the second Isaiah and others) that the
Semitic Jowlands would soon fall to him also. As
a matter of fact, the Babylonian empire became his
possession when the city of Babylon surrendered to
his army without resistance in July, 539.
V. The Persian Dominion: Soon thereafter
Cyrus issued a proclamation giving the Judahite
and other exiles permission to return to their own
lands. The Jews gladly seized the opportunity. A
“prince ” of the Davidic line, Shesh-
The Res- bazzar, with alarge following, set out
toration. for Jerusalem in 538. The difficulties
of resettlement were enormous, largely
due to jealousy and intrigue on the part of the
Samaritans and other peoples of Palestine. The
foundation of a temple was laid; but it was not till
521, when Darius Hystaspes, the great patron of
subject religions, gave further encouragement, that
a decisive impulse was given by the exertions of
Zerubbabel, a prince of the same royal line, sup-
ported by a contingent of new colonists. Through
his agency along with that of Joshua the high
priest, and the inspiring words of the prophets
Haggai and Zechariah, the Temple was completed
and dedicated in 516.
The Hebrew settlement was still little more than
a struggling colony; and during the next two gen-
erations it showed a marked decline in religious
earnestness and therefore in social and political weal.
Separation from the heathen and semi-heathen peo-
ples of the whole region was indispensable. But
intermarriages with them were frequent; and with
these alliances the practises of forbidden cults went
hand in hand. A great reformation was now
Israel
Israel, James
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
666
brought about by Ezra, a priest and a scribe in
Babylonia, who came to Jerusalem (458?), with au-
thority from King Artaxerxes L., to
Reforms of reform the Jewish community. His
Ezra and efforts would have been of little avail
Nehemiah. if they had not been backed up by
the powerful influence of Nehemiah,
a Jewish cupbearer of Artaxerxes, who came with
a royal escort and with a governor’s commission to
set right the affairs of his compatriots in Palestine.
Nehemiah, whose genius was eminently practical,
rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem; forced the richer
Jews to release the property mortgaged to them by
their poorer brethren; forbade the taking of usury,
the contracting of mixed marriages, and the prof-
anation of the Sabbath. Ezra’s greatest work was
the more lasting, being nothing less than a new edi-
tion of the Law, which soon became the strongest
pillar of Judaism. It was read before a great con-
gregation in 444. <A second visit of Nehemiah in
432 resulted in the vigorous carrying out of some of
the most sorely needed reforms.
During the century that followed till 330 little is
accurately known of the fortunes of the Jewish state.
The people were homogeneous; and the result of the
labors of Nehemiah and Ezra was seen in the fact
that the religious purity of the community was
maintained.
VI. The Hellenistic Era: The conquests of
Alexander the Great brought Syria under Hellenis-
tic influence, at first chiefly exercised by the Ptole-
mies of Egypt from Alexandria as a center (323-203),
and later by Antiochus III. of Syria and his two
successors, reigning in Antioch (203-165).
What the Egypt of the Pharaohs had failed to do
in Palestine, the Egypt of the Ptolemies in large
measure accomplished. Not only was a political
control established there, but a strong
Rule of the intellectual influence was exercised.
Ptolemies. Ptolemy Logi, who occupied Jerusa-
lem in 820, took large numbers of
Jews to Egypt as colonists and prospective citizens.
Other Jews followed, strong in their loyalty to the
Judaism established by Ezra: forerunners and types
of faithful Jews ever since scattered throughout the
world. The Jews prospered in Egypt; and Alex-
andria reacted upon Jerusalem in matters intellec-
tual. The Egyptian capital becamea center of Jew-
ish learning; and the devoted Jews who resorted for
worship to their Holy City familiarized the people of
the home land with the enlarged outlook and knowl-
edge of the world acquired in Egypt. Moreover,
the first Greek translation of the Old Testament was
made aud used by Hellenistic Jews. On the whole,
the Ptolemaic régime was a benefit to Judaism.
In 203 Antiochus III. wrested Judea from
Egypt. Under his second successor, Antiochus
Epiphanes, the fatal epoch of world-
\iness and compromise with heathenism
began with the success of his endeavor
to corrupt the priesthood. His next
step was to seize the Temple and profane it.
VII. The Maccabees: At this juncture a hero-
ism worthy of the best days of Israel was displayed
by the noble priest Mattathias of the Hasmonean
family, who in 167 raised the standard of rebellion.
Seleucid
Dominion.
Under his son and successor, Judas Maccabeus,
Jerusalem was recovered, the Temple purified, and
its worship restored (165). The rule of the Macca-
bees was finally established in Judea, and was main-
tained for a full century, till Syria became a Roman
province.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Josephus, Ant.; the histories of Gritz (1853 et
seq.; Engl. ed., abridged, 1891 et séq.), Ewald (1864 ef seq.),
Hitzig (1869), Stade (1887 ef seq.), Renan (1887 et seg.), Kittel
(1888, 1892), Wellbausen (1894), Klostermann (1896), Kent
(1896 et seq.), Piepenbring (1898), Cornill (1898), Winckier
(1895, 1900), and Guthe (1899); Milman, History of the Jews
(1829); F. W. Newman, Hebrew Monarchy (1847); Stanley,
History of the Jewish Church; McCurdy, History, Proph-
ecy, and the Monuments (1894 et seq.) ; articles on Israel
by Wellhausen in &necyc. Brit.; by Barnes in Hastings, Dict.
Bible; and by Guthe in Cheyne and Black, Hneyc. Bibl.
E. G. H. J. F. McC.
ISRAEL: First “Hochmeister” (chief rabbi) of
Germany; lived at the beginning of the fifteenth
century. He was called to this office by a special
edict of Rupert III., issued May 3, 1407. In this
edict the emperor says that, in consequence of com-
plaints made before him of maladministration of
communal affairs by certain German rabbis, he has
decided to create the office of “ Hochmeister ” to con-
trol all the German rabbinates ; he named Israelas the
first “ Hochmeister” on account of his vast knowl-
edge of Jewish lore, his oratorical talent, and his
scrupulous honesty. The seat of the new chief rabbi
seems to have been Nuremberg. Israel’s authority,
however, was contested, and in the same year (Nov.
23) Rupert issued a new edict, by which he im-
posed a fine of twenty gold marks upon any Jew or
Jewess who should disobey the orders of the chief
rabbi. Notwithstanding this, the German rabbis
continued to maintain their opposition to Israel,
whom they accused of having solicited his post from
the emperor, and thereby given the government oc-
casion to meddle in Jewish communal affairs; they
also accused him of having been exacting in the
levying of taxes in order to win the good graces of
theemperor. See IsRAEL OF KrREMSs; HOCHMEISTER.
RIBLIOGRAPHY: Wiener, Regesten zur Gesch. der Juden in
Deutschland, pp. 65, 171 et seg.; Giidemann, Gesch. iii. 35.
s. [. Br.
ISRAEL: An Eastern family of rabbis and au
thors whose members dwelt in Alexandria, Jerusa
lem, and Rhodes, where they held important posi-
tions. It included:
Abraham Israel: Rabbinical author; lived at
Alexandria in the eighteenth century (see ISRAEL,
Hayyim ABRAHAM). His son was Moses ben
Abraham Israel, who held the office of chief rab-
bi of Alexandria from 1786 to 1802.
Elijah Israel: Chicf rabbi of Alexandria from
1773 to 1784. He wrote: “‘Ugat Eliyahu ” and “ Kol
Eliyahu,” responsa; “ Kisse Eliyahu,” on the four Tu-
rim; “Shene Eliyahu,” sermons; “ Aderet Eliyahu,”
commentary on Elijah Mizrahi. He left two sons,
Moses ben Elijah Israel and Jedidiah IsraEt.
Judah Israel: Son of Moses ben Elijah Israel;
chief rabbi of Rhodes; lived at the beginning of the
nineteenth century. He was the author of “Kol
Yehudah” and “Shebet Yehudah.” .
Moses Israel: Rabbi at Jerusalem, and, from
1714 to 1727, chief rabbi of Rhodes. He was sent
to Morocco as a collector by the city of Safed, before
he removed to Rhodes; and he was sent to Italy in
667
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Israel
Israel, James
the same capacity by Jerusalem (1731). He was the
author of “Mas’at Mosheh,” responsa, Constantino-
ple, 1735.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim; Hazan, Ha-Ma-
‘alot li-Shelomoh.
D. M. FR.
ISRAEL OF BAMBERG: Tosafist: flourished
about the middle of the thirteenth century. He
was a pupil of Samuel of Bamberg, to whose rab-
binate he succeeded. Zunz (“Z. G.” p. 40) supposes
that Israel of Bamberg was the father of Jedidiah of
Nuremberg, who flourished about 1270-80, and
whose son Israel was killed at Bamberg in 1298, a
time of persecution (Salfeld, “Martyrologium,” p.
49). It is likely that Israel of Bamberg was also the
father of Anna, killed at the same time (23.). The
tosafot of Israel of Bamberg are quoted by Mor-
decai (Shab. No, 296; ‘Ab. Zarah Nos. 817, 838, 855).
Benjacob (“Ozar ha-Sefarim,” p. 624) concluded
that these tosafot are only to Alfasi and not to the
text of the Talmud. Eckstein (“Gesch. der Juden
in Ehemaligen Fiirstenthum Bamberg,” pp. 144-
145) identifies Israel of Bamberg with Israel b. Uri
Shraga, whose tosafot are also mentioned by Morde-
cai (Shab. No. 656); but Kohen (in “ Monatsschrift,”
xXvii. 82) thinks they were two different persons.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 624; idem,
Debarim ‘Atikim, ii. 10; Zunz, Z. G. p. 40.
M. SEL.
8. 8.
ISRAEL BRUNA BEN HAYYIM: German
rabbi of the fifteenth century. He was at first rabbi
of Briinn, and after the expulsion of the Jews from
that city (1454) he settled at Ratisbon, where he
opened a yeshibah against the wishes of Rabbi An-
shel, who considered this an encroachment upon his
rights. Israel Bruna was upheld by the leading
rabbis of his time, é.g., Jacob Weil and Israel Is-
serlein of Wiener-Neustadt, who spoke very highly
of him. In1474 he was thrown into prison on some
charge—possibly one of ritual murder—brought
against him by his enemies, and was held, most likely
for blackmail. After having spent thirteen days in
prison Israel was liberated. There is some con-
fusion in regard to details, and some think that he
was twice in prison. Israel Bruna wrote a volume
of responsa (Salonica, 1798; Stettin, 1860).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., viii. 263 et seq.; Giide-
mann, Gesch. iii. 20 et passim. D
ISRAEL, EDWARD: American arctic ex-
plorer; born July 1, 1859, at Kalamazoo, Mich.;
died May 27, 1884; educated at the University of Ann
Arbor, Mich. He joined the Signal Corps of the
United States Army and became a sergeant. In 1881
Israel volunteered for the Lady Franklin Bay Expedi-
tion, under the command of Gen. A. W. Greely, ac-
companying the expedition as astronomer (1881~84) ;
in this expedition he made many valuable scientific
observations. At times he commanded special sleigh
parties. Although not physically robust, he often
volunteered for geographical work; in 1882 he ren-
dered especially important service in determining the
practicability of an overland route to Hazen Land in
Greenland through “ The Bellows” valley. The amia-
bility of his disposition endeared him to his comrades,
and, being the youngest in the party, he was famil-
iarly denominated “Benjamin.” When illand starv-
ing, he refused to accept more than an equal ration.
Israel died before the return of the expedition. In
reading the burial service, General Greely, remem-
bering that Israel was of the Jewish faith, omitted
such portions as were inappropriate.
BEL OGhAP HY: Greely, Lady Franklin Bay Expedition,
A. I. G. D.
ISRAEL, HAYYIM ABRAHAM: Italian
rabbi of the eighteenth century; lived at Candia
and Ancona. He wrote: (1) “Bet Abraham” (Leg-
horn, 1786), a casuistical commentary on the Tur
Hoshen Mishpat and on the “ Bet Yosef” thereto (at
the end of the volume is a treatise entitled “ Ma’a-
mar ha-Melek,” on the laws of government); (2)
“Amarot Tehorot” (2d. 1787), a similar commentary
on the Tur Eben ha-‘Ezer. Israelis quoted by Mat-
tithiah Terni in his “Sefat Emet” (p. 73b, ed. Leg-
horn).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mortara, Indice, p. 80; Zedner, Cat. Hebr.
Books Brit. Mus. p. 392.
8. M. SEt.
ISRAEL ISSEK BEN ZE°EB WOLF: Rus-
sian rabbi; lived at Vinnitsa, Podolia, in the nine-
teenth century. He wrote: “Sha‘ar Mishpat,” no-
velle on Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, in two
volumes, Kénigsberg, 1860; “Sha‘ar De‘ah,” no-
velle on the Jaws of interest in Shulhan ‘Aruk,
Yoreh De‘ah, published as an appendix to the pre-
ceding work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 690; Walden,
Shem ha-Gedolim he-Hadash, i. 74, ii. 74.
8. 8. I. Br.
ISRAEL ISSERLEIN. See IsseERLEIN Is-
RAEL BEN PETHAHIAH ASHKENAZIL.
ISRAEL, JACOB: Russian rabbi and author;
flourished 1623-78. He is said to have been born in
Temesvar, and to have been rabbi in Belzyce and
Lublin; Fiirst says in Slutsk also. He was a contem-
porary of Samucl (Aaron) Keidanover, and perished
during the Chmielnicki persecutions (1648), The
Bodleian manuscript No. 889 (Neubauer, “ Cat. Bodl.
Hebr. MSS.” p. 212) contains some of his homilies
on the Pentateuch, entitled “Tif’eret Yisrael.” His
more important work was the “ Yalkut Hadash,”
first printed at Lublin in 1648, then at Prague, 1657,
Amsterdam, 1659, and with appendix “Tosafot
Shikhat Leket” at Wilmersdorf, 1673. In later edi-
tions it is sometimes called “ Yalkut Yisraeli,” after
its author. The book was printed as an anonymous
work. It contains a collection of midrashim ar-
ranged in alphabetical order, drawn not only from
early midrashic works, but also from such cabalis-
tic works as the Zohar, “ Tikkune Zohar,” “ Yonat
Elem,” “Galya Razaya,” etc.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, tii. 54; Azulal,
Shem ha-Gedolim, ii., 8.0. en OII973 Steinschneider, Cat.
Bodl. col. 1163; idem, Hebr. Bibl. ii, 43; Roest, Cat. Rosen-
thal. Bibl. Hebrew part. p. 134; Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. ii. 154; Neu-
bauer, in Ha-Maggid, 1870, No. 49, p. 397. re
8.
ISRAEL, JAMES: German physician; born at
Berlin Feb., 1848; M.D. Berlin, 1870. Settling in the
German capital, he became in 1875 assistant surgeon
at the Israelitish Hospital, and in 1880 chief surgeon.
In 1894 he received the honorary title of professor.
{[srael, Jedidiah
Israel Samuel
Israel is a prolific writer, his essays and works
numbering more than 100. Among these may be
mentioned: “ Klinische Beitrige zur Aktinomykose
des Menschen, ” 1885; “Erfahrungen iiber Nerven-
chirurgie,” Berlin, 1894; and “Statistische Ueber-
sicht tiber 191 Niecrenoperationen,” in “ Verhand-
lungen des Internationalen Kongresses zu Moskau,”
1897.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lex.
g. ¥, T. H.
ISRAEL, JEDIDIAH: Rabbi at Alexandria,
Egypt, from 1802 to 1827; died 1827; son of Elijah
Israel, who had held the rabbinate from 1778 to 1784.
He was a disciple of Jonathan Galante, and presided
over an academy at Alexandria which bore the name
“Midrash Rab Yedidyah.” He wrote several responsa,
some of which have been published in the works of
Rabbi Abbahu; also annotations to “ Kisse Eliyahu ”
on the Shulhan ‘Aruk., His treatise “ Mazkeret ha-
Gittin,” on divorce, is still in manuscript.
Bin OGRAEH Ys Hazan, Ha-Ma‘alot li-Shelomoh, pp. 4o-5b,
s S. Man.
ISRAEL BEN JEHIEL ASHEKENAZI:
Italian rabbi; lived at the end of the fifteenth and
in the early part of the sixteenth century. He was
corrector of the edition of the Talmud published in
Pesaro 1511-13; and in 1518 he approved the first
edition of Elijah Levita’s “ Ha-Bahur” in Rome.
Israel belonged to the board of Roman rabbis, and,
it seems, excelled his two colleagues in Talmudical
knowledge. Israel was highly respected in Rome,
and in 1519 gave a decision on a legal question con-
cerning Donina, the daughter of Samuel Zarfati.
This decision still exists in manuscript (“II Mose,”
v. 191, No. 40; 198, Nos. 102, 119). At an advanced
age he emigrated to Palestine.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in
Fiom, ii. 78, 84, 93, 115.
S, M. Sc.
ISRAEL JOSHUA OF KUTNO: Russian-
Polish rabbi; died at Kutno, in the government
of Warsaw, July 11, 1898, at an advanced age.
He studied in the yeshibah which was founded in
the village of Kukhari by R. Solomon Posner about
1835. Israel Joshua and R. Hayyim Wasserzug
(Filipower) were the most famous graduates from
that institution, which was an adjunct to the ag-
ricultural colonies Posner had established on his
estates. Israel Joshua occupied various small rab-
binates up to 1860, when he became rabbi of Kutno,
which he consistently refused to leave for larger rab-
binates to which he was invited from time to time.
By many he was considered the greatest Talmudical
authority of Russian Poland. He was the author of
“Yeshu‘ot Yisrael,” on Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen
Mishpat (Warsaw, 1870), published by his son R.
Moses of Viskitke, his successor in the rabbinate.
BIEL OGRAEHY:: Ha-Asif, vi. 172-173; Ahiasaf, 5655, pp. 447-
S, 8. P. WI.
ISRAEL KOHEN BEN JOSEPH: Polish
scholar; lived in the second half of the sixteenth
century. He edited the anonymous philosophical
work “She’elot ‘Inyan ha-Neshamah,” containing
a dialogue between pupil and master on eighteen
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
668
questions concerning the soul (Lublin, 1566). The
work has been translated into Judwo-German by
Isaac ben Hayyim.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Zunz, Z. G. p. 288; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl.
col. 642.
Ss, 8, I. Br.
ISRAEL OF KREMS (according to Azulai,
“Shem ha-Gedolim, ” ii, s.v. we Min95, and Michael,
“Or ha-Hayyim,” No. 1092, Israel of Kremsier):
Austrian rabbi; flourished in the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries. He was the great-grandfather
of Israel ben Pethahiah Issericin, who quotes him in
his commentary on Rashi to the Pentateuch, section
“‘Wayehi.” Israel was the author of “ Haggahot
Asheri,” notes on R. Asher’s Talmudic compendium,
printed with the text. Griitz identifies Israel of
Krems with the Israel whom Emperor Rupert ap-
pointed, by a decree of May 3, 1407, chief rabbi of
all the German communities (“ Hochmeister tiber
alle Rabbinen”), giving him a certificate declaring
him to be a great Talmudic scholar and a good
man, But as Israel’s functions included the civil
control of the Jews, and especially the collection of
the taxes, the German rabbis opposed his appoint-
ment. Some of them even threatened him with
excommunication in case he did not resign. The
emperor, upon hearing of this, confirmed Israel’s ap-
pointment as chief rabbi by a second decree (Nov.
23, 1407), imposing a fine of twenty gold marks on
any one refusing to submit to him. But the edicts
had little effect, and the office of the chief rabbi be-
came obsolete soon after its creation. No further
mention of Israel occurs until 1415, when he is men-
tioned in a document of Emperor Sigismund, ap-
pointing him to superintend the collection of the
Jewish taxes, in which office he was the subordinate
of the hereditary chamberlain Conrad of Weinsberg.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., viii. 102-104; Stobbe,
Die Juden in Deutschland, pp. 148, 249, Brunswick, 1866;
Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, pp. 702-703; Frankel-Griin, Giesch.
der Juden in Kremsier, i, 14, 15, Breslan, 1896.
8. Ss.
ISRAEL BEN MEIR: Printer and author;
lived at Prague in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. He was the author of a work entitled
“Hanhagot Yisracl,” a treatise on the education of
children, the first edition of which is anonymous
(Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1712). In the same year
Israel established, or helped to establish, a printing
business at Wilmersdorf; but his name, followed by
the letters $’>», appears only on two works of 1712:
the “Bet Abot” of Moses Heilburg and the Tal-
mudic treatise Bezah.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Budl. cols, 1168, 2914;
Zunz, Z. G. pp. 267-268 ; Steinschneider and Cassel, in Ersch
and Gruber, A/neye. section ii., part 28, p. 82.
S. M. Sen.
ISRAEL B. MOSES: Polish cabalist; lived at
the end of the sixteenth century. Heis known only
through his book “Tamim Yahdaw,” in which all
verses of the Psalms and the Proverbs found in the
Zohar are collected, with the explanations there
given. The collection is preceded by a cabalistic
treatise on the soul and a “ bakkashah” by the com-
piler,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benjacob, Ozgar ha-Sefarim; Zunz, Litera-
turgesch. p. 420.
K, P. B.
M. Set.
669
ISRAEL BEN MOSES HA-LEVI OF ZA-
MOSC: Galician scholar; born at Boberka at the be-
ginning of the eighteenth century; died at Brody
April, 1772. His father instructed him in Talmud
and Hebrew literature; but Israel was more inter-
ested in philosophy and mathematics, which he
eagerly studied from Hebrew sources. This love
for science caused him to leave his native country
for Germany in the hope of being able there to de-
vote himself to his favorite studies. After having
sojourned in many places, barely earning a liveli-
hood by teaching, he settled in Berlin, becoming
teacher of Talmud in the Talmud Torah of Veitel-
Heine Ephraim. Among his disciples was Moses
Mendelssohn, whom he instructed in mathematics
and to whom he imparted his love for philosophy.
Israel’s sojourn in Berlin, however, was not a long
one. Persecutions by the Orthodox rabbis forced
him to seek another home, and he returned to Ga-
licia, where he lived in great poverty. The last
years of his life were spent at Brody.
Israel was the author of the following works:
(1) “Nezah Yisrael,” on the astronomical and geo-
metrical passages in both Talmuds (Frankfort-on-
the-Oder, 1741); (2) “Eben Yisrael,” responsa; (3)
“Arubbot ha-Shamayim,” on ancient and modern
astronomy (mentioned in hiscommentary on “ Hobot
ha-Lebabot ”); (4) “Tob ha-Lebanon,” commentary
on “ Hobot ha-Lebabot ” (Vienna, 1809); (5) “Nezed
ha-Dema‘,” moral tale in rimed prose (anon., Dy-
hernfurth, 1778); (6) “ Perush,” commentary on the
“Ruah Hen” of Jacob Anatoli (7d. 1744); (7) Com-
mentary on the “Cuzari” (Vienna, 17977).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, in Liebermann’s Volkskalender, 1853,
p. 69; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1169; Carmoly, in Revue
Orientate, Ji, 333.
D. I. Br.
ISRAEL, OSKAR: German physician; born at
Stralsund Sept. 6, 1854; educated at the universities
of Leipsic, Kiel, and Berlin (M.D. 1877). In 1878
he entered the pathological institute of his alma
mater as assistant; in 1885 became first assistant;
was admitted to the medical faculty in the same
year as privat-docent; and in 1893 was appointed
assistant professor.
Israel has written many essays in the medical
journals, especially on pathology. He is the author
of: “Practicum der Pathologischen Histologie,”
Berlin, 1888 (2d ed., 1898; translated into French by
Letulle and Critzman); “Internationale Beitrag
zur Wissenschaftlichen Medizin,” 7b. 1891; “Ele-
mente der Pathologischen Diagnose,” 2b. 1898,
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lex.
S F, T. H.
ISRAEL B. PETHAHIAH. See Isserwern,
IsRAEL BEN PETHAHIAH ASHKENAZI,
ISRAEL SALANTE. See Lirxmy, ISRAEL.
ISRAEL BEN SAMUEL ASHKENAZI
OF SHKLOV: Talmudic casuist; born at Shklov
about 1770; died at Tiberias May 18, 1839. One of
a group of Talmudical scholars of Shklov who were
attracted to Wilna by Elijah Gaon (sce ELIJAH BEN
Sotomon) (1720-97), Ashkenazi was one of “the last
arrivals,” and attended upon the gaon as a disci-
ple for less than a year. He gained Elijah’s confi-
dence, and was chosen to arrange for publication
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Israel, Jedidiah
Israel Samuel
the gaon’s commentary to the first two parts of the
Shulhan ‘Aruk. That on the Orah Hayyim was
published in Shklov in 18038. Ashkenazi also pub-
lished his master’s notes to the tractate Shekalim
of the Jerusalem Talmud, with a commentary of
his own, under the title “Tiklin Hadtin” (Minsk,
1812). Later he emigrated to Palestine and became
the head of the German and Polish congregations of
Safed and then of Jerusalem. He was there sur-
named “ Ashkenazi” (the German), a name applied
to all Jews of German extraction, in contradistinc-
tion to the Sephardim, who came originally from
Spain or Portugal.
After a residence of several years in the Holy
Land, Ashkenazi went to Europe as a “sheliah ”
(emissary of the rabbis), to collect alms for the poor
Palestinian Jews; and in that capacity he traveled
through Lithuania and other parts of Russia. On
his return to Palestine he wrote his chief work,
“Pe’at ha-Shulhan,” which is intended as a sort of
supplement tothe Shulhan ‘Aruk, supplying all the
agricultural laws obligatory only in the Holy Land,
omitted by Caroin his code. Isracl also incorporated
in this book the note. of Elijah Wilna to the tractate
Zera‘im, the first order of the Mishnah, and gave
in addition a voluminous commentary of his own
which he called “Bet Yisrael.” The work was pub-
lished in Safed in 1836 by the printing-house of
Israel ben Abraham Back.
Ashkenazi is also the author of “ Nahalah u-Me-
nuhah,” a collection of responsa mentioned in the
work above. An account of his rabbinate of Jeru-
salem is given in Mendel ben Aaron’s “Kore ha-
‘Ittim ” (Wilna, 1840),
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Heschel Lewin, ‘A liyyat Eliyahu, p. 74,Wilna,
1854, and Stettin, 1862; Fuenn, Keneset. Yisrael, s.v. Israel
ben Samuel; First, Bibl. Jud. i. 63: Eliezer of Botushan,
kinvat Soferim, 1892, s.v. Elijah Wilna.
8. 8. P. WI.
ISRAEL SAMUEL BEN SOLOMON: Polish
Talmudic and halakic author of prnpdp. About
1620 he lived in Cracow. His father, a physician,
was of Spanish origin. .Israel wrote, about 1624:
(1) A compendium of the “dinim” contained in the
four parts of the Shulhan ‘Aruk, arranged in alpha-
betical order, under the title “ Yismah Yisrael ” (Cra-
cow, 1626; Hamburg, 1686). It contains likewise a
mystical “tehinnah.” The work was also published
in parts, with Jekuthiel Kaufmann ben Abigdor’s
commentaries, collectively entitled “Hukkat ha-
Torah,” on Orah Hayyim and Yoreh De‘ah, Berlin,
1699-1700; on Eben ha-‘Ezer, Dyhernfurth, 1693 (ac-
cording to Benjacob); on Hoshen Mishpat, 7, 1691
(according to Benjacob); and the four parts with
the above-mentioned commentaries were printed
as an entire work in Sudilkov, 1834. (2) “ Tikkun
Shemirat Shabbat” (Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1698;
Offenbach, 1719), laws on Sabbath observance. (3)
A large halakic work based upon the Talmud, the
Tosafot, and the Posekim, in four parts, following
the Shulhan ‘Aruk, under the respective titles “ Ze-
ror ha-Hayyim,” “Orhot Mishpat,” “‘Ez ha-Da‘at,”
“Magen ‘Ezreka.” (4) “Megalleh ‘Amukot,” a mys-
tical commentary on the Pentateuch. (5) “Kerem
Shelomoh,” a commentary on Pirke Abot. (6) A
treatise on difficult haggadic passages and mid-
Israel ben Shabbethai
Israeli, Isaac
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
670
rashim. (7) Some other works which are cited in
the introduction to his “ Yismah Yisrael,” but have
not been printed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 282; De Rossi,
Dizionario, p. liva; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, i. 102; First,
Bibl. Jud. ii. 149; Nepi-Ghirondi, Joledot Gedole Yisrael, p.
180; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols, 1171 et seqg.; Zunz, Li-
teraturgesch. p. 480.
S M. Sc.
ISRAEL BEN SHABBETHAI OF KOZIE.-
NICE (also known as the Maggid of Kozienice) :
Hasidic rabbi, cabalist, and thaumaturge; born at
Kozienice, government of Radom, Russian Poland,
about 1745; died in 1815. Israel was successively
a pupil of BAER or MersErRirz, Samuel Shmelka
Jfurwitz, and Elimelech of Lezaysk. He was a
great Talmudic scholar, and had many discussions
on rabbinical matters with Phinehas ha-Levi Hur-
witz, who inserted in his “Gib‘at Pinehas” some of
Israel’s responsa. The “ Keter Kehunnah” of Isaac
Abraham b. Dob Berush also contains one of his
responsa (No. 76). After the death of Baer of Meser-
itz (1772), Israel became the leader of the Hasidim,
and won numbers over to Hasidism. His renown as
a wonder worker was so great that even Christians
believed in his supernatural powers and resorted to
him for aid; while Jews were attracted to him from
far and near. He left a large number of works,
mostly cabalistic; the following have been pub-
lished: notes to the “Sefer Raziel,” printed with
the text, Warsaw, 1812; “‘Abodat Yisrael” (Joze-
fow, 1842), containing sermons, novelle on Hullin,
and notes on the Pentateuch, the Haftarot, the
Pesah Haggadah, and Pirke Abot; “Tehillot Yis-
rael,” commentary on Psalms (1861?); “Or Yisrael,”
commentary on the “Tikkune Zohar,” Czernowitz,
1862; “Nezer Yisrael,” commentary on the Zohar,
1b, 1869; “Ner Yisrael,” commentary on the “‘Eser
Sefirot,” on Hai Gaon’s “ Likkutim,” and on Joseph
Gikatila’s “Sha‘ar ha-Shamayim”; “Bet Yisrael”
and “Geburat Yisrael.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch., 2d ed., xi. 118, 561: Walden,
Shem ha-Gedolim he-Hadash, pp. 75, 76; Fuenn, Keneset
Yisrael, p. 701.
S M. SEL.
K
ISRAEL BEN URI SHRAGA: German tosa-
fist of the thirteenth century; died before 1298. Lit-
tle is known of his life or of his family. He was
a pupil of the tosafist Samuel of Bamberg, and,
about 1250, was called to succeed his teacher as
rabbi of Bamberg. His family perished during the
persecution at the end of the century, after his
death. His tosafot are often quoted as “ Tosafot ha-
Rab R. Israel.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. p. 403 Salfeld, Martyrologium,
p. 201; Eckstein, Gesch. der Juden im Ehemaligen Fitrst-
bistum Bamberg, p. 144.
s. 8. A. PE.
ISRAEL OF VALABREGUE: French Tal-
mudist of the first half of the fourteenth century.
He lived apparently at Tarascon, and was among
the small number of Jews that remained in France
after the expulsion in 1306. Israel was a pupil of
Immanuel of Tarascon, and is said to have written
several works. Gross assumes that Rotelus of Olo-
brega, who lived at Tarascon in 1299, and is men-
tioned in a Latin documecut (Camille Arnaud, “ Essai
sur la Condition des Juifs en Provence,” p. 22, For-
calquier, 1879), is identical with Israel, the name
being a diminutive.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sha‘are Ziyyon, in Berliner’s Magazin, iv.
733 Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 2.
S. 8. A. PR.
ISRAELI, ISAAC BEN JOSEPH (the
Younger): Spanish astronomer; flourished at To-
ledo in the first half of the fourteenth century, He
was a pupil of Asher ben Jehiel, at whose request
(in 1810) he wrote the astronomical work “ Yesod
‘Olam,” the best contribution on that subject to He-
brew literature. It treats of geometry and trigo.
nometry as introductory to the subject-matter; of
the structure and position of the globe; of the num-
ber and movements of the celestial spheres; of the
time-differences in days and nights in the various
parts of the earth; of the movements of sun and
moon; of the solstices, the neomenie, the eclipses,
and the leap-years; it contains as well astronomical
tables and a perpetual calendar. It also deals (iv., §
17) with the chronological systems of other nations,
especially Christian; and gives (iv., § 18) in chrono-
logical order the noted personages of the Biblical,
Talmudic, and geonic periods, following the “Sefer
ha-Kabbalah” of Abraham ibn Daud. This last
was included by Zacuto in his “Sefer ha- Yuhasin.”
The “ Yesod ‘Olam” was first published at Berlin,
in 1777, by Jacob Shklower. A more complete edi-
tion, with a preface by David Cassel, was published
by B. Goldberg and L. Rosenkranz (7b. 1848). Is-
raeli’s work was much studied in the Middle Ages.
Isaac al-Hadib, Judah Bassan, and Elijah Mizrahi
annotated it, and an anonymous author wrote a com-
mentary to it (Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.”
Nos. 2044, 746, 5). An abridgment was made in
Arabic by the author’s son Joseph Israeli ben Isaac,
of which the Hebrew translation, “Kizzur Yesod
‘Olam,” is still extant (2b. No. 1319, 6).
Israeli was also the author of two other astronom-
ical works, “Sha‘ar ha-Shamayim” and “Sha‘ar
ha-Milu’im,” both extant in manuscript (2. No.
2046).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Rossi, Dizionarto, p. 180; Cassel, preface
to Yesod ‘Olam; Carmoly, Itinéraires, p. 224; Steinschnei-
der, Cat. Bodl. col. 1124; idem, Hebr. Uebers. p. 596; idem,
he aaa ara Litteratur der Juden, $121; Gratz, Gesch.
G. I. Br.
ISRAELI, ISAAC BEN SOLOMON (ABU
YA‘KUB ISHAK IBN SULAIMAN AL-
ISRA’ILI; generally known as Isaac Israeli and
sometimes as Isaac Israeli the Elder): African
physician and philosopher; born in Egypt before
832; died at Kairwan, Tunis, in 982. These dates
are given by most of the Arabic authorities; but
Abraham b. Hasdai, quoting the biographer Sanah
ibn Sa‘id al-Kurtubi (“ Orient, Lit.” iv.,col. 230), says
that Isaac Israeli died in 942. Gritz (“Gesch.” v.
236), while stating that Isaac Israeli lived more than
one hundred years, gives the dates 845-940; and
Steinschneider (“ Hebr. Uebers.” pp. 388, 755) places
his death in 950. Israeli studied natura! history,
medicine, mathematics, astronomy, etc.; so that he
was reputed to be one who knew all the seven
sciences. He was a contemporary of Saadia Gaon,
whose works probably inspired Israeli with a love
for the study of the Bible.
671
Israeli first gained a reputation as a skilful ocu-
list; but after he went to Kairwan he studied gen-
eral medicine under Ishak ibn ‘Amran al-Baghdadi,
with whom he is sometimes confounded (“Sefer ha-
Yashar,” p. 10a). At Kairwan his fame became
widely extended, the works which he wrote in
Arabic being considered by the Mohammedan phy-
sician as “more valuable than gems.” IIis lectures
attracted a large number of pupils, of whom the
two most prominent were Abu Ya‘far ibn al-Yaz-
zar, a Mohammedan, and Dunash ibn Tamim.
About 904 Israeli was nominated court physician
to the last Aghlabite prince, Ziyadat Allah. Five
years later, when the Fatimite calif ‘Ubaid Allah al-
Mahdi became master of northern Africa, of which
Kairwan was the capital, Israeli entered his service.
The calif enjoyed the company of his
As Court Jewish physician on account of the
Physician. latter’s wit and of the repartees in
which he succeeded in confounding
the Greek Al-Hubaish when pitted againsthim, At
the request of Al-Mahdi, Israeli composed in Arabic
several medical works, which were translated in
1087 into Latin by the monk Constantine of Carthage,
who claimed their authorship for himself. It was
only after more than four centuries (Lyons, 1515)
that the editor of those works discovered the plagia-
rism and published them under the title “Opera
Omnia Isaci,” though in that collection works of
other physicians were erroneously attributed to
Israeli. His works were also translated into He-
brew, and a part of his medical works into Spanish.
On medicine Israeli wrote the following:
“Kitab al-Hdummayat,” in Hebrew, “Sefer ha-Ka-
dahot,” a complete treatise, in five books, on the
kinds of fever, according to the ancient physicians,
especially Hippocrates.
“Kitab al-Adwiyah al-Mufradah wa’l-Aghdhi-
yah,” a work in four sections on remedies and
aliments. The first section, consisting of twenty
chapters, was translated into Latin by Constantine
under the title “ Diste Universales,” and into He-
brew by an anonymous translator under the title
“Tib‘e ha-Mezonot.” The other three parts of the
work are entitled in the Latin translation “ Disete
Particulares”; and it seems that a Hebrew transla-
tion, entitled “ Sefer ha-Mis‘adim ” or “Sefer ha-Ma’-
akalim,” was made from the Latin.
“Kitab al-Baul,” or in Hebrew, “Sefer ha-She-
tan,” a treatise on urine, of which the author him-
self made an abridgment.
“Kitab al-Istiksat,” in Hebrew, “Sefer ha-Yeso-
dot,” a medical and philosophical work on the ele-
ments, which the author treats ac-
cording to the ideas of Aristotle,
Hippocrates, and Galen. The Hebrew
translation was made by Abraham b.
Hasdai at the request of the grammarian David
Kimhi.
“Manhig ha-Rofe’im,” or “ Musar ha-Rofe’im,”
a treatise, in fifty paragraphs, for physicians, trans-
lated into Hebrew (the Arabic original is not ex-
tant), and into German by David Kaufmann under
the title “Propideutik ftir Aerzte” (Berliner’s
“Magazin,” xi. 97-112). .
“Kitab fi al-Tiryak,” a work on antidotes. Some
Medical
Works.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Israel ben Shabbethai
Israeli, Isaac
writers attribute to Isaac Israeli two other works
which figure among Constautine’s translations,
namely, the “Liber Pantegni” and the “ Viaticum,”
of which there are three Hebrew translations. But
the former belongs to Mohammed al-Razi and the
latter to ‘Aliibn ‘Abbas or, according to other au-
thorities, to Isracli’s pupil Abu Jaf‘aribn al-Jazzar.
Israeli was reputed to be a philosopher of note,
and his philosophical works were praised by both
Moslem and Jewish authors. They include:
“Kitab al-Hudud wal-Rusum,” translated into He-
brew by Nissim b. Solomon (14th cent.) under the
title “Sefer ha-Gebulim weha-Reshumim,” a phil-
osophical work of which a Latin trans-
Philo- _ lation is quoted in the beginning of
sophical the “Opera Omnia.” This work and
Works. the “ Kitab al-Istiksat ” were severely
. criticized by Maimonides in a letter
to Samuel ibn Tibbon (“ Iggerot ha-Rambam,” p. 28,
Leipsic, 1859), in which he declared that they had
no value, inasmuch as Isaac ben Solomon Israeli
was nothing more than a physician.
“Kitab Bustan al-Hikmah, ” on metaphysics.
“Kitab al-Hikmah,” a treatise on philosophy.
“Kitab al-Madkhal fi al-Mantik,” on logic. The
last three works are mentioned by Ibn Abi Usaibi‘a,
but no Hebrew translations of them are known. |
“Sefer ha-Ruah weha-Nefesh,” a philosophical
treatise, in a Hebrew translation, on the difference
between the spirit and the soul, published by Stein-
schneider in “ Ha-Karmel” (1871, pp. 460-405). The
editor is of opinion that this little work is a frag-
ment of a larger one.
A philosophical commentary on Genesis, in two
books, one of which deals with Gen. i. 20.
Carmoly (“Ziyyon,” i. 46) concludes that the Isaac
who was so violently attacked by Abraham ibn Ezra .
in the introduction to his commentary on the Pen-
tateuch, and whom he calls in other places “Isaac
the Prattler” and “ Ha-Yizhaki,” was no other than
Isaac Israeli. But if Israeli was attacked by Ibn
Ezra he was praised by other Biblical commenta-
tors, such as Jacob b. Ruben, a contemporary of
Maimonides, and by Hasdai.
Another work which has been ascribed to Israeli,
and which more than any other has given rise to
controversy among later scholars, is a commentary
on the “Sefer Yezirah.” Steinschneider (in his
“ Al-Farabi,” p. 248) and Carmoly (in Jost’s “An-
nalen,” ii. 321) attribute the authorship to Israeli,
because Abraham ibn Hasdai (see above), and Jedaiah
Bedersi in his apologetical letter to Solomon ben
Adret (“Orient, Lit.” xi., cols. 166-169) speak of a
commentary by Israeli on the “Sefer Yezirah,”
though by some scholars the words “Sefer Yezirah ”
are believed to denote simply the “ Book of Genesis.”
But David Kaufmann (“R. E. J.” viii. 126), Sachs
(“ Orient, Lit.” 2.c.), and especially Gratz (“ Gesch.”
v. 287, note 2) are inclined to attribute its author-
ship to Israeli’s pupil Dunash ibn Tamim.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ibn Abi Usaibi‘a, ‘Uyun al-Anba’, ii. 36, 37,
Bulak, 1882; ‘Abd al-Latif, Relation deVEgypte (translated
by De Sacy), pp. 48, 44, Paris, 1810; Hammer-Purgstall, Lite-
raturgesch. der Araber, iv. 376 (attributing to Israeli the
authorship of a treatise on the pulse); Wistenfeld, Gesch. der
Arabischen Aerzte, p. 51; Sprenger, Gesch. der Arznat-
kunde, ii. 270; Leclerc, Histoire de la Médecine Arabe, i.
412; Carmo)y, in Revue Orientale, i. 350-852 ; Gritz, Gesch.
Israeli, Israel
Israelietische Nieuwsbode
3d ed., V. 257; Haji Khalfa, ij. 51, v. 41, ef petsstm: Stein-
schneider, Cat. Bod?. cols. 1113-1124; idem, Hebr. Bibl. viii.
98, xii. 58; Dukes, in Orfent, Lit. x. 6573 Gross, in Monats-
schrift, xxviii. 326; Jost’s Annalen, i. 408,
G. M. SEL.
ISRAELI, ISRAEL (or IBN ISRAEL):
Spanish scholar; died at Toledo 1826; probably
identical with Israel] ben Joseph of Toledo, brother
of the astronomer Isaac Israeli. He was a pupil of
Asheri, for whom he translated from the Arabic the
ordinances (“takkanot”) of Toledo and probably
also parts of Maimonides’ commentary on the Mish-
nah. <A specimen of the translation of the latter is
found in Asheri’s commentary on Kilayim (iii. 5).
According to Geiger (“ Moses ben Maimon,” p. 68)
all the quotations from Maimonides in Asheri that
ary from the current text are extracts from Israeli’s
translations.
Israeh wrote an Arabie work on the ritual, trans-
lated into Hebrew, under the title “ Mizwot Zemaniy-
yot,” by Shem-Tob ben Isaac Ardotial, and extant in
the Bodleian (Neubauer, “Cat. Bod]. Hebr. MSS.”
Nos. 904, 1081) and other libraries; also a com-
mentary in Arabic on Pirke Abot (7b. No. 2354;
another copy in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana, Milan).
This commentary was used by Isaac ben Solomon in
his commentary on the first six “perakim.” Israeli
gives many illustrations from the ancient Jewish
literature; and allusions are made by him to medi-
eval works on Abot and on other subjects. His in-
terpretations are mostly of a philosophical character,
and discussions of ethical points are fully entered
into. On v.19 he makes a long excursion on the
principlesofalmsgiving. He cites Saadia, Hai Gaon,
Samucl ha-Maggid, Isaac ibn Ghayat, and others,
Zunz supposes Israeli to have been the author of
the six liturgical poems for the Day of Atonement
and the New-Year bearing the signature “Israel.”
Israeli’s epitaph figures in Luzzatto’s “Abne Zik-
karon,” No. 48.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. p. 426; idem, Literaturgesch. p.
502: idem, Ritus, p. 80; Carmoly, in [sraelitische Annaler,
i. 181; Sachs. Religidse Poesie, p. 177; Steinschneider, in
Briill’s Jahrb, ix. 75; idem, Hebr. Uebers. p. 912; Fuenn,
Keneset Yisrael, p. 695; Taylor, Sayings of the Jewish Fa-
thers, Appendix, No. 90, p. 46.
8. 8 I. Br.
ISRAELIK. Sec PERIODICALS.
ISRAELIT, DER: Biweekly periodical pub-
lished in Galicia since 1868, It is the organ of the
Shomer Yisrael Association of Lemberg, of which
its editorial staff are members; and it represents the
liberal and progressive element of the Galician Jews.
It has an excellent belletristic department.
G A. M. F.
ISRAELIT, DER: Formerly a weekly, now a
semiweekly journal published at Mayence, Ger-
many. It was founded in 1860 by M. Lehmann
and edited by him up to his decease. Since that
time Oskar Lehmann has been the editor. Valuable
literary supplements accompany each number. In
the feuilleton some excellent stories have appeared.
The magazine represents Orthodox Judaism, to con-
serve the interests of which it was founded.
G. A. M. F.
ISRAELIT DES NEUNZEHNTEN JAHR-
HUNDERTS, DER: Periodical published in
Germany in the first half of the nineteeth century.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
672
It firstappeared, from Oct., 18389, up to Oct., 1841, as
a monthly in Meiningen. It was then enlarged and
issued weekly in Herzfeld from 1842 to June, 1848;
and at Frankfort in 1845 as the organ of the Frank-
fort Reformverein. <A literary supplement was is-
sued in 1846. Mendel Hess, a rabbi active in the
Reform movement, was the editor, and 8. Holdheim
joined him during the last months of the paper’s
existence, January to June, 1848. This periodical
was noted for its advanced theological standpoint
and for its polemical attacks on Orthodoxy.
G. A. M. F.
ISRAELITE-CHRISTIANS (Izrailskiye
Christiyanye): To encourage the conversion of
Jews to Christianity, the Committee of Guardians
for Israelite-Christians was established in Russia un-
der Alexander [. It came into existence by an im-
perial decree of March 25, 1817, which describes the
condition of converted Jews as full of hardship in
consequence of the animosity of their former corelig-
ionists. The government ordered all administrative
ofticers to help and protect all such converts, and
to form the Association of Israclite-Cliristians, to
which should be given land in one of the northern
or southern governments. The members of the as-
sociation were to be empowcred to found settle-
ments on the land granted, to admit strangers into
such settlements at discretion, to engage in agri-
culture, trades, commerce, and manufactures, and
were to be exempted frum the obligation to join
a gild. Moreover, converts, including foreigners,
were to be freed from all compulsory government
service. The association was also to be permitted
to regulate its own local affairs and to elect dele-
gates for that purpose. In 1818 the Committee of
Guardians commissioned a certain Misko to select
suitable lands for the settlement of the Israelite-
Christians. Misko spent much time inspecting va-
rious lands in New Russia, and decided on a tract
near the citics of Taganrog and Mariampol. A
correspondence which lasted six years ensued, but
with no result.
When M. 8. Vorontzov became governor-general
of New Russia (1822), the matter was referred to
him by Count A. N. Golitzyn. Vorontzov regarded
the project favorably, and on making inquiries
(1828) found that the settlement had not yet been
established, and that necessary information was still
being collected. The formalities involved delayed
the settlement year after year, until, in 18338, the
committee itself ceased to exist. An inquiry, be-
gun in the office of the governor-general of New
Russia Sept. 9, 1823, at the instance of thirty-eight
families of Israelite-Christians, who petitioned that
they be settled on the lands granted to the associa-
tion, showed the committee to be moribund. J5x-
cepting two families, one resident in Odessa, the
other in Tiraspol, these petitioners bore the names of
“Dobrovolski” and “ Kryzhanovski.” Investigation
showed that their conversion to Christianity was
not proved, and their petition was therefore not
granted.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lerner, Yevrei v Novorossiskom Kraye, p.
234, Odessa, 1901
H. R. J. G LL.
873
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Israeli, Israel
Israelietische Nieuwsbode
ISRAELITE FRANGAISE. Sce Pentop-
ICALS,
ISRAELITISCH-THEOLOGISCHE LEHR-
ANSTALT: Rabbinical and teachers’ seminary in
Vienna, founded 1893 at the suggestion of Wilhe]m
and David von Guttmann and with the assistance
of Aibert von Rothschild and Freiherr von Konigs-
warter, and opened Oct. 15 of that year. It is
subventioned by the Austrian government, by the
“ Cultusgemeinden ” of Vienna, Prague, and Lem-
berg, and by the “ Landesjudenschaft” of Bohemia,
and is governed by fifteen curators. The first pres-
ident was Baron von Kénigswarter, who, at his
death, was succeeded by Moritz Karpeles; the lat-
ter was followed by Moritz Edler von Kuffner.
Since 1898 the faculty has consisted of Dr. Adolf
Schwarz, professor of Talmud, halakie literature,
and homiletics, rector, and the following professors:
M. Friedmann (lector in the Vienna bet ha-midrash),
in the Midrash; Dr. D. H. Miller, in Bible exegesis,
grammar, and religious philosophy; Dr. A. Biichler,
in history; Dr. Jerusalem, in pedagogics and Ger-
man; Dr. Monat, in Polish; and Dr. E. Fuhrmann,
in Bohemian. The institution publishes every year
an annual report together with an important scien-
tific treatise. In 1902 the number of students pre-
paring for the rabbinate was 26, and the number
preparing to be teachers of religion, 11.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bloch, Oesterreichische Wochenschrift, 1898,
pp. 818 et seg.; American Jewish Fear Book, 1900, p. 514.
J. S.
ISRAELITISCHE ALLIANZ ZU WIEN:
Society for the promotion of Jewish interests,
founded at Vienna in 1872 by Joseph Ritter vou
Wertheimer, and modeled on the Alliance Israélite
Universelle of Paris. Its establishment was directly
due to the oppression of the Jews in Rumania and
the excesses committed against the Jews in Asiatic
Turkey. The organizers, among whom were the
publicist Ignatz Kuranda and the poet Leopold Kom-
pert, proposed as animportant part of their program,
to improve Jewish education in Austria and more
especially in Galicia by organizing and supporting
schools, and by other suitable means. The other
object of the society, “to afford efficient relief to
Jews where they still suffer hy reason of their
race,” claimed subsequently the larger part of its
attention, in consequence of the many persecutions
in the countries on the eastern border. On account
of the geographical situation of Vienna, it was the
task of the Israelitische Allianz to render first assist-
ance to refugees from eastern Europe. Thus the
society expended about 862,000 crowns for the relief
of the persecuted Russian Jews in 1881-83, and about
367,000 crowns for that of the Rumanian emigrants
in 1960-02.
In a conference held at Vienna in Aug., 1882, and
attended by all the relief committees of western
Europe, the Israelitische Allianz was entrusted with
the management of the relief-work in behalf of the
Russian Jews, and it was represented at all of the
succeeding international conferences of similar char-
acter. The Allianz raised about 220,000 crowns for
the victims of the massacre of Kishinef. The board
of directors frequently had occasion to intervene
personally with Count Goluchowski, foreign minis-
VI.—48
ter of Austria, in behalf of the Rumanian Jews: and
a memorandum laid before him by the society is re-
printed in its report for 1902.
The educational work of the Israclitische Allianz
in Galicia has been carried on since 1892 through the
Baron de Hirsch Fund for Galicia and
Edu- Bukowina. The society was con-
cational fronted with new tasks at home by the
Work. = growth of anti-Semitism in Austria;
it was called upon to aid the sufferers
from the anti-Jewish excessesat Prague and Nachod,
at. Holleschau and Neusandec, and the victims of
mob prejudice in the Hilsner trialat Polna. It also
offers subsidies to poor provincial communities, in
order that they may maintain religious instruction,
ind to numerous educational and charitable socicties.
According to the report for 1902 there were 3,000
regular members (including many societies as cor-
porate bodies), each paying a minimum contribution
of 6 crowns; 1,185 of these were in Vienna. Income
in 1902: annual contributions, 25,794 crowns; dona-
tions, 9,016 crowns; interest, 10,403 crowns; and
gifts for special relief. President (1903), David
Ritter von Gutmann; first vice-president, Dr. Alfred
Stern; secretaries, 1874-76, Dr. P. Frankl (subse-
quently rabbi at Berlin); 1880-90, Dr. M. Fried-
liinder; and since 1901 Rabbi A. Kaminka.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Annual Reports of the Israelitische Allianz.
D.
ISRAELITISCHE ANNALEN: Weekly
journal; published in Frankfort-on-the-Main, The
first number appeared Jan. 4, 1889; it discontinued
publication Dec. 24, 1841. The well-known histo-
rian Isaac Marcus Jost was its editor. The journal
printed Jewish news from all points and articles on
Jewish literature and history. Its theological posi-
tion was neutral, and its chief value lay in its his-
torical work.
G. A. M. F.
ISRAELITISCHE BOTE. See PERIopIcars,
ISRAELITISCHE GEMEINDEBLATT.
See PERIODICALS.
ISRAELITISCHE GEMEINDE- UND FA.
MILIENZEITUNG. See PERIODICALS.
ISRAELITISCHE GEMEINDE- UND
SCHULZEITUNG. See PERIODICALS.
ISRAELITISCHE GEMEINDEZEITUNG.
See PERIODICALS.
ISRAELIETISCHE JAARBOEKJE. See
PERIODICALS.
ISRAELITISCHE LEHRER. See PEnrtop-
ICALS.
ISRAELITISCHE LEHRER UND KAN-
TOR. See JU piscue PRESSE.
ISRAELITISCHE LEHRERZEITUNG.
See PERIODICALS.
ISRAELIETISCHE LETTERBODE. See
PERIODICALS.
ISRAELITISCHE MERKUR. See Periop-
ICALS.
ISRAELIETISCHE NIEUWSBODE. See
PERIODICALS.
seep aamaaaad THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 674
Israels
ISRAELITISCHE SCHUL- UND PREDI- | the university of his native town (M.D. 1845). He
GERMAGAZIN: Monthly periodical, published | established himself as a physician in Amsterdam,
in Magdeburg by Ludwig Philippson. It first ap- | where, in 1867, he became lecturer on the history of
peared in 1884, and continued up to the end of 1886. | medicine and hygiene at the Atheneum. In 1877
It was the precursor of the “ Allgemeine Zeitung | he was appointed assistant professor at the Univer-
des Judenthums,” and contained articles of homiletic | sity of Amsterdam.
and pedagogic interest. At times short notices of Among Israels’ works may be mentioned the fol-
current happenings appeared in it. lowing, all of which were published in Amsterdam °
G. A. ML EF “Twee Epidemien in Nederland,” 1858; “ De Saler
nitaansche School,” 1856; “Bydragen tot de Ge
IRBAELITICONS “SCHULZELIUNG. ee schiedenis der Lepra in de Noordelyke Nederlanden,”
PERIODICALS. 1857: “De Geschiedenis der Diphtheritis Beknopt
ISRAELITISCHE VOLKESBLATT. See | Medegedcelt,” 1861; “Bydragen tot de Geschiedenis
PERIODICALS. der Geneeskunde in Nederland,” 1878; “De Keizer-
ISRAELITISCHE VOLKSLEBHRER: | snede by Levenden, Volgens den Babylonischen Tal-
Monthly, published at Frankfort-on-the-Main. It | mud,” 1882. He also translated into Dutch Ideler’s
was founded in 1851, and continued to 1862. It was | “Allgemeine Diiitetik fir Gebildete” (Amsterdam,
edited by Leopold Stein; 1851) and Hiaser’s “ Lehr-
in its last years 8. Stiss- buch der Geschichte der
kind, the publisher of the Medizin ” (2, 1855-99).
feuilletonistic family jour- From 1874 to 1876 Isra-
nal “Der Freitagabend,” els was editor of “ Hy gieia,
was associated with him Weekblad voor de Ge-
in the editorship. The zondheidsleer.”
journal was popular in BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. E. Daniels,
tone, and published ser- Levensschets van Dr. A. H.
Pee eae israels, Amsterdam, L854;
mons, rabbinical decisions, Hirsch, Biog. Lex.
and discussions on relig-
Ss. F. T. H.
ious matters. ISRAEL’S HER.-
a A. M. F. OLD. See PERIODICALS.
ISRAELITISCHE ISRAELS, JOSEPH:
WOCHENSCHRIFT Dutch genre painter; born
FUR DIE RELIGIO-
SEN UND SOCIALEN
INTERESSEN DES
JUDENTHUMS:
Weekly journal, published
at Breslau and later at
Magdeburg. The first
number appeared Jan. 5,
1870; the last toward the
close of 1894. It was
edited successively by A. counting-room. This ca-
Treuenfels and M. Rah- —— reer, however, he soon
mer. Together with the Joseph Israels. abandoned, but not until
“Wochenschrift” were the elder Israels had be-
published three supplements: “Jiidisches Famili- | come fully convinced of the bent of his son’s mind,
enblatt,” “Jiidisches Litteraturblatt,” and “Homi- | mainly through his insistent desire to make sketches
letische Beilage.” Its theological position was con- upon the borders of the huge ledgers which it was
|
at Groningen, Holland,
June 27, 1824. It was his
mother’s desire that he
should enter the rabbinate,
but other influences pre-
vailed, and atan early age
he adopted a commercial
career, which his father,
a banker, had mapped
out for him in his own
servative. his duty to keep in order. At last permission was
G. A. M. F. given him to take up art as a profession.
ISRAELITISCHER HAUS- UND SCHUL- Upon leaving his office-desk Israels immediately
FREUND. Sce PERropicaLs. began his studies in art at Groningen under local
ISRAELITISCHER LEHRERBOTE. <ce masters. At the age of seventeen, having in a
PERIODICALS. so * measure exhausted the opportunities offered by his
native town, he went to Amsterdam. There he en-
ISRAELITISOHER MUSENALMANACH. tered the studio of Cornelis Kruseman, and quickly
See PERTODICALS.
responded to the classical influences then predomi-
ISRAELITISCHER NEUIGKEITSBOTE. nating, not only at the Amsterdam cadens of
See PERTODICALS. Fine Arts, over which his master presided, but to
ISRAELITULU ROMANUL. See PEntop- | an even greater extent in Paris, where Israels ulti-
ICALE. mately went. While in Paris he studied under
ISRAELS, ABRAHAM HARTOG: Dutch | Picot, Horace Vernet, and Paul Delaroche. living
medical historian; born at Groningen March 27, | meanwhile economically upon a small allowance
1822; died at Amsterdam Jan. 16, 1883; educated at | made him by his father. While in Paris he felt to the
675
full the positive influence of the romantic school,
of which his masters were the foremost exponents
and from which he became one of the first seceders.
In 1848 Millet exhibited for the first time in Paris,
and, judging from Isracls’ later work, there is little
doubt that be was one of the first painters to appre-
ciate the signiiicance of Millet’s revolt against the
ultra-classical tendencies of the period. From Paris
Israels returned to Amsterdam, and there commenced
painting historic scenes, of which the first was
“William the Silent of Orange Bidding Defiance
to King Philip II. of Spain” (1855). Meeting with
little success in this field, he turned for subjects to
the peasantry that flocked into the city on market-
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
israelitischs
Israels
Tle was decorated with the cross of the Legion of
{Llonor in 1867, and was created an officer of that
order in 1878. ‘Lhe Order of Leopold was also con-
ferred upon him by the king of the Belgians. In
1883 the Munich Taternational Exposition awarded
him a gold medal (second class), and he received a
cold medal (first class) from the Paris Exposition of
1884, At the Paris Exposition of 1900 he exhibited
two paintings: “The Merchant of Bric-a-brac ” and
teturning from the Fields.”
Of Israels’ pictures, “ Passing Mother’s Grave”
(1856) was purchased in 1861 by the Amsterdam
Academy of Fine Arts, * Alone in the World” (1878)
by the Amsterdam Museum. His “Frugal Meal”
THE SCRIBE.
(From the painting by Joseph Israels.)
days from the surrounding country, and began to
paint the homely scenes which have since made him
famous. Later he drew for material upon the life
of the fisherfolk of the seaside villages near Am-
sterdam. Those of his pictures that interpret the
life of the Dutch fishermen, the arduous and fre-
quently tragic element of which Israels portrayed
with deep feeling and with a masterly application
of chiaroscuro, soon became popular. In developing
his tendencies he finally attained the extreme of
realism and depicted the sober side of life—its toils,
its sorrows, and its sacrifices.
Several medals were conferred upon the artist in
recognition of the merit of his work. He received
a medal (third class) at the Paris Exposition of 1867,
and another (first class) at the Exposition of 1878.
was bought by W. K. Vanderbilt of New York.
Among his other works may be mentioned: “ Vil-
lage Scene,” “Preparing for the Future” (1855);
“Children of the Sea,” “Peaceful House,” * Fish-
ermen Shipwrecked off Scheveningen” (1862);
“The Sick Mother,” “The Mother in Health,”
“The Orphan Asylum at Katwyk,” “The Last
Breath,” “True Support,” “Madonna in Hut,”
“Age and Infancy ” (1872); “First Sail,” “Village
Poor” (1878); “Expectation,” “An Anxious Fam-
ily ” (1874); “ Waiting for the Fishing-Boats ” (1875) ;
“Returning from the Fields,” “ Breakfast Time,”
“Cobblers at Dinner” (1878); “Nothing More!”
“The Sewing-School at Katwyk ” (1881); “ A Silent
Interview ” (1882): “Fair Weather,” “A Sleeping
Child” (1883); “The Return” (1884); “ When One
Issa.
Isserlein
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
S76
Becomes Old” (1886); “The Little Sick Nurse.”
“The Sewer” (1888). Some of his works decal with
Jewish subjects, as “David Betore Saul,” “The
Seribe,” “A Son of the Ancient People,” and “Old
Jewish Sage” (etching).
Israels was an aquarellist and etcher of great tal.
ent. Through his efforts painting received a new
impetus in Holland, where a modern Duteh school
of painting has arisen. He lived long at The Hague,
and became corresponding member of the Institut
de France. He died August 12, 1911.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Seybert. Kilinstler Lexikon; Meyers Ion-
versitions-Levikoi, Champlin, Cyclopedia of Painters and
Painting; Nouveau Larousse lustré; Suidische Klineatler,
Berlin, 1903
s, CG. H. T.
ISSA. Sce Jose.
ISSACHAR (a5u").—1. Biblical Data:
Ninth son of Jacob and fifth of Leah, born a consider-
able length of time after her other children (Gen.
xxx. 17,18; comp. xxix. 35). This name belongs to
that ciass of words which, according to Masoretic
printing, are not read as they are written, the second
w being ignored. The meaning of the name is either
“there is a reward ” (“ yesh sakar”) or, according to
Wellhausen (“ Text der Biicher Samuels,” p. 95), “a
man of hire” (“ish sakar”), In Gen. xxx. 18 (Hebr.)
the former explanation is plainly indicated: “God
has given me my reward, because I have given my
maiden to my husband.” Still there is in verse 16
an allusion to the latter explanation: “ ForIThave
surely hired thee with my son’s mandrakes.” Ball
(“S. B. O. T.,” “Genesis,” on Gen. xxx. 18) inter-
prets the name as “Sokar’s man,” that is, “man of
the Egyptian god Sokar.” Issachar had four sons,
who founded the four chief families of the tribe
(Gen. xlvi. 18; Num, xxvi. 28, 24; I Chron. vii. 1).
Jacob in blessing his children before his death com-
pared Issachar to a strong or bony ass (Gen. xlix. 14),
This expression is a prophecy referring to the tribe
of Issachar.
E. G. U. M. Set.
——In Rabbinical Literature: Issachar was one
of the five brothers whom Joseph presented to
Pharaoh (Gen. xlvii. 2; Gen. R. xev. 3). In the
wars between Jacob’s sons and the Canaanites, in
which, according to the legend, the other sons
achieved astonishing exploits, Issachar took but a
feeble part. He is mentioned as having remained
beneath the walls of Sarta and Gaash, two strongly
fortified cities, and at a given opportunity as hay-
ing opened their gates (“Sefer ha-Yashar,” section
“Warvishlah,” ed. Leghorn, 1870, pp. 60b, 68a). He
matried Aridah, the younger daughter of Jobab,
the son of Joktan (2d. section “ Wayesheb,” p. 75a).
At Jacob’s funeral Issachar was one of the three
who were placed to the east in carrying the bier (7d.
section “ Wayehi” ; comp. Gen. R. ¢. 2). Issachar’s
name was engraved in the sapphire of the high
priest’s breastplate (ix. R. xxxvili. 11). Issachar
was born on the fourth day of the fifth month (Ab)
and died at the age of 122 (Midrash Tadshe, in Ep-
stein, “Mi-Kadmoniyyot ha-Yehudim,” p. xxiii.).
2. A Levite, seventh son of Obed-edom (I Chron.
Xxvi. 5).
& Ss, M. SEL.
ISSACHAR, TRIBE OF .—Biblical Data: A
tribe of Israel, descended from Issachar. The num-
bers accredited to Issachar are: 54.400 in Num. i. 29;
64.800 in Num, xxvi. 25; and 145,600 in [ Chron,
vii. 1-5. The territory occupied by the tribe was
the fourth lot specified in Josh. xix. 17-23, immedi.
ately north of the half-tribe of Manasseh, west of the
Jordan, and south of Zebulun and Naphtali; and
it probably extended from the Jordan on the east to
the Mediterranean Sea (comp. Deut, xxxiii, 18) on
the west. It embraced sixteen cities and the fertile
plain of Esdraelon.
The first important event in which Issachar fig-
ures is the battle of Deborah and Barak with Sisera
in the plain of Esdraeclon. In Judges v. 15 (R. V.)
itis said: “And the princes of Issachar were with
Deborah; as was Issachar, so was Barak.” It may
be, though it is by no means certain, that both
Deborah and Barak belonged to this tribe, in whose
territory the battle was fought and won.
The judge Tola, son of Puah, son of Dodo, was
also a man of Issachar (Judges x. 1). Jehoshaphat,
son of Paruah, was one of Solomon’s comnuissary of-
ficials (I Kings iv. 17). The second dynasty of the
Northern Kingdom belonged to Issachar: “ And
Baasha, the son of Ahijah, of the house of Issachar,”
slew Nadab, son of Jeroboam I., and reigned in his
stead (I Kings xv. 27-28). There are no other spe-
cific references to descendants of Issachar who oc-
cupied prominent places in Israel’s history ; but, ac-
cording to the genealogical tables of the chronicler,
some further importance is attached to the tribe.
E.G. A. I. M. P.
——In Rabbinical Literature: The tribe of Is-
sachar is particularly represented as one which con-
sisted mostly of scholars, to which there is said to
be an allusionin I Chron, xii, 32. According to Raba,
there was not to be found a Jewish student that
was nota descendant cither of Levi or of Issachar
(Yoma 26a) The passage of Jacob’s blessing re-
ferring to Issachar (Gen. xlix. 14-15) is interpreted
as an allusion to the study of the Law, with which
the people of that tribe occupied themselves (Gen.
R. xeviii. 17; comp. also pseudo-Jonathan and Rashi
ad loc.). The tribe of Issachar is also said to have
been most influential in making proselytes (Gen. R.
xevili. 12; comp. Sifre, Deut. 36-4).
Although Issachar was the ninth son of Jacob,
yet the prince of his tribe was the second to bring
the offering for the dedication of the altar (Num.
vii. 18-28), because the tribe was well versed in the
Law (Gen. R. Ixxii. 4). The Midrash finds in the
details of the offering various allusions to the Torah
(Num. R. xiii. 15). The tribe of Issachar ad-
vised the others to bring six covered wagons and
twelve oxen (Num. vii. 8)on which to load the parts
of the Tabernacle (Num. R. xii. 19). The 200 chiefs
of Issachar (J Chron. xii. 32) were leaders of the San-
hedrin, whose decisions were implicitly accepted by
their brethren (Gen. R. Ixxii. 5, xeviii. 17). The wise
men consulted by Ahasuerus (Esth. i, 13) were peo-
ple of Issachar (Esth. R. iv.). The tribe is also repre-
sented as having been rich (comp. Targ. Onk. to
Gen. xlix. 14); and its members figure as persons
who united wealth and learning (B. K, 17a). It
was because they studied the Torah under favor:
677
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Issa :
Isserlein
able conditions that they produced only 200 chiefs of
the Sanhedrin, while the people of Naphtali. who
studied it under difficulties, produced 1,000 (Cant.
RR. viit. 14).
s 8, M. SEL.
ISSACHAR BAR B. TANHUM: Russian
rabbi; born (in Grodno %) 1779; died at Wilna July
31, 1855. He became one of the “more zedek”
(“dayyanim ”) of Wilna in 1819, and held that posi-
tion till his death. He made a special study of the
religious usages of Elijah Wilna not practised br
Others, and incorporated the results in his work
“Ma‘aseh Rab” (Zolkiev, 1808), of which a second
edition, with notes and additions by his son Mor-
decai, was published at Wilna and Grodno in 1832.
Another of his sons, Elijah Perez, who was also
a morch gedeck in Wilna, republished that work
with additions and an appendix entitled “Minhat
‘Ereb ” (Wilna, 1832). Later editions (Warsaw, 1858,
and Wilna, 1889) contain various additions and ex-
tracts from other books on subjects similar to those
treated in the body of the work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Jgiryah Ne’emanah, pp. 212, 285-286,
Wilina, 1860.
s. 8. P. WI.
ISSACHAR DOB BEN JACOB JOSHUA:
Rabbi of Podhajce, Galicia; born at Lisko, Galicia,
1712; died in Berlin Oct. 28, 1744. His father was
the author of “Pene Yehoshua‘,” novelle on the
Talmud, and Issachar Dob himself was a pupil of
Hirsch, rabbi of Halberstadt. In 1741 he gave his
approbation to the printing of Hoshen Mishpat with
its three commentaries. Three years later he was
called to be “rosh yeshibah ” of Metz, but while on
his way thither he fell sick and died.
Issachar Dob, though comparatively young at the
time of his death, was known as an eminent Tal-
mudic scholar. IIe wrote many responsa, some of
which were published in the responsa collection
“Kiryat Hannah” (§$ 41-44) and some in that of
Hayyim Cohen Rapoport. His son Zebi Rosanes
inserted others in his “Tesha‘ Shittot.” Issachar
Dob is perhaps identical with the Issachar Dob beu
Jacob who wrote annotations to Ezekiel Landau’s
“Davul me-Rebabah,”
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Buber, Avishe Shem, p. 125; Van Straalen,
Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Afus. p. 118. M.S
L. EL.
s. 8.
ISSACHAR BEN ISSACHAR COHEN
GERSONI: Bohemian printer and author; lived
in Prague in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
turics. In 1691 he was employed at Firth on the
“Sefer Me’irat ‘Enayim.” He afterward went to
Prague, where he worked for different printers.
Issachar wrote “‘Ippush Lid fun Prag” (Prague,
1714), a description in Judeo-German verse of the
plague which ravaged Prague in 1718-14.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Stefinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 1060, 2899.
S. M. SEt.
ISSERLEIN (ISSERLIN), ISRAEL BEN
PETHAHIAH ASHKENAZI: The foremost
Talmudic authority of Germany in the first half of
the fifteenth century, born in the last decade of the
fourteenth century, probably at Ratisbon; died at
Neustadt, near Vienna, 1460, Isserlein belonged to
an old family of scholars: his great-grandfather on
his father’s side was Israel of Krems, author of the
“ Haggahot Asheri ”: and his maternal uncle was the
martyr Aaron Bluniein. The latter was IsserJein’s
principal teacher, Isserlein, after his father’s death
at Ratisbon, having accompanicd his mother to Neu-
stadt, where Aaron Blumlein conducted a yeshibah.
Isserlein also studied with a certain Nathan. who
is likewise known as an eminent Talmudist. In
consequence of the persecution of the Jews at Neu-
stadt, of which his mother and uncle were victims
(March 12, 1421), Isserlein seems to have left Aus-
tria and gone to Italy; later he settled at Marburg,
Styria, wherefore he is often called “Israel of Mar-
burg.” After a lengthy sojourn in that city he re-
turned (before 1445) to Neustadt, where he remained
until his death.
Neustadt owed its reputation of being the fore-
most seat of Jewish scholarship in Austria in no
small degree to Isserlein’s activity. Hundreds of
eager students went there in order to sit at the feet
of the great rabbi; and his opinions on difficult or
doubtful questions of religious or civil law were
sought far and wide. His chief serv-
His ice as a teacher of the Talmud and
Activity of rabbinical Htcrature was his en-
at deavor to revive the study of the orig-
Neustadt. inal sources. In the century prece-
ding him Talmudic lore in Germany
bad declined to such an extent that even the so-
called scholars gave their attention almost exclu-
siveiry to the codices of the Law, neglecting the
study of the Talmud and of the old authorities.
Isserlein’s efforts brought him into frequent con-
flict with the older rabbis. Thus he took the part
of two young Talmudists who desired to open a
school in Neustadt but were opposed by Meisterlein.
the representative of the old school, because he did
not favor the study of the RisHonim, whose teach-
ings, he said, had only a theoretic value.
Isserlein cared little for the opinions of the later
codifiers, or even for the authority of the Turim,
as against the decisions of the Geonim. He was
exceedingly modest, however, and, although recog-
nized as a great Talmudist, would not allow himself
to be addressed as “Morenu” when called to the
reading of the Torah. He was also remarkably
obliging: although subject tothe gout and troubled
with an affection of the eves, he insisted, even when
sick, on dictating responsa to the many questions
addressed to him.
The folowing two works by Isserlein have been
printed: (1) “Terumat ha-Deshen” (Venice, 1519),
consisting of 354 (a number corresponding to the
numerical value of jw and to the days of the lunar
year) decisions in the form of responsa on synagogal,
ritual, and legal subjects; and (2) “Pesakim u-
Ketabim,” containing 267 responsa, of which nearly
one-third deal with the various rules
His Works. regarding the marriage Jaws. The
first work was edited by Isserlein him-
self; the material for the second was collected and
edited after his death by one of his pupils. Many
of his responsa are found also in the responsa col-
lections of MaHaRiSh, Israel Bruna, and Jacob
Weil; and others are still in manuscript. The man
Isserlein
Isserles
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
678
uscript of his supercommentary to Rashi’s commen-
tary on the Pentateuch is still extant, while his “ She-
‘arim,” on things permitted and those prohibited,
Which Moses Isserles used, has been preserved in
fragments only; extracts from it are included in the
Basel edition of the “ Sha‘are Dura” (1547). A “Seder
ha-Get” by Isserlein, which is mentioned by some
authorities, is perhaps the basis of the form of di-
vorce given in Moses Minz’s responsum No. 123.
Three of Isserlein’s liturgic pieces show him to have
been a man of much talent, but not a poct.
Isserlein’s responsa were highly important for the
religious life of the German-Polish Jews. What
Joseph Caro neglected in the Shulhan ‘Aruk,
Moses Isserles supplied in his notes; and Isserles
often cites opinions of Isserlein’s to which Caro
had paid little attention. Even Solomon Luria, who
as a rule was very independent in his views, consid-
ered Isserlein’s opinions as authoritative. He said:
“Do not deviate from his words; for he was great
and eminent” (“ Yam shel Shelomoh” to Git. iv. 24).
It is difficult to characterize Isserlein’s standpoint
in his many decisions, which cover almost the entire
religious and social life. He was, on the whole, in-
clined to a rigorous interpretation of the Law, ex-
cepting in the case of an ‘AeUNAH; he always
endeavored to facilitate the woman’s remarriage.
His severe views were due chiefty to his own asceti-
cism; for, being himself accustomed to self-denial,
he saw no special hardship in a decision that cur-
tailed any of the joys of life. He spoke very
bitterly, however, against those who out of mere
professional envy, and in order that the views of
others might not prevail, placed a stricter interpre-
tation on the laws. Isserlein was opposed to severe
punishments, and decided that the way ought to be
made easy for the return of a penitent to Judaism,
and that he should not be discouraged by the neces-
sity of a too rigorous atonement; for
As a Legal he maintained that a return to Juda-
Authority. ism involved a denial of three kinds of
pleasure, and entailed a large amount
of suffering which should be counted to the credit
of the penitent.
In many cases Isserlein’s decisions are true reflec-
tions of German Talmudism in the fifteenth century,
with all its strong and its weak points. Thus he
could hardly make up his mind to observe the comet
in 1456, because, according to the opinion of an old
codifier, star-gazing was one of the practises of
magic forbidden in the Bible. Nevertheless he per-
mitted a sick person to consult a magician, if the
latter did not belong in the category of the magi-
cians forbidden in the Pentateuch.
Isserlein’s works are most valuable for the study
of Jewish history in the Middle Ages on account of
the rich material they contain regarding the civili-
zation of that period.
Isserlein is a pet name for Israel.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Berliner. in Monatsschrift, xviii. 130-135, 177-
181, 224-235, 269-277, 315-323; Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., viii, 188,
196, 211, 264; Giidemann, Gesch. iil. 14, 18, 23, 29, 85, 87, 93:
Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, pp. 679-08). LG
g. 3.
ISSERLES, MOSES BEN ISRAEL
(ReMA): Polish rabbi, code annotator, and philos-
opher; born at Cracow about 1520; died there May 1,
1572. His father was a rich and prominent Tal
mudist, and it may be concluded from the terms
“ha-kazin” and “ ha-parnes,” which his son applies
to him (preface to “Mehir Yayin ”), that he was the
chief of the community, Isserles studied in his
native city, and then under Shalom Shekuna, rabbi of
Lublin, whose son-in-law he became. Among his
fellow pupils were his relative Solomon Luria
(MaHlaRshaL), and Hayvim b. Bezaleei, who later
was his opponent. Isserles returned to Cracow
about 1050, when he established a large yeshibah
and, being a wealthy man, supported his pupils at
his own cost. Three years later he was ordained
rabbi and was named one of the three dayyanim to
form the rabbinate of Cracow, which community had
as yet no chief rabbi(“ab bet din”). In 1556, when
the plague ravaged Cracow, Isserles went to Szyd-
lowiec, where he wrote his “ Mehir Yayin.”
While still young Isserles was recognized as an
authority in rabbinical matters. As early as 1550
his relative Meir Katzenellenbogen of Padua, a man
of eighty years, had applied to him to use his influ-
ence in forbidding the unlawful printing in Poland
of the “Mishneh Torah,” which was causing Kat-
zenellenbogen heavy loss. Isserles in ten responsa
defended the interests of the aged rabbi of Padua.
He also corresponded with many other rabbis, among
them Joseph Caro, who answered him ina very con-
siderate manner,
A close friendship existed between Isserles und
his relative Luria, though, as will be scen, they dif-
fered later on various matters (Isserles,
Relations Responsa, No. 6). In many respects
with their aims were similar: both aimed
Solomon at the truth in their decisions, both
Luria. worked for the furtherance of Tal-
mudic literature, and both ascribed
great importance tocustoms (“minhagim”). In cer-
tain other matters, however, there was great oppo-
sition between the two friends, especially in their
attitude toward philosophy. Luria was the adver-
sary of philosophy; Isserles, its warm defender, de-
claring openly that the aim of man is to search for
the cause and the meaning of things (“ Torat ha-
“Olah,” III., ch. vii.). Isserles accordingly devoted
a part of his time to philosophy. When Luria re-
proached him for having based his decisions on
Aristotle’s teachings, he replied that he followed
Maimonides, and that he studied Greek philosophy
only from the “ Moreh”; further, that he pursued his
philosophical studies on Sabbaths and holy days only.
when people generally took walks, and that it was
better to occupy oneself with philosophy than to err
through Cabala (Isserles, Responsa, No. 7). The
fact that Isserles studied the “Moreh” on Sabbaths
and holy days—on which days the reading of profane
literature was particularly forbidden—shows how
much heappreciated philosophy in general and Mai-
monides in particular.
Isserles also occupied himself with the secular
sciences; and whereas Caro says that a man must
devote all his time to the study of the Torah and the
Talmud, Isserles decides that one may now and then
occupy himself with the secular sciences provided he
is not led into heresy through studying them (Shul-
han ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 246, 4). He himself had
679
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Isserlein
Isserles
an extensive knowledge of astronomy and a great
liking for history. It was Isserles who induced
his pupil David Gans to write the historical work
“Zemah Dawid.” Isserles was opposed to “ pilpul ”
(Responsa, No. 78); and he taught his pupils how to
interpret the Talmud in a simple way (7d. No. 88).
Some of his responsa are written in an elevated
style of versified prose, as are his prefaces, though,
ashe himself declared, he had never studied Hebrew
grammar (76. No. 7). Isserles was also an excellent
scribe, and in the scroll of the Pentateuch which he
wrote and which is preserved in the synagogue—
originally his house, which he gave to the commu-
nity for a place of worship—there are fourteen read-
ings different from those in other scrolls
Connection (see “Ha-Maggid,” i. 54, ii. 16). Is-
with serles was prominent in the Councu.
Council or Four Lanps, which was estab
of Four lished in his time. A quarrel having
Lands. broken out among the rabbis, he
launched an anathema against those
who were desirous of continuing the agitation and
would not await the decision of the rabbinical con-
gress at the fair of Lublin (Responsa, Nos. 68, 64).
Owing to the fact that he was one of the founders
of rabbinic learning in Poland and Germany, and
was recognized as the authority not only in rabbinic
law but also in Cabala, philosophy, and the secular
sciences, legends attached themselvestohim. Many
curious stories are told of the number of years he
lived, of the number of works he wrote, etc. (comp.
Azulai, “Shem ha-Gedolim,” i., s.c. “Mosheh Is-
serles”). Even at the present dav the Polish Jews
consider him a saint, and on the anniversary of his
death large numbers make a pilgrimage to his tomb
at Cracow (“Ha-Maggid,” 1908, No. 18). In the
epitaph on Isserles’ tombstone occurs the following
“From Moses [Maimonides] to Moses [Isserles] there
was none like Moses” (comp. Deut. xxxiv. 10).
This isan exaggeration, but there is a resemblance
between the two, as both were halakists, and both
devoted a large part of their time to philosophy.
Isserles’ writings may be divided into two classes
of works: (1) halakic, and (2) philosophical, cabalis-
tic, exegetical, and scientific. It is on the former
that his great reputation rests. His zeal for the
Law and his vindication of Ashkenazic customs
spread his fame far and wide. Indeed, he may with
justice be called the Ashkenazic codifier; for he was
to the Ashkenazim what Caro was to the Sephar-
dim. Like Caro, he wrote a commentary to the
Arba‘ Turim, entitled “Darke Mosheh,” of which
two parts were printed (i., Ftirth, 1760; ii., Sulzbach,
1692). An abridgment of this work, entitied “ Kiz-
zur Darke Mosheh,” was published with the text
in Venice, 1598. Thiscommentary contains asevere
criticism of the “Bet Yosef.” It is also the source
of Isserles’ other work, “Mappah,” which is both a
criticism of and a supplement to Caro’s Shulhan
‘Aruk. Isserles saw that Caro’s “table” was not
sufficiently “ prepared”; for Caroas a
Isserles Sephardi had neglected the Ashkena-
and Caro. zicminhagim. He therefore provided
the Shulhan ‘Aruk (= “Prepared Ta-
ble”) with a “Mappah” (= “Table-Cloth”), consist-
ing of notes (“haggahot ”) inserted in Caro’s text.
These notes first appeared in the Cracow edition of
the Shulhan ‘Aruk (1571), in Rashi type to distin-
guish them from the text of Caro.
The authorities receiving special attention in the
“Darke Mosheh ” and “ Mappah” are the AMARONIM
and, more particularly, the minhagim, to which
Isserles attached great importance. The impor-
tance of the minhag had already been pointed out by
Solomon Luria, who declared that the minhag out-
weighed the Law (“Yam shel Shelomoh” to B. K.
x, 42). Isserles went still further: he established
the minhag in several cases as the standard au-
thority. “The minhag is the Law,” he said (“ Darke
Mosheh” on Tur Yoreh De‘ah, 116). “One must
not act contrary to the minhag” (Shulhan ‘Aruk,
Orah Hayyim, 619, 1). Still, even in establishing
the minhag as an authority, he did not do so in-
discriminately, because he made a distinction among
minhagim. Where the minhag seemed to him ab-
surd, he declared it to be unacceptable (Shulhan
‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 160, 18). It must be added
that when Ashkenazim now speak of the Shulhan
‘Aruk they understand by it both Caro’s text and
Isserles’ notes, and that when there is a conflict be-
tween the two, Isserles is taken as the authority.
As to Isserles’ system, it may be said that he was
more inclined toward restrictive decisions (“mah-
mir”), especially in his rulings concerning Kasher
food (see, for instance, Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah,
35, 5; 107, 2 e¢ passim). But he has been judged
too severely by modern Maskilim, who liave accused
him of making arbitrary restrictions, of inventing
customs, and of causing heavy pecuniary losses by
his reliance on the minhagim (P. Smolenskin, “‘Am
‘Olam,” ch. xiii.). These accusations are unjustified,
because Isserles was consistent in principle, inas-
much as he regarded the minhag asthe norm for the
practise on both the liberal and the restrictive sides.
Throughout his “Darke Mosheh,” “ Mappah,” and
responsa occur many liberal decisions of his which are
based on the minhag, but are contrary
Liberal to the decisions of other casuists (“ po-
Tend- = sckim”), including Solomon Luria. In
encies. general he adapted his decisions to
the spirit of the time in which he lived;
aud he gave a liberal decision when he saw that a
restrictive one would prove burdensome (“She’elot
u-Teshubot ReMA,” No. 50).
Isseries touches also, in his halakic decisions, on the
question of the superiority of the Hebrew language
and the sacred characters. He allows one to read on
Saturdays non-religious works if written in Hebrew
(Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 307, 16). The Tar-
gumim have the same sacred character as the He-
brew (“ Darke Mosheh” on Tur Eben ha-‘Ezer, 126).
The square characters are sacred because the scroll
of the Law is written in them; and he forbade the
writing of non-religious works in such characters
(Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 284, 2).
His other halakic works are:
** Torat Hattat,”’ also called ‘* Issur we-Hetter ”’ (Cracow, n.d.),
a treatise on what is lawful and unlawful, arranged according
to the ‘‘Sha‘are Dura” of Isaac of Diiren, and written before
the ‘‘Mappah.” Later Isserles added notes to this work (ib.
159 1). Eliezer ben Joshua of Shebrszyn and Jacob Rzeszower
(Reischer) wrote commentaries on the “* Torat Hattat’’: that of
the former was entitled “* Dammesek Eli‘ezer”’’; that of the lat-
Tsserles
Istria
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
680
ter, ‘‘ Minhat Ya‘akob."” The work was severely criticized by
Hayyim b. Bezalee] in his *‘ Wikkuah Mayim Hayyim”’ and by
Yom-Tob Lipmann Heller in his ‘* Torat ha-Asham.”
‘** She’elot u-Teshubot ReMA” (tb. 1640), a collection of 132 re-
sponsa, many of which were addressed to him by other rabbis,
In these responsa Isserles sometimes criticizes Solomon Luria,
Shalom Shekna (bis own master; see Responsa, No. 30), Mor-
deeai b. Hillel (ib. No. 100), and others.
‘**Haggahot’”’ (Prague, 1604), notes to Jacob Weil’s * Shehitot
u-Bedikot.”’
Notes on Mordecai b. Hillel (Isserles, Responsa, No. 38).
His works of a philosophical character are “ Mehir
Yayin” (Cremona, 1559) and “Torat ha-‘Olah” (3
vols., Prague, 1659). The former is a philosophical
work in which he treats the Book of Esther as an
allegcry of human life. The “ Torat
Philo- —ha-‘Olah” is a philosophical explana-
sophical tionof the Temple, its equipment, and
Works. its sacrifices. In the description of
the Temple, Isserles follows Maimon-
ides’ “Yad,” Bet ha-Behirah, even in those cases
where Maimonides is in conflict with the Talmud
(“ Torat ha-‘Olah,” I., ch. ii.). According to Isserles,
the entire Temple and its appurtenances—their
forms, dimensions, and the number of their parts—
correspond to things either in divine or in human phi-
losophy. For instance, the seven parts of the Tem-
ple (¢4.) correspond to the so-called seven climates.
The women’s courtyard and its four chambers cor-
respond to the active intelligence and the four king-
doms, mineral, vegetable, animal, and rational,
which reccive their form from the active intelligence
(“Torat la-‘Olah,” L, iv., vi., vii.) He also fol-
lows Maimonides in many philosophical points, as,
for example, in a belief in the active intelligence,
and regards the angels not as concrete bodies, but as
creative; every power of God being called “angel”
(messenger) because it is an Intermediary between
the First Cause and the thing caused or created (7.
Il., xxiv.; ILL, xvii.; comp. “ Moreh,” ii. 6).
In many other points, however, he differs widely
from Maimonides. He follows ALso in fixing the
number of the articles of faith or fundamental prin-
ciples (“ ‘ikkarim ”) at three; viz., belief (1) in the
existence of God, (2) in revelation, and (8) in divine
retribution. To Albo’s six derived principles Is-
serles adds three: free will, tradition, and the worship
of Ged alone (* Torat ha-‘Olah,” 1. xvi.). Belief in
the creation of the world is in his eyes the most im-
portant of the derived principles; and he refutes the
seven arguments of the philosophers against it (zd.
III., xliv., xlv., lxi.). He does not, however, con-
sider it necessary to believe iu the end of the world
(6. ii. 2)—another point on which he differs from
Maimonides (comp. “ Morch,” ii. 27).
As Isserles lived at a time when the Cabala pre-
dominated, and as he was a contemporary of Isaac
Luria, Hayyim Vital, and other cabalists, it was
natural that he should be influenced by mystical
views. Although, as has been already said, he was
opposed to the Cabala, he devoted a part of his time
to its study. His “Torat ha-‘Olah” is full of caba-
listic opinions. He appreciated the Zohar, believing
it to have been revealed from Mount Sinai; and he
rejoiced when he found that his philosophical views
were confirmed by it (“ Torat ha-‘Olah,” J., xiii. ; IL,
i.). He occupied himself, too, with the study of
GEMATRIA (7). L, xiii.), and believed that a man
might perform wonders by means of combinations
(‘zerufim”) of holy names (@6. IIL, xxvii.) But
he refutes the cabalists when their opinions do not
agree with philosophy. In general, Isserles endeav-
ored to prove that the teaching of true cabalists is
the same as that of the philosophers, the only dif-
ference being in the language employed (7). HI.,
iv.). Still in halakic matters he decided against the
Zohar (“Darke Mosheh” on Tur Orah Hayyim,
207; ¢.on Tur Yoreh De‘ah, 65).
The other works of Isserles are:
Commentary on the Zohar (unpublished).
* Yesode Sifre ba-Kabbalah,” a treatise on the Cabala, men-
tioned in ‘* Darke Mosheh”’ on Tur Orah Hayyim, 61.
Notes and additions to Zacuto’s ** Yuhasin.’”? Cracow, 1580.
Notes to Elijah Mizrahi’s supercommentary on Rashi, a part
of which has been published by Joseph Kohen-Zedek in ** Meged
Yerahim,’’ ii. Lemberg, 1856.
Notes on the **Moreh Nebukim ”’ and on the commentaries on
that work by Shem-Tob and Efodi. Published by Kohen-Zedek
in “Ozgar Hokmah,”’ No. 2.
Commentary on the Haggadah of the Talmud, mentioned in
** Torat ha-’Olah,” T., ch. 1xxxiii.
Commentary on Sanhedrin (‘Darke Mosheh”’ on Tur Orak
Hayyim, 486), on Shabbat (‘‘Torat ha-‘Olah,” I., ch. xix.),
and on Sukkot, entitled ‘“*Megillat Setarim”’ (ib. I., ch. viii.).
Comunentary on the Song of Solomon (i). L., ch. xv.).
Commentary on Peuerbach’s ‘* Theorica ” (Michael, “* Ozerot
Hayyim,”’ No. 189; Oppenheim, “ Kehillat Dawid,” No. 1673).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Weissmann-Chajes, in J7a-Mehbasser, i., Nos,
16, 17, 22; J. M. Zunz, ‘Ir ha-Zedek, pp. 2-18; Goldstoff, in
Ha-Maggiad, 1866, p. 286; J. Frankel, in Orient, Lit. viii. 827
et seqg.; Horodetzki, in Ha-Goren, 1898, i. 1-29: idem,in Ha-
Zofeh, 1903, i., No. 102; Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., ix. 436, 440.
a. < M. SEL.
ISSI (ISI, ISSA). See Ise and JOSE.
ISTRIA: A small peninsula at the northern end
of the Adriatic Sea, having about 320,000 inhabit-
ants, of whom 285 are Jews. Ethnographically it
is Italian, although politically it is under Austrian
rule. At times it has included the city of Triest,
which now forms a province by itself and has a
very important Jewish community. In Istria, as in
almost the whole of Europe, the Jews conducted
banks for lending money, the first of them being
opened in 1880 at Capo d'Istria; others were subse-
quently founded at Isola, Pirano, Rovigno. Pola, —
and Veglia. The street in which the Jewish bank-
ers and their associates were located was called
“Ghetto”; and this name was preserved even after
their departure.
The most important of these banks seems to have
been that in Pirano, of which the “capitoli” (“ca-
pitula Judseorum Pirani”), ¢.e., agreements between
the city of Pirano and the said bankers, approved
by the republic of Venice in 1484, are
The still extant. Under these “capitoli”
‘“‘Capitoli.” the city of Pirano was obliged to pro-
vide the Jews with sound animals for
slaughter according to Hebrew rites, and with a field
for a cemetery, and to permit them to invite other
“ Zudei,” including teachers for their sons, to settle
in the city. Jews above thirteen years of age were
obliged to wear an “O” on their clothing, but not
within Venetian domains. Jewesses were exempt
from this rule. The Jews did not possess a syna-
gogue, but their religious services were held in a
house under the protection of the city. At Isola
681
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Isserles
Istria
the bank was conducted by a certain Meir, who in
1478 left it to his wife Richa.
In 1684 a “monte di pieta,” in opposition to the
bank of the Jews, was established at Pirano by the
city, and later others were opencd
Family elsewhere in Istria, In consequence
Names the Jews disappeared toward the end
Derived of the seventeenth century. Most
from of them then went to Italy, where
Istria. there still exist Jewish family names
derived from Istrian towns, as “ Mug-
gia,” “ Parenzo,” “Coen Pirani,” ete. Others settled
at Triest, where their gifts to the synagogue are
still remembered in the Yom Kippur service. At
Muggia, a little Istrian town on the gulf of the same
hame, opposite Triest, there is an inscription on the |
town hall recording the expulsion of the Jews in
1582,
Istria was the field of operations of the pseudo-
Messiah Asher Limmlein about 1502.
Most of the 285 Jews in Istria in 1900 were engaged
in commerce. There were 20 at Rovigno, 14 at
Parenzo, 10 at Capo d Istria, and 112 at
Asher = Pola, whereanew congregation is now
Limmlein. (1903) being organized. The remain-
der were scattered here and there. The
Jews of Pola, for the most part German, are without
a synagogue, but since there is a large garrison at
the place and many Jews serve in the army or in the
navy, the government supports a minister, who is
sent from Triest on the high festivals to hold re-
ligious services in a room in the navy building, to
which all Jews are admitted. There has been re-
cently assigned to them ground for a cemetery.
In accordance with the law of March 4, 1890, the
Jews of Istria form part of the Jewish community
of Triest.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ive Antonio, Det Banchit. Feneratizi deqlt
Ebrei di Pirano, Rovigno, 1881; R. #. J. April-June, 1881;
Gratz, Geseh. ix. 72, 214, 215.
D. V. C.
END OF VOL. VI.
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